PARTICIPATION OF COMMUNITY LEADERS IN COMMUNITY 
DEVELOPMENT ACTIVITIES AT THE SAWLA-TUNA-KALBA 
DISTRICT OF THE NORTHERN REGION
BY
DAVID ADDAE
A THESIS PRESENTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, 
LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT 
FOR THE AWARD OF A MASTER OF PHILOSOPHY DEGREE
IN ADULT EDUCATION
AUGUST, 2010
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
<ZT 397914
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
DECLARATION
I certify that this thesis is my original work which I have produced through research. Where the 
researcher made quotations or where other peoples views were presented, full acknowledgements 
have been made.
None of the materials contained herein have been presented, either in whole or in part, for the 
award of a degree in this or any other university.
DAVID ADDAE 
(STUDENT)
DR. DANIEL ODURO-MENSAH 
(SUPERVISOR)
. MM'
MR. REUBEN A. AGGOR 
(SUPERVISOR)
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
This work is dedicated to my dear mother, Janet Osei-Asibey who has single handedly seen me 
through school to this stage. Mum, I love you very much and may God bless you.
DEDICATION
ii
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The successful completion of this work was made possible through the help and cooperation I 
received from different people. First of all my sinceresl gratitude goes to Dr. Daniel Oduro- 
Mensah, Deputy Director of the Institute of Continuing and Distance Education, University of 
Ghana. Legon for his love, comfort, and encouragement throughout the period of my study. I also 
thank Dr Oduro -Mensah for his extensive and imaginative comments that were invaluable in fine 
tuning the final product.
Secondly, I am greatly indebted to all lecturers of the Institute of Continuing and Distance 
Education for their encouragement and direction that saw me through the course. I single out 
praise for Mr. R. A. Aggor, my supervisor for his patience and for offering me many suggestions 
that has made the study what it is now. Sir I am highly grateful. I am also very grateful to all 
teaching and graduate assistants of the Institute of Continuing and Distance Education for their 
support. I want to say thank you my dear one Annabel Dela Kubuafor for her continuous 
inspiration and love. I am also indebted to my siblings Nii and Sarfowaa and to all presidential 
street boys especially Bugie, Opey, Rootman. Blinks, Conti and D Bee for the help they offered 
me. I say a big thank you to the chief and people of Sawla-Tuna-Kalba district of the Northern 
region for their patience during data collection. This work would not have been possible without 
their help.
Finally, to God be the glory for great things He has done.
David Addae 
August, 2010.
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
ABSTRACT
The invaluable role played by community leaders in any development activity cannot be 
overemphasized. This is because through the participation of community leaders in development 
activities, community members could also be influenced to participate. The study therefore, 
identified the extent to which community leaders participate in development activities in the 
Sawla-Tuna-Kalba district.
Related literature was reviewed on the concept of leadership, leaders and group effectiveness, 
community development, leaders’ participation in community development, among others. The 
population of the study consisted of all community leaders at Sawla-Tuna-Kalba district of the 
Northern Region. This included chiefs and elders, unit committee members, opinion leaders, 
leaders of women groups, and youth leaders. One hundred community leaders formed the sample 
for the study. The study used a descriptive survey design. Data was gathered from the respondents 
with the help of an interview schedule. The data was analysed using the SPSS software.
The following were the major results of the study:
• The leaders identified educational, constructional, sanitation, and environmental activities 
as community development activities that were undertaken in the district from 2007-2009.
• Majority of the community leaders participated in varying levels of planning community 
development activities in the district. On the contrary, majority of the community leaders 
did not participate in implementing, and monitoring and evaluation of community 
development activities in the district.
iv
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
• Promotion of peace and stability in the district, provision of rewards to leaders, and 
availability of funds for development activities were some of things indicated by 
community as ways by which their participation in community development activities 
could be enhanced.
Some of the major findings of the study were that:
• Constructional, educational, sanitation, and environmental activities were the various 
categories of community development activities undertaken in the district within the past 
two years.
• Majority of the community leaders participate in varying levels of the planning of 
development activities.
• Community leaders were of the view that providing them with rewards, involving 
community members in development activities, promoting peace and harmony among the 
various groups in the district, and organizing training programmes for them, were some of 
the ways of enhancing their participation in development activities in the district.
The study recommended amongst others that avenues should be created for leaders to continuously 
participate in the planning, implementing, and monitoring and evaluation of community 
development activities since such the participation of leaders in those stages were crucial to the 
success of development activities.
v
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
TABLE OF CONTENT
PAGE
Declaration.........................................................................................................................................................1
Dedication.....................................................................................................................................................—-u
Acknowledgement.............................................................................................................................................111
Abstract............................................................................................................................................................. «v
Table of Content............................................................................................................................................... v*
List of Tables.................................................................................................................................................... *i
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1. Background of the Study............................................................................................................................. 1
1.2. Statement of the Problem............................................................................................................................ 6
1.3. Purpose of the Study....................................................................................................................................7
1.4. Objectives of the Study............................................................................................................................... 7
1.5. Research Questions...................................................................................................................... ............... 8
1.6. Significance of the Study.............................................................................................................................9
1.7. Definition of Terms..................................................................................................................................... 9
1.8.0rganisation of the Study............................................................................................................................11
1,9.Profile of the Study Area............................................................................................................................1!
vi
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.1. Introduction  ..............................................................................................................................................14
2.2. Theoretical Framework............................................................................................................................. 14
2.2.1. Game Theory of Participation................................................................................................................ 15
2.2.2. The Path-Goal Theory of Leadership.................................................................................................... 19
2.3. Concept of Leadership..............................................................................................................................21
2.4. Approaches to Leadership........................................................................................................................ 27
2.4.1. Trait Approach to Leadership................................................................................................................ 28
2.4.2. Contingency Theory to Leadership........................................................................................................ 30
2.5. Leaders and Group Effectiveness............................................................................................................. 34
2.6. Community Development......................................................................................................................... 38
2.7. The Concept of Participation.................................................................................................................... 44
2.8. Leaders Participation in Community Development...............................................................................   47
2.9. Ways of Enhancing Community Leaders Participation in Development Activities................................50
CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
3.1. Introduction............................................................................................................................................... 60
3.2. Population of the Study............................................................................................................................60
3.3. Sample of the Study..................................................................................................................................60
vil
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
3.4. Research Design.........................................................................................................................................
3.5. Sampling Procedure.................................................................................................................................. 61
3.6. Research Instrument..................................................................................................................................64
3.7. Data Collection Procedure........................................................................................................................ 65
3.8. Reliability and Validity of Data Collection Instruments...........................................................................66
3.9. Method of Data Analysis.......................................................................................................................... 67
CHAPTER FOUR
PRESENTATION OF RESULTS
4.1. Introduction............................................................................................................................................... 68
4.2. Community Development Activities Undertaken in the District.............................................................. 68
4.2.1. Community Development Activities Undertaken in the District from 2007-2009......................... 70
4.2.2. Community Development Activities Undertaken by the Community............................................71
4.2.3. Community Development Activities that Leaders were Involved in.............................................72
4.3. Level of Participation of Community Leaders in Development Activities.............................................. 72
4.3.1. Level of Participation of Community Leaders in Planning Development Activities.............................74
4.3.2. Level of Participation of Community Leaders in Implementing Development
Activities............................................................................................................................................... 76
4.3.3. Level of Participation of Community Leaders in Monitoring and Evaluation of 
DevelopmentActivities.............................................................................................................................. 76
4.4. Ways of Enhancing Community Leaders Participation in Development Activities............................ 78
vil!
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
4.4.1. Ways of Enhancing Community Leaders Participation in Development Activities...............................78
4.4.2. Stakeholders ways of Enhancing the Participation of Community Leaders
in Development Activities.................................................................................................................... 82
4.5. Summary of Results...............................................................................................................................83
CHAPTER FIVE
DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
5.1. Introduction............................................................................................................................................... 86
5.2. Community Development Activities Undertaken in the Sawla-Tuna-Kalba district
from 2007-2009....................................................................................................................................... 86
5.3. Level of Community Leaders Participation in Development Activities...................................................91
5.3.1. Level of Community Leaders Participation in Planning Development Activities..................... 91
5.3.2. Level of Community Leaders Participation in Implementing Development Activities 94
5.3.3. Level of Community Leaders Participation in Monitoring and Evaluation
Development Activities........................................................................................................................95
5.4. Ways of Enahancing Community Leaders Participation in Development Activities............................99
5.4.1. Ways of Enahancing Community Leaders Participation in Development Activities............................ 99
5.4.2. Views of Community Leaders on how to Enhance their Participation in Development 
Activities...........................................................................................................................................102
5.4.3. Stakeholders ways of Enhancing the Participation of Community
Leaders in Development Activities...................................................................................................106
Ix
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
CHAPTER SIX
SUMMARY. CONCLUSION, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
6.1. Introduction............................................................................................................................................ 111
6.2. Summary................................................................................................................................................111
6.3. Major Findings........................................................................................................................................ 112
6.4. Implications of the Study for Adult Education Policy and Practice...................................................... 113
6.5. Conclusion.............................................................................................................................................. 115
6.6. Recommendations................................................................................................................................... 115
6.7. Suggestions for Further Studies.............................................................................................................. 116
Reference.......................................................................................................................................................117
Appendix........................................................................................................................................................123
x
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Social Exclusion Filter.........................................................................................................................
Table 2: Social Exclusion Matrix.....................................................................................................................
Table 3: Proportionally Allocated Sample of Adult Community Leaders Expected to
Participate in the study......................................................................................................................63
Table 4: Proportionally Stratified Sample of Adult Community Leaders Expected to
Participate in the study.....................................................................................................................64
Table 5: Community Development Activities Undertaken in the District from
2007-2009 ......................................................................................................................................... 69
Table 6: Development Activities Undertaken by the Community................................................................... 70
Table 7: Development Activities that Leaders were Involved in.....................................................................71
Table 8: Level of Participation of Community Leaders in Planning Development
Activities........................................................................................................................................... 73
Table 9: Level of Participation of Community Leaders in Implementing Development
Activities..........................................................................................................................................75
Table 10: Level of Participation of Community Leaders in Monitoring and Evaluation
of Development Activities.............................................................................................................. 77
Table 11: Ways of Enhancing Community Leaders Participation in Development Activities 79
Table 12: Views of Community Leaders on how they could Enhance their Participation
in Development activities...............................................................................................................81
Table 13: Stakeholders (government, NGOs, and corporate entities) ways of Enhancing
xl
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
the Participation of Community Leaders in Development Activities
Hi!
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
CHAPTER ONE 
INTRODUCTION
1.1. Background of the Study
The ability of a group to accomplish its set goals and to satisfy the needs of its members depends 
to a large extent on the few individuals who direct and coordinate the activities of the group. 
Effective leadership is most likely to contribute to the realization of collective group goals, 
whereas poor leadership has the tendency of impacting negatively on the group's ability to 
achieve results. In the same manner, the ability of communities to identify and solve problems 
that affect them depends to a large extent on their local leaders.
The invaluable role played by leaders in any community development endeavor cannot be 
overemphasized. This is because, by the leaders’ active involvement in self-help projects, 
community members can become inspired to participate. Through their participation, they are 
able to provide clear directions and motivation that would boost the morale of community 
members. Sometimes through their involvement they are also able to secure support, both 
technical and financial, from institutions and agencies that are within their reach. This ultimately 
brings about success of such projects and since people often want to associate themselves with 
success, many more community members would be encouraged to participate in subsequent 
projects led by such leaders. Quite a number of development projects in some rural communities 
in Ghana have come to a standstill due to the non-participation of local leaders.
1
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
The need to achieve an appreciable level of development in rural areas in the country, has called 
for the introduction of programmes aimed at improving the capacities of local leaders. 
Leadership capacity building workshops have been held in many rural areas in the country as 
part of equipping local leaders with the requisite skills to effectively mobilize their members for 
self-help developmental purposes.
Biney (2003) asserts that Ghana's community development programme which started in the late 
1940s sought to develop community leadership and encourage citizens' participation through 
education and training of the people in rural communities to undertake activities or projects to 
promote socio-economic advancement based on comprehensive planning. The programme, 
Biney argues, led to the mass-education of people especially non-literate adults and generated the 
self-help spirit of rural people in the construction of small-scale water systems for drinking and 
agriculture, rural roads, schools, health posts, and community centres. The generally 
acknowledged success of Ghana's community development programme between 1951 and 1957 
was perhaps due to government's readiness to sponsor such projects.
Village and Town Committees now called Zonal Committees were established in all villages and 
towns in Ghana by the government of the first republic in 1963. They were charged with the 
responsibility of planning and coordinating all development activities in their respective 
communities (Biney, 2003). Campfens (1997) has observed that human development during this 
period was viewed primarily within the context of traditional communal forms of societal 
organization. Community development attempted to integrate the group or clan based
2
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
communities into the larger institutional systems of the society. A holistic approach which 
adopted and promoted mass education, self-help, and awareness programmes aimed at 
mobilizing individuals and groups. To address their own needs and problems, local communities 
were encouraged to identify their own needs and to participate in meeting them. Commins 
(1979) also notes that efforts were made to nurture local leadership and the development of 
communities’ capacity overtime.
A new programme was introduced in the early 1990's as part of Ghana’s Programme of Action 
to Mitigate the Social Cost of Adjustment (PAMSCAD) which was aimed at developing and 
rehabilitating rural housing. The programme originated within the continuation schools 
programme, a pilot scheme developed and funded by UNICEF in 1986 (Campfens, 1997). 
Initially, twelve centres were established across the country which eventually expanded and 
consolidated and were charged with the teaching of vocational skills to school leavers so as to 
make them employable. These centres were later renamed the Integrated Community Centre for 
Employable Skills (ICCES) and gained popularity across the nation due to the low-cost housing 
constructed from local materials.
Programmes such as the Women’s Income Generation project and those operated by the Ghana 
Reconstruction Movement and the 3 P1 December Women’s Movement demonstrate the 
effectiveness of Non-Governmental Organisations in working with communities to enhance their 
entrepreneurial skills for their own development. Church organisations have also complemented 
the efforts of government in many community development activities. One such organisation is
3
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
the Brong Ahafo Catholic Cooperative Society for Development (BACCSD) which introduced 
programmes that help maize farmers analyse their production techniques, provide education for 
prospective members of the cooperative and extend credit (Campfens, 1997). These efforts 
demonstrate that people can be adequately empowered to improve their living conditions.
The Ghana government between 2001 and 2008 initiated and implemented many projects that 
were aimed at enhancing rural development nationwide. One such project is the Rural 
Enterprises Project which sought to equip rural folk with entrepreneurial skills as well as help 
them establish their own businesses.
However, in spite of these and many other developmental initiatives by successive governments 
with the view of bringing about the desired development nationwide, the Northern Region still 
remains one of the most deprived areas in terms of access to basic and necessary facilities and 
amenities. Records available indicate that out of every ten people in the Northern Region, sev en 
are considered poor (Abu-Bakr, 2004). This has prompted calls from the Northern Regional 
House of Chiefs to successive governments to divide the region into two. This they believe will 
speed up development in the area.
Despite the deprived nature of the region, the regional capital. Tamale has been at the receiving 
end of much infrastructural development. One of such infrastructural developmental projects is 
the construction of a huge water reserviour to ensure constant supply of water to residents. This
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
and many other developmental projects have transformed Tamale into one of fastest growing 
cities in West Africa to the neglect of other districts in the region.
Sawla-Tuna-Kalba district which is the focus of this study is one of such neglected areas in the 
region. Yabang (2008) asserts that, Sawla-Tuna-Kalba district is a multi-generational poor area 
where poverty is passed on from one generation to the next. Can ed out of the Bole district in 
2004, Sawla-Tuna-Kalba district has seen some development projects. The construction of the 
district assembly offices and the upgrading of the Sawla health centre to that of a polyclinic are 
instances of development projects in the area. These projects were solely executed by the district 
assembly with no support from the community members. It is important to note that the 
sustainability of development projects in any area depends to a large extent on the active 
participation of community members and leaders.
During the early I990’s, traditional leaders in some communities which were part of the then 
Bole district but now part of the Sawla-Tuna-Kalba district were able to mobilize their people to 
embark on self-help projects that helped in transforming the communities. The Sawla Wura is 
said to have initiated the construction of a six unit class room block at Sawla which serves the 
neighbouring communities. Lineage heads as well as heads of the various ethnic groupings in the 
area were the vehicles for effective mobilization of their members for development purposes. 
Leaders of the Vagla ethnic group are said to have mobilized their members towards the sinking 
of a well at Tuna. This was to solve the perennial water problems they faced as a people. The 
educated elite also played significant roles in the developmental agenda of the area.
5
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
Communal labour represented an essential part of the lives of the people which made it possible 
for communities to realize some of their developmental goals. Community centres, markets, and 
health posts were constructed through the effort of community members with the active 
participation of local leaders.
An important question to ask is whether this zeal and dedication exhibited by local leaders in 
their quest to develop their communities in the past is still reminiscent of the present leadership? 
Currently, however, it can be said that communal spirit in the area is very low as people do not 
readily participate in communal labour. Could this be attributed to the inability of the local 
leadership to mobilize community members to participate in self-help activities in the district?
1.2. Statement of the Problem
The ability of a community to achieve its developmental goals depends in part to a few 
individuals who occupy leadership positions. This is because community leaders can stimulate 
and help sustain communal spirit in community members. This makes community leaders a 
critical contributor to the success of community development in any community. Community 
leaders in the Sawla-Tuna-Kalba district of the Northern Region have been noted to participate in 
community development activities which led to the construction of a community centre and a 
health post at Sawla. However, the participation of community leaders in community 
development activities has not significantly helped in the development process of the district. In 
the light of the above supposition, the question therefore is; To what extent do community 
leaders participate in community development activities at Sawla-Tuna-Kalba district of the 
Northern Region?
6
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
1.3 Purpose of the Study
The purpose of the study is to find out the extent to which community leaders participate in 
community development activities in the Sawla-Tuna-Kalba district of the Northern region.
1.4 Objectives of the Study
The main objective of this study was to find out the extent to which community leaders’ 
participate in community development activities at Sawla-Tuna-Kalba district of the Northern 
Region.
The study was designed to achieve the following specific objectives;
1. To identify the community development activities that were undertaken in the district from 
2007-2009 with regard to:
• Development activities undertaken by the community
• Development activities that leaders are involved in
2. To find out the level of participation of community leaders in the following stages of 
community development activities with regard to:
• Planning community development activities.
• Implementing community development activities
• Monitoring and evaluation of community development activities.
3. To identify ways of enhancing community leaders' participation in development activities in 
the district.
7
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
1.5 Research Questions
The research questions asked were:
1. What community development activities are undertaken in the district from 2007-2009?
2. Which of the development activities was undertaken by the community?
3. Which of the development activities was community leaders involved in?
4. Are community leaders involved in the planning of community development activities?
5. At what level do community leaders participate in the planning of community 
development activities?
6. Do community leaders participate in the implementation of community development 
activities?
7. What is the level of community leaders’ participation in development activities in the 
district?
