University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh EFFECT OF VARIOUS COMBINATIONS OF ORGANIC FERTILIZERS ON YIELD AND ITS COMPONENTS AND EVALUATION OF THREE EXTRACTION METHODS ON SEED QUALITY OF TOMATO (Lycopersicon esculentum) IN GHANA BY MOMODOU LAMIN DARBOE (10591052) THIS THESIS IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF MASTER OF PHILOSOPHY DEGREE IN SEED SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY. WEST AFRICA CENTRE FOR CROP IMPROVEMENT COLLEGE OF BASIC AND APPLIED SCIENCES UNIVERSITY OF GHANA LEGON JULY, 2018 i University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DECLARATION I, Momodou Lamin Darboe, is hereby declare that this thesis has not been submitted to any other university for a degree. The report herein presented is the result of my own investigation. All references to other works as sources of information have been duly acknowledged. MOMODOU LAMIN DARBOE SIGNATURE…………………………… (STUDENT) DATE……………………………………. PROF. PANGIRAYI TONGOONA SIGNATURE……………………………. (SUPERVISOR) DATE……………………………………. DR. NAALAMLE AMISSAH SIGNATURE…………………………… (SUPERVISOR) DATE…………………………………… DR. SELOAME NYAKU SIGNATURE…………………………… (SUPERVISOR) DATE…………………………………….. i University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ABSTRACT Tomato is one of the most important vegetable crops in the world which is either consumed fresh or as a paste. The high cost of chemical fertilizers has led to farmers turning to alternative methods of cultivation like the use of organic manure. Most organic waste can be turned into fertilizer at low cost for crop production. Information on the effects of different extraction duration methods on seed quality and the costs involved have not been documented under production conditions in Ghana. The objectives of this study were to 1) determine optimal combinations of organic manure for maximum yield in tomato cultivation, 2) to determine the effects of seed extraction techniques on quality seed production as well as 3) cost benefit analysis for seed extraction and fruit production. The tomato variety used in the study was Pectomech, the most common tomato variety grown in Ghana due to its high yielding and tolerant to the environment. The research consist of seven treatments namely: cow dung 20 tons/ha, poultry manure 20 tons/ha, cow dung 10 tons/ha + poultry manure 10 tons/ha, cow dung 15 tons/ha + poultry manure 5 tons/ha, cow dung 5 tons/ha + poultry manure 15 tons/ha, NPK 150 kg/ha + urea 100 kg/ha and a control without application of organic manure no chemical fertilizer. The organic manures were applied on plots and incorporated into the soil. The experimental design used was a randomized complete block design with four replicates. Data collected included, chlorophyll content of leaves, number of branches per plant, number of leaves per plant, plant height, stem diameter, days to 50% flowering, day to 50% fruiting, days to 50% ripening, marketable fruit number and its weight, unmarketable fruit number and its weight, and yield per hectare in kilograms. Subsequently the following data was collected on extracted seeds (weight germination, ii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh and seedling height. The treatment effects produced significant differences (P = 0.05) in, days to 50% flowering, fruiting, and fruit ripening. The seeds obtained by extraction methods revealed cow dung manure at 20 tons/ha produced the maximum seed weight per hectare (55.8 kg/ha) whilst the control produced the least (20.6 kg/ha). Tomato seeds extracted and fermented for two days resulted in good quality seed (98.7% germination - blotter method; 86.5% germination - seed tray method) and seedlings (height 9.6 cm). Fermenting of seeds for two days was the most profitable extraction method. iii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DEDICATION I dedicate this work to Allah the Almighty and to my lovely late father Alh. Fanding Darboe and mother Aja Babung Saidyleigh. My brothers Abdou Karim Darboe, Bakebba Darboe and Seedy Darboe. My dearly sisters Fatoumatta Darboe, Marima Darboe, My Faithful lovely wives Aja Naba Darboe, Sunna Kanyi Darboe, Kaddy Kanyi Darboe, Maimuna Camara Darboe and to my children Fatomatta Naba Darboe, Muhammed Naba Darboe, Abdou Karim Naba Darboe, Alieu Naba Darboe, Binta Naba Darboe, Marima Naba Darboe, Fatou Sunna Darboe, Muhammed Sunna Darboe, Bintou Sunna Darboe, Abdoulie Sunna Darboe, Amadou Kaddy Darboe, Asia Kaddy Darboe, Alh. Kaddy Darboe, Mustapha Maimuna Darboe, Aminata Maimna Darboe, Rokeyatou Maimuna Darboe and the entire children, friends and relatives for their help and patient during my absence. iv University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I thank the Almighty Allah for the blessing and guidance that has enabled me to complete this thesis without problems. I would like to express my gratitude to my supervisors, Prof. Pangirayi Tongoona, Dr. Naalamle Amissah and Dr. Seloame Nyaku for their sound professional supervision which enabled me to complete this thesis successfully. I wish to express my sincere appreciation to Prof. E. Y. Danquah, director of the West Africa Centre for Crop Improvement (WACCI), the course coordinator Dr. Agyeman Danquah and the entire staff of WACCI. I would like to express my appreciation to the Government of the Gambia for the Award of the World Bank African Centres of Excellence (ACE) Project Scholarship through Ministry of Higher