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Item Assessing Individuals’ Littering Behaviour In Public Spaces In The Greater Accra Metropolitan Area(University of Ghana, 2021-12) Yandam, R.Littering is a social and environmental behaviour involving indiscriminate waste disposal practice that challenges the government's quest for a clean city environment. This study explores individuals' littering behaviour in four urban public spaces in Metropolitan Accra, using cross-sectional convergent parallel mixed methods, including in-depth interviews, focus group discussion, and litter characterisation. The qualitative data analysis employed a thematic approach, while the quantitative data used descriptive statistics and binary logistic regression with IBM-SPSS version 23. Individuals' perceptions revealed that littering is an everyday practice in public spaces resulting from collective action and a strategy to minimise private costs. Norms such as weak law enforcement, lack of litter bin, ineffective informal social controls, and absence of written prompts prohibiting littering were cited as justification for littering. Critical litter abatement approaches recommended included an adequate supply of litter bins, intensifying public education, and strict law enforcement. A binary logistic regression analysis revealed that participant age, group size, gender, activity engagement, litter items, crowdedness, existing litter in the environment, and distance to the litter bin significantly influenced littering behaviour. Also, age and littering behaviour depended on distance and vice versa. The litter characterisation and branded audit recorded 37,280 pieces of items, with two-thirds, i.e., 78% being plastics, while paper recorded 14%, and organic, 2%. Broadly, the water and beverage industry litter, with Kasapreko, Multi Pac Limited, and Special Ice industries were dominant. The study identified factors that drive littering behaviour, including individual and contextual factors such as bad governance and leadership and incompatibility between local cultural norms and policies. The study recommends that the sector Ministry promotes civic responsibilities while urging the manufacturing industry and brand owners to channel corporate social responsibility activities towards post-consumer packaging litter management.Item Ecological Footprint Of Artisanal And Small-Scale Gold Mining On Soil And Provisioning Ecosystem Services In Mpohor Wassa East And Amansie West Districts, Ghana(University of Ghana, 2020-09)Issues of impacts of small-scale gold mining activities on the environment continue to take a center stage in environmental discourse in developing countries more especially sub-Saharan Africa. This study was carried out to assess ecological footprint of artisanal and small-scale gold mining on soil and provisioning ecosystem services in the Mpohor Wassa East and Amansie West Districts, Ghana. Composite samples of soil and water were taken in selected artisanal and small-scale mining areas for analysis. A total of one hundred and sixty-two (162) soil samples including control soil sample were analyzed over a period of three-months. Seventy-five (75) and eighty-seven (87) composite soil samples were taken from Amansie West and Mpohor Wassa East Districts, respectively. In addition, twenty-seven (27) water samples including control were taken and analyzed during the entire study period. From Mpohor Wassa East water samples, the mean pH ranged from 6.5 to7.1; Electrical Conductivity (EC); 58.7 to 152.3μS/cm; Total Dissolved Solids (TDS); 33.3 to 101mg/L, Total Suspended Solids (TSS); 5.3 to 645 mg/L; Dissolved Oxygen (DO); 5.4 to 12.9mg/L, Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD); 1.0 to 1.7mg/L. The DO, BOD and EC in most sampling sites exceeded the WHO permissible limit. The EC, TDS, alkalinity, and salinity values, however, were all within WHO recommended limits. The results of analysis of the water samples from Amansie West were also as follows: pH; 4.6 to 7.8; EC; 42.7 to 484.8μS/cm; TDS; 25.3 to 221.2mg/L; TSS; 12.5 to 390.7mg/L, DO; 4.3 to 11.8mg/L; BOD; 1.4 to 2.5mg/L. Mercury, arsenic, cadmium and nickel in water samples at both Mpohor Wassa East District sampling sites and Amansie West sampling sites exceeded the WHO and EPA (Ghana) acceptable limits. The concentrations of the following heavy metals in soils; Fe, Hg, Ni, Cu, Pb, Cr and As were above the FAO acceptable limit for agricultural soils. This suggests (which specifically?) that artisanal and small-scale gold activities have impacted on the soil. The study further revealed the change in land use due to artisanal and small-scale mining activities significantly influenced the following ecosystem services; drinking water, wood fuel, medicinal plants, raw material for construction and food crop production. However, in this study, all heavy metals analyzed with Atomic Absorption Spectrometer had Threshold Exceedance Ratio (TER) less than the total concentration when extracted with nitric acid. This translates that limited soil function might not occur since the TER values are smaller compared to the total concentrations and could not limit the function of the soil for agriculture purposes however, the re-mobility percentage especially, Cu was high and had higher percentage mobility in all sampling sites above 20% which suggest that, Cu has a higher potential to remobilized into the soil structure when environmental conditions are favorable. The geo-accumulation index showed that the soils in both study districts are moderately contaminated. The overall conclusion is that artisanal and small-scale mining activities have impacted on provisioning ecosystem services in the two study areas. Efforts aimed at restoring the provisioning ecosystem services therefore need to be considered by relevant authorities. Recommendations made from the study include mandated agencies such as Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and Ministry of Minerals and Land Commission should regulate the activities of ASGM to stop the discharge of poisonous heavy metals into soil and water bodies. Also, Phytoextraction ability plants such as Sun flower (Helianthus annuus), Cannabis sativa, Tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum), Maize (Zea mays) can be cultivated to demobilize Cu and Hg in the soil and this can be championed by EPA and the Ministry of Agriculture in Ghana. Lastly, it was recommended that the Forestry Commission, relevant stakeholders or NGOs should champion Land reclamation activities such as reafforestation and afforestation should be encouraged at the mined sites to revamp provisioning ecosystem services supply.Item Assessing The Ecological Character Of Wetlands And Their Impact On The Distribution And Abundance Of Water birds In Some Coastal Wetlands In Ghana(University of Ghana, 2022-12) Oduro, S.A.This study sought to assess the ecological character of the Sakumo II, Laloi and Kpeshie coastal wetlands in Ghana as these wetlands face massive degradation largely driven by urbanization and the rapidly growing human population in these areas. Specifically, the study investigated the quality of water and sediments, the changes in the physical characteristics (land use/land cover), the distribution of benthic macroinvertebrates, the growth and condition factor of the predominant fish species in lagoons in Ghana (Sarotherodon melanotheron), and how they influence the abundance and distribution of waterbirds on these wetlands. Data for this study were obtained from direct field observation and laboratory analysis. Counting of waterbirds was done by using a Swarovski 20 x 60 telescope while sampling and laboratory analysis of water and sediment were done by using approved standard methods (APHA, 2005). The sampling and sorting of benthic macroinvertebrates into their various taxa were also done by appropriate keys and guides. The standard length and weight of the blackchin tilapia (Sarotherodon melanotheron) were measured using the rule and Mettler Toledo Weighing balance while Landsat thematic images were freely downloaded from the United States Geological Survey (USGS) for the years 1986, 2002, and 2017. A total of 24,247 individual waterbirds belonging to 13 families were counted monthly on all three wetlands over a period of one year. Fifty (50) different waterbird species were recorded with the most abundant species belonging to the family Scolopacidae (88.71%) which were mostly waders. In terms of abundance of waterbirds on each site, 12,143 individual waterbirds representing 50.1% of total count was recorded on the Laloi wetland with the Common Ring Plover (Charidrius hiatucula) being the dominant species. The Sakumo II had a record of 10,116 waterbirds representing 41.7% with the Collared Pranticole (Glareola prantincola) as the most dominant. The Kpeshie wetland recorded 1,988 representing 8.2% of the total count with the Common Sandpiper (Actitis hypoleucos) as the most abundant waterbird. In terms of land use land cover changes (LULC) on the wetlands, there was a decrease change of 57.3% of the vegetative cover and 0.6% of waterbodies between 1986 and 2017 with a corresponding increase of built-up areas by 54.4% on the Sakumo II wetland. Vegetative cover and waterbodies also decreased by 58.3% and 6.6% on the Laloi wetland with a resultant increase of 53% in