8. Do community leaders participate in the monitoring and evaluation of development 
projects undertaken in their communities?
9. How often do community leaders monitor and evaluate community development activities 
in the district?
10. What can community leaders do to enhance their participation in community 
development activities in the district?
8
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
11. Whai can stakeholders (government, NGO's. and community members) do to enhance
the participation of community leaders in community development activities?
1.6.Significance of the Study
In view of the fact that, leaders influence and motivate individuals to fully participate towards
the accomplishment of community development goals, makes this study imperative to all
communities, rural and urban.
The study was also significant for the following reasons:
1. It would enable stakeholders (government, NGO’s, and community members) to know 
the contributions of community leaders to the success of community development in the 
Sawla-Tuna-Kalba district and in other districts in the country.
2. The findings would help determine the levels of community leaders' participation in 
community development in the country.
3. The study would also help identify ways of enhancing the participation of community 
leaders in community development activities.
4. The study would extend considerable knowledge to practitioners and students in the field 
of community education and development on the role of community leaders in 
community development.
1.7. Definition of Terms
These terms arc used in the study and are defined as follows:
9
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
Community participation: The creation of opportunities to enable all members of a community 
to actively contribute to and influence the development process and to share equitably in the 
fruits of development (United Nations, 1981).
Community education: Helping community members acquire knowledge, skills, and attitude in 
order to enable them solve problems affecting them as a community.
Community development: The process whereby community members come together to take 
collective action and generate solutions to common problems (Flo and Smith, 1999). In the 
context of the study, it is used to denote self-help development activities in the district since 
2004.
Community development activity: Any collective endeavour by community members to find 
solutions to problems they face as a community.
Communal labour: Community members coming together to embark on developmental 
projects.
Leadership: The art of influencing others to act in order to accomplish specific objectives 
(Kinard, 1988)
Leader: An individual who can influence the behaviour of others and is recognized as having 
some authority. In the context of this study, a leader refers the following: traditional leader 
(chiefs and elders), opinion leaders, and leaders of women's groups, youth leaders, and unit 
committee members.
10
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
1.8. Organisation of the Study
To afford easy reading and comprehension, this research work comprises of six chapters.
Chapter one, which is the introduction to the study, sets forth the background to the study, 
statement of the problem, purpose of the study, objectives, research questions, significance of the 
study, among others.
The second chapter deals with the theoretical framework and review of literature. The theory 
under which this study is grounded is spelt out in this chapter. The chapter also discusses topics 
such as; the concept of leadership, approaches to the study of leadership, motivation, community 
development and citizen participation among others.
Chapter three looks at the methodology, which includes the population, sample size research 
design, sampling procedure, data collection instruments, reliability and validity, and method of 
data analysis.
In chapter four, the results are presented. The discussion of results is found in chapter five. 
Finally, chapter six contains the summary, major findings and conclusion of the study. It further 
contains the recommendations based on the findings for policy guidance and future research.
1.9. Profile of the study area
Sawla-Tuna-Kalba district is one of twenty-eight (28) created in 2004 out of the then a hundred 
and ten (110) metropolitan/municipal/district assemblies. It was carved out of Bole district. 
Sawla-Tuna-Kalba district with its capital Sawla is located to the west of the Northern Region. 
To the north of the district are Wa West and East districts. West Gonja to the east. La Cote
11
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
d'Ivoire and Burkina Faso to the west and the Bole district to the south. The whole area lies 
within Longitude 2 degrees 50'W to 2 degrees 10'W and Latitude 8 degrees 10'N to 9degrees 
50'N. The district which has a population of 85,000 occupies 6% of the landmass of the Northern 
Region (4601 km sq) (Ministry of Health Population and Housing census, 2004). The area is 
populated with several ethnic groups including the Vagla, Dagaaba, and Gonja (who are the 
overlords), Mewow, and Safalba.
According to Yabang (2008), perhaps the striking historical and political interests lie in the Brifo 
group who originally migrated from Sankana in the Upper West Region across the Black Volta 
to settle in the area along the river for an agrarian life. Later due the disturbances of the wars of 
Samouri Toure in the 19,h century they had to escape to farm along the Ghana part of the Black 
Volta. Yabang further asserts that the Brifo communities have been one of the sources of food 
supplies for the district and the whole country. The district is home to the Kulmasa crocodile 
sanctuary' and the Kalba market. These are two major tourist centres in the district and attract 
patronage from tourists within and outside the country. There reports of the discovery of lime 
deposits in Kong which is in the eastern part.
Agriculture, which is the main preoccupation of majority of people in the district, is grappling to 
attain modernity. Crops produced in the area are basically roots, tubers and cereals. Shea butter 
and groundnuts are two other crops also produced in the area mostly by women. Animal rearing 
is another major occupation in the district with cattle, goat and sheep kept on free range.
12
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
Transportation is one major problem facing the agriculture industry in the district. There are 
inadequate vehicles to transport food crops to the market centre.
The road to the Kalba market for instance, which is 20km from Tuna in a bad state. Most of the 
roads in the district are in a deplorable state and poor drainage has led to the formation of gullies 
in the roads making them utterly inaccessible. Again, the use of obsolete tools in farming makes 
it impossible for farmers to cultivate large pieces of land. In view of these setbacks, farmers are 
compelled to dispose of the produce at relatively cheap prices. Petty trading is another major 
economic activity in the district. Trading in all sorts of items is mainly the preoccupation of the 
youth.
Any society that wants to develop and safeguard its future must promote education at all levels. 
However, for many communities in the district including Gbelipie, Goyiri, Kojeneyiri, and 
Seguriyiri, education is like a game of lottery. This seems to imply that basic education is not 
taken seriously in such communities. The highest level of education one can attain is primary six 
(Yabang, 2008). Sawla has a number of Junior High Schools which serves children from 
neighbouring towns. However due to the fact many teachers refuse posting to the district, the 
quality of education is somewhat compromised.
Even though the district has a polyclinic, quality health care delivery in the area is a mirage. 
Inadequate personnel coupled with inadequate facilities to serve the growing number of health 
cases are some of the challenges facing health care delivery in the area.
13
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
CHAPTER TWO 
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.1. Introduction
This chapter examines the theoretical framework and reviews the relevant literature related to the 
study. The chapter is divided into two sections. The first section covers the theoretical 
framework under which the study is subsumed. The second section deals with reviewed literature 
on the following sub-themes:
• The concept of leadership
• Approaches to leadership
• Leaders and group effectiveness
• The concept of Community development.
• The concept of participation
• Leaders participation in community development
• Ways of enhancing community leaders' participation in development activ ities
2.2. Theoretical Framework
The study is concerned with the participation of leaders in community development activities at 
the Sawla-Tuna-Kalba district of the Northern region. It is in this vein that theories of leadership 
and participation arc necessitated. The theories underpinning this study are the Game theory of 
participation and the Path-Goal theory of leadership.
14
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
2.2.1. Game Theory of Participation
One theory under which the study is subsumed is the game theory of participation. The game 
theory* highlights the rational mechanisms underpinning individual decision making in a 
collective action contributing to the common good (Dorsner, 2004). fn this respect the game 
theory can help in understanding how participation or non-participation in community 
development activities occur with particular reference to leadership since this study is concerned 
with local leadership participation in community development activities at Sawla-Tuna-Kalba 
district. Dorsner asserts that the game theory emerged as an enlightening alternative tool for 
capturing the rational aspects of participation and non-participation. The theory assumes that 
individuals have an option to be either included or excluded in development activities due to 
some pull or push factors.
The theory lists a number of possible factors that can explain patterns of participation or 
exclusion. The list, which is known as the social exclusion filter, is meant to analyse 
participation in community projects, so that there will be increased awareness about all potential 
factors that can influence participation. Some of the variables on the social exclusion filter are 
economic, educational, institutional as well as social factors, Dorsner (2004). The filter is 
represented in the table below:
15
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
Table 1: Social Exclusion Filter
Variable Exclusion or 
integration at the 
community level
Exclusion or integration 
at the individual level
1. Economic Level of economic 
development, level of 
inequalities, employment 
patterns, and distribution 
of living standards.
Income/consumption, 
assets, employment, status 
and time availability.
2. Social Social roles and 
network 
fragmentations, 
traditional system of 
decision making.
Position in society, social 
roles, personal rivalries, 
isolation.
3. Human Skills and knowledge of 
the community, capacity 
and intellectual 
resources.
Educational level, 
management and 
leadership styles, type of 
skills available, gender.
4. Organisational Presence and impact of 
external bodies, 
institutional and 
vulnerability context and 
inflow.
Relationship with NGO 
staff, past experience with 
similar projects, access to 
information.
5. Political Level of politicization 
and risk of political 
hijacking, political 
fragmentation, influence 
and power of interest 
groups.
Political stance/belief, 
level of political power, 
civic engagement.
6. Educational Form of education being 
offered, agencies to 
education
Level of educational 
attainment, perceived 
benefits of the educational 
programme.
Source: Adapted from Upton (in Haan ct al, 1998)
16
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
One or a combination of the variables in the table above will either to encourage or discourage 
individuals especially local community leaders to participate in community development 
activities. Local community leaders will seriously consider their economic status, social roles as 
well as educational level before they can make a choice to either participate or be excluded from 
developmental projects.
Rural people will participate only if they feel that the benefits of the project will accrue to them 
(Holcroft, in Eicher and Staatz, 1998). In the same respect community leaders will only lend 
their support to community development projects by organising community members, if they 
perceive that such projects will benefit the community. The game theory incorporates the 
concept of social exclusion into a systematic and dynamic framework that can easily be used to 
identify individuals and groups that are likely to either participate or not in community 
development activities.
The social exclusion variables according to Dorsner, give shape the game theory and ensures a 
more comprehensive analysis of participation. The theory according to Dorsner. holds that, 
community members decision to participate in communal activities depend on the rational 
calculus of benefits to be accrued as against the pursuit of common good. This calculus depends 
on the many characteristics of the community and its members.
In Tabic 2 below, the actions of the first player form the rows and the actions of the second 
player the columns of the matrix of social exclusion. The entries in the matrix are two numbers 
representing the utility or payoff to the first and second player respectively.
17
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
Table 2: Social Exclusion Matrix
"t^roup 1 
Group^
Included Excluded
Included Gain X Gain Y Gain Z Gain 0
Excluded Gain 0 Gain Z Gain Y Gain Y
Source: Adopted from Dorsner (2004) Group 1 = right- hand figures inside each cell. 
Group 2 = left- hand figures inside each cell
The two groups in the table above represent the various categories of people in any given 
community. The first and second players, (group one and two respectively) will participate when 
it is anticipated that gains (x, x) will be made. Group one will again be included when a greater 
gain (o) is received or anticipated. However, persons of that same group will at a point be 
excluded from an activity when it is realized that gain y will be made. Naturally the group will 
be excluded when it anticipates that it is going to lose or gain nothing (z) from a communal 
activity. The second player benefits a lot (o) when the first player decides not to participate and 
will therefore be included. Group two will however be excluded when no gains (z) are made, 
interestingly it is at this point that the first player decides to fully participate since it will gain a 
lot (o).
Community leaders will therefore choose to participate in communal activities aimed at bringing 
about development in the community, if they believe that their effort will result in some gains. 
The construction of a toilet facility in a community for instance may be judged as a gain and as 
such may receive the participation ol community leaders and as such community members.
18
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
2.2.2. The Path-Goal Theory of Leadership
The path-goal theory, also known as the path-goal theory of leader effectiveness or the path-goal 
model, is a leadership theory in the field of organizational studies developed by Robert House, 
an Ohio State University graduate, in 1971. The path-goal theory which was however revised in 
1996 describes how leaders affect the path-goal perceptions and satisfaction of subordinates 
(Marfo-Yiadom, 2004). The theory is based on the belief that the individual's motivation is 
dependent upon expectations that increased effort to achieve an improved level of performance 
will be successful, and expectations that improved performance will be instrumental in obtaining 
positive rewards and avoiding negative outcomes (Mullins, 2007).
Path goal theory was developed to explain how leaders motivate subordinates to be productive 
and satisfied with their work. It is a contingency approach to leadership because effectiveness 
depends on the fit between a leader's behavior and the characteristics of subordinates and the 
subordinates' task (House, 1996). The essence of the theory is that it is the leader's job to assist 
his or her followers in attaining their goals and to provide the necessary direction and or support 
to ensure that their goals are compatible with the overall objectives of the group or organisation 
(Robbins, 1989). According to Rue and Byers (2005), a leader's behaviour is acceptable to 
subordinates to the degree that they it as a source of satisfaction now or as a step tow ard future 
satisfaction. Rue and Byers further add that leader behaviour is influences the motivation of 
subordinates when it makes the satisfaction of their needs contingent on successful performance; 
and it provides the guidance, support, and rewards needed for effective performance (but that are 
not already in the environment).
19
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
House has identified four leadership behaviours (Robbins, 1989). The directive leader lets 
subordinates know what is expected of them, schedules work to be done, and gives specific 
guidance on how to accomplish tasks. The supportive leader is friendly and shows concern for 
the needs of subordinates. Thirdly, the participative leader consults with subordinates and uses 
their suggestions before making a decision. Finally, the achievement oriented leader sets 
challenging goals and expects subordinates to perform at their highest level. The path-goal 
theory suggests that dependent on the situation, the same leader can play all these behaviours.
Rue and Byers have also identified four types of leadership behaviour: role classification, 
supportive, participative, and autocratic. Role classification leaders lets subordinates know what 
is expected of them, gives guidance as to what should be done and how, schedules and 
coordinates work among the subordinates, and maintains definite standards of performance. 
Supportive leaders have a friendly, approachable leader who attempts to make the work 
environment more pleasant for subordinates. Participative leadership involves consulting with 
subordinates and asking for their suggestions in the decision-making process. Finally, autocratic 
leadership of comes from a leader who gives orders that are not questioned by subordinates.
The leadership behaviours discussed above indicates that, there is no one best form of leadership 
behaviour. A leader who wants to be successful must vary his or her leadership behaviour 
depending on the situation. The behaviour that community leaders exhibit has an effect on 
community members’ willingness to contribute to the efforts of the community to achieve the 
desired development.
20
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
An assumption of path goal theory is the Derived Expectancy Theory, which suggests that 
subordinates wall be motivated if they think they're capable of performing their work, if they 
believe their efforts will result in a certain outcome, and if they believe the payoffs for 
accomplishing this work are worthwhile (House, 1996). As a result, community leaders would 
always find avenues to engage in developmental activities in their communities if they believe 
that their efforts would bring about desired gains.
2.3. The Concept of Leadership
According to Daft (1997), “there is no topic more important to business today than leadership". 
Organisations must make every effort to adapt to the many changes in the environment. As a 
resuJt the need for effective leadership cannot be over emphasized. Leadership is an important 
human activity, in any problem solving situation, leaders play a key role (Marfo-Yiadom, 2005). 
Leadership is often misunderstood as being synonymous with management. Marfo-Yiadom in 
differentiating between the two terms makes the following observation:
“A person can be a leader without being a manager. This is 
common in sports -where leaders of teams are not managers.
As Szilagyi (1984) puts it, they do not plan, organize or control 
the activities of the team nor do they have this responsibility. On 
the other hand, a person can be a manager without being a leader.
People are managers by virtue of the of the authority in their 
positions as given by the organisation. They have the right to
21
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
influence because of their positions but they may not choose to 
exercise this right, or subordinates may choose to he influenced 
by other individuals or factors ”,
Again Kotter( 1988:25) has also made a distinction between the two terms as follows:
"leadership and management are not necessarily the same 
are not incompatible. Effective leadership in organisations 
creates a vision of the future that considers the long-term 
interests of the parties involved in the organisation, develops 
a strategy for moving towards that vision... Management 
is a process of planning, organising, staffing, motivating, 
and controlling through the use of formal authority 
There has been extensive research on leadership which has produced many definitions of the 
term. Leadership refers to the "social influence process in which the leader seeks voluntary 
participation of subordinates in an effort to reach organizational goals" (Kinicki and Kreitner. 
2006). Jago (1982) defines leadership as “both a process and a property. The process of 
leadership is the use of non-coercive influence to direct and coordinate the activities of the 
members of an organized group towards the accomplishment of group objectives. As a propern , 
leadership is the set of characteristics attributed to those who are perceived to successfully 
employ such influence.” Leadership has also been defined by Donnelly et al (1999) as that 
human factor that binds a group together and motivates it towards goals. From the definitions 
given, it can be deduced that leadership involves the use of non-coercive influence to induce
22
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
desired behaviour towards collective goal attainment. Non-coercive force implies that no force or 
threats are applied.
Katz and Khan (1978) acknowledge that leadership involves influential increment which is over 
and above mechanical compliance with routine directions of the organization. This is because 
human beings rather than machines occupy positions of authority. In order to illuminate the 
concept of leadership. Cole (2004) gives an account of what leadership is all about. According to 
Cole:
"Leadership is something more than just an aspect o f 
personality, tradition, opportunism, or appointment.
It is intimately connected with actual behaviour and 
altitudes towards oneself and others. Although leadership 
may involve empowering others, and sharing the 
leadership burden in many respects, it nevertheless cannot 
abdicate its final responsibility for a group's results. Any 
leader, ultimately must accept personal responsibility' for 
success or failure. "
Levine (2000) has suggested that “leaders need to focus on moving people and organizations 
forward by increasing the competency of staff and cooperation of teams in order to improve the 
organization.” In this sense, local community leaders should concentrate their attention on
23
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
creating awareness about the problems their communities face, building their communal spirit 
and also empowering community members to lake action.
Leadership as has been noted is an influence process. This process involves the use of power. 
Lewis (1983) has observed that "the concept of power is central to human activity; because all 
group functioning implies a power structure. Dessler (2004) has suggested that a leader without 
power is really not a leader at all since he or she has a zero chance of influencing anyone or 
anything". Power has been defined by Raven and French (1960) as the “control a person 
possesses and can exercise on others."lt is the ability of an individual or group of individuals to 
influence the behaviour of others. Both leadership and management involves the use of power, 
however they differ in terms of their source. Whereas a manager’s power originates from the 
organization, that of a leader originates from personal sources such as values, goals, and vision.
Aldag and Stearns (1987) have identified four main characteristics of power. Power according to 
them is perpetual. This presupposes that a subordinate's perception that a superior can reward or 
punish, he she is likely to behave accordingly despite the situation. Secondly, power is relative. 
This means that a superior’s power may differ from one subordinate to another. Thirdly, power is 
latent. This refers to the use of rewards, punishment and other bases of power. This is however 
dynamic. Finally, power relationships evolve over time as persons gain or lose power bases in 
relation to others.
24
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
Raven and French have identified five different power bases for influencing others. These are:
• Coercive Power: This power is based upon fear. A subordinate perceives that failure 
to comply with the wishes of a superior would lead to punishment (for example, an 
undesirable work assignment, a reprimand). Coercive power is based upon the 
expectation that punishment is the consequence for not agreeing with the actions, 
attitudes, or directives of the superior.