Education, Research, Science and Technology (MOHERST) of The Gambia for funding my degree programme. I am sincerely indebted to the Ministry of Agriculture The Gambia, Department of Agriculture (DoA), Horticulture Technical Service (HTS). My special thanks and appreciation go to the entire staff of the Department of Agriculture with special emphasis to Director General Department of Agricultural (DoA) Mr. Sariyang MK Jobateh, Deputy Director Horticulture Technical Service (HTS) Ms Amie Faburay, Mr. Ebou Mendy v University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Director Administration and Mr. Lamin Darboe Deputy Director Administration. and the following retired staff of DoA Director General Department of Agriculture Mr. Falalo M Touray, Mr. Ebrima ML Saidy Regional Director Lower River Region for their encouragement. and the coordinator of ACE scholarship program Mr. Yusupy Touray Ministry of Higher Education, Research Science and Technology (MOHERST) of The Gambia. My special thanks go to Mr. Joseph Ampah. Mr. Willian A Asante, Mr. Quarshie Gilbert Vincent and Agyapong Amoah Prince Joseph Department of Crop Science University of Ghana for helping either in the field or laboratory work. I am also grateful to University Farm Managers at West Africa Centre for Crop Improvement (WACCI) and Department of Crop Science for assisting me in diverse ways. Finally, am extending my appreciation to my lovely father Alh. Fanding Darboe and mother Aja Babung Saidyleigh. My brothers Abdou Karim Darboe, Bakebba Darboe and Seedy Darboe, sisters Fatoumatta Darboe, Marima Darboe, My Faithful lovely wives Aja Naba Darboe, Sunna Kanyi Darboe, Kaddy Kanyi Darboe, Maimuna Camara Darboe and to all my children and friends for their support. vi University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION ................................................................................................................. i ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................ ii DEDICATION ................................................................................................................... iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENT .................................................................................................. v TABLE OF CONTENTS .................................................................................................. vii LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................... i LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ............................................................................................. ii CHAPTER ONE ................................................................................................................. 1 1.0 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Background to the Study ........................................................................................... 1 1.2 Problem Statement .................................................................................................... 5 1.3 Objectives of the Study ............................................................................................. 6 CHAPTER TWO ................................................................................................................ 7 vii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................. 7 2.1. Origin and importance of tomato ............................................................................. 7 2. 2 Botany ...................................................................................................................... 8 2. 3 Varieties of tomatoes cultivated in Ghana ............................................................... 9 2.4 Soils and environmental conditions for tomato production ...................................... 9 2.5 Background on Plant Nutrients ............................................................................... 10 2.5.1 Soil requirements for Tomato .............................................................................. 11 2.5.2 Nutrient requirements for Tomato........................................................................ 11 2.5.4 Integrated Nutrient Management ......................................................................... 14 2.6 Challenges associated with tomato production ....................................................... 15 2.6.1 Blossom-End Rot ................................................................................................. 16 2.6.2 Flower abortion .................................................................................................... 16 2.6.3 Fruit Cracking ...................................................................................................... 17 2.6.4 Puffiness ............................................................................................................... 17 2.7.1 Bacterial spot ........................................................................................................ 18 2.7.3 Bacterial speck ..................................................................................................... 19 2.8. Common Viral Diseases of Tomato ....................................................................... 19 2.8.1 Tomato spotted wilt virus (TSWV)……………………………………………19- 19 2.8.2 Cucumber mosaic virus (CMV)…………………………………………………20 viii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.9. Common fungal diseases of tomato ....................................................................... 