built–up areas over the same period. Furthermore, the vegetative cover and waterbodies III I decreased by 33.7% and 15.2% on the Kpeshie wetland while built-up increased significantly by 50.8%.There were significant positive correlation between conductivity and nitrite (r=0.698, r=0.760, p<0.01 respectively) likewise an inverse relationship between water depth, phosphate and nitrate (r=-0.998, r=-0.920, r=-0.981; p<0.01 respectively) and built-up on the Sakumo II wetland. Land use land cover variables together accounted for 26.8% of the changes in abundance of waterbirds during the study. Built-up and vegetation had a significantly negative relationship with waterbirds abundance [β=-0.651; p<0.05] [β=-1.185; p<0.05] while waterbodies and barelands had a significantly positively relationship with waterbird abundance [β=0.487; p<0.05] [β=1.430; p<0.05]. The mean pH(7.65 ±0.65, 8.05 ±0.65, 7.92±1.30) and temperature (29.23 ±1.35oC, 28.76 ± 0.74oC and 29.71 ±2.11oC) of water samples collected from the Sakumo II, Laloi and Kpeshie wetlands respectively were typical of shallow coastal waters in Ghana with ambient pH and temperatures within a narrow range of 6 - 9 and 25-35 0C. The BOD, turbidity, phosphate and nitrate levels in water samples on both the Sakumo II and Kpeshie wetland were above the WHO permissible limits. Based on the pollution load index (PLI) estimated for all the wetlands using the bottom sediment, there was no overall pollution of heavy metals in sediment although some sites showed extreme enrichment (PLI<1). Heavy metals in PC1, PC2 and PC3 jointly and significantly contributed 25%, 57% and 30% respectively to macroinvertebrates abundance at the Sakumo II, Laloi and Kpeshie wetlands [R2=0.25 p<0.05; R2=0.57, p<0.05; R2=0.30, p<0.05]. A total of 4,474 macroinvertebrates individuals belonging to three major phyla (Annelida, Mollusca and Crustacean) were recorded during the study. Hydrobia spp, Cerithedia spp and the Nereis spp were the most abundant on the Sakumo II, Laloi and Kpeshie wetlands respectively. Macroinvertebrates abundance contributed 12%, 22% and 4% to waterbirds abundance at Sakumo II, Laloi and Kpeshie wetlands respectively [R2=0.12, p>0.05; R2=0.22, p<0.05; R2=0.04, p>0.05]. Sarotherodon melanotheron fishes in the Sakumo II lagoon exhibited isometric growth (‗b‘ is nearer to 3) while a negative allometric growth pattern was observed in fishes from the Laloi and Kpeshie lagoons. Mean condition factors estimated for Sarotherodon melanotheron on all wetlands were greater than one (1) indicating a good environment for fish survival and abundance. Fish condition factor also significantly contributed to 25%, 34% and 35% of waterbirds abundance on the Sakumo II, Laloi and Kpeshie wetlands respectively [R2=0.25 p<0.05; R2=0.34, p<0.05; R2=0.39, p<0.05]. IV I There have been major changes in the quality of water and sediment on all three wetlands, likewise, significant changes in the vegetative cover, waterbodies and built-up areas between 1986 and 2017 due to human interferences on the wetlands. The unprotected Laloi wetland, however, supported the highest number of waterbirds compared to the protected Sakumo II wetland during the study. Major stakeholders like the EPA, the Water Resources Commission, the Forestry Commission, the Ghana Wildlife Division as well as the District and Municipal Assemblies should enforce all existing laws that will help conserve and protect these wetlands from further deterioration. Education and awareness creation on the level of usage, importance and benefits derived from these urban coastal wetlands should be intensified within the catchment areas as human population continues to increase inorder to achieve Goal 6, 14 and 15 of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) in and around these urban wetlandsItem Cemeteries As Sustainable Green Spaces In The Urban Landscape Of The Greater Accra Metropolitan Area (Gama)(University of Ghana, 2021-12) Kwami, S.ABSTRACT Cemeteries are primarily constructed as the final place of rest for the dead. The presence of plant cover in cemeteries and their sacred nature make them unique components of the urban landscape that need some protection. With mounting pressures on the urban space due to population growth, most urban cemeteries find themselves at the centre of cities and as a result face various abuses, although, they provide shade, perform other ecological functions, enhance the natural aesthetic beauty and promote healthier city life. The objective of the study was therefore to explore the potential of cemeteries as functional green spaces within the urban landscape by examining their physical features, the ecological status and socio-cultural attributes in the Greater Accra Metropolitan Area of Ghana. The study employed a mixed-methods approach involving on-the-spot observation, floral and social surveys, and key informant interviews. A total of 500 questionnaires were administered and 12 key informant interviews were conducted. Orthophotograph images of the cemeteries were analysed using Geographic Information Systems to obtain the land cover classification of the cemeteries. The quantitative data of the research was analysed with the aid of Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS), software version 20 (IBM). Descriptive statistics were used to analyse the perception on multi-use of cemeteries, acceptable uses of cemeteries, actual uses of cemeteries and chi-square statistics was used to test the relationship between perception about multi-use of cemeteries and other uses apart from burial. The qualitative data was analysed under the broad themes of tree management, other uses of cemeteries, and policy challenges regarding cemetery operations and management. Cemeteries were located in the majority of the Assemblies in GAMA. From the study, 48 cemeteries were identified in GAMA. Private families owned 69%, the public owned 17%, 4% were commercial and 10 % owned by religious organizations. Ownership type can be traced to strong cultural and traditional beliefs. More than 50% of the cemeteries were walled, with the rest not walled. Activities observed in the cemeteries included construction, farming, commercial, residential and relaxation. Evidence of open defecation and cemeteries as waste dump sites were also observed. The findings of the research showed that, a total of 176 species from 62 families were identified. Out of which 71% naturally growing species, and 29% were introduced species. The land cover analysis showed that the area covered by each land cover type varied across cemeteries, with the highest tree cover found in the private family cemeteries. The belief that the dead must be protected from harsh weather conditions mainly accounts for vegetation in cemeteries. A total of 92% of the respondents perceived cemeteries as monofunctional places (burial purposes only), although 42% reported having used the cemeteries in other ways aside from burial. The study also showed that 7.4% of the respondents use the cemetery as toilet and waste dump sites. The location and distribution of cemeteries in GAMA make them green areas. The floral composition and vegetation cover of cemeteries make them good green areas in cities. For the cities to realise and benefit from the full potential of cemeteries as functional green spaces, traditional and cultural beliefs associated with cemeteries, particularly the ones linked to vegetation, should be blended with the formal management of cemeteries and city authorities must strive to direct multi-use of cemeteries in ways that complement the presence of vegetation in cemeteries.Item Policies And Legal Challenges In Small-Scale Gold Mining In Ghana That Hinders Its Formalisation; Stakeholders’ Perspective.(University Of Ghana, 2021-12) Kokofu, H.K.The mining industry in Ghana is divided into two primary forms: large-scale and small-scale mining. About 20 per cent of the country's mining industry is formalised, while over 80 per cent remain informal and unregulated. The rampant illegal activities associated with the small-scale mining industry has resulted in the degradation of the biophysical environment, posing severe developmental challenges. The country, through successive governments, has initiated moves to stop illegal mining activities all to no avail. This thesis sought to examine policies and legal challenges that hinder the formalisation of the small-scale gold mining sub-sector. The study employed a cross-sectional mixed approach and a systematic documentary review to attain its aims. Data gathering and analysis included both quantitative and qualitative methodologies, with 485 respondents. Focus Group Discussions were conducted at the District/Community levels and Key Informant Interviews with mining-related Institutions. The study collected quantitative data from the seven mining study districts. The study brought out many policies and laws that purport to govern small-scale mining in Ghana. It is important to note that the 1992 Constitution of Ghana is the primary source of law. However, several Acts of Parliaments and Policy statements are meant to regulate the mining sector. The results demonstrated a lack of institutional cooperation and collaboration, for instance, the mode of operation within the Minerals Commission (MC) and that of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). The