School of Biological Sciences

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    Street Foods Contribute To Nutrient Intakes Among Children From Rural Communities In Winneba And Techiman Municipalities, Ghana
    (African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development, 2012) Micah, E.B.; Colecraft, E.K.; Lartey, A.; et al.
    The contribution of Street Foods (SF) to the energy and nutrient intake of young children in rural African communities has been understudied. Under the Enhancing Child Nutrition through Animal Source Food Management (ENAM) project, a microcredit and nutrition education intervention with caregivers of children 2-to 5- years old in rural Ghana, the prevalence of SF consumption by young children and the contribution SF makes to children’s energy, nutrient, and Animal Source Food (ASF) intakes were assessed. A simple random sample of 172 caregiver-child pairs residing in the ENAM intervention communities in Winneba and Techiman municipalities participated in this study. A semi-structured questionnaire was used to interview caregivers about SF purchased for their 2- to 5-year-old children in the previous week. During two non-consecutive 12-hour home observations, all foods consumed by a subsample of the children (n=45) were weighed. The energy and nutrient content of weighed foods were estimated using the Ghanaian food composition table. About 80% of caregivers purchased SF for their child at least once that previous week. Most (76%) SF purchased were grain-based and were purchased as complete meals. The children’s total ASF intake was 69.9 ± 11.0 g; the quantity of ASF consumed was similar but their sources of ASF differed between the two municipalities. In Techiman, SF contributed 36% of the ASF consumed over the two observation days compared to 4.2% in Winneba (P=0.003). Overall, SF contributed 35% of energy and 43% of vitamins. A, 20% of vitamin B12, 30% of zinc, 34% of iron, and 54% of calcium consumed by children. The contribution of SF to young children’s dietary intakes, especially their ASF intakes and hence micronutrient intakes, may improve overall dietary quality. This study provides evidence that SF is an important part of children’s diets in rural Ghana could be an important target for food-based interventions to enhance nutrition in young children.
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    Nutrition intakes and nutritional status of school age children in Ghana
    (Journal of Food Research, 2017) Owusu, J.S.; Colecraft, E.K.; Aryeetey, R.; et al.
    This paper compares the nutrition intake and nutritional status of school children from two public schools in neighbouring communities of Ghana with different school feeding programmes. One hundred and eighty-two caregiver and school-age child pairs were interviewed concerning socio-demographics, dietary practices, and food security in a cross-sectional design. The independent t-test was used to compare the contribution of the publicly funded Ghana School Feeding Programme and Private School Feeding Programme meals to the total daily nutrient intakes of the children. Predictors of the nutritional status of the children were assessed using logistic regression models. The private school feeding programme contributed more energy, protein, and micronutrients as compared to the government school feeding programme. About two-thirds (67.0%) of the children were stunted, underweight, or anaemic. The child’s age was a significant predictor of stunting. Undernutrition was prevalent among children from both programmes. Improved quality of diet from the feeding programmes may contribute to addressing malnutrition in these children.
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    Comparison of Two School Feeding Programmes in Ghana, West Africa
    (International Journal of Child Health and Nutrition, 2016) Owusu, J.S.; Colecraft, E.K.; Aryeetey, R.N.O.; et al.
    Background: Malnutrition of children in Ghana continues during school years. There is limited information on how school meals meet nutrient recommendations in Ghana. Objectives: This study aimed to compare the energy and nutrient content of meals served by Ghana School Feeding Programme (GSFP) and Non-Governmental School Feeding Programme (NGSFP) and adherence to nutrient recommendations. Methods: This was a cross-sectional study design involving the observation of school meals at two sites: GSFP and NGSFP. The average weights of a week’s meal were converted to energy and nutrient equivalence and compared with international recommendations. Differences were assessed with t-tests. Results: NGSFP provided significantly higher portion size (416 ± 96 g vs. 243 ± 50 g; p=0.007), energy (776 ± 427 kcal vs. 315 ± 24 kcal; p=0.042) and fats (17± 8 vs. 6 ± 2; p=0.019) but similar micronutrient contributions to GSFP. NGSFP met energy and macronutrient recommendations set by the World Food Programme; whereas, GSFP did not meet the recommendations. Conclusion and Recommendations: The NGSFP had more energy and macronutrients per serving size than the GSFP. Regulation of meals served by GSFP should be reviewed to ensure they contribute to the adequacy of children’s diets as well as meet recommendations set by the World Food Programme.