• Reward Power: This is the opposite of coercive power. A subordinate perceives that 
compliance with the wishes of a superior will lead to positive rewards. These rewards 
could be monetary (increases in pay) or nonmonetary (a compliment for a job well 
done).
• Legitimate Power: This type of power comes from the position of a superior in the 
organisational hierarchy.
• Expert Power: An individual with this type of power is one with an expertise, 
special skill, or knowledge. The possession of one or more of these attributes gains the 
respect and compliance of peers or subordinates.
• Referent Power: This power is based on a follower’s identification with a leader. 
The leader is admired because of one or more personal traits, and the follower can 
influenced because of this admiration.
Marfo-Yiadom adds information power, which means the ability of managers to gain access and 
to transmit information about particular issues or activities concerning an organisation's internal 
and external environment. This information may or may not relate to the persons position or 
level in the organisation. Aldag and Steams (1987) have opined that power can vary in range and
25
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
domain. By range of power, Aldag and Steams imply the number of different areas in which one 
person can influence another. Domain of power however refers to the number of individuals over 
whom someone can exert influence with respect to a specified range. According to Szilagyi 
(1984), legitimate, reward, coercive, and informational power originates from the organisation 
and are based on the characteristics of the individual. Lewis (1983) has noted that of the six 
sources, referent and expert power are thought to best support a positive work climate.
Various types of leaders have been identified Cole (2004) has identified five types of leaders in 
any organisational set up. These are explained below:
1. Charismatic leader who gains influence mainly from strength of personality. Charismatic 
leaders possess exceptional qualities that enable them to transform all around them into 
willing followers.
2. Traditional leader, whose position is assured by birth example chiefs. By virtue of their 
membership of a particular family, individuals can assume positions of leadership.
3. Situational leader, whose influence can only be effective by being in the right place at the 
right time. This kind of leadership is too temporary in nature. Individuals assume a 
leadership role in a variety of situations over a period of time.
4. Appointed leader, whose influence arises directly out of his position in an organisation. 
This is the bureaucratic type of leadership, where legitimate power springs from the 
nature and scoop of the position within the hierarchy.
26
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
5. Functional leader, who secures his or her leadership position by what he or she does, 
rather than by what they are. In other words, functional leaders adapt their behaviour to 
meet the competing needs of the situation.
It can be argued that all the types of leaders suggested by Cole can be found in many rural areas 
in Ghana. The one type of leaders that wields considerable power in most rural areas is 
traditional leaders mainly in the form of chieftaincy. Chiefs in the rural communities are the 
main symbols of authority. Due to the local government system adopted in Ghana, some officials 
are appointed by government to be its representatives at the district and community level. These 
officials constitute appointed leadership and work hand in hand with the traditional and other 
community of leaders to make development in their communities possible.
2.4. Approaches to Leadership
Leaders have to promote a communal spirit in the members of their communities if they are to 
succeed in developing their communities. This can be achieved by if a leader's styles are 
considered by community members as desirable. As such a leaders approach to leading his or her 
followers is a very crucial factor in the quest to achieve the participation of community members 
in development activities.
Studies on leadership are extensive and have produced many insights into the term. There have 
been generations of researchers who have sought to develop approaches to the study of
27
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
leadership. In their quest to answer the question what makes for an effective and efficient leader, 
researchers have propounded many approaches to leadership. Some of the approaches to 
leadership are as follows:
1. Trait approach
2. Behavioural approach
3. Contingency approach
4. Charismatic Leadership approach
Two approaches, trait and contingency, would be discussed because they are more related to 
study. In other words these two approaches are more relevant to the Ghanaian community 
leadership styles.
2.4.1. Trait Approach to Leadership
The first known systematic approach to the study of leadership was to identify certain 
characteristics or traits of successful leaders. Handy (1993) asserts that by 1950 over a hundred 
studies of this kind had been undertaken. The trait approach differentiates leaders from non­
leaders by focusing attention on personal qualities and characteristics (Robbins and Judge, 2009). 
According to Mullins (2007), leadership consists of certain inherited characteristics, or 
personality traits which distinguish leaders from their followers: the so-called Great Person 
theory of leadership.
28
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
Proponents of the trait theory argue that for one to be successful as leader, certain leadership 
qualities should be acquired. These qualities includes self confidence, aggressiveness, a high 
need for achievement, above-average intelligence, above-average height, a physical appearance 
that is attractive and excludes authority and proper gender (Campbell et al, 1970). Recent studies 
are indicating that another trait that may indicate effective leadership is emotional intelligence 
(El) which has as its core component, empathy (Robbins and Judge, 2009). Robbins and Judge 
have opined that empathetic leaders can sense others needs, listen to what followers say and 
(don't say), and are able to read the reactions of others.
Ghiselli (1971) has identified the following five traits in order of significance for effective 
leadership. These traits are supervisory ability, intelligence, decisiveness, self assurance, and 
initiative. McCall and Lombardo (1983) in their study of why certain managers were ineffective 
identified the some traits that can lead to failure. These include a leadership style that is abrasive, 
intimidating, cold, aloof, arrogant, and generally insensitive to odiers, betrayal of colleague’s 
trust being overly ambitious, playing politics, and not being able to delegate, build a team or 
staff effectively.
The trait approach has to some extent advanced the course of leadership theories; however a 
careful analysis of the trait approach reveals some shortcomings. A major problem with the trait 
approach to leadership is that it has proved impossible task to identify the particular traits or 
characteristics that separate leaders from non leaders (Cole, 2004). Mullins (2007) suggests that 
there is bound to be some subjective judgment in determining a good or successful leader. The 
trait theory ignores the significant factors in the situation. The type of work environment, the
29
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
work itself, as well as the willingness of followers to follow the leader's instructions, can affect a 
leader's ability to achieve desired results. Again, the mere possession of some personality traits 
was not guarantee enough for one to be a successful leader. As Conger (1993) puts it, assuming 
there is agreement on the most important traits of a good leader, it is obvious that no specific set 
of traits can fit every successful leader that is a leader who achieves results.
2.4.2. Contingency Approach to Leadership
It became increasingly clear to those studying the leadership phenomenon that the predicting of 
leadership success was more complex than isolating a few traits or preferable behaviours. This 
was partly due to the fact that there were factors in the situation that could influence the leader’s 
performance. As a result research began to focus on the style of leadership that is most effective 
in particular situations (Graeff, 1983). The contingency approach to leadership is based on the 
assumption that successful leadership occurs when the leader’s style matches the situation. By 
inference, it can be said that there is no universally accepted style of leadership; rather leaders 
can adopt appropriate styles bases on the situation they find themselves in. Three contingencies 
theories would be considered in this study.
Fred E. Fiedler was one of the foremost theorists to develop a situational approach to leadership 
known popularly as Fielder’s contingency model to leadership. Fiedler's contingency model was 
based on studies of a wide range of group situations and concentrated on relationship between 
leadership and organisational performance (Mullins, 2007). Fiedler (1967) proposes that 
effective group performance depends upon the proper match between the leader's style of
30
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
interacting with his or her subordinates and the degree to which the situation gives control and 
influence to the leader. Fiedler developed the "Least Preferred Co-worker (LPC)’\ a scale which 
he used to measure leader's attitude. Fiedler defined two basic leader personality traits, namely; 
task and relationship motivation (Rue and Byers. 2005). The LPC scale was used to measure 
whether a leader was task oriented or relationship oriented. From the study, a leader who 
described a least prefeired co-worker in fairly favourable terms was presumed as being 
motivated primarily to have close interpersonal relations with others. Fiedler classified such a 
leader as being relationship oriented. On the other hand, a leader who described a least preferred 
co-worker in unfavourable terms was presumed to be motivated to accomplish the tasks they 
have been assigned and as were classified as task oriented leaders.
Fiedler then turned to the situation in which the leader was operating. He placed leadership 
situations along a favourable-unfavourable continuum based on three major dimensions: leader- 
member relations, task structure, and position power (Rue and Byers, 2005). Leader-member 
relations refer to the degree to which the leader is trusted and respected by group members and 
their willingness to follow his/her instructions. Task structure is the degree to which the tasks to 
be carried out are clearly defined for group members to understand. Position power refers to the 
power and influence of the leader by virtue of his/her position in the organisation or group. 
Fiedler assumes that an individual's leadership style is fixed. In this sense, if a situation requires 
a task-oriented leader and the individual in that leadership position is a relationship-oriented 
leader, then either the situation has to be modified or the removed and replaced.
31
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
Fiedler argues that the better the leader-member relations, the more highly structured the job, and 
the stronger the position power, the more control or influence the person has. A community 
leader who, in the course of the construction of a community library establishes close 
interpersonal relations with and is liked by community members, is able to define the various 
roles and specific tasks to be carried out by each member, and is able to impose some fines or 
other forms of punishment on non participating community members, is presumed to be in a 
favourable situation.
Fiedler's contingency model also reveals some short comings. First of all there are a number of 
measurement problems associated with the model. For instance, it is possible for low LPC 
leaders and high LPC leaders to see the same situation differently. Again, the contingency 
variables are complex and difficult for practitioners to assess. Schien (1980) argues that it is 
often difficult in practice to determine how good the leader-member relations are, how structured 
the task is, and how much position power the leader has. According to Yukl (2002), Fiedler's 
work has been subject to much debate and criticism but it does provide a further dimension to the 
study of leadership.
One of the most widely practiced leadership models is Paul Hersey and Ken Blanchard's 
situational leadership theory popularly known as life cycle model. According to Robbins (19S9), 
situational leadership is a contingency theory that focuses on the followers. Robbins adds that, 
successful leadership is achieved by selecting the right leadership style, which Hersey and 
Blanchard argue is contingent on the followers' maturity. By maturity. Hersey and Blanchard
32
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
(1982) mean the ability and willingness of to take responsibility for directing their own 
behaviour. There are two components of maturity- job maturity and psychological maturity. 
Individuals who are high in job maturity possess the knowledge, ability, experience, and skill to 
perform their job without direction from others. Individuals who are high in psychological 
maturity have an intrinsic motivation to perform their tasks.
Hersey and Blanchard identified two dimensions of leader behaviour which is similar to that of 
Fiedler's contingency model namely; task and relationship behaviours. However Hersey and 
Blanchard go a step farther by considering each behaviour pattern as either being high or low or 
then combining them into four leadership styles: telling, selling, participating, and delegating 
(Robbins, 1989). These are discussed as follows:
1. Telling (high task-low relationship). The leader defines the roles and tells follower what, 
how, when, and where to do specified tasks. The leader is only interested in getting the 
job done and cares little about establishing interpersonal relationships with followers.
2. Selling (high task-high relationship). The leader directs the behaviour of subordinates and 
also supports them in their tasks. Even though the leader is interested in getting the job 
done, he/she recognizes the importance of establishing friendly relations with group 
members as a means to attaining results.
3. Participating (low task-high relationship). The leader and follower contribute to the 
making of decisions with the leader acting as a facilitator and communicator. The leader 
has enough trust in the followers and as such gives them the chance to play an active role 
in decision making.
33
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
4. Delegating (low task-low relationship). The leader provides little direction and support. 
The leader trusts the judgments of group members and as a result they are given enough 
room to operate.
The model suggests that as group members’ level of maturity changes with time, the style of 
leadership will have to be adjusted to reflect members’ expectations. In explaining leadership 
behaviour in community setting, Hersey and Blanchard’s life cycle theory is simplistic and most 
appealing. This is due to the fact that as community members community members participate in 
self-help developmental projects, their levels of maturity will definitely change. This change is 
most likely to be upward and leaders must adopt leadership styles to fit the level of maturity. 
This is because the high task leader behaviour makes up the followers' lack of ability. The high 
relationship leader behaviour also compensates for the followers' psychological immaturity by 
making them “buy into” the leaders desires.
2.5. Leaders and Group Effectiveness
It is important to reiterate that “the ability of a group to achieve its goals and to satisfy the needs 
of group members depends to a large extent on some people who direct and coordinate the 
activities of the group. The groups reliance on its leadership and vice versa can be seen as an 
instrumental factor in the realization of the groups' set goals. One cannot lead without followers 
and in the same way followers lose their sense of focus when they lack effective leadership.
34
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
To illustrate the importance of groups to the life of the individual, society and for that matter any 
organisation, Henslin (2004) has opined that:
Groups are the essence of life in society. From them,
we receive our orientations to the world. Membership
and participation in social groups also gives us an identity
and feeling of belonging.
This presupposes that every individual in one way or the other belongs to a group. The term 
“group” connotes several definitions. One of such definitions is given Schaefer (2005) as:
...any number of people with similar norms, values,
and expectations who interact with one another on a
regidar basis.
Schien (1988) defines a group in psychological terms. According to Schien. a group refers to:
any number of people who interact with one another.
are psychologically aware of one another, and perceives
themselves to be a group.
The definition given by Drake and Smith (1973) is considered as a workable definition for the 
study. According to Drake and Smith;
a group consists of a number of people who have a
35
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
common objective or task, an awareness or group identity
and "boundary'', a minimum set of agreed upon norms
which regulate their relatively exclusive mutual interaction.
The definitions given above suggests that a group must be geographically defined, must have 
common objectives, norms and values, must be aware of the existence of the group, and there 
should be a interaction between group members on a regular basis. The study of groups is 
important to any community and for that matter community leaders for quite a number of 
reasons. To begin with, a group serves to perpetuate the culture of the community. Community 
values and practices are passed on from one generation to the next through the group. According 
to Marfo-Yiadom (2005), groups serve not only as the focal point of social life, but they provide 
an important source of direction to individuals for understanding social values and norms. 
Working in groups also serves to facilitate the achievement of collective group goals as well as 
the goals of individuals’ group members. Cane (1996) cannot agree more with this assertion by 
suggesting that:
...any group of people who do not know they are a team 
cannot be one. To become a team, a group of individuals 
need to have a strong common purpose and to work towards 
that purpose rather than individually. They need also to believe 
that they will achieve more by cooperation than working 
individually.
36
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
Group effectiveness therefore refers to a group’s ability to achieve the goals for which it was 
established. This implies that, goal attainment is central to the effectiveness of a group and as a 
result the actions of group members must be geared towards the realisation of their goals. 
However, the group's ability to achieve its set goals depends on group cohesiveness.
To be able to work harmoniously together to attain collective group goals, group members must 
have an emotional attachment to the group. In other words, the group members must always have 
a yearning desire to be part of the group's activities. This is referred to as group cohesiveness. 
Group cohesiveness has been defined by Robbins (1989) as the degree to which group members 
are attracted to each other and share common goals. Group cohesiveness is key to the groups' 
ability to perform effectively and leaders play a major role in ensuring group cohesiveness. High 
cohesiveness is both a cause and outcome for high productivity. Schermerhom (1996) in support 
of this assertion has proposed that leaders can achieve and maintain group cohesiveness when 
they:
remain skilfiil at influencing group norms and cohesiveness.
This can be done by inducing agreement on group goals; increase
Membership homogeneity: increase interactions among members;
reward group rather than individual results
As has been noted already, a leader plays a pivotal role in the group's ability to achieve the 
stated goals. In this vein, community leaders must strive to seek the involvement of community 
members in the identification of community problems and on deciding how best to solve the
37
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
identified problems. The collective agreement on the problems they face and the solutions can be 
a motivator for all community members to actively participate in solving the problems. 
Community members become satisfied and attracted to the group if they are able to successfully 
solve their problems.
2.6. Community Development
The term community development is comprised of two separate words- “community” and 
“development" with different meanings. To better understand the term community development, 
there is the need to explain the two terms. Indabawa and Mpofu (2006:36) argue that:
a community is defined by its people and the way they live, the
emnronment, the land, its laws and regulations and the way it is
organised, led or ruled. In this regard, a group of people living in a
particular place such as a neighbourhood or district constitute a
community.
According to Warren (1978), a community can be understood from any of these four 
perspectives:
1. Community as space- this refers to the distribution and clustering of people in space.
2. Community as shared institutions and values- this refers to the common human interests 
and needs that lay the foundation for a common way of life.
38
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
3. Community as interaction- this refers to the social processes that take place in a
community, such as conflict, cooperation and competition.
4. Community as social system- this refers to the processes that go on within and outside the
community, and within and between the structures of the community.
Community can be defined as a group of people sharing a common boundary and who are 
subject to the same rules and regulations. Until people identify themselves as a community and 
share some sense of mutual belonging, there is no real community (UNAIDS, 1997:3). The 
sharing of a collective identity by community members is crucial for the continuous existence of 
a community.
Development, like community has many definitions attached to it. One such definition is given 
by Akinpelu (1990: 19). According to Akinpelu, development is an all encompassing concept 
that should be seen as the:
generation of more wealth within a nation; more equitable
distribution of such wealth or at least more equitable
distribution of the opportunity for access to that wealth
and the existence of political structures relevant to the
promotion of the above values.
The definition given by Akinpelu places much emphasis on wealth creation and its equitable 
distribution as being the indicators for development. The definition also fails to identify those
39
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
responsible for the wealth generation. An acceptable definition of development is given by 
Youngman (2000:5). According to Youngman,
development refers to the idea that deliberate action
can be taken to change society in chosen directions
which are considered desirable.
From the above definitions, development can de defined as the sustained improvement in the 
quality of life of individuals, who have acquired knowledge, skills, and attitudes and hence are 
able to solve problems that affect them. To be considered as truly developed, individuals must 
have acquired some knowledge, skill, and attitudes which can be used to bring about some 
qualitative and quantitative improvements in their quality of life. Moon (1991) has opined that 
provision of basic needs is necessary for rapid growth in areas where income levels are low and 
poverty' is high. In espousing the view of Moon, Okonje (1986) observed that true development 
only takes place when there is the satisfaction of the fundamental needs of the population in 
terms of food, water, shelter, health and education. According to Sarumi et al (2007), literacy is 
perceived as highly synonymous with development; that is development cannot occur except the 
mass of the populace know how to read and write. In essence there can be no development 
without literacy since the ability to read and write is in itself key to all progress.
The term community development is conceived as the planned evolution of all aspects of 
community wellbeing (economic, social, environmental and cultural). Thus, it is a process 
whereby community members come together to lake collective action and generate solutions to
40
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
common problems (Flo and Smith, 1999: 6). Christenson and Robinson (1980) define 
community development as:
a group of people in a community reaching a decision 
to initiate a social action process (i.e. Planned intervention) 
to change their economic, social, cultural or environmental 
situation.
Kumar (1979: 213) offers a relatively shorter definition of community development in this way:
community development is a movement designed to promote
better living for the whole community with the active
participation and on the initiative of the community.
The definitions given above indicate that for community development to be successful, it needs 
the involvement of all community members in taking collective actions to find solutions to the 
problems they face as a community. The community members must together identify the 
problems they face and with a collective effort work towards solving the identified problems.
In order to offer enough understanding on community development, Sanders (1958) dev eloped a 
fourfold typology of community development. The typology is presented as follows:
• Community development as a process involves progression from one condition or state to 
the next. It lays emphasis on the improvement of the people, both socially and 
psychologically.
41
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
• Community development as a method is essentially community development as a 
"process” which is managed in a certain way to bring about a specific result.