results also suggested that budget allocations and staff strength are insufficient to enable effective monitoring. Moreover, some officers tasked with regulating small-scale miners' operations are found to be corrupt or compromised. A significant level of favouritism and nepotism were also detected. The lack of employment opportunities in mining communities influenced many people, mostly the youth, to engage in illegal activities. Furthermore, education and knowledge gaps contribute immensely to the indiscipline in the sub-sector. It was detected that the licensing regime is cumbersome and tedious; hence prospective miners are demotivated from acquiring permits before mining. The appreciation of illegal mining activities is also an issue. Whiles regulators (officialdom) are concerned with environmental degradation and its effects, the operator perceives the activities as a source of income and livelihood. Thus, socioeconomic considerations are powerful among the operators and members of the host communities. That leads to the question of ‘political will’ to genuinely fight the menace. The study recommends that regulatory agencies are resourced with adequate finances and logistics. Their human resource capacities must also be beefed up in numbers and efficiency. Critical regulators like the EPA should implement the provision in Section 23 of L.I. 1652 (1999) (Environmental Assessment Regulations), which requires the posting of reclamation bonds before the commencement of any mining activities. Furthermore, the coordination mechanisms among state and parastatals agencies such as the Minerals Commission, Land Commission, Forestry Commission, EPA, and the Water Resource Commission should be strengthened with enhanced transparency and efficiency. Policy and legislative formations and implementations are recommended to involve all industry stakeholders. Of particular interest are the traditional local authorities and community members. It is also necessary to upgrade the knowledge base of the direct operators through skills training and awareness creation.Item Influence Of Biochar And Compost Amendment On The Sorption Of Atrazine On Soil(University Of Ghana, 2021-09) Amppiah, G.A.Biochar, the carbonaceous residue from biomass pyrolysis, and compost have been proposed as agricultural soil amendments to improve soil fertility and retain a broad range of environmental contaminants. However, it is not clear how effective and how long this sorption capacity will be maintained after the biochar is applied to the soil. The study, therefore, focused on assessing the potential of differently aged biochars and compost to effectively attenuate the transport of atrazine by using laboratory batch sorption studies. Batch sorption experiments were conducted to study the adsorption of atrazine on unamended soil, soils amended with one-year-old biochar, soils amended with two-year-old biochar, and soils amended with compost. These experiments were conducted to determine the influence of soil amendments, atrazine concentration and pH on the adsorption of atrazine in soils. The study showed that when soil is amended with biochar of different ages and compost, its physicochemical properties are modified. Results from the adsorption studies also revealed that soils when amended with biochar and compost show a high capacity to adsorb atrazine as compared to the unamended soil. Amending the soil with biochar proved to be a much more efficient adsorbent than compost due to different physicochemical properties and adsorption sites. The soil amended with the two-year-old biochar showed the highest sorption capacity owing to a change in properties after going through biogeochemical changes with ageing leading to an increase in sorption sites. Isotherm studies also revealed that the Langmuir model which assumes monolayer adsorption to homogenous surface best describes the interactions between the atrazine and the various adsorbents.Item Assessment Of Emerging Contaminants In Compost And The Factors Influencing Compost Adoption In Ghana(University Of Ghana, 2021-09) Kogbe, M.Waste and soil management remain a critical environmental concern in many African cities, including Accra (Ghana), even though most of these wastes are biodegradable and compostable. With these challenges and prospects, compost adoption will help close the organic matter and nutrient cycle gap. However, compost comes with challenges, including adoption and contaminants issues. With progressive industrialisation and technology, emerging contaminants (ECs) could be present in compost, potentially affecting the environment and human health. Therefore, this study aimed to understand the risk of ECs in compost, the potential uptake of ECs in compost by plants (lettuce and carrot) and studying the factors influencing compost adoption. Here, this study involved three ECs (pesticides, PAHs and antimicrobial drugs) from three waste sources [mixed waste municipal solid waste (MWMW), source-separated municipal solid waste (SSMW) and municipal and agricultural solid waste (MAW)]. This study used the compost’s maximum concentration of ECs to assess risk by comparing it with known ecological and human health criteria and identifying contaminants of potential concern (CPC). Also, the study predicted the optimum concentration of ECs in soils and the maximum risk quotient (RQ max) with two compost application rates [10 t/ha and 5 t/ha]. As there was no criterion for some quantified ECs, this research involved planting lettuce and carrot to identify the potential uptake and translocation of ECs with compost of known EC quantities. The study also examined the views of 350 farm-owners from Accra’s key farming locations on compost adoption using structured questionnaires, focus group discussions, and key informants’ interviews. The methodology involved descriptive statistics and probit analysis using an eleven-variable (biophysical and socio-economic) regression model to explain the key factors (including socio-cultural) influencing compost adoption. Further, there was an interaction within the predictor variables to evaluate their effect on adoption. Of the targeted 49 pesticides, the study quantified glyphosate, atrazine, triclopyr, chlorpyrifos and lambda-cyhalothrin. The rests were methoxychlor, cyfluthrin, and hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH) isomers. These isomers were beta-HCH, gamma-HCH and delta-HCH. Thirteen (13) out of the 16 US EPA priority PAHs from the waste sources. They included acenaphthene, acenaphthylene, fluorene, anthracene, fluoranthene, chrysene, benzo(a)anthracene, and pyrene. The rest were phenanthrene, benzo (b) fluoranthene, benzo (a) pyrene, benzo[g,h,i]perylene and Indeno(1,2,3,c,d)pyrene. The antimicrobial residues identified included; amoxicillin trihydrate, danofloxacin mesylate, sulfadiazine, ciprofloxacin hydrochloride and amprolium hydrochloride. Two drugs (danofloxacin and ciprofloxacin) were in the compost samples. There was a drastic reduction in the compost, confirming the effectiveness of composting in treating antimicrobial residues. The maximum concentration of identified ECs (pesticides, PAHs and antimicrobial drugs) was within the ecological criteria (0.004mg/kg) except for the three isomers of hexachlorocyclohexane. The maximum residue of gamma-HCH, beta- HCH, and delta-HCH recorded in the composts were 0.024, 0.028 and 0.049 mg/kg, respectively. The maximum predicted soil residues of ECs after composts applications at 5 t/ha ranged from 0.0001 mg/kg for beta-HCH and gamma-HCH to 0.0002 mg/kg for delta-HCH. At 10t/ha of the composts, the maximum predicted soil concentrations were 0.0002 mg/kg for gamma-HCH and beta-HCH and 0.0004 mg/kg for delta-HCH. All the compounds had an RQ max of less than 1; therefore, these ECs were low priority. Regardless of the compost’s content of ECs, the vegetable analysis showed pesticides, PAHs and antimicrobial drugs uptake from the compost treatments during the study period. There were ECs in the compost, and no ecological or health risk was associated with compost. No uptake and translocation of contaminants by plants (lettuce and carrot). The study recommended continuous monitoring of these contaminants in compost and food. The social survey findings showed that, although compost was available, the adoption rate was low (16%), mainly due to cost. Household size, per-capita income, and compost-specific training for farmers had a significant positive effect on adoption, while the farmers’ age had a significant negative impact. A multivariate interaction between age and compost-specific training positively impacted adoption. Also, age and education showed a high possibility of the farmer adopting compost. As farm and household size increased, the farmer was more likely to adopt compost with a higher adoption rate. However, as age and farm size increase, the farmer is less likely to use compost. Male farmers who had received training were less likely to adopt compost than their female counterparts, and males with enormous households were not likely to adopt compost. It appears the male farmers were complacent regarding their attitude toward compost adoption irrespective of receiving training, increased household size or increased per capita income. Biophysical and socioeconomic factors affected compost