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    Anti-Diabetic And Probiotic Effect Of Kombucha On Alloxan-Induced Diabetic Rats
    (2019-07) Adade, E.E.
    Diabetes mellitus, is a metabolic disorder caused by the inability of the beta pancreatic cells to adequately produce insulin or due to insulin resistance of cells. As a result of the increasingly high incidence of diabetes globally, the World Health Organization (WHO) has set timelines and guidelines for the reduction of the risk of mortalities and morbidities associated with non-communicable diseases including diabetes, by the year 2030. However, this agenda is hinged on the availability of affordable, safe and effective alternatives for the management and treatment of these diseases. Hence, there is a need to explore other alternatives to the conventional oral anti-hyperglycemic agents driven by factors such as patient’s preference, demand among others. Kombucha is tea fermented by a symbiotic culture of bacteria and yeasts (SCOBY). Consumers of Kombucha have reported several anecdotal evidences of its medicinal potential. This study seeks to investigate its anti-diabetic and probiotic effect on alloxan-induced diabetic rats. It was hypothesized that Kombucha, being a complex matrix of microorganisms and nutraceuticals, would play an essential role in the management of diabetes. Molecular characterization of the microbiome of Kombucha using shotgun metagenomics (Oxford Nanopore MINION sequencing technology) showed Brettanomyces bruxellensis CBS 2499 as the most abundant species within the microbial community accounting for about 51 % of all reads. Brettanomyces anomalus, Komagataeibacter xylinus NBRC 15237, Bacillus nealsonii AAU1, Zygosaccharomyces bailii CLIB 213, Acetobacter, Gluconobacter and over 300 other genera and species of microorganisms including archaea and viruses were also detected using a combination of REFSEQ and One Codex data bases (OXCDB). In-vivo experiment was used to evaluate the anti-diabetic property, safety and gut microbiome changes of Kombucha. Kombucha was found to perform better than the conventional antidiabetic drugs, metformin and glibenclamide in lowering the fasting blood glucose (FBG) of the diabetic rats. Daily administration of 25 mg/kg and 100 mg/kg of freeze-dried Kombucha tea demonstrated a 5 fold reduction in FBG (p<0.05) and 40% and 50% respective increases in body weight of the alloxan-induced diabetic rats compared to the diabetic control (DC). Histological analysis, shows Kombucha enhances pancreas regeneration and hence the concomitant increase in insulin secretion as demonstrated in the study. Serum lipid profiling showed 100mg/kg Kombucha treatment increases the levels of total cholesterol (16%), high density lipoproteins (HDL) (13%) and low-density lipoproteins (LDL) (10%) but conversely reduces triglyceride level (17%) compared to the DC (p>0.05). Further analyses demonstrated that Kombucha decreases the relative organ (liver and kidney) to body weight ratio in treated animals. In addition, Kombucha was able to reduce significantly the elevated levels of liver enzymes such as Alkaline phosphatase (ALP), Alanine transaminase (ALT) and Aspartate Aminotransferase (AST) as well as renal toxicity indices, creatinine and urea in treated animals. Histology of the kidney and liver also showed that Kombucha has no adverse effect on the morphology and cellular integrity of these organs suggesting its hepatoprotective and renal protective potentials. Urinanalysis also showed reduction of glucose in urine for the 100 mg/kg Kombucha-treated animals. Additionally, Kombucha protects the gut microbiome, most significantly by enhancing the Lactobaccillaceae family of bacteria within the gut and reduces the possibilities of colonization of the gut by other opportunistic bacterial species. The study demonstrated that Kombucha is enriched with diverse microbial population with probiotic value and daily intake of Kombucha may be potentially helpful in the management of diabetes, protection against renal and liver toxicity and offer gut microbiome protection.
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    Correlates of Virus Release in HIV-1
    (University of Ghana, 2019-03) Kissi-Twum, A.A.