• Community development as a programme is a combination of method and content where
method refers to a stated set of procedures, and content means a list of activities.
• Community development as a movement is a programme plus emotional dynamics. In
this regard, community development is a crusade and a cause to which people become 
emotionally attached.
In this respect, community development is an all- encompassing, multi faceted concept that seeks 
to bring about positive change in the quality of life of individuals and hence the community.
According to Kumar, any community development has the following elements: self- help, felt 
needs, and the involvement of the whole community. Flo and Smith (1999) opine that, "failure to 
involve a cross-section of community members and interests will weaken the community 
development effort. To be effective, all sectors of the community must be involved in the 
decision making process. With respect to felt needs, Kumar opines that:
any development programme must start with what the community
needs and knows it needs. It should not he imposed on the
community hy someone else; otherwise, it is not community
development.
In sharing in this view, Flo and Smith suggest that 'community development stems from the 
belief that the community itself has or is able to develop solutions to the issues and opportunities
42
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
within the community. Rather than waiting for someone else, community members believe in 
their own ability to take action. Communities can achieve effective community development if 
they plan, implement and monitor and evaluate development activities themselves. Rifkin's 
(1990) contends that participation in planning demonstrates a higher level of participation. 
Planning serves a crucial role in the success of community development activities. Planning lays 
the foundation for consultation at all levels of the community in order to eliminate unanticipated 
contingencies in the implementation of community development activities. It allows for careful 
considerations of costs and benefits of development projects and also allows for decisions on 
which activities should take place. So community leaders’ participation in planning is critical to 
effective community development because community leaders are seen as repository of 
knowledge. Effective implementation of community development can not be possible without 
planning. Implementation of community development activities seeks to satisfy the needs of the 
community in terms of prvision of potable water, food, shelter, educational and health facilities.
Monitoring of community development activities involves supervising ongoing projects to 
ascertain if those activities are moving according to plans. It is based on monitoring that effective 
evaluation can be done. According to McDonald (1974:78) evaluation often provides 
information that equalizes or neutralizes diverse influences so that accommodations can be made 
among those involved in decision making. McDonald further contends that in essence, evaluation 
from this point of view is a democratic activity. Intimately associated with evaluation is the need 
to gather information or make informed judgments about community development projects or 
activities. Evaluation serves many purposes and has been enumerated by Grotelueschen 
(1974:79) as follows: lo account for funds and resources and monitor compliance with
43
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
regulations or guidelines; to document major accomplishments and examine the expedience of 
project goals; to identify potential needs and establish project emphasis; to ascertain 
collaboration opportunities and evaluate coordination efforts with other agencies; to identify 
project weaknesses and assess progress towards staled goals.
2.7. The Concept of Participation
According to Biney (2003). though the term participation is open to different interpretations, 
there seems to be a general agreement among scholars and agencies involved in community 
development about its meaning. Biney contends that in their view, participation has three 
dimensions - the involvement of all the people concerned in the decision making process, mass 
contributions to the improvement effort, and sharing the benefits of the development effort. It 
can be deduced from above that, if the beneficiaries of a development activity do not participate 
in decision making process and other aspects of the development process, their mere 
involvement in the physical work can hardly be described as community participation. 
According to Burkley (1993) cited in Mokwena (2003:87),
participation is an essential part of human growth, that is
development of self confidence, pride, initiative, creativity
responsibility, cooperation..., whereby people learn to take
charge of their lives and solve their own problems, is the essence
of development. Participation is a right that should not be denied
44
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
or withheld From anyone, including young people. It is multifaceted
and dynamic concept that is not limited to any specific activity.
According to Oakley and Marsden (1984) local participation is a fundamental pre-condition for a 
successful and long lasting development. They further assert that if local people are actively 
involved in any community project, they would commit themselves to support the project for its 
success and sustainability. Pateman (1990) notes that, the notion of participation is often used 
with an imprecise or no definition, to include almost any situation in which some minimal 
amount of interaction takes place. Pateman suggests that this definition excludes the follow ing 
situations: when an individual merely takes part in a group activity, where an individual is 
merely given information on a decision affecting him or her before it is executed, or an 
individual is present at a meeting but has no influence.
Participation can therefore be defined as direct and immediate involvement in the process of 
decision making by the individuals concerned, thus, in this process the authority of the 
individuals is not delegated to some representative but is exercised by them (Gould, 1988:259 
cited in Teorell, 2001). This process of participation goes beyond consultation or involvement in 
decision making to a higher level of participation that must alter the existing pow er relations in 
society in favour of poor men and women and marginalized groups (Sartori. 1987:113 cited in 
Teorell, 2001). Holcombe (1995) has emphasized that empowerment and participation are linked 
like hand and glove. They are different but they depend on each other to give meaning and 
purpose. Participation represents action, or being part of an action such as decision making
45
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
process. Empowerment on the other hand, represents sharing control, the ability to participate, to 
influence decision as well as allocation of resources.
Amstein (1969) has drawn the following assumptions from participation and empowerment.
• There is a basic right to participate and the objective is to introduce change in social 
condition.
• Active participation improves relationships between community members and 
organizations which reduces alienation.
• Through participation, disadvantaged groups will gain access to resources and positions 
of control.
• Participation will result in attitudinal changes in community members, organizations, and 
society at large.
Richard (1996) has classified participation into three major forms namely: being present being 
involved, and being in control. Richard observed that participation in education and in 
development activities is often measured by presence. Many studies are concerned with the 
factors that influence this form of participation and often involved with sophisticated research 
procedures. As to the reason why participation as presence is mostly adopted by development 
agencies or adult educators, Richard suggests that it may be because of its important political 
impact of numbers in programmes and influence when it comes to soliciting for funding or other 
forms of support. It should however be noted that being present in community development 
activities does not mean involvement or control. In other words one can be present in a 
development activity without being involved in any way or having control over the activities.
46
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
Richard is emphatic on the definition of participation as involvement. Richard sees it as the 
extent to which a person is involved with or is in interaction with important components or 
processes in the development programme. Finally, according to Richard, participation as control 
identifies the extent of control individuals or groups have over the adult education programme, 
over its various components, contents, goals or outcome and over its various processes.
2.8. Leaders Participation in Community Development
Participation is a highly fashionable term in current development practice and is now practically 
a sine qua non for project funding (Dorsner, 2004). Participation, a concept increasingly in 
popular usage, like the concept community, has a multiplicity of meanings to the point where 
meaning is hard to establish (Bryson & Mowbray, 1981). Participation is one of the means to 
empower people to take part in community development. Participation is an essential part of 
community development and one of the factors in the community capacity building process, 
which allows involvement of people in the different stages of decision making (Aref and Ma'rof. 
2008b).
According to Aref and Ma’rof (2009). community leadership is an important element of any 
community and vital to successful community development. Community Leaders can play the 
role of catalysts for actualizing the potential of local communities and assisting them to change. 
According to Sautoy (citcd in Battem, 1962) community development requires something more 
than the possession of enthusiasm, good intentions and the liking and respect for people. Sautoy 
contends that leaders need a wide range of knowledge and skills to be able to stimulate, educate,
47
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
inform, and convince people who may initially be apathetic or skeptical about participation in 
community development. Leaders' participation may be operationalised as the creation of 
opportunities to enable leaders contribute effectively to the development process of their 
communities. Leaders in the rural communities are an embodiment of respect and as such can be 
a source of motivation to community members in contributing to the development process. In 
identifying the essence of leadership in the community development process,
Kirk and Kraft (2004) opine that:
community leadership emhasises a collaborative, ongoing,
influential process based on the relationships between
people for development processes.
It is true that community leadership play an important role in realizing the community 
developmental goals of any community rural or urban. However, community leaders will not be 
successful if they do not seek the active participation of the whole community, since there can be 
no leadership without followers. Commenting on the need to ensure the participation of the 
community members in community development, Kumar (1979) asserts that:
“no community development programme can succeed without the
active support and participation of the people themselves. Thus.
a programme should he so organised as to provide opportunities
for maximum self- help. Encouragement should be given for the
48
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
people to actually plan and work on the solution of problem them
selves, this enables them to develop self initiative, self reliance
and their own leadership.
The importance of involving community members in community development is echoed by 
Knowles (1980) when he states categorically that, ‘human beings tend to feel committed to 
decisions to the extent that they have participated in making it’. White (1982) is also in support 
of this view. According to White. 4 when beneficiaries are actively involved in the planning and 
implementation of a project, they tend to accept it as their own, feel responsible for it and 
therefore use it responsibly and ensure its regular maintenance’. In order for all community' 
members and leaders to be part of the development efforts of community, there is the need to 
create a platform for leaders and members to be p[art of such efforts. Community meetings 
which will serve this purpose will create the avenue for community leaders and members to plan 
and implement development activities. Rubin and Rubin (2008:213) assert that:
meetings are about expanding collective involvement in social change 
work. Information shared at meeting increases the competence of people 
to act. More specialized meetings build capacity by presenting knowledge 
on techniques. At decision making meetings organization members and 
leaders come together to work out action strategies.
To achieve active and informed participation, the capacities of community leaders and members 
must be built. Capacity building enables people to move from the status of objects manipulated 
by external forces and victims of social processes, to the status of subjects and active agents of
49
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
change (Albee, 1995). Labonte and Laverack (2001:30) offer a simple definition of community 
capacity building. According to them:
community capacity building is a more generic increase
in community groups abilities to define, assess, analyse
and act on health or any other concern of importance to
its members.
Goodman et al (1998:260) contend that, community capacity building is a process as well as an 
outcome; it includes supportive organisational structures and processes; it is multi-dimensional 
and ecological in operating at the individual, group, organisational, community and policy levels. 
Community capacity building can be seen as the acquisition of the requisite knowledge, skills, 
and attitudes by community members that put them in a better position to solve the problems that 
affect them as a community. Community leaders can play a vital role in a community’s 
acquisition of the necessary capacities to deal with problems of increasing intensity.
2.9. Ways of Enhancing Community Leaders’ Participation in Development Activities
Communities can only achieve their developmental goals if and only if community leaders and 
members take the initiative and participate in all activities that are geared towards development. 
To effectively participate in community development activities, certain factors that serve to 
encourage community leaders must be ensured. Donnelly el al (1987:303) assert that, individuals 
will exert work effort to achieve performance that will result in preferred rewards. Donnelly et al 
further opines that if individuals believe that improved rale of performance would lead to desired
50
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
rewards, he or she would be motivated to work in accordance with such objectives. To this end 
community leaders would participate in development activities if they believe that their efforts 
would be rewarded. Many factors have been identified as motivating community leaders to 
participate in activities that aim at the development of their communities.
Higher socio-economic status (income, occupation, and education) has often been cited as a 
significant predictor of participation (Pateman, 1970). Sill (1968) suggests that since 
membership in voluntary association is a form of social interaction, people who are deprived of 
the broad range of social interaction opportunities such as the poor, and the elderly due to social, 
physical and economic barriers are less to participate. Education as opined by Pateman is a major 
factor that has a direct bearing on the success or otherwise of leadership in community 
development work. Since community development involves acquiring knowledge, skills, and 
attitudes in order to bring about positive change to the community, it is essentially educational in 
nature. According to Oduro-Mensah education is the process of enhancing the development of 
certain knowledge, skills and attitude in an individual to enable him / her to become better 
identified with his / her community aspirations and contribute successfully towards the 
community's common goal, which is development.
In emphasising the importance of education in development, Indabawa and Mpolu (2006) argue 
that, “it is the elements of improvement and change that bring education and ipso facto adult 
education into the process of development. It can be argued that, education and training bring 
about community awareness, empowerment, and develops leadership skills. For instance.
51
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
community members need education in order to realise the development burden on the 
government and how best they can serve as partners with government to development their 
communities. In the same manner, community leaders need appropriate education to enable them 
develop their leadership skills and also remain focused on their leadership roles. As a result lack 
of education on the part of both community leaders and members will be impediment in the way 
of effective community development. Amedzro (2000:28) in support of the significant role of 
education in community development asserts that:
when community people and their leaders have access to
educational programmes, they come to understand issues
related to the de\’elopment of their communities and
so they can participate in community improvement
activities.
Community education is therefore a process designed to enrich the lives of individuals and 
groups by engaging with people living in a geographical area, or sharing a common interest, to 
develop voluntarily a range of learning, action, and reflection opportunities, determined by their 
personal social, economic and political needs" (CeVe 1990 : 2 in Smith 1996)
Maiasis (1976:11) also espouses the indispensible role of education in community development. 
According to Maiasis:
education should he placed first and foremost in
the service of democracy, which demands not only
52
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
that citizens he protected against arbitrary decisions
but also that they take part in decisions which affect
the future of the community.
Lack of education would make it difficult, if not impossible to identify and train community 
leaders to acquire the necessary skills required to effectively participate in community 
development activities. It can be deduced that community leaders would therefore not be in a 
better position to mobilise adequate resources (finances and raw materials) from organisations 
and individuals to embark on developmental projects. It can be argued that lack of appropriate 
education on the part of community members and leaders would serve as a barrier to effective 
community development activities. This is because knowledge is said to be power and leadership 
in any organization is knowledge based. Dore (1976) cited in Amedzro (2000:39) in support of 
the significant role of education in the development process of any community opines that:
capital given to Europe and Japan to restore their devastated
industries proved productive because those countries had
people with the knowledge necessary to make it productive.
In contrast, similar investments in Indonesia or Burma,
which lacked engineers and managers and technicians
failed to produce the same results.
53
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
Lack of appropriate education would make it difficult if not impossible to identify and instill in 
community leaders appropriate leadership skills to actively participate in community 
development activities. Therefore community leaders as well as community members should 
have access to, and continue to receive relevant education and training that can help facilitate the 
developmental goals of the community. Flo and Smith (1999) has stated that community 
development is an intense process and that much is expected of leaders, hence consistent and 
skilled leaders who are open to the community members is the key to effective community 
development. This implies that when leaders acquire the kind of education needed in community 
development work, they would stay focused and continue to participate effectively in community 
development activities.
Community leaders should acquire constant training if they are going to be in a better position to 
promote the development of their communities. Wilson (2005) defines training as a planned 
process to modify attitude, knowledge or skill behaviour through learning experience to achieve 
effective in an activity or range of activities. The benefits of training and development to 
community leaders cannot be quantified in financial terms. It is opined by Flicker (1994) that 
training and development properly designed improves individuals with knowledge, skills and 
attitudes they need to perform the task well, think strategically, plan, implement and monitor 
long term organizational strategy. One training programme that can equip the marginalized in 
society to be part of the development efforts of communities is entrepreneurship or vocational or 
technical training programme especially for women and the youth. All over the world, vocational 
training and acquisition of entrepreneurship skills have been recognized as the major 
determinants of the accelerated development for the individual and the society as a whole (Oke,
54
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
2009). Women have and will continue to play pivotal roles in the realization of the 
developmental goals of any community the world over. Functional literacy programmes should 
be promoted at all levels in order to make community leaders more effective in development of 
their communities. Oke opines that the realization of the social benefit of entrepreneurship skills 
acquisition underscores the fact that if we must alleviate poverty and effectively ameliorates the 
biting fangs of unemployment in developing countries. This is because according to the World 
Bank Report (1998/1999) 34 percent of the people in the rural areas in Ghana live below the 
poverty line.
Functional literacy programmes can serve as a way of bringing about development in the fastest 
possible time because what learners learn can be readily used in their daily lives. In support of 
this view. Adjei (2009:155) also makes the following assertion:
functional literacy empowers people to bring about desirable
changes in their living conditions. The development of the nation
cannot be left in the hands of a mass of illiterate, and ignorant
people. It provides a structure to coordinate and sustain self
help projects in communities. Functional literacy is expected
to bring about qualitative improvement in the lives of the
of the beneficiaries and stakeholders and the overall development
of their communities.
55
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
Rogers (1999) believes that the objective of adult literacy learning programmes is not to help 
someone to leam literacy skills but to help them to use literacy skills in their daily lives. Hence, 
Roger further asserts, every learner must not only be helped to master letters and words on paper, 
but must also be helped to transfer these into daily lives. Adjei (2009:155) could not agree more 
with Rogers when he makes this observation about the functional literacy programme at 
Yebongo in Bolgatanga district of the Upper East region:
one striking factor that needs emphasis is that the learners Mere able to
mobilize members of the community to engage in developmental activities.
Education is indeed very crucial to the development agenda of any community in Ghana. 
However, without the needed working tools, equipments, and other physical materials, the efforts 
of community leaders as well as members would be in vain. According to Flo and Smith (1999), 
in communities where these resources are not available in larger quantities, it becomes a problem 
and thus serves as a check on community development activities, especially so in self help 
development activities where these resources are needed in larger quantities. The availability of 
funds for development activities also serves to encourage community leaders to participate in 
development activities. Fordjor (2000) asserts that due to lack of funds, most of the rural 
development projects comprising the provision of housing, educational and health facilities as 
well as potable water which was embarked upon soon after independence in 1957 were 
abandoned in 1966, with the declining cocoa price on the world market. Kumar (1979) in support 
of the crucial role that availability of funds play in development activities in Ghana, opined that
56
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
many community development projects in Ghana unfortunately have to be shelved due to 
financial problems.
Decision making process in the community is another major factor that can enhance the 
participation of community leaders in community development activities. For development 
projects to succeed there is the need to seek the involvement of the whole community, not just a 
section of it. in identify felt needs and how these needs can be adequately met. Community 
members must also be involved in the planning, implementation and evaluation of community 
projects Freeman (1968) in support of this view asserts that, as the number of groups 
participating in community decision making increases, the less the likelihood of a “power elite” 
structure.. However, most community members are not well placed to contribute to the decision 
making process of the community. It is a well known fact that no one person's mind is a 
repository of knowledge or solutions to all problems. The flexible positions taken by leaders 
such that divergent views are considered during decision making, aids in arriving at effective 
decisions during community meetings. Unfortunately, however, in situations where leaders lack 
the necessary flexibility, discussions eventually end up in conflicts.
Schermerhom (1996) asserts that women are more prone to democratic and participative 
behavior such as showing respect for others, caring for others, sharing power and information 
with others, a style often referred to as interactive leadership. Hence lack of involvement of 
community members especially women in decision making will affect the success of community
57
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
development initiatives. The consensus approach to decision making is a form of empowerment 
to community members in particular and their active participation in general.
The absence of conflict among community members constitutes another means of enhancing the 
participation of community leaders in community development. Conflicts among community 
members imply that some members will not be willing to participate in development activities. 
Conflicts in the dev elopment process normally arise from the entrenched positions taken by 
some members. This brings about formation of polarized groups who will not be willing to 
accept the views of other groups. In situations where the leadership lacks the necessary 
negotiation skills, community discussions may degenerate into conflicts. Whether conflicts will 
be good or bad depends on how it is managed. Properly managed conflicts have the chance of 
being functional to the community whereas poorly managed conflicts have the tendency of 
tearing the social fabric of the community.