adoption. Policymakers should involve female farmers by giving them compost-specific training without neglecting the males.Item Assessing Individuals’ Littering Behaviour In Public Spaces In The Greater Accra Metropolitan Area(University Of Ghana, 2021-12) Yandam, R.Littering is a social and environmental behaviour involving indiscriminate waste disposal practice that challenges the government's quest for a clean city environment. This study explores individuals' littering behaviour in four urban public spaces in Metropolitan Accra, using cross-sectional convergent parallel mixed methods, including in-depth interviews, focus group discussion, and litter characterisation. The qualitative data analysis employed a thematic approach, while the quantitative data used descriptive statistics and binary logistic regression with IBM-SPSS version 23. Individuals' perceptions revealed that littering is an everyday practice in public spaces resulting from collective action and a strategy to minimise private costs. Norms such as weak law enforcement, lack of litter bin, ineffective informal social controls, and absence of written prompts prohibiting littering were cited as justification for littering. Critical litter abatement approaches recommended included an adequate supply of litter bins, intensifying public education, and strict law enforcement. A binary logistic regression analysis revealed that participant age, group size, gender, activity engagement, litter items, crowdedness, existing litter in the environment, and distance to the litter bin significantly influenced littering behaviour. Also, age and littering behaviour depended on distance and vice versa. The litter characterisation and branded audit recorded 37,280 pieces of items, with two-thirds, i.e., 78% being plastics, while paper recorded 14%, and organic, 2%. Broadly, the water and beverage industry litter, with Kasapreko, Multi Pac Limited, and Special Ice industries were dominant. The study identified factors that drive littering behaviour, including individual and contextual factors such as bad governance and leadership and incompatibility between local cultural norms and policies. The study recommends that the sector Ministry promotes civic responsibilities while urging the manufacturing industry and brand owners to channel corporate social responsibility activities towards post-consumer packaging litter management.Item Assessing The Ecological Character Of Wetlands And Their Impact On The Distribution And Abundance Of Waterbirds In Some Coastal Wetlands In Ghana(University Of Ghana, 2022-12) Oduro, S.A.This study sought to assess the ecological character of the Sakumo II, Laloi and Kpeshie coastal wetlands in Ghana as these wetlands face massive degradation largely driven by urbanization and the rapidly growing human population in these areas. Specifically, the study investigated the quality of water and sediments, the changes in the physical characteristics (land use/land cover), the distribution of benthic macroinvertebrates, the growth and condition factor of the predominant fish species in lagoons in Ghana (Sarotherodon melanotheron), and how they influence the abundance and distribution of waterbirds on these wetlands. Data for this study were obtained from direct field observation and laboratory analysis. Counting of waterbirds was done by using a Swarovski 20 x 60 telescope while sampling and laboratory analysis of water and sediment were done by using approved standard methods (APHA, 2005). The sampling and sorting of benthic macroinvertebrates into their various taxa were also done by appropriate keys and guides. The standard length and weight of the blackchin tilapia (Sarotherodon melanotheron) were measured using the rule and Mettler Toledo Weighing balance while Landsat thematic images were freely downloaded from the United States Geological Survey (USGS) for the years 1986, 2002, and 2017. A total of 24,247 individual waterbirds belonging to 13 families were counted monthly on all three wetlands over a period of one year. Fifty (50) different waterbird species were recorded with the most abundant species belonging to the family Scolopacidae (88.71%) which were mostly waders. In terms of abundance of waterbirds on each site, 12,143 individual waterbirds representing 50.1% of total count was recorded on the Laloi wetland with the Common Ring Plover (Charidrius hiatucula) being the dominant species. The Sakumo II had a record of 10,116 waterbirds representing 41.7% with the Collared Pranticole (Glareola prantincola) as the most dominant. The Kpeshie wetland recorded 1,988 representing 8.2% of the total count with the Common Sandpiper (Actitis hypoleucos) as the most abundant waterbird. In terms of land use land cover changes (LULC) on the wetlands, there was a decrease change of 57.3% of the vegetative cover and 0.6% of waterbodies between 1986 and 2017 with a corresponding increase of built-up areas by 54.4% on the Sakumo II wetland. Vegetative cover and waterbodies also decreased by 58.3% and 6.6% on the Laloi wetland with a resultant increase of 53% in built–up areas over the same period. Furthermore, the vegetative cover and waterbodies decreased by 33.7% and 15.2% on the Kpeshie wetland while built-up increased significantly by 50.8%.There were significant positive correlation between conductivity and nitrite (r=0.698, r=0.760, p<0.01 respectively) likewise an inverse relationship between water depth, phosphate and nitrate (r=-0.998, r=-0.920, r=-0.981; p<0.01 respectively) and built-up on the Sakumo II wetland. Land use land cover variables together accounted for 26.8% of the changes in abundance of waterbirds during the study. Built-up and vegetation had a significantly negative relationship with waterbirds abundance [β=-0.651; p<0.05] [β=-1.185; p<0.05] while waterbodies and barelands had a significantly positively relationship with waterbird abundance [β=0.487; p<0.05] [β=1.430; p<0.05]. The mean pH(7.65 ±0.65, 8.05 ±0.65, 7.92±1.30) and temperature (29.23 ±1.35oC, 28.76 ± 0.74oC and 29.71 ±2.11oC) of water samples collected from the Sakumo II, Laloi and Kpeshie wetlands respectively were typical of shallow coastal waters in Ghana with ambient pH and temperatures within a narrow range of 6 - 9 and 25-35 0C. The BOD, turbidity, phosphate and nitrate levels in water samples on both the Sakumo II and Kpeshie wetland were above the WHO permissible limits. Based on the pollution load index (PLI) estimated for all the wetlands using the bottom sediment, there was no overall pollution of heavy metals in sediment although some sites showed extreme enrichment (PLI<1). Heavy metals in PC1, PC2 and PC3 jointly and significantly contributed 25%, 57% and 30% respectively to macroinvertebrates abundance at the Sakumo II, Laloi and Kpeshie wetlands [R2=0.25 p<0.05; R2=0.57, p<0.05; R2=0.30, p<0.05]. A total of 4,474 macroinvertebrates individuals belonging to three major phyla (Annelida, Mollusca and Crustacean) were recorded during the study. Hydrobia spp, Cerithedia spp and the Nereis spp were the most abundant on the Sakumo II, Laloi and Kpeshie wetlands respectively. Macroinvertebrates abundance contributed 12%, 22% and 4% to waterbirds abundance at Sakumo II, Laloi and Kpeshie wetlands respectively [R2=0.12, p>0.05; R2=0.22, p<0.05; R2=0.04, p>0.05]. Sarotherodon melanotheron fishes in the Sakumo II lagoon exhibited isometric growth (‗b‘ is nearer to 3) while a negative allometric growth pattern was observed in fishes from the Laloi and Kpeshie lagoons. Mean condition factors estimated for Sarotherodon melanotheron on all wetlands were greater than one (1) indicating a good environment for fish survival and abundance. Fish condition factor also significantly contributed to 25%, 34% and 35% of waterbirds abundance on the Sakumo II, Laloi and Kpeshie wetlands respectively [R2=0.25 p<0.05; R2=0.34, p<0.05; R2=0.39, p<0.05]. There have been major changes in the quality of water and sediment on all three wetlands, likewise, significant changes in the vegetative cover, waterbodies and built-up areas between 1986 and 2017 due to human interferences on the wetlands. The unprotected Laloi wetland, however, supported the highest number of waterbirds compared to the protected Sakumo II wetland during the study. Major stakeholders like the EPA, the Water Resources Commission, the Forestry Commission, the Ghana Wildlife Division as well as the District and Municipal Assemblies should enforce all existing laws that will help conserve and protect these wetlands from further deterioration. Education and awareness creation on the level of usage, importance and benefits derived from these urban coastal wetlands should be intensified within the catchment areas as human population continues to increase inorder to achieve Goal 6, 14 and 15 of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) in and around these urban wetlands.Item Climate Change Adaptation Strategies Employed By Rural Women Farmers In The Upper West Region Of Ghana: Implications On Wellbeing(University Of Ghana, 2020-10) Afful, R.There is increased investment and adoption of adaptation strategies by rural women farmers to reduce vulnerabilities. Studies have shown that most of the adaptation options provided by key district adaptation stakeholders do not address the wellbeing needs of rural women farmers. This research is an effort to