    Integration of HIV-1 within the host genome may result in latent infection, where a replication competent provirus remains in a state of transcriptional silence. The latent reservoir remains the major barrier to cure efforts as to achieve cure, the reservoir should be depleted of all replication competent proviruses. Various assays to measure the latent reservoir rely on virus release and vary widely in their estimations. Quantitative viral outgrowth assay (QVOA) which is the gold standard relies on reactivation of latent proviruses to release virions and thus falls short when proviruses are non-inducible. The correlates of virus release per cell were examined in this study. The TZ-5 zipcoded library which is a Jurkat cell line with one uniquely tagged HIV-1 integrant per cell was used in this study. The library consisted of infected cells expressing HIV-1 gag and pol with an inactivated env gene and vpr-. GFP is expressed as a Nef spliced product to indicate HIV-1 expression. Intracellular Gag staining coupled with the relative amounts of p24 detected in culture supernatant showed GFP expression is an accurate proxy for HIV-1 expression. High-throughput sequencing was carried out on PCR amplified zipcodes. The topmost 74 clones which represents ≥ 97% of the raw sequence reads was analysed in this study. Although cell proliferation is thought to drive HIV-1 persistence, clonal abundance was not found to correlate with high virus release. Rather a higher GFP+ expression as determined by the green proportion correlates with high virus release per cell. Spliced and unspliced mRNA products are needed to productively assemble virions in HIV-1 although Gag which is an unspliced product is the driving force. Clones with higher amounts of unspliced product to spliced had higher green proportions and subsequently overlapped with higher amounts of virus released. Taken together, higher green proportions and unspliced RNA may predict a higher amount of virus released per cell. As green proportion is a measure of overall HIV-1 expression by a clone, incorporating the extent of HIV-1 expression in QVOA measurements will calibrate HIV-1 expression among inducible and noninducible cells in the latent pool and ultimately the decay rate of such clones. The frequency of formation of host-virus read-through and read-in chimeras and packaging into virions was examined as these unusual species can be helpful in integration site determination and ultimately determine genetic correlates of chimeric RNA generation. RNase protection assays showed the presence of chimeric read-through and read-in RNAs both in cells and virus. The genomic context of integration may contribute to our observed findings as more read-in RNA was observed to be produced and packaged into virions than read-through RNA.
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    Pet Ownership and Parasitic Infections in Companion Animals in Selected Communities in Southern Ghana
    (University of Ghana, 2019-07) Baah, E.O.
    In Ghana, companion animals such as dogs are rarely given medical treatment and thus serve as reservoirs of zoonotic diseases. The close relationship of dogs and horses with humans poses risk of zoonoses. Identifying the factors that affect dog ownership and infections in dogs and horses is useful for provision of veterinary services and reducing risk of human infections. A cross sectional study was conducted to identify factors that affect dog ownership and to evaluate the factors that affect helminth infections in dogs and horses in Ghana. Using coprological, haematological and interviewing techniques, 428 dogs, 78 horses and their owners or handlers were studied. It was found out that gender, reason for keeping dogs, occupation and religion influenced dog ownership (p ˂ 0.001). The prevalence of helminth infections in dogs was 66.6%. Ancylostoma caninum (39.5%), Toxocara (40%), Dipylidium caninum (26.2%) were the zoonotic helminths identified in the study. Spirocerca lupi (3.0%) was the only helminth that was not known to be zoonotic. A chi-square analysis suggested that deworming status was significantly associated with helminth infection in dogs (p ˂ 0.001). The prevalence of Babesia spp. in dogs was 7.7%. It was found that 69.4% of dog owners never dewormed their dogs and 89.7% of respondents knew rabies as a canine zoonosis. However, none of the respondents were aware of any helminthozoonoses or protozoonoses. The prevalence of helminth infections in horses was 39.7%. The helminths identified in horses were Parascaris (32.9%), Strongyle-type eggs (26.0%) and Trichostrongylus (8.2%). Inherent factors such as age, sex and breed were not statistically associated with helminth infection in horses (p ˃ 0.05). The prevalence of Babesia spp. in horses was 11.0%. None of the stable keepers were aware of any equine-related zoonoses. It is concluded that gender, religion, occupation and reasons for keeping dog were significant factors that may influence dog ownership. Deworming status was also a significant factor associated with helminth infection in dogs. The difference in proportion of dog owners based on factors such as gender, religion could be influenced by the high number of male heads in Ghanaian households and religious or socio-cultural beliefs. Variations in parasite prevalence could possibly reflect differences in pet management practices, parasite and host species, anthelminthic treatment, local climatic conditions and possibly, diagnostic techniques. Based on the limited knowledge of respondents on zoonoses, integrative approaches on creating public awareness on zoonoses, and management of companion animals is recommended to protect the health of dogs and humans.