Also conflicts between leaders affect the community’s ability to realize its goals. According to 
Amedzro (2000), frequent political power struggle and tensions between chiefs and the 
politically appointed administrators has caused apathy in the attendance of public meetings and 
in participation in development projects by those who support the chiefs. Chieftaincy disputes as 
well as disputes between traditional leaders and government appointees at the district level are 
therefore another impediment in the way of leaders’ participation in community development 
activities.
58
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
Leaders’ participation in community development activities can be enhanced if community 
members actively participate in all stages. It is worth noting that people would only participate 
in community development activities if they believe their participation would help improve the 
situation. Leaders must seek the involvement of community members by assigning meaningful 
roles to them. It is only when community members have a significant role to play in addressing 
the problems they face as a community that they can lend their support to activities aimed at 
community development. Battem (1975) has argued that, leaders to be effective in their work, 
should endeavour to set up work teams or management committees during community 
development activities. Battem adds that such management committees if properly instituted will 
go a long way to help in the execution of self help development activities.
59
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
3.1. Introduction
This chapter discusses the methodology employed in the study. It comprises of the population, 
sample size, research design, and sampling procedure. It further discusses the data collection 
instruments, pre-test of data collection instruments, and the method of data analysis.
32. Population of the Study
The population of the study consisted of all community leaders at Sawla-Tuna-Kalba district of 
the Northern Region. This included chiefs and elders, unit committee members, opinion leaders, 
leaders of women groups, and youth leaders.
3-3. Sample of the Study
The study sample consisted of 100 adult community leaders in the Sawla-Tuna-Kalba district. 
The sample of 100 respondents was chosen by the researcher because the number was deemed 
appropriate to provide the needed data to complete the study.
60
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
3.4. Research Design
This study seeks to describe the extent of community leaders’ participation in community 
development activities at Sawla-Tuna-Kalba district of the Northern region. In this respect, the 
descriptive survey method was used for the study. According to Kumekpor (2002) social survey 
can be considered as a process whereby quantitative facts are collected about the social aspects 
of a community's composition and its activities. Descriptive survey method involves the 
collection of data to answer questions concerning the current status of the subject matter 
understudy or to test hypothesis. The descriptive survey method was adopted for the study 
because it enabled the researcher to provide a systematic description that is factual and accurate 
as possible of how the participation of community leaders in development activities would lead 
to the development of the district.
3.5. Sampling Procedure
The multi-stage sampling technique was used for the study because the population was large and 
covered a large geographical area. Kumekpor (2002) has suggested that a major merit of the 
multi-stage sampling technique is that at each stage, more and more units are excluded, thus 
making the final sample more concise and thus less scattered than in an ordinary one stage 
sampling. Firstly, the researcher grouped the twenty-two (22) communities making up the Sawla- 
Tuna-Kalba district into four zones (A-D). The researcher then randomly selected four 
communities one from each zone. In each zone, the names of the communities were compiled 
and labeled on pieces of paper. They were put into a container and shuffled. One community was
61
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
then randomly selected from each zone. The selected communities were Sawla, Tuna, Goyiri, 
and Gbelipie.
Information made available to the researcher by the chiefs and assembly members in the four 
selected communities indicated that there were two hundred and eleven men and women {211) 
who played various leadership roles in the four communities. The breakdown is as follows: 
Sawla-75, Tuna-60, Goyiri-41, and Gbelipie-35. The names of the community identified 
community leaders were compiled to form the sampling frame. Out of the total of 211 
community leaders, 100 were selected to constitute the study sample. This was done through the 
proportional stratified random sampling procedure.
The proportional stratified random sampling procedure was employed because it increases the 
likelihood of representativeness, especially when one's sample is not very large (Frankel and 
Wallen. 2003). In addition, the stratified sampling procedure was chosen because it would ensure 
that any key characteristics of individuals in the population are included in the sample. Five (5) 
strata of community leaders were identified. These strata were traditional leaders (chiefs and 
elders), opinion leaders, youth leaders, unit committee members, and leaders of women groups. 
First, to obtain a proportional sample for the study proportional allocation was made to each of 
the four selected communities as follows:
The number of leaders in each community is divided by the total number of leaders in all four 
communities to arrive at the sampling fraction. The sampling fraction is then multiplied by the 
sample size of leaders (100). The formula is as follows:
62
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
Number of leaders in a community x sample size
Number of leaders in the four selected communities
Table 3 below shows the computation of selecting the proportionally allocated samples of 
leaders for each community.
Table 3: Proportionally Allocated Sample of Adult Community Leaders Expected to
Participate in the study
Community Number of Adult 
Community Leaders
Sampling Fraction Proportionally 
Allocated Samples of 
Community Leaders
Sawla 75 75x100
211
36
Tuna 60 60x100
211
28
Goyiri 41 41x100
211
19
Gbelipie 35 35x100
211
17
Total 211 100
To obtain sample of leaders from each of the selected communities with regards to the five 
identified groups of leaders, the proportionally allocated sample of adult community leaders for 
each community was divided by the by the five identified groups of leaders.
That is: proportionally allocated sample
Number of leadership groups
The table below shows the computation for obtaining the proportionally stratified sample of 
community leaders for each community.
63
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
Table 4: Proportionally stratified sample of adult community leaders expected to 
participate in the study.
Community Proportionally
Allocated
Sample
Groups of Adult
Community
Leaders
Sampling
Fraction
Proportionally 
Stratified 
Sample of I 
Leaders for j 
each Group of 
Leaders
Sawla 36 5 36
5
7
Tuna 28 5 28
5
6
Goyiri 19 5 19
5
5
Gbelipie 17 5 12
5
3
Based on the identified groups of leaders as well as the proportionally stratified sample of 
community leaders for each group of leaders, the simple random sampling technique was used to 
select leaders from each stratum. In each of the selected communities and for each stratum, the 
names of the identified members were written and labeled on pieces of paper. The pieces of 
paper were then put in a container and shuffled. A piece of paper was picked without 
replacement. The rest were reshuffled and another piece of paper was picked. The process 
continued until the required number of members for each stratum was obtained.
3.6. Research Instrument
The data was coDccted using the interview schedule. The interview schedule was deemed 
appropriate due to the fact that most of the respondents are non-literate. The instrument was 
designed under three major sections made in line with the objectives. The first section of the
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
interview schedule focused on the community development activities undertaken in the district 
with regards to development activities carried out by the whole community, those that leaders are 
involved in most, those that were solely undertaken out by the whole community as well as those 
that leaders perceive as being successful.. The second section covered the level of community 
leaders' participation in community development activities with regards to planning, 
implementation, and monitoring and evaluation. The third and final section dealt with ways of 
enhancing community leaders’ participation in community development activities in the Sawla- 
Tuna-Kalba district. The instrument consisted of both closed and open ended questions. The 
closed ended questions were designed to enable respondents select from available options 
whereas the open ended questions gave respondents enough room to express themselves.
3.7 Data Collection Procedure
Permission was granted by the Sawla-Tuna-Kalba District Assembly for the researcher to go into 
ihe communities and collect data after he presented an official letter from the Institute of 
Continuing and Distance Education, University of Ghana, Legon. The chiefs and other leaders in 
the selected communities were also contacted with the help of some natives for permission 
before data was collected. This gave the researcher the privilege to have easy access to data from 
the leaders in the communities.
After the random selection of the respondents they were located individually in their homes and 
at work places to respond to the interview schedule. An introduction was first made by the 
interviewer in a way as to establish rapport with the respondent. After establishing the rapport.
65
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
the questions in the instrument was read to the respondent in the local language (Gonja) for him 
or her to answer while the interviewer recorded the answers. Due to lack of time, five research 
assistants who were fluent in Gonja were recruited and trained to assist in the data collection.
3.8. Reliability and Validity of Data Collection Instrument
There was to need to ensure the reliability and validity of the data collection instrument. As a 
result, the interview schedule was pre-tested on ten (10) adult community leaders randomly 
selected from the Sawla-Tuna-Kalba district. The pre-testing enabled the researcher to check the 
wording and sequence of questions, the length of the interview schedule, clarity of instructions, 
and effectiveness of the cover letter. This enabled the researcher to correct any inconsistencies 
(unreliability) and inaccuracies (invalidity) in the instrument that was to be used in the actual 
survey. Furthermore, very simple language was used in wording the questions to facilitate easy 
understanding by respondents. This ensured that the instrument elicited responses that measured 
variables that it intended to measure. To further enhance on the validity of the instrument, the 
items on the interview schedule were formulated based on the research objectives.
In addition, the interview schedule was critically assessed by colleague MPHIL students and my 
two supervisors. Their comments helped in no small way to correct the inconsistencies in the 
instrument. The reliability of the results was ensured by subjecting the field data to thorough 
editing to remove contradictions, errors and inconsistencies before analyzing. All these were 
employed for the consistency and accuracy of the instrument used in the study; hence its 
reliability and validity.
66
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
3.9. Method of Data Analysis
The primary data from the field was edited to remove errors and inconsistencies before coding. 
The coded data was then fed into a computer and quantified using the Statistical Package for 
Social Sciences (SPSS) software. The results obtained from the analysis were presented using 
tables and charts.
The descriptive narrative method was used to analyze the qualitative data obtained from the 
open-ended questions. The responses from the open-ended questions were analyzed by grouping 
them into themes and sub-themes. Major findings from the analysis were noted and used for 
discussions in chapter five.
67
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
CHAPTER FOUR 
PRESENTATION OF RESULTS
4.1. Introduction
This chapter presents the results of the study conducted on the participation of community 
leaders in development activities at the Sawla-Tuna-Kalba district of the Northern Region. The 
chapter focuses on data collected from the field which have been analysed and presented in 
tables and charts. The data addresses the research objectives and questions. The results were 
presented in order of the following objectives:
• Community development activities undertaken in the district.
• Level of community leaders' participation in development activities.
• Ways of enhancing community leaders' participation in development activities.
4.2. Community Development Activities Undertaken in the District from 2008-2009
This section presents results on community development activities that were undertaken in the 
district from 2007-2009, those undertaken by the community as well as those that leaders were 
involved in.
In order to know the development activities undertaken in the district from 2007-2009. 
respondents were asked to list the community development activities that were undertaken in the 
district. Ail the respondents (100%) indicated eleven community development activities that 
have recently been undertaken in the district. Their response is depicted in Table 5.
68
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
Table 5: Community Development Activities Undertaken in the District from 2007-2009
Community Development Activities
Functional literacy programme
Construction of a toilet facility
Women entrepreneurship development programme
Construction of a school block
Construction of health post
Construction of a foot bridge
Construction of drains
Tree planting exercise
Digging of a well
Construction of teachers bungalow 
Clean up exercise 
Source: Field Data, 2010
Table 5 shows the community development activities that have been undertaken in the district in 
the past two years. These community development activities include functional literacy 
programme, women entrepreneurship development programme, tree planting exercise, clean up 
exercise, and digging a well. Construction activities represented other community development 
activities undertaken in the district. These included construction of drains, teachers' bungalow, 
and health post.
69
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
A farther question was posed to the leaders to enumerate the development activities which were 
undertaken by the community. All the respondents (100%) indicated eight development activities 
that were undertaken by the community. Table 6 shows the responses of the community leaders.
Table 6: Development Activities Undertaken by the Community 
Community Development Activity
Construction of toilet facility 
Construction of a school block 
Construction of health post 
Construction of a footbridge 
Construction of drains 
Tree planting exercise 
Digging of a well 
Clean up exercise 
Source: Field Data, 2010
Results from the field as indicated in Table 6 reveals that construction of a toilet facility, 
construction of a school, clean up exercise, and construction of drains were activities undertaken 
by the community. Other activities undertaken by the community included digging of a well and 
tree planting exercise.
4.2.1. Development Activities Undertaken by the Community
70
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
A question was posed for the leaders to indicate the community development activities that they 
were involved in. The responses from the respondents are given in Table 6.
Table 7: Community Development Activities that Leaders were Involved in
4.2.2. Community Development Activities that Leaders were Involved in
Community Development Activity Frequency Percent
Clean up exercise 30 30
Digging of a well 3 3
Tree planting exercise 24 24
Construction of drains 22 22
Construction of a foot bridge 3 3
Women entrepreneurship
development programme 15 15
Construction of health post 1 1
Construction of a school block 1 1
Construction of a toilet facility 1 1
Total 100 100
Source: Field Data, 2010.
Results from the field as depicted in Table 6 indicate that 30 percent of the respondents claimed 
that they were involved in clean up exercise. Twenty-four percent (24%) reported that they were 
involved in tree planting whereas construction of drains was mostly involved in by 22 percent of 
the respondents. On the other hand one percent each of the respondents indicated that they were 
involved in construction of health post, construction school block and construction toilet facility.
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
This section presents results on the level of participation of community leaders in development 
activities in the district. The level of participation of community leaders is divided into three 
areas namely, planning, implementing, and monitoring and evaluation of community 
development activities.
43.1. Level of Participation of Community Leaders in Planning Development Activities
A question was posed to respondents to indicate their level of participation in the listed stages in 
the planning of community development activities. This was to enable the researcher to know the 
extent to which community leaders participate in the planning of community development 
activities. Table 8 presents the responses given.
4.3. Level of Participation of Community Leaders in Development Activities
72
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
Table 8: Level of Participation of Community Leaders in Planning Development Activities
Level of Participation
Stages of
Planning
Community
Development
Activities
Never Rare Occasional Frequent Always
Identifying
community
development
problems
(42) 42% (35) 35% (4) 4% (3) 3% (16) 16%
Setting
community
development
objectives
(40) 40% (33) 33% (4) 4% (2) 2% (21)21%
Identifying 
ways of 
solving the 
problem
(39) 39% (32) 32% (6) 6% (3) 3% (20) 20%
Discussing 
the proposed 
solutions
(38) 38% (35) 35% (8) 8% (4) 4% (15) 15%
Taking the 
final decision
(43) 43% (31)31% (3) 3% (2) 2% (21)21%
Source: Field Data, 2010
The researcher identified five stages in the planning of community development activities in the 
district and also identified five levels of participation in the listed stages. The first stage of 
planning community development activities in the district was identifying community 
development problems. The results from as shown in Table 8 revealed that 42 percent of the 
respondents never participated in identifying community development problems, 35 percent 
rarely participated while 4 percent occasionally participated. A small number (3%) claimed that 
they participated frequently in identifying community development problems while 16 percent 
intimated that they always participated.
73
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
Table 8 also reveals the responses given by the respondents about their level of participation in 
setting community development objectives. Respondents who never participated in setting 
community development activities were 40 percent while 33 percent rarely participated. A small 
number of the respondents reported that they occasionally participated (4%) and frequently 
participated (2%) in setting community development objectives. However, 21 percent of the 
respondents claimed they always participated in the said activity.
Results on taking the final decision as to which community development activities to be 
undertaken in the district yielded many responses. As many as 43 percent of the respondents 
never participated whereas 31 percent rarely participated in taking the final decision. Another 3 
percent occasionally participated, 2 percent participated frequently, and remaining 21 percent 
always participated in the said activity.
The results presented above indicate that majority of community leaders participated in vaning 
levels of planning community development activities in the district. On the other hand minority 
of the community leaders intimated that they never participated in the planning of development 
activities.
4.3.2. Level of Participation of Community Leaders in Implementing Development 
Activities
In order to know the level of participation of community leaders in implementing development 
activities, a question was posed to them to indicate their level of participation in the listed stages
74
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
in implementing community development activities. Table 9 shows the summary of responses.
Table 9: Level of Participation of Community Leaders in Implementing Development 
Activities
Level of Participation
! Stages of 
Implementing 
Community 
Development 
Activities
Never Rare Occasional Frequent Always
Drawing up 
I the work plan
(56) 56% (21)21% (3) 3% - (19) 19%
Seeking the 
i nvolvement 
j of community 
members
(54) 54% (22) 22% (1) 1% (3) 3% (19) 19%
j Assigning 
roles
(53) 53% (23) 23% (1) 1% (2) 2% (20) 20%
Acquiring 
materials for 
the activity
(51)51% (24) 24% (2) 2% (1) 1% (21)21%
Final
execution of 
the job
(52) 52% (22) 22% (3) 3% (3) 3% (19) 19%
Source: Field Data, 2010
The results from the field as shown in Table 9 depict the level of participation of community 
leaders in implementing development activities. The first stage of implementing community 
development activities is drawing up the work plan. The majority (56%) of the respondents 
stated that they never participated in the said activity. Another 21 percent rarely participated. 3 
percent occasionally participated whereas none participated frequently. The remaining 19 
percent of the respondents always participated in drawing up the work plan.
75
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
On seeking the involvement of community members in implementing development activities, a 
majority (54%) of respondents never participated, 22 percent of the respondents claimed they 
rarely participated, and a minority of 1 percent occasionally participated. Again, 3 percent of the 
respondents participated frequently while 19 percent always participated in seeking the 
involvement of community members in implementing development activities.
Results on the final execution of the job indicated that 52 percent of the respondents never 
participated, 22 percent rarely participated and 3 percent occasionally participated in the final 
execution of the job. The remaining 3 percent and 19 percent frequently and always participated 
respectively in the execution of the job.
The results of the study as presented above reveals that majority of the respondents never 
participated in implementing community development activities in the district. Conversely a 
minority of the respondents participated in different levels of implementing community 
development activities in the district.
433. Level of Participation of Community Leaders Participation in Monitoring and 
Evaluation of Development Activities
Respondents were asked to indicate their level of participation in the monitoring and evaluation 
of community development activities. The results are presented in table 10.
76
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
Table 10: Level of Participation of Community Leaders Participation in Monitoring and 
Evaluation of Development Activities
Level of Participation
Stages of
Monitoring
and
Evaluation
Never Rare Occasional Frequent Always
Identifying 
areas to 
monitor and 
evaluate
(72) 72% (3) 3% (3) 3% (2) 2% (20) 20%
Designing the
monitoring
and
evaluation
Plan
(70) 70% (6) 6% (3) 3% (21)21%
Monitoring (74) 74% (2) 2% (2) 2% (3) 3% (19) 19% :
Evaluation (72) 72% (2) 2% (4) 4% ( 1 ) 1 % (21)21%
Source: Field Data, 2010
The results of the analysed data from the field as shown in Table 10 reveal that majority (72%) 
of the respondents never participated in identifying areas to monitor and evaluate. A relatively 
small number of respondents 3 percent each rarely and occasionally participated, while 2 percent 
participated frequently in identifying areas to monitor and evaluate. Twenty percent of the 
respondents always participated in identifying areas to monitor and evaluate.
The last stage in the monitoring and evaluation of community development activities is 
evaluation. Table 10 reveals that 72 percent of the respondents reported that the never 
participated in contrast to 21 percent who always participated in the evaluation of development 
activities. Rare participation was reported by 2 percent of the respondents while 4 percent of the
77
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
respondents occasionally participated in evaluation. Finally, one percent of the respondents 
claimed they participated frequently in evaluation of community development activities.
The results as depicted above shows that majority of the respondents never participated in all 
stages of the monitoring and evaluation of community development activities in the district. A 
small number relatively participated in varying levels of monitoring and evaluation of 
community development activities in the district.