substantially incorporate considerations of human wellbeing into how adaptation interventions are comprehended. It therefore employed the wellbeing framework (material, relational and life satisfaction) to unpack some key elements that drive the choices and actions of rural women farmers in adapting to climate variability/change and adaptation options likely to improve wellbeing. A mixed method approach was employed (involving, Focus Group Discussions, community profiling, key informant interview and review of secondary information). Ranking by the Kendall’s Coefficient of Concordance revealed that majority of the women farmers employ sustainable land management practices (improved seed variety, mix cropping/legume cropping and changing planting dates) in addressing climate variability/change. The probit linear regression model revealed that factors that affect rural women farmers’ choice of adaptation options are age, membership of a farmer based organisation, farm size and household size. From the ordered logit model, the number of years lived in a community and ownership of a television set by a woman farm is significant to their material wellbeing. Size of household, ownership of a gas/kerosene stove were also considered important to enhancing the relational wellbeing of rural women farmers. Additionally, years of farming/farming experience, anti-erosion measures and improved crop varieties were identified as very important to life satisfaction wellbeing of rural women farmers. The results highlight the need for increased understanding of the critical constituent of individual and household wellbeing needs to ensure the provision of equitable, more effective and sustainable adaptation options for improved resilience.Item Ecological Footprint of Artisanal And Small-Scale Gold Mining on Soil and Provisioning Ecosystem Services in Mpohor Wassa East And Amansie West Districts, Ghana(University of Ghana, 2021) Annan, S.T.Issues of impacts of small-scale gold mining activities on the environment continue to take a center stage in environmental discourse in developing countries more especially sub-Saharan Africa. This study was carried out to assess ecological footprint of artisanal and small-scale gold mining on soil and provisioning ecosystem services in the Mpohor Wassa East and Amansie West Districts, Ghana. Composite samples of soil and water were taken in selected artisanal and small-scale mining areas for analysis. A total of one hundred and sixty-two (162) soil samples including control soil sample were analyzed over a period of three-months. Seventy-five (75) and eighty-seven (87) composite soil samples were taken from Amansie West and Mpohor Wassa East Districts, respectively. In addition, twenty-seven (27) water samples including control were taken and analyzed during the entire study period. From Mpohor Wassa East water samples, the mean pH ranged from 6.5 to7.1; Electrical Conductivity (EC); 58.7 to 152.3μS/cm; Total Dissolved Solids (TDS); 33.3 to 101mg/L, Total Suspended Solids (TSS); 5.3 to 645 mg/L; Dissolved Oxygen (DO); 5.4 to 12.9mg/L, Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD); 1.0 to 1.7mg/L. The DO, BOD and EC in most sampling sites exceeded the WHO permissible limit. The EC, TDS, alkalinity, and salinity values, however, were all within WHO recommended limits. The results of analysis of the water samples from Amansie West were also as follows: pH; 4.6 to 7.8; EC; 42.7 to 484.8μS/cm; TDS; 25.3 to 221.2mg/L; TSS; 12.5 to 390.7mg/L, DO; 4.3 to 11.8mg/L; BOD; 1.4 to 2.5mg/L. Mercury, arsenic, cadmium and nickel in water samples at both Mpohor Wassa East District sampling sites and Amansie West sampling sites exceeded the WHO and EPA (Ghana) acceptable limits. The concentrations of the following heavy metals in soils; Fe, Hg, Ni, Cu, Pb, Cr and As were above the FAO acceptable limit for agricultural soils. This suggests (which specifically?) that artisanal and small-scale gold activities have impacted on the soil. The study further revealed that iii change in land use due to artisanal and small-scale mining activities significantly influenced the following ecosystem services; drinking water, wood fuel, medicinal plants, raw material for construction and food crop production. However, in this study, all heavy metals analyzed with Atomic Absorption Spectrometer had Threshold Exceedance Ratio (TER) less than the total concentration when extracted with nitric acid. This translates that limited soil function might not occur since the TER values are smaller compared to the total concentrations and could not limit the function of the soil for agriculture purposes however, the re-mobility percentage especially, Cu was high and had higher percentage mobility in all sampling sites above 20% which suggest that, Cu has a higher potential to remobilized into the soil structure when environmental conditions are favorable. The geo-accumulation index showed that the soils in both study districts are moderately contaminated. The overall conclusion is that artisanal and small-scale mining activities have impacted on provisioning ecosystem services in the two study areas. Efforts aimed at restoring the provisioning ecosystem services therefore need to be considered by relevant authorities. Recommendations made from the study include mandated agencies such as Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and Ministry of Minerals and Land Commission should regulate the activities of ASGM to stop the discharge of poisonous heavy metals into soil and water bodies. Also, Phytoextraction ability plants such as Sun flower (Helianthus annuus), Cannabis sativa, Tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum), Maize (Zea mays) can be cultivated to demobilize Cu and Hg in the soil and this can be championed by EPA and the Ministry of Agriculture in Ghana. Lastly, it was recommended that the Forestry Commission, relevant stakeholders or NGOs should champion Land reclamation activities such as reafforestation and afforestation should be encouraged at the mined sites to revamp provisioning ecosystem services supply.Item Assessment of the Interlinkages between Coastal Flooding, Erosion and Cultural Ecosystem Services in Ada, Ghana.(University of Ghana, 2020) Babson, S.Cultural ecosystem services (non-material benefits that are derived from ecosystems that are derived from coastal systems are increasingly reducing due to ecological changes that are occurring within the coastal environment. Understanding the dynamics of these changes and their implications for sustainable coastal environmental management is imperative. Cultural ecosystem services in coastal areas are affected by several factors such as erosion, saline intrusion, loss of place and coastal flooding. Coastal flooding along the coast of Ghana has led to significant damage to properties and livelihoods with negative social consequences. However, various ways in which coastal flooding affects cultural ecosystem services is yet to be fully understood. This thesis assesses the interlinkages between coastal erosion, coastal flooding and cultural ecosystem services in Ada along the eastern coast of Ghana. Firstly, assessed community perceptions of the drivers of coastal flooding, assessed the status of ecosystems services and predicted the future implications of flooding on cultural ecosystem services in Ada. Quantitative and qualitative data was collected from 358 respondents in seven communities in the Ada East and Ada West Districts of the Greater Accra Region. Perceptions of the drivers of flooding among community residents in Ada were investigated and compared to data on the drivers of flooding from 1985 to 2017. Structural Equation Model (SEM), a confirmatory analysis tool, was used to validate the relationship between the latent variable flooding and various categories of drivers. The results showed that the drivers of flooding in Ada are both climatic and anthropogenic with climatic drivers being dominant. Three cultural ecosystems services identified in Ada which were Place, Aesthetics and Recreation. Cultural livelihood was discovered as new cultural ecosystem service which expands the suite of cultural ecosystem services further. Extensive flooding has resulted in loss of place (physical, cultural and even imaginary location that is differentiated and emotionally meaningful to people), vegetation degradation and deterioration of landscape. The path analysis results indicate that the effect of flooding is a significant predictor of place with a coefficient of 0.015 and a p-value of 0.01. In addition, the mediation effect of flooding is a statistically significant predictor of cultural livelihood and recreation (p-values 0.00 and 0.05, respectively), but an insignificant predictor of aesthetic (p-value -0.02). Results from the Bayesian network model, climatic drivers including sea level rise, rainfall, wave and wind speeds, present severe threats to the coastal dwellers of Ada East and West Districts. Currently, cultural ecosystem services are impacted. The model predicts that an increase in intensity of climatic drivers from 38.7% to 80% is likely to increase flood incidence from 42.1% to 58.3%. An increase in the intensity of non-climatic drivers also by 80% is likely to increase flood incidence by to 44.5% from the current level of 42.1%. This shows that relative to