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    Predictors of Dietary Diversity, Micronutrients Adequacy and Haemoglobin Concentration of Pregnant Women Attending Antenatal Clinic at Maamobi General and Asesewa Government Hospitals
    (University Of Ghana, 2018-07) Mumuni, K.S.
    Background: Consuming low diversity diets is considered as one of the major causes of micronutrient deficiencies in low and middle income countries like Ghana. Pregnant women are vulnerable to nutritional inadequacies due to increased metabolic demands including a growing placenta, foetus, and maternal tissues. Objective: The objective of this study was to determine predictors of dietary diversity, micronutrient adequacy and haemoglobin concentration among pregnant women attending antenatal clinics at Maamobi General and Asesewa Government Hospitals. Method: This study was cross-sectional study in which 200 pregnant women (mean gestational age = 26 weeks) attending antenatal clinics at Maamobi General and Asesewa Government Hospitals were enrolled. A Computer Assisted Processing Interview (CAPI) questionnaire was used to collect data on the women’s socio-economic and demographic characteristics. Data on dietary intakes were obtained using a single 24-hour recall. Women’s dietary diversity scores were calculated based 10 food groups. The mean probability of adequacy (MPA) for the 11 micronutrients were calculated for each individual based on the estimated average requirements (EARs) and the standard deviations associated with the EARs. The MPA for the participants was calculated by taking the average of the individual MPAs. Women’s anthropometric status was assessed using mid-upper arm circumference (MUAC) measurement, and haemoglobin concentration was measured using the HemoCue 301 Photometer. Multiple regression analysis was used to determine the predictors of dietary diversity, MPA and haemoglobin concentration. Results: The mean ± standard deviation (SD) for age of the pregnant women was 27.8 ± 5.4 years with a mean gestational age of 25.7 ± 8.8 weeks. Mean ± SD for dietary diversity score of the pregnant women was 5.3 ± 1.6 and the percentage that met the minimum dietary diversity score for women (MDD-W ≥5) was 65.0%. Mean micronutrient intake of the pregnant women for each of the micronutrients was below the estimated average requirement (EAR) except for vitamin A and C. The probability of adequacy (PA) for each of the 11 selected micronutrients was below 50% except vitamin C which was 64%. Across all 11 micronutrients, the mean probability of adequacy for the study population was 22.4%. The mean ± SD haemoglobin concentration was 11.1 ± 1.4g/dL, and the prevalence of anaemia (Hb<11.0 g/dL) was 46%. Multiple regression analysis indicated that dietary diversity score was positively associated with wealth index (β = 0.83, p = 0.008) and negatively associate with renting of dwelling place (β = -0.65, p < 0.001) among the participants. The MPA was negatively associated with wealth index (β = -0.11, p < 0.001) whilst compared with farmers, the MPA was higher for artisans (β = 0.20, p = 0.013), traders (β = 0.19, p = 0.018), civil servants β = 0.31, p = 0.001) and unemployed β = 24, p = 0.006) in a multivariate analysis. Haemoglobin concentration was negatively associated with gestational age in weeks (β = -0.02, p = 0.020), rural residence (β = -0.47, p = 0.03) and positively associated with being employed (β = 0.56, p = 0.03). Conclusion: Among pregnant women attending antenatal clinic at Maamobi General and Asesewa Government Hospitals, wealth index and renting the dwelling place significantly predicted mean dietary diversity.Wealth index and occupation significantly predicted MPA and gestational age in weeks, and being employed significantly predicted mean haemoglobin concentration. Interventions are needed to address the high prevalence of anaemia and low micronutrient intake.
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    Evaluation of Some Nutraceutical Properties of Lesser Known Functional Foods in Ghana
    (University Of Ghana, 2019-07) Mante, R.Y.A.