4.4. Ways of Enhancing Community Leaders’ Participation in Community Development 
Activities
This section presents results on the various ways of enhancing the participation of community 
leaders in community development activities. It also looks at what community leaders can do to 
promote their participation in community development activities as well as what other 
stakeholders (NGOs, government, and corporate entities) can do to enhance the participation of 
community leaders in development activities.
4.4.1. Ways of Enhancing Leaders Participation in Community Development Activities
Respondents were asked to indicate their level of agreement to some listed ways of enhancing 
their participation in community development. This question was asked to enable the researcher 
know the various ways of enhancing community leaders participation in development activities.
78
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
Table 11: Ways of Enhancing Community Leaders Participation in Development Activities
Factors Strongly
Agree
Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Availability 
ofFunds
(98) 98% (1) 1% (1) 1% -
Provision of 
rewards to 
leaders
(93) 93% (5) 5% (2) 2%
Involvement 
of community 
members
(97) 97% (3) 3%
Availability 
of material 
resources
(95) 95% (5) 5%
High formal 
education
(17) 17% (45) 45% (24) 24% (9) 9% (5) 5%
Source: Field Data, 2010
The results from the field as indicated in Table 11 shows that one of the ways of enhancing the 
participation of community leaders in development activities was availability of funds. A 
majority (98%) of respondents strongly agreed that availability of funds was a way of enhancing 
their participation in community development activities. However, one percent of the 
respondents only agreed while another one percent was undecided about availability of funds as 
a way of enhancing their participation in community development activities.
Provision of rewards to leaders was another item on the list of ways of enhancing leaders' 
participation in community development activities. A majority of 93 percent of the respondents 
strongly agreed, 5 percent agreed while 2 percent were undecided on the notion of provision of 
rewards as a ways of seeking their enhanced participation in community development activities.
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
When community leaders were asked to indicate their level of agreement with high formal 
education as a way of enhancing their participation in development activities their responses 
revealed that 17 percent of them were strongly in agreement with the statement. Similarly 45 
percent of the respondents agreed to high formal education as a way of enhancing their 
participation. Another 24 percent remained undecided while 9 percent disagreed. As little as 5 
percent of die respondents were in strong disagreement with high formal education as a way of 
enhancing their participation.
A follow up question was asked for the respondents to indicate what they could do to enhance 
their participation in community development activities. This question was asked to enable the 
researcher know what the leaders themselves can do to enhance their participation in community 
development activities. The responses given by the respondents were organized into themes. 
These themes together with their corresponding frequencies and percentages are presented in 
Table 12.
80
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
Table 12: Views of Community Leaders on how they could Enhance their Participation in
Development Activities
Ways Frequency Percent
Encourage community members to 
contribute financially towards 
community development
9 9
Promotion of peace and harmony 
among members in the community 24 24
Acquisition of leadership skills 33 33
Attending community development 
meetings 12 12
Acquisition of appropriate 
education to better understand the 
community's development 
problems
22 22
Total 100 100
Source: Field Data, 2010
Table 12 reveals that 33 percent of the respondents believe that a way that they can enhance their 
participation in community development activities is by acquiring leadership skills to be able to 
hold their positions effectively. Twenty-four percent (24%) of the respondents were of the 
opinion that if they are able to promote peace and harmony among the various groups in the 
community, their participation in community development activities will be enhanced. However 
12 percent and 9 percent believe that their attendance at meetings and encouraging community 
members to contribute financially towards development activities respectively will enhance their 
participation in community development activities in their communities.
81
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
4.4.2. Stakeholders (government, NGOs, and corporate entities) ways of Enhancing the 
Participation of Community Leaders in Development Activities
When confronted with the question of what other stakeholders can do to enhance their 
participation in development activities, community leaders gave varied responses. This question 
was posed in order to enable the researcher know what leaders expected stakeholders to do for 
them in order to enhance their participation in community development activities in their 
communities. The respondents gave many responses which were organized into themes. The 
themes which represent the responses from the community leaders with their corresponding 
frequencies and percentages are depicted in Table 13.
Table 13: Stakeholders (government, NGOs, and corporate entities) ways of Enhancing the
Participation of Community Leaders in Development Activities
Suggested Stakeholders Ways of 
Enhancing Leaders Participation Frequency Percent
Promotion of peace and stability 28 28
Promotion of active participation of 
women leaders in decision making 13 13
Creation of awareness about the role 
of women in community 
development
1
I
1
Organizing training programmes for 
community leaders. 52 52
Educate the community on the 
development problems it faces 2
2
Providing funding for community 
development activities 4 4
Total 100 100
Source: Field Data, 2010.
82
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
As depicted in table 13, majority (52%) of the respondents were of the that stakeholders should 
organize training programmes for leaders in order to enhance their participation in community 
development activities. Twenty-eight percent (28%) are of the opinion that promotion of peace 
and stability among the various groups in the community should be the role played by 
stakeholders. However a minority of one percent were of the view that stakeholders can enhance 
their participation in community development activities if they educate community members on 
the development problems faced by the community.
4.5. Summary' of Results
The following are the summary of results obtained from the data gathered on the participation of 
community leaders in development activities at the Sawla-Tuna-Kalba district of the Northern 
Region.
• The leaders identified tree planting exercise, functional literacy programme, construction 
of a teachers’ bungalow, digging of a well, construction of drains, construction of a 
school block, clean up exercise, construction of a health post and women entrepreneur 
development programme as community development activities were undertaken in the 
district from 2007-2009. The rest are construction of a footbridge, and construction of a 
toilet facility.
• The leaders also indicated construction of a footbridge, construction of a school block, 
construction of a health post, construction of a footbridge, construction of drains, tree 
planting exercise, construction of a toilet facility, and clean up exercise as development 
activities that were undertaken by the community.
83
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
• Leaders were involved in all the community development activities that were undertaken 
in the district except functional literacy programme and construction of a teachers’ 
bungalow.
• Majority of the leaders participated in the planning of community development activities.
• Majority of the leaders did not participate in implementing community development 
activities.
• Most of the leaders did not participate in the monitoring and evaluation of community 
development activities.
• A vast majority of the leaders were of the view that by providing funds for development 
activities, providing them with rewards, making materials available, and involving 
community members would serve to enhance their participation in community 
development activities. Majority of the leaders did not agree with high formal education 
as a way of enhancing their participation.
• Many of the leaders were of the view that they could encourage community members to 
contribute financially towards development activities, promote peace and stability* among 
the various groups in the community, acquire leadership skills, attend community 
development meetings, and also acquire appropriate education in order to understand the 
community development problems of the community. This, they believed will help 
enhance their participation in community development activities.
• Finally, community leaders were of the view that stakeholders (NGOs, government, and 
corporate entities) could enhance their participation in development activities in the 
district by promoting of peace and stability in the district, organizing training
84
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
programmes for them, and creating awareness about the role played by women in 
development actvities.
85
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
CHAPTER FIVE 
DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
5.1. Introduction
This chapter discusses the results of the study. The presentation follows the order of the 
objectives and in relation to literature that has been reviewed.
5.2. Community* Development Activities Undertaken in Sawla-Tuna-Kalba District
This section focuses on discussion of results on community development activities that have 
taken place at the Sawla-Tuna-Kalba district of the Northern region in the past two years. It also 
looks at development activities that were undertaken by the community as well as those that 
community leaders were involved in.
The results on community development activities undertaken in the district from 2007-2009 
indicate that there are eleven (11) community development activities that have been undertaken 
in the district within the past two years. It is worth noting that community development activities 
stem from the needs of the community. As has been opined by Kumar (1979), every 
development programme must start with what the community needs and knows it needs. From 
the results, tree planting, clean up, construction activities (including school block, drains etc) 
were community development activities that had recently been undertaken in the district within 
the past two years. It can be said that these activities were undertaken in order to meet the basic 
needs of the district. This view is in line with the basic needs theory which suggests that the best
86
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
way to enhance the quality of life of the poorest people in society is to satisfy their basic needs 
such as food, shelter and clothing. Okonje (1986) has noted that true development only takes 
place when there is the satisfaction of the fundamental needs of the population in terms of food, 
water, shelter, health and education. In espousing the view of Okonje, Moon (1991) opined that 
provision of basic needs is necessary for rapid growth in areas where income levels are low and 
poverty is high. This implies that for community development to be effective, it must address the 
problems of the areas in which it is undertaken.
.Another community development activity undertaken in the district was functional literacy 
programme. According to Sarumi et al (2007), literacy is perceived as highly synonymous with 
development; that is development cannot occur except the mass of the population knows how to 
read and write. In essence there can be no development without literacy since the ability to read 
and write is in itself key to all progress. Adjei (2009:155) also makes the following assertion:
functional literacy empowers people to bring about desirable 
changes in their living conditions. The development of the nation 
cannot be left in the hands of a mass of illiterate, and ignorant 
people. It provides a structure to coordinate and sustain self 
help projects in communities. Functional literacy is expected 
to bring about qualitative improvement in the lives of the 
of the beneficiaries and stakeholders and the overall development 
of their communities.
87
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
It can be argued that the functional literacy programme was undertaken in the district to give the 
community members or learners basic skills that can readily be used in their daily activities. This 
view is shared by Rogers (1999) who asserts that the objective of adult literacy programmes is 
not to help people to leam literacy skills but to help them to use literacy skills in their daily lives. 
Hence, Roger further asserts, every learner must not only be helped to master letters and words 
on paper, but must also be helped to transfer these into daily lives. Adjei (2009:155) makes this 
observation about the functional literacy programme at Yebongo in Bolgatanga district of the 
Upper East region:
one striking factor that needs emphasis is that the learners were able to
mobilize members of the community to engage in developmental activities.
The results from the field as indicated in Table 5 revealed women entrepreneurship development 
programme was a community development activity undertaken in the district. All over the world, 
vocational training and acquisition of entrepreneurship skills have been recognized as the major 
determinants of the accelerated development for the individual and the society as a whole (Oke, 
2009). Women have and will continue to play pivotal roles in the realization of the 
developmental goals of any community. As a result programmes that seek to empower women to 
contribute effectively to this end are normally considered to be in the right direction. Most 
women in the northern region are the bread winners of the various families, hence when they 
acquire income generating skills they would not only be improving on their own living 
conditions but also that of their families. According to Kumar (1979) these programmes could be 
very successful in the sense that they can provide alternative types of employment and thus stop
the tendency to migrate to the towns and as such contributing to village development.
88
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
Oke has opined that the realization of the social benefit of entrepreneurship skills acquisition 
underscores the fact that if we must alleviate poverty and effectively ameliorate the biting fangs 
of unemployment in developing countries, vocational and entrepreneurship training must be 
accorded a high priority on our development plans.
The results of the study from Table 5 reveal that most of the development activities were 
undertaken by the community. The results highlight the importance of the community members 
in finding solutions to the problems they face as a community. Community development can not 
be successful without the active participation of those affected. The study results indicate that 
eight out of eleven successful development activities undertaken in the district was jointly 
undertaken by the community. Community development is undertaken with the view of 
improving on the living conditions of community members and as such the importance of the 
involvement of community members can not be underestimated. According to Oakley and 
Marsden (1984) local participation is a fundamental pre-condition for a successful and long 
lasting development. They further assert that if local people are actively involved in any 
community project, they would commit themselves to support the project for its success and 
sustainability. From the above, it can be said that without the active involvement of communities 
in development projects or activities, people would be apathetic to such projects and as such 
refuse to ensure its success and sustainability.
Community leaders play significant roles that lead to the accomplishment of community 
development objectives. In this sense the active participation of community leaders in all stages
89
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
of the community development process is required. According to Aref and Ma’rof (2009), 
community leadership is an important element of any community and vital to successful 
community development. Community Leaders can play the role of catalysts for actualizing the 
potential of local communities and assisting them to change. Leaders' participation may be 
operationalised as the creation of opportunities to enable leaders contributes effectively to the 
development process of their communities. Leaders in the rural communities are an embodiment 
of respect and as such can be a source of motivation to community members in contributing to 
the development process. Because of this fact, when community leaders participate in the 
development activities, many community members would also be influenced to participate in 
such activities which would eventually facilitate their successful execution.
Even though communities themselves should take the initiative and participate in ensuring the 
achievement of their stated development goals, other agencies can complement the efforts of the 
communities. From time immemorial government and other agencies including development 
partners have strived to partner communities to improve upon their living conditions. It can be 
argued from the results of the study that the other development activities (construction of a 
teachers' bungalow, women entrepreneurship development programme, and functional literacy 
programme) that were not undertaken by the community could have been undertaken by other 
agencies. It is important to note that agencies implementing community development activities in 
communities must endeavour to integrate the community in the planning, implementation and 
monitoring and evaluation of such projects. Kumar (1979) in support of this view opines that 
any development programme must start with what the community needs and knows it needs. It 
should not be imposed on the community by someone else; otherwise, it is not community
90
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
development. Community leaders and members must be actively involved in the design of 
development activities that are being introduced by other agencies.
The entire results on community development activities undertaken in the district show that 
constructional, educational, environmental, and sanitation activities were the various categories 
of development activities undertaken in the district within the past two years. Most of these 
activities were undertaken by the community. Again community leaders were involved in most 
of the development activities that were undertaken in the district.
53. Community Leaders Level of Participation in Development Activities
This section discusses results on the level of involvement of community leaders in development 
activities in the Sawla-Tuna-Kalba district. The level of involvement of community leaders is 
seen in three main areas, namely; planning, implementing, and monitoring and evaluation of 
community development activities. It is important to note that the very success of community 
development activities depends to a large extent on the active participation of community leaders 
in all the stages of community development.
5.3.1. Level of Community Leaders’ Participation in the Planning of Development 
Activities
Planning community development activities is a sine qua non to its success in any community.
This is due to the fact that planning helps to identify ways of going about an activity, identify
91
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
potential hurdles and ways of surmounting such hurdles. The researcher identified five stages in 
the planning of community development activities and also five levels of participation of leaders 
in the said activity.
Results on the level of involvement of community leaders in planning development activities 
reveal that majority of the leaders participate in the said activity. According to Rifkin’s (1990) 
participation in planning demonstrates a higher level of participation. Knowles (1980) believes 
that human beings tend to feel committed to decisions to the extent that they have participated in 
making it. White (1982) also in support of this view asserts that when beneficiaries are actively 
involved in planning and implementation of a project, they tend to accept it as their own. feel 
responsible for it and therefore use it responsibly and ensure its regular maintenance. According 
to Richard (1996) participation in education and in development programmes is often measured 
by presence. It should however be noted that being present in a programme does not assume 
involvement or control. In other words, one can be present in a programme without being 
involved in any way or having control over the programme.
Identifying community development problems was identified as the first stage in the planning of 
community development activities. The study results indicated that 42 percent of the population 
never participates in identifying community development problems of the district. It is worth 
stressing that community development begins with the needs of the community. Kumar (1979) 
opines that any development programme must start with what the community needs and knows it 
needs. It should not be imposed on the community by someone else; otherwise, it is not 
community development. Therefore community leaders must also play their part in the
92
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
identification of their community’s development needs. Even though majority (52%) of leaders 
participates in the identification of community development problems. 35 percent of them 
occasionally participate in the said activity. According to Pateman (1990) the notion of 
participation is often used with an imprecise or no definition to include almost any situation in 
which some minimal amount of interaction takes place. Participation implies more than an 
individual being present in a group activity. Pateman suggests that the definition of participation 
excludes the following situations: when an individual merely takes part in a group activity, 
where an individual is merely given information on a decision affecting him/her before it is 
executed, or an individual being present at a meeting but has no influence. Therefore occasional 
participation of community leaders in identifying community development problems is not 
enough to achieve effective decisions.
Effective community development can only take place when quality decisions are made on the 
problems or needs that are of priority to the community and how to solve them. Taking a 
decision on community development activities is not an easy task in the sense that it involves 
consultations at all level in the community and also involves choosing from many alternatives. It 
is based on final decisions taken during the planning of community development activities that 
effective implementation and monitoring and evaluation can be achieved. The study results 
reveal that 43 percent of the population never participates in taking the final decision concerning 
community development activities to be undertaken in the district. Decisions taken at this stage 
of community development process have implications on the success or otherwise of 
development activities. Therefore the participation of community leaders in this stage of 
planning community development activities is key to its success. However the study results do
93
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
not support this view as 43 percent of the population does not participate in the said activity. 
Even though the rest (57%) of the population participate in taking the final decision, 31 percent 
of them occasionally participate in the said activity. Occasional participation can not be 
considered as active enough to make decisions effective.
5.3.2. Level of Community Leaders’ Participation in Implementing Development Activities
Implementation of community development is an important aspect of the community 
development process in the sense that it activates plans into actions. Decisions taken during the 
planning stage of community development can only become a reality during its implementation. 
Implementation also brings about desired changes. Community leaders as has been noted play a 
significant role in bringing about desired changes in any community and as such their 
participation in the implementation of community development activities is seen as crucial to its 
success.
In order for community development plans to be realized it is imperative to draw the work plan 
setting out time lines for each activity in line with the stated goals. The study results indicate that 
majority of the population never participate in drawing the work plan. Drawing of the work plan 
indicates the needed materials for the job and also indicates persons responsible for each activity. 
Community leaders are seen as having a fair knowledge of the conditions prevailing in the 
community and as such they must actively participate in drawing the work plan. It can therefore 
be argued that the higher the participation of community leaders in this activity the more 
effective the work plan. The work plan if properly done eliminates any uncertainties in the
94
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
implementation of community development activities. The fact that majority of community 
leaders do not participate in this activity means that there would be adverse effects on the final 
execution of the job.
The final execution of the job is the last stage in the implementation of community development 
activities in the district. This stage makes decisions taken at the planning stage of community 
development activities a reality. It is at this stage that the development needs of the community 
are actually meet. As has been noted already, the ability of a group to achieve its goals and 
satisfy the needs of its members depends on people holding positions of leadership. In line with 
this argument, the ability of communities to satisfy their felt needs in terms of development 
depends on their leaders. This can be achieved if community leaders participate in execution of 
the development activities. The study results indicate that majority (52%) never participates in 
the execution of the final job. Since as opined by Richard (1996) that participation in 
development activities is often measured by presence, the presence of community leaders during 
final execution of the job has positive effects on the success of development activities. The fact 
that majority of the leaders do not participate in the execution of the job. means that the ability to 
complete development projects on time and successfully might not be assured.
5.3.3. Level of Community Leaders' Participation in Monitoring and Evaluation of 
Development Activities
Monitoring and evaluation is the final stage in the community development process. Monitoring 
and evaluation encompasses a wide range of activities intended to ascertain whether community
95
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
development plans have been realized. Leaders who are seen as important stakeholders must 
actively be involved in the monitoring and evaluation of community development activities. It is 
therefore imperative to identify their level of participation in monitoring and evaluation of 
community development activities. To know this, community leaders were asked to indicate their 
level of participation in listed stages of monitoring and evaluation of development activities.