20 2.9.1. Early blight…………………………………………………………………..20-20 2.9.2. Late blight ........................................................................................................... 21 2.9.3. Fusarium wilt....................................................................................................... 21 2.10. Weeds……………………………………………………………………………211 2.11. Essential Nutrients for Tomato Production .......................................................... 22 2.11.1. Phosphorus ........................................................................................................ 22 2.11.2. Potassium……………………………………………………………………...232 2.11.3. Calcium…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….22 2.12. Sources of Nutrients for Tomato Production ....................................................... 23 2.13. Effect of Organic and Inorganic Fertilizers on Growth, Yield and Shelf Life-23 23 2.14. Yield ..................................................................................................................... 24 2.15 Shelf Life or Quality of Tomato Fruit ................................................................... 25 2.16 Sources of Tomato Seeds by Sub-Saharan African Farmers……………………26 2.17 Tomato Seed Quality…………………………………………………………26-27 2.18 Seed purity............................................................................................................. 27 2.19 Seed viability…………………………………………………………………27-28 ix University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.20 Seed Vigour ........................................................................................................... 28 2.21 Seed Germination……………………………………………………………..28-29 2.22 Seed Health ........................................................................................................... 29 2.23 Post-harvest handling and losses of tomato…………………………………..29-30 CHAPTER THREE .......................................................................................................... 31 3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS ................................................................................ 31 3.1. Experimental site .................................................................................................... 31 3.2. Experimental design ............................................................................................... 31 3.3 Land Preparation and application of fertilizer treatments ....................................... 32 3. 4. Sample collection of Soil and Organic manure data ............................................. 32 3.5. Tomato seed and nursery management .................................................................. 33 3.6. Weed control .......................................................................................................... 33 3.7. Irrigation ................................................................................................................. 33 3.8. Staking .................................................................................................................... 34 3.9. Pests and disease control measures ........................................................................ 34 3.10. Field Data Collection ........................................................................................... 34 3.10.1. Plant height at harvest (cm) ............................................................................... 35 3.10.2. Chlorophyll content ........................................................................................... 35 3.10.4. Number of branches .......................................................................................... 36 3.10.5. Stem diameter (mm) .......................................................................................... 36 x University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.10.7. Days of 50% fruiting ......................................................................................... 36 3.10.8. Days to 50% red ripe fruits harvested ............................................................... 36 3.10.9. Fruit weight per plant (kg) ................................................................................ 36 3.10.10. Marketable fruits ............................................................................................. 37 3.12. Seed germination and seedling height .................................................................. 39 3.13. Data analysis ........................................................................................................ 40 CHAPTER FOUR ............................................................................................................. 40 4.0 RESULTS ................................................................................................................... 40 4.1 Chemical Analysis of Soil and Organic manure samples ........................................... 40 4.1.2 Chemical Analysis of Organic manures Samples ................................................ 42 4. 2. Chlorophyll content from weeks one to eight after transplanting ......................... 42 4.3. Number of branches from weeks one to eight after transplanting ......................... 45 4.4. Number of leaves from weeks one to eight after transplanting ............................. 