    Functional foods are foods that possess other health benefits apart from their regular nutritional benefits. A functional food may contain nutraceutical properties, which have components, responsible for curing or preventing a disease or disorder. There are several indigenous foods in Ghana that have been purported to possess functional properties. The claim to functionality of some of these indigenous foods are based on folklore but the scientific backing to these claims may not be known. It is therefore important to find out foods that Ghanaians consider to be functional. Some of these may have their properties reported in literature. However, some may not be popular and so may not have been well studied. The aim of this study was to identify some of these lesser known foods and determine their nutraceutical properties. It also sought to find out, if there were correlations between the health claims of such foods with their nutraceutical properties. Since most of the local Ghanaian foods are cooked before eating, it is also necessary to know the effect of heat on their nutraceutical contents. A consumer survey was carried out in two major market centres in Accra to determine and select some indigenous functional foods. Analysis were carried out on selected samples to determine their total phenolic content, phytochemical profile (flavonoids, alkaloids, saponins) and antioxidant scavenging capacity. The samples were then blanched at different time regimes to determine the effect of heat on the physicochemical properties. The results revealed that foods such as turkey berries, cocoyam leaves, and fruit of Tetrapleura tetraptera, calabash nutmegs, bissap, water leaf, fermented African locust beans, cassava leaves, anise, orange leaves, soursop leaves, pawpaw leaves, and melon seeds were considered as functional foods. These foods were easily accessible in their communities. From those interviewed, 18% reported as having consumed some of these functional foods on a daily basis. Another 18% reported that they consumed some of them occasionally. About 16% consumed them on a monthly basis, 15% twice a week, and 9% three or more times a week. Seven indigenous food samples selected for nutraceutical analysis were bitter kola, Calabash nutmeg, alligator pepper, cloves, fruit of Tetrapleura tetraptera, anise and Ashanti black pepper. For antioxidant scavenging capacity, cloves recorded 0.933%, Ashanti black pepper, 0.798%, bitter kola, 0.877%, anise, 0.789%, fruit of tetrapleura tetraptera, 0.867%, alligator pepper, 0.928% with calabash nutmeg having 0.709%. Bitter kola had a total phenolic content of 45.223mgGAE/g but Alligator pepper recorded levels of total phenolic content at 2.236 mg GAE/g. Total phenolic content and antioxidant scavenging capacity of the food samples were directly proportional to each other such that food samples that recorded high levels of phenolics also recorded a high level of free radical scavenging capacity. For phytochemicals, bitter kola recorded levels of alkaloids at 0.670. Cloves had on the other hand had alkaloid levels of 0.236. Ashanti black pepper had high flavonoid levels (8.250). Bitter kola recorded very high saponin content of 12.470, but low flavonoid levels of 2.040. Cloves recorded low flavonoid contents (1.886). It can be concluded that the above indigenous foods have appreciable amounts of phenolic compounds, phytochemicals (alkaloids, saponins and flavonoids) and antioxidants which are bioactive compounds responsible for the functionality of foods. The bioactive compounds identified are to be responsible for the various medicinal and pharmacological properties of the selected food samples. This supported the claim by those interviewed that those foods have medicinal or curative properties. There was a general decline in the levels of phytochemicals with respect to blanching time. The reduction occurred gradually but there was no significant difference in the values with heating time. Heating therefore had no effect on the levels of bioactive compounds present in the food.
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    Determination of a Suitable Sensory Protocol(s) to Characterize Frozen Dairy-Based Products
    (University Of Ghana, 2019-07) Ahadzi, P.F.
    Sensory evaluation is a useful tool in the food and non-food industries. Sensory evaluation of frozen desserts including polyethylene packed ones popularly found in Ghana are greatly affected by serving temperatures. Frozen desserts have been assessed with static methods like Quantitative Descriptive Analysis (QDA®) but the temporal perceptions throughout consumptions are rarely covered. With food companies weary of the time intensive nature of descriptive methods like QDA® and challenges with sensory evaluations of frozen desserts, this study sought to determine a suitable serving temperature and profiling test method for the characterization of dairy-based frozen desserts packaged in plastic pouches through Ghanaian consumer insights. Through a consumer survey, frozen hard, slushy and liquid were identified as the 3 physical forms that frozen dairy-based desserts in plastic pouches were consumed. The mode of consumption and the time taken for Ghanaians to consume such desserts were also investigated. One of the popular plastic sachet packaged frozen desserts on the Ghanaian market, a chocolate flavoured milk frozen dessert was used for the study. Thawing test under different environmental temperatures provided the corresponding serving temperatures of -10 °C± 2°C, -4°C ± 2°C and 4°C ± 2°C to frozen, slushy and liquid states respectively. A consumer acceptance test by Ghanaians on the 3 physical forms using the 9-point hedonic scale was used to determine the highest point of liking throughout the consumption exercise i.e. at first taste, mid-way of consumption and at the end of consumption. The sensory profiles of the frozen desserts served in the 3 physical forms were also determined using QDA®, Temporal Dominance of Sensation (TDS) and Temporal Check All That Apply (TCATA). The survey showed that Ghanaians mostly consumed such products in the slushy state and rarely in the liquid state, and they did so by taking bites and not sucking the juices out of the iced product. The serving temperatures and by extension the physical forms resulted in significant differences (p≤0.05) in sensory characteristics and consumer liking of the frozen dessert. Consumer liking scores were highest at the end of the consumption experience. Ghanaian consumers liked the frozen dessert in the liquid state the most followed by the slushy state. QDA® demonstrated sensory differences with the slushy state sharing attributes in common with the frozen and liquid states. The frozen state showed low perceptions of taste and flavour notes while the opposite was observed for the liquid state except for bitter taste, which had a higher intensity in the frozen state. The temporal methods TDS and TCATA were comparable to QDA® in determining the sensory profile of the product at different serving temperatures while capturing the temporal essence of the perceptions. TDS focused on the dominant attributes and had intensity scores that were comparable to QDA® scores. TDS can be useful in characterizing original or improved products. TCATA provided a much complete qualitative profile of the frozen desserts in the different physical forms. It can be a useful tool in capturing subtle off notes and evaluation of new or improved products. The two temporal methods were relatively faster to execute and required less amount of product compared to QDA®.