The results of the study indicates that majority of the leaders do not participate in all stages of the 
monitoring and evaluation of community development activities. One of the listed stages of 
monitoring and evaluating community development activities is identifying areas to monitor and 
evaluate. Majority (72%) of the leaders never participate in the said activity. This stage in the 
monitoring and evaluation stage is very important in the sense that it paves the way for effective 
monitoring and evaluation of community development activities. It also gives focus and direction 
to monitors and evaluators on specific areas that need attention. The fact that majority of the 
leaders do not participate in this stage would serve as an impediment to the smooth running of 
monitoring and evaluation of community development activities since people are more likely to 
be committed to decisions that helped to make.
Designing of the monitoring and evaluation plan is another stage in the monitoring and 
evaluation of community development activities. Monitoring and evaluation plan gives a 
description of the methods by which a project or activity will be monitored or evaluated. At diis 
stage participants in monitoring and evaluation draw up a check list in line with stated goals on
96
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
how to monitor and evaluate the activities. Results from the study indicate that majority of 
community leaders never participate in the said activity.
Monitoring is another listed stage in the monitoring and evaluation of community development 
activities. The results of the study reveal that 74 percent of the population never participates in 
monitoring community development activities in the district. Monitoring is yet another important 
stage in the community development process. Monitoring involves supervising an on-going 
project or activity to ascertain whether or not the intended outcomes are being achieved. 
Community leaders' participation in this activity is imperative because they get to know at first 
hand the progress of planned interventions and the areas that particular attention should be paid. 
The results seem to suggest that monitoring of community development activities has received 
low participation on the part of community leaders. Even though some leaders participate in 
monitoring of community development activities, the number is not that encouraging to making 
the activity achieve desired results.
The final stage in the monitoring and evaluation of community development activities is 
evaluation. According to McDonald (1974:78) evaluation often provides information that 
equalizes or neutralizes diverse influences so that accommodations can be made among those 
involved in decision making. McDonald further contends that in essence, evaluation from this 
point of view is a democratic activity. Intimately associated with evaluation is the need to gather 
information or make informed judgments about community development projects or activities. 
Evaluation serves many purposes and has been enumerated by Grotelueschen (1974:79) as 
follows: to account for funds and resources and monitor compliance with regulations or
97
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
guidelines; to document major accomplishments and examine the expedience of project goals; to 
identity potential needs and establish project emphasis; to ascertain collaboration opportunities 
and evaluate coordination efforts with other agencies; to identify project weaknesses and assess 
progress towards stated goals. The purposes of evaluation enumerated above makes the 
evaluation stage of monitoring and evaluation very significant to effective community 
development. Since community development initiatives must come from the community and 
leaders wield considerable influence over community members, it makes their participation in 
the evaluation of community development projects or activities very crucial to its sustenance. 
However the results of the study indicate that 72 percent of the population never participates in 
evaluating community development activities. If community development activities would 
achieve desired results then it behooves on the leaders to actively participate in the evaluation of 
such activities. This is because evaluation of development activities can produce as standards for 
future development activities.
The participation of community leaders in the planning, implementing, and monitoring and 
evaluation of development activities is key to the success of community development activities. 
Even though majority of community leaders participated in the planning of development 
activities in the district, a minority participated in varying levels of implementing, and 
monitoring and evaluation of development activities. Form the discussion on the level of 
community leaders' participation in development activities it can be concluded that most 
community leaders did not participate in development activities in the district.
98
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
guidelines; to document major accomplishments and examine the expedience of project goals; to 
identify potential needs and establish project emphasis; to ascertain collaboration opportunities 
and evaluate coordination efforts with other agencies; to identify project weaknesses and assess 
progress towards stated goals. The purposes of evaluation enumerated above makes the 
evaluation stage of monitoring and evaluation very significant to effective community 
development. Since community development initiatives must come from the community and 
leaders wield considerable influence over community members, it makes their participation in 
the evaluation of community development projects or activities very crucial to its sustenance. 
However the results of the study indicate that 72 percent of the population never participates in 
evaluating community development activities. If community development activities would 
achieve desired results then it behooves on the leaders to actively participate in the evaluation of 
such activities. This is because evaluation of development activities can produce as standards for 
future development activities.
The participation of community leaders in the planning, implementing, and monitoring and 
evaluation of development activities is key to the success of community development activities. 
Even though majority of community leaders participated in the planning of development 
activities in the district, a minority participated in varying levels of implementing, and 
monitoring and evaluation of development activities. Form the discussion on the level of 
community leaders' participation in development activities it can be concluded that most 
community leaders did not participate in development activities in the district.
98
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
5.4. Ways of Enhancing Leaders Participation in Community Development Activities in the 
District
This section focuses on ways of enhancing community leaders' participation in development 
activities in Sawla-Tuna-Kalba district. It begins with community leaders’ level of agreement to 
listed ways of enhancing the participation of community leaders in development activities. It also 
considers the views of community leaders on ways by which they can enhance their participation 
in community development activities. Finally it considers other ways by which stakeholders 
(government. NGOs, and corporate entities) can enhance the participation of community leaders 
in development activities.
5.4.1. Ways of Enhancing Leaders Participation in Community Development Activities
In order to know how to enhance the participation of community leaders in development 
activities in the district, leaders were asked to indicate their level of agreement to suggested ways 
of enhancing their participation in community development activities.
Availability of funds for development activities was identified as one of the ways of enhancing 
the participation of community leaders in development activities in the district. This is ev idenced 
by the fact that majority (98%) of the population strongly agree with availability of funds as a 
contributor to their enhanced participation in the development of the district as indicated in table 
4.8. This goes to show that most often than not, funds for community development activities are 
not readily available to community leaders to enable them embark on such activities in the
99
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
district. Fordjor (2000) asserts that due to lack of funds, most of the rural projects comprising 
the provision of housing, educational and health facilities as well as potable water which were 
embarked upon soon after independence in 1957 were abandoned in 1966 with the declining 
cocoa price on the world market. Kumar (1979) is also of the view that community development 
projects have to be shelved due to financial problems. From the fore-going, it can be argued that 
without funds for community development activities, community leaders would not feel 
motivated enough to lend their support to such activities. This is because community leaders' 
efforts will be in vain if they are no funds available to cater for the financial demands of 
community development.
The results on ways of enhancing the participation of community leaders in development 
activities in table 11, also reveals that 93 percent of community leaders in the district strongly 
agreed that provision of rewards to community leaders would help achieve that end. The result 
goes to corroborate the assertion of Donnelly et al (1987:303) that, individuals will exert work 
effort to achieve performance that will result in preferred rewards. Donnelly et al further opines 
that if individuals believe that improved rate of performance would lead to desired rewards, he or 
she would be motivated to work in accordance with such objectives. On the other hand, an 
individual is likely to decrease the rate of performance if there is cause to believe that high levels 
of performance would lead to undesired rewards. Indeed provision of appropriate rewards 
depends on the needs of the community leaders. In order to know which rewards would be 
appreciated by community leaders, there is the need to embark on proper needs assessment and 
also consider the prevailing conditions in the district. When appropriate rewards are given to the 
community leaders, their morale would be boosted and as such would readily participate in any
100
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
activity that is intended to improve on the living conditions of the community and the district as 
a whole.
Majority (97“0) of community leaders in the district in the district strongly agreed with the 
involvement of community members as a way of enhancing their participation in community 
development activities in the district as shown in Table 11. It is indeed a truism that for 
community dev elopment to become a success the involvement of community members must be 
sought and for that matter community leaders would not be successful in community 
development if they do not seek the active participation of the whole community, since there can 
be no leaders without followers. Kumar (1979) could not agree more when he stated that:
no community development programme can succeed without 
active support and participation of the people themselves. Thus, 
a programme should be so organized as to provide maximum 
opportunity for self help. Encouragement should be given for 
people to actually plan and work on the solution of the problem 
themselves, this enables them to develop self initiative, self 
reliance and their own leadership.
The involvement of community members as has been noted by Cook (1975) can legitimize a 
programme, its plans, and leaders. Leaders often become discouraged and drop out of 
development activities that are potentially beneficial to the whole community when they do not
101
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
receive the needed support from community members. It can be argued that the involvement of 
the whole community in development activities often relieves the load of work on the leader. 
This is because through the participation of community members, certain aspects of the activity 
which hitherto would have performed by the leader are taken care of by community members. 
Also when the whole community is involved, responsibility is shared in that everyone has a role 
to play leading to the ultimate success of the community development project. As has been 
suggested by Klein (1963), the participation of the whole community in a development project or 
activity relieves the problem of control.
High level of education was another suggested way of enhancing the participation of community 
leaders in development activities in the district. The results on this issue revealed that majority of 
25 percent and 19 percent of the population strongly disagreed and disagreed respectively with 
23 percent undecided. This result corroborates the view of Betts (2001) who on narrating his 
experience with Usulutans in El Salvador noted that, of the 21 community leaders in the area 
only four could read and write. But it was these men who possessed the social capital to engage 
in discussions with local power holders such as the local mayor regarding resources for the 
community, which their younger, more educated and literate neighbours could not.
Pateman (1970) disagrees with Betts by arguing that higher level of education is one of the 
greatest predictor of participation in voluntary activities. This is partly due to the fact that the 
educated is more likely to understand that government alone cannot shoulder the burden of 
developing the nation due to government’s enormous responsibilities without corresponding 
resources, therefore community members have to come together and work towards improving
102
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
their quality of life. From the fore going it can be argued that even though education is key to the 
development of any nation, the same cannot be said for high level of education. The essence of 
education is to make learners more aware of their circumstances and to make efforts at changing 
it. Indeed community leaders need education which should aim at equipping them with problem 
solving skills that can enable them to effectively contribute to solving the community 
development problems in the district.
5.4.2. Views of Community Leaders on how they can Enhance their Participation in 
Development Activities
Community leaders have a role to play in enhancing their participation in development activities. 
In order to know what leaders can do to enhance their participation in community dev elopment 
activities, they were asked to indicate what they can do to enhance their participation in 
development activities.
Results on the above issue indicated that 33 percent of the leaders think that their participation 
can be enhanced through the acquisition of leadership skills. The argument has been made that 
the ability of a group to achieve its set goals and to satisfy the needs of its members depends to a 
large extent on those occupying positions of leadership. This implies that the behavior put up 
leaders can help in goal attainment or can adversely affect the group. According to Sautoy (cited 
in Battcm, 1962) community development requires something more than the possession of 
enthusiasm, good intentions and the liking and respect for people. Sautoy contends that leaders 
need a wide range of knowledge and skills to be able to stimulate, educate, inform, and convince
103
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
people who may initially be apathetic or skeptical about participation in community 
development. The results of the study also confirm Flo and Smith (1999) assertion that 
community development is an intense process and that much depends on leaders; hence 
consistent and skilled leaders who are open to community members is a key ingredient for 
effective development activities. The exhibition of such leadership skills as flexibility, 
transparency, and accountability can lead to the successful execution of community development 
activities. The exhibition of qualities enhances the leaders’ credibility and thus helps to influence 
community members to also participate in community development activities.
The results of the study indicated that 22 percent of the population was of the opinion that they 
can enhance their participation through their acquisition of the appropriate education to better 
understand the problems faced by their communities. Education indeed can rescue individuals 
from the shackles of ignorance and place them in a better position to understand their 
circumstances and how best to solve them. This view is also shared by Dore (1976) cited by 
Amedzro (2000:39) who argues that:
capital given to Europe and Japan to restore their devastated industries 
proved productive because those countries had people with the knowledge 
necessary to make it productive. In contrast, similar investments in Indonesia 
and Burma, which lacked engineers and managers and technicians failed to 
produce the same results.
104
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
It thus appears that when community members and leaders have access to educational 
programmes, they would forever accept, support and actively participate in development of their 
communities. Amedzro (2000) emphasized this fact when he opined that when community 
people and their leaders have access to educational programmes, they come to understand the 
issue related to the development of their communities and so they can participate in community 
improvement activities. The definition of education given by Oduro-Mensah (2004:4) 
summarises the significance of education in any development activity. According to Oduro- 
Mensah education is the process of enhancing the development of certain knowledge, skills and 
attitude in an individual to enable him / her to become better identified with his / her community 
aspirations and contribute successfully towards the community’s common goal, which is 
development. To this end development in whatever form, cannot be divorced from education 
since education in itself is development.
The results of the study indicate that community leaders were of the view that when they are able 
to encourage community members to contribute financially to community development 
activities, their participation would be enhanced. Indeed no community development activity can 
not be initiated, implemented or sustained without financial resources. The term financial 
resources are often about money and how to acquire it. One major hindrance to effective 
community development especially self help projects in rural communities is that individuals 
lack the financial power to contribute financially to such projects. This could partly be attributed 
to the high rate of poverty in the rural areas. According to the World Bank Report (1998 1999) 
34 percent of the people in the rural areas in Ghana live below the poverty line. However for 
communities to achieve sustained improvements in the living conditions, they have to
105
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
complement the efforts of government by also making some commitments through financial 
contributions 10 the development of their communities. Community development in rural areas is 
traditionally funded through taxes, fines, voluntary contributions and government grants. When 
community members contribute financially to community development activities, they tend to 
have some emotional attachment to them and would consider it as their own. In this sense 
community leaders would not experience any difficulties in mobilizing community members to 
embark on development activities and perhaps this would serve a motivation for leaders to 
participate effectively in such activities.
5.4.3. Stakeholders (government, NGOs and corporate entities) ways of Enhancing the 
Participation of Community' Leaders in Development Activities
Stakeholders (government, NGOs, and corporate entities) have a role to play in enhancing the 
participation of community leaders in order to ensure successful community development 
activities. Since community development is a way to enhance the resources of a community and 
often has sustainability and increased quality of life as its primary focus, it becomes imperative 
that government and other stakeholders partner community members to achieve this end. In 
order to know what roles government and other stakeholders can do to enhance the participation 
of community leaders in development activities, community leaders were asked to indicate w hat 
stakeholders can do to enhance their participation in community development activities.
Community leaders indicated that stakeholders should promote peace and stability in the district. 
There can definitely be no development without peace and stability. This is evidenced by the fact
106
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
where there is conflict, people cannot move around freely to engage in activities that promotes 
development. To this end, peace and stability is very crucial to the success of any community 
development activity. Conflicts may be in forms, namely conflicts among the various groups in 
the community and conflicts in the community development process. Conflicts among 
community members imply that some members will not be willing to participate in development 
activities. This is partly due to the fact that during conflict situations people from an opposing 
camp may not want to associate themselves with initiatives coming from the other end. This 
makes community development difficult since more and more hands are needed in whatever 
form (financial or human) to successfully execute development activities. Conflicts in the 
development process normally arise from the entrenched positions taken by some members. This 
brings about formation of polarized groups who will not be willing to accept the views of other 
groups. In situations where the leadership lacks the necessary negotiation skills, community 
discussions may degenerate into conflicts.
Conflicts among community leaders also possess another threat to the success of development 
activities. According to Amedzro (2000), frequent political power struggle and tensions between 
chiefs and the politically appointed administrators has caused apathy in the attendance of public 
meetings and in participation in development projects by those who support the chiefs. Whether 
conflicts will be good or bad depends on how it is managed. Properly managed conflicts have the 
chance of being functional to the community whereas poorly managed conflicts have the 
tendency of tearing the social fabric of the community. It is therefore imperative that government 
and other stakeholders make it a priority to promote peace and stability in the country especially 
rural communities since it is a sure way of achieving successful community development.
107
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
The results of the study indicated that community leaders wanted stakeholders to organize 
training programmes for them in order to improve upon their skills. Training refers to systematic 
activities or events that are designed to help individuals to learn the competencies (knowledge, 
skills, attitudes) they require to better perform their duties or tasks they are currently performing 
or would be called upon to perform in the future. In other words it is as a process of changing 
employees' behaviour at work through an application of the principles of adult learning. Wilson 
(2005) defines training as a planned process to modify attitude, knowledge or skill behaviour 
through learning experience to achieve effective in an activity or range of activities. The benefits 
of training and development to community leaders cannot be quantified in financial terms. It is 
opined by Flicker (1994) that training and development properly designed improves individuals 
with knowledge, skills and attitudes they need to perform the task well, think strategically, plan, 
implement and monitor long term organizational strategy. If communities want to benefit from 
training and development then, training must be discharged by a competent and committed 
person(s) for trainees to understand that the whole process of training and developing is about 
change in behaviour, attitude and skill acquisition to the benefit of not only to the individual 
employee but also to the organization. Training is also be used as a form of motivational 
incentive to community leaders in development activities. This enhances their commitment and 
rate of performance or productivity with regards community development activities. Training 
and development programmes effectively planned in communities can be used to bring about 
desired change because community leaders would be better equipped to solve the community 
problems faced in the district. If the desire of government and other stakeholders want to realize 
effective community development and alleviate poverty from rural communities, then they must
108
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
endeavour to design and implement training programmes which would make it possible for them 
to achieve such results.
Community leaders indicated from the study results that stakeholders should endeavour to 
educate the community on the development problems it faces. For community development to 
become a success community members must be educated on the issue that confront the 
community and as such they will be empowered to take action. Community education is 
therefore a process designed to enrich the lives of individuals and groups by engaging with 
people living in a geographical area, or sharing a common interest, to develop voluntarily a range 
of learning, action, and reflection opportunities, determined by their personal social, economic 
and political needs” (CeVe 1990 : 2 in Smith 1996). Community education may be seen as all 
attempts to help community members acquire knowledge, skills, and attitude in order to enable 
them solve problems affecting them as a community. It is through educational activities that a 
community’s needs, concerns and expectations are met. This view underpins the fact that 
community education is an opportunity created to empower community members to achieve 
desired goals in order to enhance their living conditions. As result when community members 
have been equipped with necessary knowledge, skill and attitude they would be better placed to 
contribute effectively to development efforts of their community. Community development is 
about having the participation of all those affected and when this is realized community leaders 
would be motivated to also participate.
109
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
In conclusion community leaders were of the view that providing them with rewards, involving 
community members in development activities, promoting peace and harmony among the 
various groups in the district, and organizing training programmes for them, were some of the 
ways of enhancing their participation in development activities in the district.
no
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
CHAPTER SIX 
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
6.1. Introduction
This chapter focuses on the summary, conclusion and recommendations of the study. The 
summary consists of a statement of the problem, research objectives, and review of related 
literature, methodology and results of the study. The recommendations were also made based on 
the major findings of the study and the conclusions drawn. The chapter also considers the 
implications of the findings for adult education policy and practice as well as suggestions for 
future studies.
6.2. Summary
The study identified the extent to which community leaders participate in community 
development activities in the Sawla-Tuna-Kalba of the Northern region. The study was designed 
to achieve the following objectives:
1. To identify the community development activities undertaken in the district from 2007- 
2009 with regard to:
i. Development activities undertaken by the community
ii. Development activities that leaders were involved in
111
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
2, To find out the level of involvement of community leaders in community development 
activities with regard to:
i. Planning community development activities
ii. Implementing community development activities
iii. Monitoring and evaluation of community development activities
3. To identify ways of enhancing the participation of community leaders in development 
activities.