47 4.5. Plant height (cm) from weeks one to eight after transplanting .............................. 49 4.6. Stem diameter from weeks one to eight after transplanting ................................... 51 4.7. Days to 50% flowering ........................................................................................... 53 4.8 Days to 50% fruiting ............................................................................................... 54 4.9 Days to 50% ripening .............................................................................................. 54 4.10 Marketable fruit number, weight and unmarketable fruit number and weight ..... 55 4.10.3 Marketable fruit number and weight per hectare ............................................... 57 xi University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.12 Weight of seeds per seed extraction fermentation and per treatment ................... 59 4.13 Germination test of Seeds ..................................................................................... 60 4.14 Seedling heights for week one and two ................................................................. 62 4.14.1 Seedling heights for week three and four ........................................................... 63 4.15 Cost Benefit Analysis for Producing Tomato Fruits ............................................. 65 4.16 Cost Benefit Analysis for Producing Tomato Seeds ............................................. 66 CHAPTER FIVE .............................................................................................................. 67 5.0 DISCUSSION ............................................................................................................. 67 5.1 Effect of treatments on Chlorophyll content ........................................................... 68 5.2 Effects of treatments on number of branches .......................................................... 68 5.3 Effect of treatments on number of leaves................................................................ 69 5.4 Effects of treatments on Plant height .................................................................... 69 5.5 Effects of treatments on stem diameter ................................................................. 69 5.6 Effects of treatments on Days to 50% flowering, fruiting and ripening ............... 70 5.7 Treatment effects on number and weights of marketable fruits ............................ 70 5.8 Effect of treatments on weight of seeds extracted and percent germination ........... 71 5.9 Effect of treatments and days to seed extraction on seedling height .................... 72 5.10 Cost benefit analysis.............................................................................................. 72 CHAPTER SIX ................................................................................................................. 73 6.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION ........................................................ 73 xii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6.1 Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 73 6.2 Recommendation ..................................................................................................... 73 REFERENCES ................................................................................................................. 74 APPENDICES ............................................................................................................... 82 xiii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Chemical Analysis of Soil Samples ................................................................... 41 Table 2: Chemical Analysis of Organic manures Samples .............................................. 42 Table 3: Days to 50% flowering, fruiting and ripening .................................................... 55 Table 4: Marketable fruit number, weight and unmarketable fruit number and weight ... 56 Table 5: Marketable fruit number and weight per hectare ................................................ 57 Table 6: Weight of seeds per seed extraction fermentation and per treatment ................. 59 Table 7: Percent germination for blotter and seed tray method ........................................ 61 Table 8: Seedling heights for weeks one and two ............................................................. 63 Table 9: Seedling heights for week three and four ........................................................... 64 Table 10: Cost Benefit Analysis for Producing Tomato Fruits ........................................ 65 Table 11: Cost Benefit Analysis for producing Tomato Seeds ......................................... 67 i University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: a) Seed extraction, b) fermentation and washing process c) Fruit quality ....... 38 Figure 2: Seed packaged into sealed plastic air tight container for storage ..................... 39 Figure 3: Chlorophyll content from weeks one to eight after transplanting .................... 45 Figure 4: Number of branches from weeks one to eight after transplanting ................... 47 Figure 5: Number of leaves from weeks one to eight after transplanting ........................ 49 Figure 6: Plant height (cm) from weeks one to eight after transplanting ........................ 51 Figure 7: Stem diameter (mm) from weeks one to eight after transplanting ................... 53 Figure 8: Marketable fruit harvests .................................................................................. 57 Figure 9: Unmarketable fruit harvests ............................................................................. 57 Figure 10: Caterpillar damage on tomato fruits ........................................................................ 58 i University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ANOVA Analysis of Variance CD Cow dung CMV Cucumber mosaic virus CM Centimeters 0 C Degree Celsius FAO Food and Agriculture Organization FAOSTAT Food and Agriculture Organization databases KG/HA Kilogram per hectare IFOAM International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements, ISTA International Seed Testing Association LSD Least significant difference MT Metric tons MM Millimetres NPK Nitrogen Phosphorus Potassium PM Poultry manure RCBD Randomized Complete Block Design SSA Sub-Saharan Africa’s TSWV Tomato spotted wilt virus UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization USDA United State Department of Agriculture WRB World Reference Base WP Wettable power ii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER ONE 1.0 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background to the Study Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum (L.) Mill) belongs to the family Solanaceae and is an important consumable vegetable crop worldwide, consumed as fresh fruit or paste (Alofe & Somade, 2002). This crop has potential roles in the improvement of human diets. The fruit is used for various culinary form either in fresh form with salad or, soup, puree in gravies and stew in the diet of a diverse cultures of the world. Fruits and vegetables such as tomatoes consist more than 90% of the vitamin C in human diets (Vallejo et al., 2002). The Food and Agricultural Organization (2008) has reported that, farmers and consumers go for alternative tomato production methods because of the benefits attached to them. These alternative productions include use of organic manures instead of inorganic fertilizers which are expensive. It is agreed that the use of organic fertilizers offer a better option for sustainable agriculture. Although consumers tend to pay higher prices for organic products, a vital aspects of crop production involves using organic manure which is safer for the consumer instead of chemical fertilizers (Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), 2008). The European Union has established methods for organic crop production in the EEC regulation 2092/91 including certification (International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements, 2012). These methods clearly outline the exact inputs and quantities that are allowed for organic production. Farmers are required to produce seeds or other propagation materials under organic farming conditions (Liu & Hołubowicz, 2012; International Federation of Organic and Agricultural Movement (IFOAM), 2011). 1 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Agriculture serves as driving forces for Sub-Saharan Africa’s (SSA) economies with the cultivation of vegetables such as tomato, cereals and legumes being major contributors to agricultural production (World Bank, 2015). In Ghana, farmers have relied on subsistence farming practices over the years even though at a low level of yield (Heinimann et al., 2017). Due to increase in human population, continuous cultivation without sufficiently replenishing soil nutrients causes declined in crop yield. Intensive cultivation causes the soils to become fragile and lose organic matter and nutrients when exposed to harsh environmental conditions. This decline in soil fertility has mostly affected smallholder farmers. A major biophysical constraint to agriculture directly related to the decline in the soil fertility has been a deficiency in certain essential nutrients such as nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) (Mokwunye et al., 2006; Sanche et al., 2007). In addition to these important factors such as soil erosion, drought, and the need for improved crop germplasm have only recently received necessary attention especially in Africa (Davis & Schirmer, 2007; Eicher, 2002; Lele, 2001). The development community has reported that food production per capita in Africa would not be improved if other conditions are remedied without instituting measures to improve soil fertility. According to (Ministry of Food and Agriculture, 2008);(Bumb, 2004), high cost of mineral fertilizer is presently the major constrained in sustaining soil fertility to increased crop production and productivity in tropical Africa. In Ghana, large amount of organic waste is generated which could be converted to fertilizers for crop production at low cost. Additionally, large quantities of poultry manure and urban waste which often face 2 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh disposable problems in cities could be an alternative source of organic manure (Quansah, 2000). The use of organic products such as crop residues, animal manures and compost greatly improved physical, chemical and microbiological properties of the soil as well as nutrient supply (Stone & Elioff, 2008). In order to sustain increased crop productivity in agriculture, practices such as maintaining or increasing the use of organic matter reserves must be adopted. Young (1976) reported the significance of organic matter with good moisture content in tropical soils for plant growth, increases production and productivity. It has been noted that organic fertilizers potential has not be thoroughly utilised by research, if used efficiently, it contributes to improved soil structure and increases in crop yield. It has been indicated that combination of organic and mineral fertilizers greatly increases crop yields than using either one alone. It has been noted that Ghanaian soils has low soil fertility that led into low yield in crop production and it requires supplementary inputs to increase soil fertility (Kombiok et al., 2008). Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum (L.) Mill), is one of the widely cultivated vegetable and consumed Worldwide. (Fernqvist, 2014; Kimura & Sinha, 2008). It is reported that tomato ranked first among processing crops and it’s the most important world consumable vegetable after potato (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2008). It is economically attractive for its edible fruit, use as herb and income for farmers while the area under cultivation is increasing (Naika, 2005; Obeng-Ofori & Fianu, 2006; Tjärnemo, 2010). 3 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The potential yield of tomato ranges from 60 to 100 tons per hectare (Bok et al., 2006; Varela, et al., 2003) Tomato serves as a source of micronutrients in human diets such as phosphorus, iron and vitamins A, B and C (Naika, 2005; Varela, Sutanto, Suproyo & Mass, 2003). According to Ellis (2008), tomato production in Ghana is a very lucrative business despite the many production setbacks. It serves as source of employment for farmers and for that matter a source of income that supports their livelihoods. In comparing tomato to other vegetables used in Ghana, is greatly used in large due to its usage in different types of food. The crop is grown for the fresh market and for processing (Ellis, 2008). As a food crop, it serves as an essential ingredient in the diet of Ghanaians, for almost all the local and continental dishes prepared in the country. It is a part of the nation’s food basket in the determination of the country gross domestic product and inflation rates. It serves as a source of income for both small farmers and firms and a source of foreign exchange for the country. Its cultivation provides employment to farmers who engage in it and a source of income to support their livelihoods (www.ghanabizmedia.com). It has been noted that the tomato sector in Ghana could not meet the required demand of tomato produced for the country that leading to importation of huge quantity of tomato from other countries. The inability to sustain processing plants, improving the livelihoods of farmers involved in tomato production and the tomato commodity value chain are all reasons why the sector has failed to reach its potential (Obeng-Ofori & Fianu, 2006). The tomato production over the years in Ghana, has not been encouraged, which result into low production and reported to have recorded a production of tomatoes and tomato 4 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh products of about 340,000 tonnes, and imports 7,000 Metric tons monthly from Burkina Faso (Food and Agricultural Organization, 2008; Inusah, 2013). Tomato production is mainly done under rain-fed condition that greatly result into glut and eventually reduces the prices. (www.ifpri.org ). The research will determine optimum combination of organic manure for quality yield tomato production, encourage environmental sanitation through refuses collection for compost making and reduce production expenses. Tomato growth and yield response to different doses of organic manures application (Dantata, 2011). It has been noted that various tomato seed extraction methods affect quality seed germination (Jadi & Singh, 2009; Yadar, Ssali, Ahn & Mokwunye, 2004). This has instigated this research to determine the best practices to enhance quality seed germination to reduce farmers production cost. Tomato seed quality is affected by fruit maturity at harvest; seed extraction fermentation duration method and fermentation temperature. It is recommended that 20º C for 24 to 48 hours is ideal for seed fermentation and extraction (Demir & Samit, 2001; Eevera & Vanangamudi, 2006).The affordability of high cost fertilizers and quality seeds are the major problem for vegetable production in West Africa, that lead farmers to use their own saved seed for planting (CORAAF 2008; USAID, 2010). 1.2 Problem Statement In tropical Africa, agriculture encountered series of problems such poor soil fertility, with low production input compared to develop countries (Bationo et al., 2006). In Africa, soil 5 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh nutrient content is very low. This results from insufficient fertilizer input support to increase soil fertility greatly which enhances soil nutrient depletion. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) noted that Africa soils has diverse classes, that make it difficult to recommend general agricultural practices (Bationo et al., 2006). The World Reference Base (WRB) has indicated that in Ghana southern lands soil dominantly covered by andosol (Bationo et al., 2006). Therefore, the region is considered as potential area for agricultural production.