climatic drivers, non-climatic drivers have less impact on flooding in Ada. Cultural ecosystem services which local people depend on will decline significantly from 44.6% poor to 54.3% poorer. With adequate policy interventions such as provision of alternative livelihood support, construction of landing beaches and involvement of local people in the design of policies to address coastal flooding, the model predicts an improvement in ecosystem health from 36.7% to 48.5%. This implies that policy intervention should be more aligned towards measures to reduce the intensity of climatic drivers while maintaining anthropogenic drivers at their current levels.Item Sustainability Assessment of Organic and Conventional Cocoa Farming Systems in Atwima Mponua District of Ghana(University of Ghana, 2022-02) Bandanaa, J.Cocoa, a major source of livelihood for smallholder farmers in Ghana, is produced using conventional practices. Conventional cocoa production depends on high energy and input use. Organic practices were introduced in the late 1990s as an environmentally friendly option that depends on low external input use. Organic cocoa production has the potential to contribute profitability increases through premiums from higher added value. The full potential of organic agriculture and its suitability as a future solution to key agricultural challenges is still not adequately recognised. The study addresses three objectives: (1) comparison of the sustainability performance of organic with conventional cocoa farming system in terms of environmental integrity, economic resilience, social wellbeing, and good governance, (2) identification of trade-offs and synergies within and among the sustainability dimensions of the two farming systems, and (3) the impact of organic and conventional cocoa practices on environmental efficiency. The Sustainability Monitoring and Assessment Routine (SMART-farm tool) and Mann-Whitney U test used to test the mean rank differences between environmental integrity, economic resilience, social well-being, and good governance of the two farming systems. Using the principal component analysis (PCA) method, trade-offs, and synergies between thirty (30) sub-themes of environmental integrity and social wellbeing were identified. The publicly available specification (PAS) and Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) method were used to determine the impact of organic and conventional cocoa practices on environmental efficiency, using GHGs emissions. The 2017 Organic Farm Systems for Africa (OFSA) database was used to compare the sustainability performance, as well as the identification of trade-offs and synergies between environmental integrity and social wellbeing of two cocoa farming systems in Atwima Mponua District. The 2015-2017 ProEco Africa database was used to determine the impact of organic and conventional cocoa practices on environmental efficiency. In comparing the sustainability performance of organic with conventional cocoa farming systems, the study found the organic farming system to perform better in terms of land degradation, greenhouse gases, profitability, gender equity, and full cost accounting, compared to the conventional. Of the possible pairs among the sustainability dimensions, 52 sub themes were positive and strongly correlated (p < 0.05) for organic farming system suggesting synergies; whiles 32 (30 positive and 2 negative) and were strongly correlated (p < 0.05) for the conventional farming system. The study found more synergies within and among the sustainability dimensions for the organic cocoa farming system compared to conventional. Organic cocoa production (13.29 kg CO2 eq per kg) is environmentally efficient compared to conventional (17.67 kg CO2 eq per kg). There is a need for improvement in the sustainability performance of cocoa farming systems by Cocoa Health and Extension Division (CHED), Tano Biakoye organic cooperative and the department of agriculture. Conserving biodiversity should be prioritise by conventional farmers and they should be encouraged to use indigenous knowledge in the planning and implementation of cocoa sustainability programmes or projects.Item Ecological and Human Health Implications of Contaminants Linked With Cage Aquaculture in the Volta Basin of Ghana(University of Ghana, 2020-11) Magna, E.K.Item Life Cycle Assessment of the Traditional Earthen Ware Pot: A Comparative Study Of Mpraeso and Vume in the Eastern and Volta Regions Respectively of Ghana.(University of Ghana, 2019-07) Kusimi, B.A.The traditional production of earthenware bowls in Ghana, as any other production activity, generates environmental and health issues over its production cycle. Over the years, little attention has been paid to the impacts related to earthenware production and use in the country. A common and useful tool in evaluating the environmental impacts of a product and promote its sustainability is the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) tool. This thesis presents a comparative study of the life cycle of traditional earthenware pots produced in Mpraeso and Vume, in Ghana. The LCA methodology employed considered the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) 14040 rules and data from the potters on the production cycle. The unit of analysis was 1kg of the product and the scope of the study was from cradle to grave to examine the stages of the earthenware pot, a commonly used product in Ghana. At the production stage of the cycle, several analyses were carried out on raw materials. Plasticity of raw materials including raw clays, mixed clays and clay additives were performed according to ASTM D4318-05 methodology to ascertain the plastic limit of the substances. Mineralogical analyses of raw materials and pots were ascertained by Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM). Physio-chemical properties of the clay were also studied, likewise, heavy metals were measured using the Atomic Absorption Spectrometer (AAS). Possible leaching of heavy metals from pots into food through the processes of grinding, serving and storage of food at different temperatures at the use stage were also examined. Further, the human health risk impact of the production and usage of earthenware pots were assessed employing the USEPA health risk and the cancer risk models. Additionally, the pottery socio – cultural issues and perception on production methods and environmental impacts of the industry among the 2 communities were verified through the administration of questionnaire to the potters. The data was analyzed by Principal Component Analysis, Pearson coefficient of correlation and Analysis of Variance. Clay mineralogical and chemical composition showed that the clays of Mpraeso and Vume are composed mainly of Si, Al, Fe, smectite (montmorillonite), kaolinite, illite and quartz as major minerals, and the plasticity of the clays increases with the addition of a temper. There were gender and socio-cultural systems governing the pottery industry in the study areas. Indigenes were not happy with the mass destruction of the environment coupled with no plan of reclamation. Leaching and health risks analyses indicated that, food consumption and storage in unglazed pots is associated with metals of Fe, Co and Ni which were found to be above WHO/FAO recommended levels. More so, human contact during processing and inhalation during extraction over a long period could affect indigenes health. Further assessment of the environmental impact by ReCipe endpoint method in Simapro 7.1 software during the stages of extraction and firing using the traditional methods of production showed intense devastation. The results also demonstrated that energy used in the industry was the major contributor towards resource depletion, environmental and health impacts in the industry. There is the need therefore, for the regularization of the industry by National Board for Small Scale Industry, Environmental Protection Agency, Environment and Sanitation office for health, safety and environmental protection since there are some socio-economic and environmental implications of the pottery production cycle. Regulations and training will also ensure economic benefits to local assemblies and national government through taxation and foreign exchange earnings.Item Evaluating The Sustainability Of Land And Environmental Resources utilization In The New Juaben District And Its Immediate Environs(University of Ghana., 2003-10) Opoku, P.Timely empirical information on the status of sustainability of land resource use is a critical strategic input for achieving sustainable land-use policy objectives. Lt is also important for maintaining and improving positive achievements in sustainable resource use. Examining relevant elements of both socio-economic and biophysical factors as findings are referenced to appropriate and recognized standards is the best approach to sustainability evaluation. Land resources of the New Juaben and the neighbouring districts have served as a medium for various land uses over the years. Yet, the sustainable use of these land resources has been questioned. This study, therefore, sought to evaluate the sustainability of land resource use in the area. Four dimensions of sustainable land and environmental resource use were considered: inter-generational equity, protection of water bodies and steep slopes from unsuitable land uses, efficiency in land allocation for suitable land uses and land-user perspectives of the suitability of cropping systems and land types. The investigation involved vegetation study, mapping of cropping systems with GPS, interviews of farmers satellite data analysis, spatial data modeling and Geographical information Systems(GIS) applications. The outcome indicated that, land resource utilization has not been sustainable. Per capita land consumption for urban construction has progressively increased from about 0.04 ha to over 0.2 ha. Steep slopes and areas within 100m of the Densu River have been denuded of forest vegetation and replaced with fallows and annual crop farms. Cocoa has been cultivated in soil types which are naturally unsuitable. Farmer perception of cropping systems has undergone significant changes, with enhanced rating given to the cultivation of food crops, and diminishing emphasis on tree crops such as cocoa. The trends of resource use could be attributed to various remote and proximate factors. Continually monitoring and evaluating the performance of land-resource utilization could provide feedback information necessary for redirecting resource use from the current unsustainable course 10 one of sustain ability.Item Exploring Agrobiodiversity-Based Climate Change Adaptation in Semi-Arid Areas of West Africa: A Case Study in Mali.