Based on the research objectives, literature was reviewed in related areas such as the concept of 
leadership, approaches to leadership, leaders and group effectiveness, community development, 
the concept of participation, participation of community leaders in development activities, and 
ways of enhancing community leaders' participation in development activities. The study was 
grounded on the game theory of participation. In terms of methodology, the descriptive survey 
design was adopted for the study and the population consisted of all community leaders (18 years 
and above) in the district. The multi stage sampling technique was employed for the study. The 
stratified random sampling as well as simple random sampling technique was used in the final 
stage to sample a total of 100 respondents for the study. The interv iew schedule was the only 
data collection instrument used for the study.
6.3. Major Findings
Constructional, educational, sanitation, and environmental activities were the various 
categories of community development activities undertaken in the district within the past 
two years.
112
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
• Most of the community development activities undertaken in the district wilhin the past 
two years were undertaken by the community.
• Leaders were involved in most of the community development activities undertaken in 
the district within the past two years.
• Majority of the community leaders participate in varying levels of the planning of 
development activities.
• Majority of the community leaders never participate in implementing community 
development activities in the district.
• Monitoring and evaluation of community development activities did not receive a high 
level of participation from the leaders as majority of them do not participate in any of the 
stages.
• Community leaders were of the view that providing them with rewards, involving 
community members in development activities, promoting peace and harmony among 
the various groups in the district, and organizing training programmes for them, were 
some of the ways of enhancing their participation in development activities in the 
district.
6.4. Implication of the Study Results for Adult Education Policy and Practice
Adult education is concerncd with all activities in which the capacities and capabilities of people 
who are considered to be adults are developed for specific purposes, irrespective of the particular 
setting of the activity (Mpofu, 1998). This implies that adult education focuses on the
113
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
development of the adult and his/her environment. It uses education as the main tool to empower 
people and communities to embark on development. In order for adult educators to successfully 
empower people to contribute to the development of their communities and for that matter the 
nation as a whole, they need to have adequate information about the needs of the communities 
and people concerned. It is against this background that the results of this study would serv e as a 
guide to adult educators to put in place appropriate educational programmes to empower 
communities in the study area. The study results for example rev ealed that community leaders 
were of the view that if they receive appropriate education to better understand the community 
development problems faced by the community, it can enhance their participation in 
development activities in the district. This information would help adult educators working in the 
Northern region and for that matter the nation as a whole to design educational programmes that 
would empower communities to take action to solve the problems they face. Also, the study 
results would serve a guide to adult educators and other stakeholders to know how best to 
motivate community leaders to participate fully in all development activities in their 
communities.
In respect of policy, the results of the study would help government and other policy makers to 
put in place a policy that would promote the participation of community leaders in activities that 
seek to improve the living conditions of rural dwellers. To this end, all steps should be taken to 
know the needs of community leaders and how the satisfaction of their needs can be used as 
motivation for them to participate in development activities.
114
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
The study revealed that educational, sanitation, constructional, and environmental activities were 
die community development activities which have been undertaken in the district within the past 
two years. Majority of the leaders participated in varying levels in the planning of community 
development activities in the district. Implementation and monitoring and evaluation of 
community development activities also received limited participation from community leaders in 
the district. Leaders suggested that availability of funds for development, involvement of 
community members in development activities, promotion of peace and stability among the 
various groups in the district, and provision of rewards, are ways through which their 
participation in community development activities can be enhanced.
6.5. Conclusion
6.6. Recommendations
The study recommends that:
• Avenues should be created for leaders to continuously participate in the planning, 
implementing, and monitoring and evaluation of community development activities since 
such the participation of leaders in those stages were crucial to the success of 
development activities.
115
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
• Women leaders should be given equal opportunities to participate in decision making in 
relation to community development in the district. This can be achieved through the 
creation of the awareness of the role women play in development.
• Community members should be encouraged to participate in all stages of community 
development activities. Their participation serves as a way of enhancing the participation 
of community leaders. Therefore capacity building programmes should be introduced to 
empower community members to be part of the development of the district.
• Where there is no peace and harmony development activities can not thrive. It is against 
this background that community leaders, government, NGOs and other stakeholders 
should ensure the amicable settlement of conflicts among the various groups in the 
district.
• The capacities of community leaders must be built in order to enable them be abreast 
with problems the community faces and how they can help solve them. The district 
assembly and other stakeholders must introduce training programmes such as leadership 
development programmes for leaders.
6.7. Suggestion for Further Studies
Problems facing community leaders in implementing community development activities in the
Sawla-Tuna-Kalba district of the Northern region.
116
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
REFERNCES
Adjei. F. G. (2009). Functional Literacy and Community Development: A Case Study of 
Yebongo Literacy Class. Journal of Literacy and Adult Education. Vol 4. No I. July,
2009.
Akinpelu. J. A (1990). "Adult Literacy and National Development”. Literacy Voices (Vol. 1, No. 
I, Pp.3-13).
Aldag, R. J. and Stearns, M. (1987). Management. Ohio: South-Western Publishing.
Amedzro. A. K. (2000). Globalization. Non-Forma! Education and Development. Accra. 
Institute of Adult Education Press.
Aref, F. and Ma'rof, R. (2009). Assessing the Level of Community Participation as a Component 
of Community Capacity Building for Tourism Development. European Journal of Social 
Sciences. (Vol. 8, No. 1).
Aref, F. and Ma'rof, R. (2008). Barriers to Community Leadership Towards Tourism 
Development in Shiraz, Iran. European Journal of Social Sciences, (Vol. 7, No. 2).
Amstein, S. (1969). Eight Rungs on the Ladder of Citizen Participation. Journal of the American 
Institution of Planners. Vol 45.
Bass. B. M. (1985). Leadership and Performance Beyond Expectations. New York: Free Press.
Bass, B. M. and Avolio, B. J. (1990a). Developing Transformational Leadership: 1992 and 
Beyond. Journal of European Industrial Training (Vol. 14, Pp 21-27).
Bass, B. M. and Avolio, B. J. (1990b). The Implications of Transformational Leadership for 
Individual, Team, and Organizational Development. In Pasmore, W. and Woodman, R. 
W. (Eds), Research in Organizational Change and Development. Greenwich: Jai Press.
Battem, T. R. (1962). Training for Community Development: A Critical Study of Methods. 
London: Oxford University Press.
Betts, J. (2001). Literacy and Livelihood Strategies: Experience from El Salvador. El Salvador. 
Pp5.
Bryson, L. and Mowbray, M. (1981). “Community: The Spray-on-Solution'. Australian Journal 
of Social Sciences, (Vol. 16, No. 4, Pp 255-267).
Biney, I. K. (2003). Problems Affecting Local Leaders in Community Development Activities 
in Wassa West District in the Western Region. (MPhil Thesis. University of Ghana). 
Campfens, H. (1997). Community Development Around the World: Practice, Theory, Research,
117
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
Training(eds). Toronto. University of Toronto Press.
Certo, S. and Certo, T. S. (2006). Modern Management (10u‘ Ed.). New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Christenson. J. A. and Robinson, L. W. (1980). Community Development in America. Iowa: Iowa 
State University Press.
Cole. G. A. (2004). Management Theory and Practice. London: Thomas Rennie.
Commins, P.( 1979). Cooperation and Community Development in the West of Ireland. Fifth 
International Seminar on Marginal Regions. Dublin.
Cook, J. B. (1975). Citizen Participation: A Concepts Batteiy. Columbia. University of Missouri. 
Department of Regional and Community Affairs.
Daft, R. L. (1997). Management. (4th Ed.), Fort Worth: The Dryden Press.
Deci. E. (1972). Intrinsic Motivation, Extrinsic Reinforcement, and Inequity. Journal of 
Personality and Social Psychology (Vol.22, No. 1, Pp. 113-120).
Dessler, G. (2004). Management Principles and Practices for Tomorrow's Leaders. New Jersey: 
Pearson Custom Publishing.
Donnelly, J. H., Gibson, J. L. and Ivancevich, J. M. (1987). Fundamentals of Management. 
Homewood: Irwin.
Dorsner, C. (2004). Social Exclusion and Participation in Community Development: Evidence 
from Senegal in Social Policy and Administration (Vol. 38, No. 4). Oxford: Blackwell 
Publishing.
Eicher, C. and Staatz, J. (1998). International Agricultural Development. Baltimore: John 
Hopkins University Press.
Fiedler, F. E. A. (1967). Theory of Leadership Effectiveness. New' York: McGraw Hill.
Flo, F. and Smith, A. (1999). The Community Development Handbook: A Tool to Build 
Community Capacity. Quebec: Human Resource Development.
Fordjor, P. K. (2000). Dialogical Action and Participatory Effort in Rural Development at 
Tsawenu. Ghana. Institute of Adult Education. Accra. University of Ghana.
Frankel, J. R. and Wallen, N. E. (2003). How to Design and Evaluate Research in Education 
(S^ed). Boston. McGraw Hill.
118
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
Freeman. C. L. (1968). “Patterns of Local Community Leadership". A Journal of Research and 
Tlteoiy. Vol. 20. No. 4, pp. 244-245
Fricker, J. (1994) Training for Change: an Invest men! in People. Gower Handbook of Training 
and Development. Hemisphere. England: Gower Publishing.
Ghiselli. E. (1971). Explorations in Managerial Talent. Illinois: Scott Foresman.
Goodman. R.. Speers. M„ Mcleroy. K. and Wallerstein, N. (1998). "Identifying and Defining the 
Dimension of Community Capacity to Provide a Basis for Measurement". Vol.25, No. 3. Pp 
278-288.
Graeff, C. L. (1983). “The Situational Leadership Theory: A Critical Review". Academy of 
Management Review. (Pp 285-291)
Grotelueshen. A. D., and Others. (1974). An Evaluation Planner. Urbana: Office for the Study of 
Continuing Professional Education. University of Illinois. Pp 79.
Haan. et al. (1998).5oc/a/ Exclusion: An ILO Perspective. Geneva: International Institute for 
Labour Studies.
Handy. C. (1993). Understanding Organizations (3rd Ed.). Middliesex: Penguin.
Hellriegel, D. and Slocum, J. W. Jnr. (1992). Management. New York: Addison and Wesley 
Publishing Company.
Henslin, J. M. (2004). Essentials of Sociology: A Down-To-Earth Approach (9th Ed.). Boston: 
Pearson.
Herberlin. T. (1976). Principles of Public Involvement. Madison. University of Wisconson.
Holcombe, S. (1995). Managing to Empower: The Gremeem Bank's Experience of Poverty. 
London. Zed Books Ltd.
Jago, A. (1982). Leadership; Perspectives in Theory and Research. Management Science. Vol. 
28, No. 3, Pp. 330.
Katz, D. and Khan. R. L. (1978). The Social Psychology of Organizations. New York: John 
Wiley and Sons.
Kinard, J. (1988). Management. Lexington, D.C. Heath and Company.
Kinicki, A. and Kreitner, R. (2006). Organizational Behaviour: Key Concepts. Skills and Best 
Practices (2nd Ed.). New York: McGraw Hill.
119
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
Kirk, P. and Kraft, M. K. (2004). “Community Leadership Development”. Community 
Development Journal. Vol. 39, Pp 234-251.
Knowles, M. (1980). The Modern Practice of Adult Education. New York: The Adult Education 
Company.
Kotter, J. P. (1988). The Leadership Factor. New York: Free Press.
Kumar, A. (1979). “Education for Rural Development”. In Brown, L. and Tomori. S. H. O. 
(1979). A Handbook of Adult Education for West Africa. London: Hutchison and Company.
Kumekpor. T. K. B. (2002). Research Methods and Techniques of Social Research. Accra. 
SonLife Press.
Labonte. R. and Laverack, G. (2001a). Capacity Building in Health Promotion, Part 1: For 
Whom? And for What Purpose? Critical Public Health. Vol. 11, No. 2, Pp 111-128.
Lewis, P. V. (1983). Managing Human Relation. Boston: Kent Publishing.
Likert R. (1961). New Patterns of Management. New York: McGraw Hill.
Lussier, R. N. (1996). Human Relations in Organizations: A Skill-Building Approach. Boston: 
Irwin McGraw Hill.
Malasis, L. (1976). The Rural World: Education and Development. London: Croom Helm 
Limited.
Marfo-Yiadom, E. (2005). Principles of Management. Accra: Woeli Publishing.
McCall, K. W. and Lombardo, M. M. (1983). “What Makes a Top Executive”, Psychology 
Today.
McDonald, B. (1974). Evaluation and the Control of Education. Unpublished Paper. Centre for 
Applied Research in Education. University of East Anglia. May, 1974.
Ministry of Health. (2004). Population and Housing Census. Ministry' of Health.
Moon, Bruce, E. (1991). The Political Economy of Basic Human Needs. New York. Comel 
University Press.
Mullins, L. J. (2007). Management and Organizational Behaviour. London: Prentince-HU.
120
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
Oakley, P. and Marsden, D. (1984). Approaches to Participation in Rural Development. Geneva. 
1LO.
Oduro-Mensah, D. (2004). “Philosophical Basis of Adult Education in Ghana.” The Practice of 
Adult Education in Ghana. Ghana Universities Press, Accra.
Ogbonnia, K. S. (2007). Political Party System and Effective Leadership in Nigeria: A 
Contemporary Approach. MA Dissertation: Walden University.
Oke, G. G. (2009). Development of a Vocational Skills and Entrepreneurship Training 
Programme: An Empowerment Initiative for Vulnerable Groups in African Countries. 
Journal of Literacy and Adult Education. Vol. 4. No. 1. July, 2009.
Okonjo. C. (1986). The Concept of Development: In Brown, C. K. (ed). Rural Dev elopment in 
Ghana. Ghana University Press, Accra
Pateman. C. (1970). Participation and Democratic Theory. Cambridge. Cambridge University 
Press.
Richard, G. (1973). Participation by Adults: Traps for Development Educators. In Adult 
Education and Development. No. 32.
Rifkin, S. (1986). Lessons from Community Participation in Health Promotion Programmes. 
Health Policy and Planning. Vol. 1. No 3, pp 240-249
Rivlin. A. M. (1971). Systematic Thinking for Social Action. Washington D. C. Brookings.
Robbins, S. P. (1989). Organizational Behaviour: Concepts. Controversies and Applications (4* 
Ed.). London: Prentice-Hall.
Rogers, A. (1999). Learning the Quality of Adult Literacy: The Real Literacies Approach. 
International Journal of Educational Development. Pp 11-22
Rubin, H. J. and Rubin I.S. (2008). Community Organising and Development (4°' ed)
London: Pearson Education Inc. Boston.
Rue, W. L. and Byers, L. L. (2005). Management Skills and Application (11* Ed.) New York: 
McGraw Hill.
Sanders, I. (1958). “Theories of Community Development”. Rural Sociolog\\ Vol. 23 Pp 1-12. 
Schaefer, R. T. (2005). Sociology (9th Ed). Boston: McGraw HILL.
Schermcrhom, J. R. (1996). Management and Organizational Behaviour: Essentials. Ohio: John 
Wiley and Son.
Sill, D. (1968). Voluntary Associations: Sociological Aspects. International Encyclopedia of the 
Social Sciences. Vol 16. New York. MacMillan.
121
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
Smith. M. K. (1996). Community Education in Scotland. Infcd. www.infcd.or^/community/b
Szilagyi, A. D. (1984). Management and Performance. Illinois: Scott Forcsman.
Teorell. L. (2001). Political Participation and Theories of Democracy: A Research Agenda. 
Paper Delivered at the 2001 Annual Meeting of the American Political Scicncc 
Association. Hilton, San Francisco: August 30lh 2000.
UN AIDS. (1997). Community Mobilization and AIDS: Technical Update. Geneva: UNAIDS.
Warren, R. L. (1978). The Community in America. Chicago: Randy McNally.
Weber. M. (1947). The Theory of Social and Economic Organization. New York: Free Press.
Wilson, G. L. (1999). Groups in Context: Leadership and Participation in Small Groups (S1*1 
Ed). New York. McGraw Hill.
Wilson, J.P. (2005). Human Resource Development. London: Kogan page.
Yabang. C. (2008). Sawla-Tuna-Kalba District: A Multi-generational Poor Area. Sawla-Tuna- 
Kalba District Assembly, (pp 1 -4).
Youngman. F. (2000). The Political Economy of Adult Education and Development. London. 
Zed Books.
122
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
APPENDIX
UNIVERSITY OF GHANA
INSTITUTE OF CONTINUING AND DISTANCE EDUCATION
INTERVIEW SCHEDULE FOR ADULT COMMUNITY LEADERS LIVING IN THE 
SAWLA-TUNA-KALBA DISTRICT OF THE NORTHERN REGION
As part of my work towards fulfilling the requirement for the award of a Master of Philosophy 
degree in Adult Education, at the University of Ghana, Legon, I am undertaking a research on 
"Participation of Community Leaders in Community Development Activities at Sawla-Tuna- 
Kalba District of the Northern Region. Your answers to questions in the interview schedule will 
be used together with other information to determine the extent of community leaders' 
participation in the development of the district.
Please, this research is solely for academic purpose therefore, you are encouraged to answer the 
questions as frankly as possible. Your responses would be held in strict confidence.
Thank you.
123
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
1. List development activities that have been undertaken in the district within the past two years?
Section A: Community Development Activities undertaken in the District.
2. Which of the listed activities in question 1 above was undertaken by the community?
3. Which of the development activities listed above were you involved in?
Section B: Level of Involvement of Community Leaders in Community Development 
Activities.
B(i) Planning Community Development Activities.
4. What is your level of participation in the listed stages of planning of community development 
activities in your community? (Please tick as applicable)
124
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
Stages of Never Rare Occasional Frequent
Always
Identifying
community
development
problems
Setting
community
development
objectives
Identifying 
ways of 
solving the 
problems
Discussing 
the proposed 
solutions
Taking the
final
decision
B(ii). Implementing Community Development Activities.
5. What is your level of participation in the listed stages of implementing development 
activities in your community? (Please tick as applicable).
Stages of 
involvement
Never Rare Occasional Frequent Always
Drawing the 
work plan
Seeking the 
involvement 
of community 
members
Assigning
roles
Acquiring 
materials for 
the activity
Final
execution of 
the job
125
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
6. What is your level of participation in the listed stages of monitoring and evaluation of 
development activities in your community? (Please tick as applicable).
B(iii). Monitoring and Evaluation of Community Development Activities.
Stages of 
Involvement
Never (none) Rare Occasional Frequent Always
Identifying 
areas to 
monitor and 
evaluate
Designing the
monitoring
and
evaluation
plan
Monitoring
Evaluation
126
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
Section C: Ways of enhancing community leaders’ participation in community
development activities
7. What is your level of agreement to the following ways of enhancing your participation in 
development activities in your community? (Please tick as applicable).
Factors Strongly
Agree
Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Availability 
of funds for 
development 
activities
Provision of 
rewards
Involvement 
of community 
members
Availability 
of material 
resources
High level of
formal
education
1 11
8. What other thing(s) can you do to enhance your participation in development activities in your 
community?
127
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
9. What other thing(s) can stakeholders (government, NGO’s, and corporate entities) do to 
enhance your participation in community development activities?
Thank you.
128
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
129
University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh