Gendered Dimensions of Climate Change Adaptation Practices and Livelihood Sustainability of Smallholder Farming Households in the Goromonzi District of Zimbabwe

Abstract

The global climate crisis is causing devastating effects across different facets of human life, including agriculture. Zimbabwe is among the countries dealing with extreme weather events, including droughts, cyclones, crop diseases, and erratic rainfall, all of which have severely impacted the smallholder agriculture sector. Despite the economic importance of this sector in the country, its vulnerability has been further worsened by economic decline and political instability. These circumstances have endangered the viability and sustenance of smallholder farmers’ livelihoods in the country. Smallholder farmers have been actively implementing measures to counteract the adverse effects of climate change and safeguard their livelihoods. However, several factors impede the adaptation process, including inequalities related to resource access and control as well as decision-making power between men and women farmers. While existing research has explored climate change adaptation, it falls short in addressing the gendered dimensions of climate change adaptation. Focusing on the gendered dynamics of adaptation is crucial because varied adaptation measures result in varied outcomes for men and women farmers and male-headed and female-headed households. The adaptation outcomes also contribute to the livelihood sustainability of farming households, which is also overlooked in adaptation research. This study adopts a mixed-method approach and integrates concepts from the feminist political ecology and the sustainable livelihood framework to examine how gender related factors influence climate change adaptation and livelihood sustainability in smallholder farming households in Zimbabwe, specifically focusing on Ward 11 in the Goromonzi District. With the aim of contributing to existing knowledge in development studies, the study examined the differentiated climate change perceptions among smallholder farmers in Ward 11, asset ownership patterns in male-headed and female-headed smallholder households and their influence on the adaptation behaviours and livelihood sustainability of these households. A household survey was used to obtain quantitative data from 256 smallholder households using the computer-assisted personal interviewing tool (CAPI). For the qualitative data, thirteen in-depth interviews with household heads (seven males and six females) and six key informant interviews from extension officers (1), Environmental Management Agency officers (2), Farmer’s Union representatives (1) and village headmen (2) were used. The quantitative data analysis used STATA version 14.0 and involved descriptive statistics (frequencies and chi-square tests) and the Poisson and Ordinary Least Square regressions (OLS) for count and continuous variables, respectively. The qualitative data underwent thematic analysis to identify and analyse patterns within the data. The findings highlighted that while climate change perceptions were consistent across all smallholder farmer groups in Ward 11, the experiences of the phenomenon differed based on household attributes such as gender and age. The study revealed that smallholder households had physical, natural, social, human, and financial capital at their disposal, but the ownership patterns differed between male-headed and female-headed households. Three household categories were identified based on asset endowment; low-asset, medium-asset and high-asset households. Predominantly, households categorised as low-asset comprised both male-headed and female-headed households, those headed by elderly farmers (60+ years), extended households, and households with heads who had no formal education. Moreover, the study identified various strategies employed by smallholder households in Ward 11 to manage climate change effects on their livelihoods. However, the implementation of these strategies varied by the gender and age category of the household head, and asset endowment of the household. The intensity of households’ implementation of adaptation strategies was determined by household size, physical capital, financial capital, the age category of the household head, community involvement, indigenous knowledge and access to extension services, as shown by the Poisson regression results. Furthermore, the results from an OLS regression revealed that implemented adaptation strategies are strong predictors of household livelihood sustainability, as measured by a composite livelihood sustainability index. Other determinants of household livelihood sustainability in the study area included household per capita income, presence of children dependents (6-17 years), households’ migration status and household type (nuclear or extended). Notably, adaptation strategies dominant in male-headed and female-headed households contributed to their livelihood sustainability. The study has therefore highlighted the linkages between asset ownership, adaptation, and livelihood sustainability in male-headed and female-headed smallholder farming households. It has highlighted the role of gender in shaping these dynamics and has shown that asset ownership, adaptation behaviours and livelihood sustainability are gendered in Ward 11 of the Goromonzi district. Based on the findings, recommendations are suggested that the government, in collaboration with other stakeholders such as the Farmers’ Union, the Agriculture Technical and Extension Services Department, and local non-governmental organisations support both male and female farmers, with alternative and sustainable income-generating opportunities and other resources to stimulate their adaptive capacities and bridge gender disparities. Tailoring adaptation strategies to suit the unique characteristics of households can enhance their capacities and contribute to improved livelihood sustainability.