(2019-07) Segnon, A.C.Semiarid regions of West Africa are hot spots of climate change exposure and impacts, and this is expected to intensify in the future. Given the close relationship between livelihoods on ecosystem processes and natural resources and the close dependence between ecological sensitivities and social vulnerability, concerted efforts to build resilience of local people to an increasing and potentially irreversible Climatic challenge are urgently needed. Achieving these efforts effectively will require a better understanding of location- and context-specificity of adaptation actions and strategies at local level as well as vulnerability patterns to inform policydecisions making and adaptation planning. Using a multi-scale and multidisciplinary approach, combining a spatially-explicit climate and vegetation trends assessment, participatory research methods and a quantitative modelling approach, this study aimed to contribute to the growing body of knowledge on effectiveness of ecosystem-based adaptation using the lens of agrobiodiversity-based adaptation, with a focus on semiarid areas of Mali, West Africa. Specifically, the study sought to i) to unpack climatic and non-climatic driving forces of vegetation dynamics; ii) assess farmers' perception of impact of climate change on agroecosystems and adaptation strategies; iii) document and analyse agrobiodiversity-based adaptation practices and how these practices influenced household vulnerability patterns. The empirical data was collected in the Cercle of Koutiala, a semiarid area in southwestern Mali. Both minimum and maximum temperature significantly increased over the study period, albeit with decadal and interannual variability. Minimum temperature increased faster than maximum temperature in the study area, with a figure (1.26°C over the 35-year period) close to global temperature increase since pre-industrial period. The rainfall trend analysis revealed a strong interannual and spatial variability, rather than a clear significant change in rainfall over the study period. Analysis of coarse and moderate resolution NOV] time series illustrated the strong spatial heterogeneity in vegetation cover dynamics. While greening trends was dominant, this trend must be nuanced as it was not homogenous or uniform and some areas experienced browning or degradation as well. Respondents' social network characteristics such as CBOs membership, diversity of CBOs membership and diversity of source of agricultural knowledge were the main drivers of knowledge of climate change and its impacts. While CBOs membership improved farmer's knowledge and understanding of climate change, the diversity of CBOs membership affected negatively climate change knowledge and understanding, implying that the characteristics of the group matter and that climate information and knowledge is not acquired through all types of CBOs. There was a wide range of environmental and socioeconomic shocks or risks to which farmers were exposed to. Climatic risks were just one among many challenges. Drought and food insecurity were the most important stressors mentioned. Vulnerability patterns analysis indicated three vulnerability archetypes, which cut across all the study communities, illustrating the heterogeneity, within and across communities, in household vulnerability patterns to climatic and non-climatic risks. Key determinants of household vulnerability patterns were socio-demographic status, livelihood strategies, household resources, food security, water security, social network, physical accessibility, and health and sanitation. Environmental and socio-economic shocks or stressors were not discriminant, implying that household vulnerability patterns in the study area were mainly shaped by household adaptive capacity and sensitivity and that household exposure to risks was similar. To respond to climatic and non-climatic risks, local communities in the study area relied on a wide range strategies and practices, including a diversity of agrobiodiversity-based adaptation practices, at both individual and household levels. Demographic and socioeconomic factors which define "who a respondent is” (gender in tills study), "what he/she knows” (knowledge of climate change impacts on livelihoods- rather that perception of change in climate), and "where his/her knowledge comes from" (CBOs membership and number of CBOs membership) drive "what he/she does" (the diversity of adaptation strategies adopted). There was a complementarity between agrobiodiversity-based and non-agrobiodiversity-based adaptation strategies in reducing household vulnerability. More than 94% of the respondents adopted at least one agrobiodiversity-based adaptation practices. Agrobiodiversity-based adaptation practices per household ranged from one to nine, with a median number of7 (mean of 6.24 ± 1.73). Moreover, all respondents who adopted agrobiodiversity-based adaptation practices also relied on other adaptation practices. Not only adoption of agrobiodiversity-based adaptation practices, but also the number of adaptation practices adopted by household affected household vulnerability patterns. Households in low vulnerability archetypes relied on a high number of agrobiodiversity-based adaptation practices and were more likely to have a higher number of total adaptation practices. In comparison to low vulnerability archetypes, households belonging to high or medium vulnerability archetypes were less likely to adopt a high number of agrobiodiversity-based adaptation practices and less likely to adopt a high number of adaptation practices. Tills implied a synergistic effect rather than mutually exclusive __ impacts on household vulnerability. In addition, institutional factors such as access to extension services and to credit, training on agricultural practices also influenced household vulnerability patterns. Our analysis highlighted the diversity in household vulnerability and the context-specific nature of driving forces of vulnerability patterns. Failing to account for this diversity and nuanced understanding in adaptation planning might result in a mismatch between adaptation needs and interventions and maladaptation. Dichotomy agrobiodiversity-based (or ecosystembased) vs. other adaptation practices/strategies in relation to vulnerability reduction might be misleading and not tell the full story on the ground. Adaptation should be conceptualised or promoted as part of a more holistic approach or process which take into account climatic risks as well as development needs and aspiration to build sustainable and resilient livelihood systems. Future research quantifying risk reduction potentials of adopting a diversity adaptation practices at different scales will provide better insights and understanding on the importance of diversity for risk reduction in semiarid farming conteA1:s. Avenues for future research might also aim to address synergies and trade-offs among multiple climate change adaptation strategies and practices at different scales. Advancing the understanding the synergies and trade-offs in adoption of agrobiodiversity-based adaptation practices (and more generally multiple climate-smart practices and strategies) can provide critical inputs and insights to inform policy decisions for building resilience and upscaling climate-resilient livelihood systems in semiarid areas of West Africa.Item Forest Cover Change and Carbon Stock Dynamics in Dry Afromontane Forest of Ethiopia.