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    Molecular Subtyping and Gene Expression Analysis of Drug Resistant Invasive Non-Typhoidal Salmonella
    (University of Ghana, 2019-07) Adjei, R.O.
    Invasive Non-Typhoidal Salmonella infections have become widespread in sub-Saharan Africa. Predominant hyper-virulent clone S. Typhimurium ST313 is found to be associated with bloodstream invasion and multidrug resistance. Despite its importance, limited information is available on the circulating genotypes causing invasive non-typhoidal salmonellosis in Ghana. A total of fifty-one NTS isolates from pediatric blood samples was used for this study. The resistance profiles of isolates were assessed against 8 classes of antibiotics by disc diffusion method followed by PCR detection of resistance markers. Molecular detection of the presence of a virulence associated gene, st313-td, was used as plausive test to select isolates for Multi-Locus Sequence Typing (MLST) analysis. Additionally, the mechanism of ciprofloxacin resistance was explored by monitoring changes in expression levels of important targeted genes including gyrA, acrA, ydhJ, emrD, and soxR under drug pressure using reverse transcription quantitative PCR. Antibiotic susceptibility testing results showed all isolates were completely susceptible to imipenem, ceftriaxone and ceftazidime. In most cases, multidrug resistance (including reduced susceptibility to fluoroquinolones) were frequently recorded among S. Typhimurium isolates (63%, n=32/51). On the contrary, nine out of ten S. Dublin and the five unknown serovars were susceptible to all antibiotics used for screening. The virulence gene st313-td was detected in only 27% (n=14/51) isolates. Eight (8) other isolates showing varying resistance phenotypes were selected in addition to the 14 positive isolates for typing and analyses by MLST. Out of twenty-two (22) selected isolates, 82% (n=18), 4% (n=1) and 14% (n=3) were S. Typhimurium ST313, S. Typhimurium ST19, and S. Dublin ST 10 respectively. Most importantly, it was observed that about 83% (n=15/18) of S. Typhimurium ST313 clones were multidrug resistant (MDR). Likewise, ten selected isolates for PCR analyses tested positive for the resistance markers; CatA1 (30%), StrA (90%), BlaTem (50%), TetA (30%) & TetB (10%), Sul1 (80%) & Sul2 (100%) and aadA (70%). The normalized transformed mRNA transcript levels showed significant variations in gene expression of gyrA, acrA, ydhJ, emrD and soxR among susceptible, intermediate and laboratory induced resistant isolates. Further, sequence data analysis detected a single nucleotide polymorphism at position 324 resulting in a mutation (Phe → Asp) in the gyr A of clinical intermediate isolate, although there were no significant mutations in acrA, ydhJ, emrD and soxR genes among the three test isolates. From the results, high frequencies of multidrug resistant invasive NTS pathogens carrying plasmid-borne resistance gene markers were found. Also, reduced susceptibility to fluoroquinolones and cephalosporin were observed which calls for increased surveillance and management of antimicrobial resistance to guide treatment. Detection of a SNP in gyrA gene and variations in mRNA levels suggest possible genetic and transcriptional regulation mechanisms employed by Salmonella pathogen to withstand drug stress. Therefore, further investigations are required to understand these mechanisms which will assist in developing alternative therapeutic interventions.