Sustainable Cocoa Intensification Practices and Their Effects on Yield, Income and Household Food Security in Ghana

Abstract

Ghana’s cocoa sector is constrained by low yields of 250–500 kg/ha, which are far below the potential of 1,891–3,500 kg/ha, leaving nearly 30% of farmers in extreme poverty. Although intensification through regimented farm management is widely promoted to enhance productivity, delayed and inadequate (subsidised) input distribution, along with high input costs, often hinders farmers' adherence to recommended agronomic practices. Moreover, excessive use of synthetic agrochemicals poses significant ecological risks. In the absence of affordable alternatives, many farmers often expand areas under cocoa cultivation, a strategy that drives deforestation and has drawn increasing international concern. Sustainable cocoa intensification, which enhances productivity while safeguarding ecological integrity, offers a promising solution, yet remains under-prioritised in Ghana’s cocoa sector. This neglect is largely due to the dearth of empirical evidence on the potential synergies of integrated or bundled adoption to guide policies. Furthermore, little is known about the broader implications for household welfare, particularly in relation to food security. This study addressed these gaps by analysing the level and determinants of adoption of multiple sustainable cocoa intensification practices (SCIPs) in Ghana, and estimating their effects on yield, farm income and food security. It also identified incentives that could scale adoption of SCIPs. A four-stage sampling design was employed to survey 739 cocoa-farming households across 20 communities in six of Ghana’s principal cocoa-producing regions. Using data for the 2022/2023 season, composite indices of intensification and sustainability were developed to classify cocoa plots into four typologies: (1) Neither Sustainable nor Intensified (NSNI), (2) Sustainable but not Intensified (SNI), (3) Intensified but not Sustainable (INS), and (4) Sustainably Intensified (SI). SCIPs adoption patterns and their determinants were analysed using a Multivariate Probit model, while a Multinomial Logit model was used to examine the predictors of the four typologies. The yield, farm income and food security effects of the adoption of SCIPs were estimated using a Multinomial Endogenous Switching Regression (MESR) model. The findings revealed low adoption of SCIPs, with 58.25% of the plots classified as NSNI and only 6.9% as SI. While some practices, including planting improved cocoa varieties, intercropping, and shade tree maintenance were relatively common, the adoption of organic fertilisers, pruning, hand pollination, mulching, organic pesticides, use of personal protective equipment (PPE), and cocoa tree renovation, were low. The adoption of SCIPs was positively influenced by plot ownership, topography, perceived soil fertility, training attendance, positive perception of extension services, credit access, input subsidies, and farm assets holdings. In contrast, walking distance, farming experience, drought risk, and location of plot within the transition zone of Ghana were significant barriers to adoption. The adoption of SCIPs significantly improved cocoa yield by 34.0% (223.86 kg/ha), farm income by 34.12% (GHS 1,325.49/ha), and household food security [with reductions in the Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (–63.46%) and Reduced Coping Strategies Index (–62.87%), alongside a 50.35% rise in the Household Food Consumption Score]. However, households faced a short-term decline in food security during the transition to SCIP adoption, highlighting the need for economic incentives. A fair and equitable producer price, payments for ecosystem services, secured tree tenure rights that will enable the legal sale of shade tree products, sustainability-based price premiums paid at the farmgate, and strengthened technical support through contextualised training emerged as critical incentives to foster inclusive and widespread adoption. Policies must prioritise the promotion of SCIPs as a proven strategy to enhance cocoa productivity, farm income, and household food security.