(University of Ghana., 2018-12) Gebru, N.S.Forest ecosystems are the main wellsprings of livelihoods for many people and play a key part in regulating climate change by capturing and sequestering carbon. However, forests have been altered and converted into other land uses and thus negatively impacting land cover systems. The change in forest cover affects man y ecological, social and economic well-being. This study aimed at quantifying the effects of forest cover change on carbon stocks and ecosystem services values in the dry Afromontane forest area in northern Ethiopia. Forest cover changes were analyzed using Landsat images of 1985, 2000 and 2016. Vegetation parameters, litter and soil samples were collected from the field to quantify the carbon stock potential of the forest. Total area coverage of each land cover class was multiplied by the carbon on hectare basis of each land cover to quantify the change in carbon stock due to land cover change. Changes in ecosystem service values were estimated using land cover data of the year 1985, 2000 and 20 16 with their ecosystem service value coefficients derived from ecosystem service database of The Economics of Ecosystem and Biodiversity. Household interviews and focus group discussions were used to assess community perceptions of forest cover change and its drivers. Results from the study indicated that the dense forests and open forests increased by 8.2% and 32.3% respectively between 1985 and 2000 while it decreased by 10.4% and 9.8% respectively from 2000 to 2016. Grasslands and cultivated land decreased between 1985 and 2000 by 37.3% and 5.5% but increased between 2000 and 2016 by 89.5% and 28.5% respectively. The study further showed that fuelwood collection, cultivated land expansion, population growth, free grazing and drought were the major drivers of land cover change in the study area. Soil erosion, reduction in pollinating agent like honey bee due to a reduction in flower production, flooding and drought were the perceived major impacts of forest cover changes. Possible solutions to the current state of deforestation as indicated by respondents include strengthening of forest protection and monitoring-systems, improving soil and water conservation mechanisms, enhancing afforestation, creating awareness about the importance of forest ecosystems and zero grazing campaigns. The estimated mean total carbon stock was 181.78±27.06 Mg ha-' in- the dense forest and 104.83±12.35 Mg ha-' in the open forest. The carbon stock for grassland, cultivated land and bare land were 108.77±6.77 Mg ha-', 76.54±7.84 Mg ha-' and 83. l l±8.53 Mg ha-' respectively. Soil organic carbon and above ground carbon stock contributed more to total carbon stocks across the land cover types compared to below ground carbon and litter carbon. There was a marginal increase in carbon stock between 1985 and 2000 while carbon stock between 2000 and 20 16 marginally decreased. There was a significant relationship between above ground vegetation properties and soil organic carbon (adj. R2 = 0.59, P = 0.003). The estimated total values of ecosystem services for the study area was US$ 16.6, 19 and 18.1 million in 1985,2000 and 20 16, respectively. Generally, the study revealed that forest cover change substantially affected carbon stock and ecosystem service values in Wujig Mahgo Waren forest in northern Ethiopia. The study, therefore, recommends that enhanced efforts at conserving the forest ecosystem by all stakeholders to ensure an improved forest structure and increased ecosystem services delivery be pursued.Item Neglected and Underutilized Crop Species (NUCS) and Household Food Security in Central Ghana(University Of Ghana, 2019-07) Baa-Poku, F.The gradual erosion of indigenous crop varieties and its negative effect on agrobiodiversity, agricultural systems and food security remains a major challenge globally. In Ghana, agricultural systems now emphasize on the cultivation of selected high yielding crops to the neglect and subsequent marginalization of indigenous food crop varieties and plant species, for reasons that have not attracted much research attention. This study therefore sought to profile the varieties and uses of neglected and underutilized crop species (NUCS) and plant species in the Upper Afram and Upper Dayi basins of the middle belt of Ghana and examine the factors influencing their erosion and marginalization, as well as, the possible implications for household food security at the local level. The study employed both qualitative and quantitative research approaches to explain the experiences of about 271 respondents in relation to the eroded and marginalized food crop varieties and the constraints hindering their cultivation and use. Climatic data and satellite imagery analysis were used to determine longitudinal changes in climatic and land use and land cover over time respectively, and how these may have affected the erosion of these crop varieties. The data were analyzed qualitatively based on the themes emanating from the interviews and quantitatively using descriptive statistics and results presented in the form of percentages, frequencies and tables. Findings of the study confirmed the neglect and marginalization of a variety of the indigenous food crops in the middle belt of Ghana, though a total of 112 of such neglected and underutilized crop varieties (belonging to the food crop categories: cereals, legumes, vegetables, roots and tubers, tree crops, and fruits) were identified and very rare. Factors responsible for the erosion include indiscriminate use of agro-chemicals, climate variability and environmental change particularly forest cover. The study further revealed that socio-economic factors namely market demand and dietary habits have also contributed immensely to the marginalization of these crops. These notwithstanding, certain traditional practices and customary rites have helped in the preservation of some of these indigenous food varieties whose cultivation still dominate certain areas. The findings concluded that the erosion and marginalization of these food varieties among the rural communities may be responsible for the current food insecurity in the study communities compared to the past. These findings create the need for a review of the policy strategies of the country as outlined in the Food and Agriculture Sector Development Policy (FASDEP II) to integrate NUCS especially given their known contribution to the attainment of food security among rural households. Finally, the study recommends the relevant Ministries, Departments and Agencies (MDAs) such as the Local Government, Ministry of Tourism, Ghana Tourism Authority, Ministry of Culture, among others, to institute regular indigenous food fairs at the local (village), district and regional levels, to promote local dishes which are prepared with these neglected and underutilized crop varieties.Item Analysis and Integrated Modelling of Biophysical and Socioeconomic Determinants of Cropping Systems Productivity in the Volta Delta(University of Ghana, 2019-07) Ayamga, J.Cropping systems productivity in the Volta Delta is dependent on complex interconnecting biophysical and socioeconomic determinants. The study analysed the determinants of cropping systems yield and developed an integrated model for managing desired sustainable crop production scenarios. The analysis was conducted on change in yield over time, rainfall, temperature, Land use/land cover (LULC) and soil characteristics. District level crop yield was regressed on the biophysical variables. Multinomial logistic regression was used to determine the socioeconomic factors that determine different household crop yield levels. Biophysical and socioeconomic determinants were integrated into the Bayesian Network (BN) model for yield predictions to support management and policy decisions. A statistically significant positive trend of the major wet season and the mean annual rainfall were observed for Ada and Akatsi while a statistically highly significant decreasing trend in rainfall was observed for Adidome. Minimum, maximum and mean temperatures showed increasing trends over time. The LULCC showed a 2.82% net gain for active croplands for the period 2002-2017 and a high net loss was experienced by grass savannah, mangrove, and shrub savannah and thicket: - 2.59%, -1.68% and -1.24%, respectively. The soils were mainly sandy, moderately acidic, and had low total nitrogen and potassium; however, the organic matter content and phosphorus were medium and high, respectively. Almost all the biophysical determinants significantly predicted crop yield. For the socioeconomic factors, male-headed households and households that ever-hired labour, were more likely to produce more than 200kg/acre of maise. Femaleheaded households that used fertiliser and farmed on a minimum of 6.01acres of land were more likely to produce at least 200kg/acre of vegetables. The BN model results showed that the likelihood of high cropping systems productivity is more sensitive to input use, averaged cropped area and soil health. Under the climate change scenario, a combination of high GDP, good government policies and improved soil organic matter estimated the likelihood of high cropping systems productivity at 61.2%. Government, relevant institutions and agencies should strengthen the adaptive capacity of farmers by providing an accurate forecast of rainfall information, small-scale irrigation and encourage adoption of drought-resistant crop varieties and crop diversification. This will minimise the effects of the observed rainfall and temperature trends and variabilities in the Delta. The study also recommends the development of a dynamic version of the BN model and improving empirical data generation for enhanced model forecasting capacity, widening of its applicability and performance.