(Bationo et al., 2006).The soil become intensely cultivated with different fruit crops and served as source for vegetable market for farmers (Sanchez et al, 2007) The andosols have high content of organic matter with good water holding capacity and are the most implored soils for tomato production. Therefore, lack of good agricultural practices results into removal of plant nutrient through water soil erosion, continuous cultivation of the land with little or no soil amendment, and removal of crop residues, were due to lack of investigation on soil fertility content and inadequate knowledge on soil fertility management Sanchez et al, 2007). 1.3 Objectives of the Study The objectives of the study are to determine: i. optimal combinations of organic manure for maximum yield output in tomato production, ii. seed extraction techniques that support quality seed of tomato, and iii. the most profitable seed extraction duration method (s) in tomato seed production. 6 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER TWO 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1. Origin and importance of tomato Tomato, from the family: Solanaceae, (Lycopersicon esculentum), originated in Peru, and was domesticated in Mexico (Peet, 2001). The crop is an important vegetable crop widely grown throughout the world. It is ranked as the first processing crop in the world (Mohammed, et al 2013). According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) (2007), tomato has a production of over 120 million metric tons worldwide every year. This makes it one of the most widely worldwide used vegetable economy (Chapagain and Wiesman, 2004). It has been proven that tomato has lots of health benefits (Ilahy et al., 2011, Gopalan, 2004). It is rich in lots of micro nutrients such vitamins, essential amino acids, sugars and dietary fibres (Balestrieri et al., 2004; Frusciante et al., 2007). Tomato contains high levels of vitamin B and C, iron, phosphorus with many other nutrient components. For instance, several studies have found tomato as the main source of lycopene, and it is an important source of β-carotene, ascorbic acid, vitamin E and phenolic compounds, which give benefits to humans because of antioxidant activity (Balestrieri et al., 2004; Frusciante et al., 2007; Guil-Guerrero and Rebolloso-Fuentes, 2009; Leonardi et al., 2000; Mueller, 1997; Raffo et al., 2006; Rosales et al., 2011; Yahia et al., 2001). It is therefore not surprising that it is one of the prominent commercial vegetables in Ghana. 7 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2. 2 Botany Tomato plant is considered to be either determinate or indeterminate. The determinate or bushy type has limited flowering period, for fruit development to occur. The indeterminate or ‘vine’ type of tomato produces inflorescence or flowers continuously within crop production life span. Therefore, indeterminate cultivars yield typically not affected due to flower initiation. Furthermore, tomato is economically useful for many research purposes. It is an annual crop agreeable to various horticultural operations, such as grafting or cutting. Numerous types of explants can be cultured in vitro and plant regeneration is feasible, allowing the growth of alteration measures (Hille et al., 2009). The tomato fruits at tender stage are fleshy, berries and hairy, when ripe it appears smooth, and shiny with high content of water. The seeds of tomato are flat and buried in a jelly- like mass of tissues with huge amounts of phosphorous (Kochhar, 2006). According to Kochhar (2006), tomato fruits contain not less than 94% water with moderate quantities of Vitamin C. It has been narrated by Siesmonsa and Piluek (2003), about 24% oil contain in seed of tomato used as salad oil, processing of soap and margarine. The, press cake’ of residual mass are used as fertilizer and livestock feed. The color is valued for its distinctive flavor, pleasing acidic taste in fresh canned or preserved state. The fruits served food preparation: ketchup, salads, soups and pickles. (Siesmonsa & Piluek, 2003). The tomato as mainly propagated by seed; good quality seeds is highly needed that would yield vigorous seedlings to produce high quality fruits for the producers. The crop is cultivated by sowing seed at the nursery with proper care for about four weeks and transplant in the field 8 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The objective of this study was to determine optimal combination of organic manure for maximum yield output in tomato production, determine seed extraction techniques that support quality seed of tomato, to determine the most profitable seed extraction duration method (s) in tomato seed production. 2. 3 Varieties of tomatoes cultivated in Ghana Some of the recommended varieties of tomatoes cultivated by farmers in Ghana include Pectomech, Roma VF, Tropimech, Rio Grande, Cac J, Wosowoso and Laurano 70. Certified seed producers, certified agricultural input dealers and input shops of the Ministry of Food and Agriculture are the source of seeds available to producers (MoFAIR Centre, 2008). Statistical figures (Ministry of Food and Agriculture, 2008) indicated a decline in the production of food, especially fruits and vegetables in Ghana. This is evident in the volume of fresh tomatoes that is imported into the country from neighbouring countries like Burkina Faso (over 40% of fresh tomato demand) and tinned tomato puree from Europe (Anum, 2009). 2.4 Soils and environmental conditions for tomato production According to Marcelis et al., (2004) high temperatures may cause splitting of the staminal cone and also leads to fasciation of the style. Tomato is a warm season vegetable and requires a well-drained, fertile soil with good water holding capacity with high level of organic matter (Morales-Olmedo et al., 2015; Schwarz et al., 2014). Although tomatoes grow well on many different soil types, deep, loamy, well-drained soil supplied with organic matter and nutrients are most suitable (Morales-Olmedo et al., 2015; Schwarz et al., 2014). It is preferable to cultivate tomatoes in a well-drained soil, field free from waterlogging condition, as tomato is sensitive to waterlogging ( Schwarz et al., 2014). 9 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The fruit requires adequate amounts of nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium and prefer split application of potassium to enhance quality fruiting (Morgan, 2006). Additionally correct application of organic fertilizer helps to sustain the nutrient component of the soil thereby make nutrients available for plant uptake with growing season (Rob den Ouden, 2014). This is because the use of organic fertilizer increases microbiological activity in the soil. Organic substances are broken down into particles by soil microorganisms to make nutrient available for plant use. The excess soil moisture content and high temperature retard seed germination and seedling growth, while high 0 air temperatures above 27 C cause pollen sterility with high night temperatures adversely 0 affecting flower initiation while night temperatures of about 19-20 C are considered suitable for most cultivars (Inthichack, et al. , 2014; Kulkarni, 2012). It has been noticed that under dosage of chemical fertilizer could dramatically influence negative absorption of nutrient by plant while its excessive used would create nutrient imbalances making it more prone to pests and disease (Altieri, Ponti & Nicholls, 2012). 2.5 Background on Plant Nutrients Among the factors that contribute to low tomato yield in Ghana is low soil fertility and unfavorable soil physical properties (Appiah, 2015). Over several decades, nutrient depletion as a result of unsustainable farming practices such as slash and burn, continuous cropping among others have transformed originally fertile lands into infertile ones (de Moura et al., 2016). The adoption of good agricultural practices with the use of organic fertilizers, crop rotation and mixed cropping by farmers in times past, resulted increase in crop yield (Ekepu & Tirivanhu, 2016). These traditional strategies have been 10 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh unsustainable in the production of crops due to the limited areas of land from population explosion and its associated pressures (Ekepu & Tirivanhu, 2016). Tomatoes are quality nutrient-demanding crops which are to be supplied by the soil as the basic habitat and supplier of the nutrients. 2.5.1 Soil requirements for Tomato Tomatoes production can be done under various types of soil such clay, sandy and silt area using soil amendment techniques. In ideal condition the crop prefer loamy soil which has the ability to hold plant nutrient and water for plant used. As for most vegetables, tomatoes grow best in a slightly acid soil with a pH of 5.0 to 6.5 (Riofrio, 2000). Tomato prefer a well-drained soil because they are sensitive to waterlogging (Hanson et al., 2000). 2.5.2 Nutrient requirements for Tomato The nutrient requirement for tomato production is vital as in other vegetables, therefore, timely application of plant nutrient is essential and requirement for plants to process the uptake of micro elements to have healthy plants with respect to its supply and required essential elements, and their functions in plant (Morgan, 2006). It has been observed that these major micro elements: Nitrogen (N), Calcium (Ca), Potassium (K), and Phosphorus (P) are vital towards the production of tomatoes using soil as medium for plant growth. Study has been conducted on the critical importance of some micronutrients such as are Boron (B), Iron (Fe) and Zinc (Zn). There micronutrient deficiencies are not common except on very sandy soils, on high pH soils, or in instances when imbalances occur due to major element excesses, such as Phosphorus for tomato production. Due to essential functions of micronutrient when proper dosage is not applied 11 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh greatly lead into a deficiency or toxicity. Consequently, micronutrient application in the soil require soil test and/ analysis-for recommendation (Jones, 2013). In soilless media, or hydroponic nutrient solutions these mineral insufficiencies are mainly not recognized under normal growing and cultural conditions. For instance, some literature has recommended that Silicon (Si), Sodium (Na), Vanadium (V), Nickel (Ni)] are important and should be available in the formulations (Jones, 2013). Tomato fruit growth and quality required some essential micro nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium and potassium for quality fruit production (Morgan, 2006). 2.5.3 Use of Organic Manures The importance of animal manures in improving soil fertility and increased crop yield are well noted and recommended for its use in crop production. Its effects on micro and macro organisms in soils are documented when applied at high rates in on-station trials (Gulshan et al., 2013). It has been revealed that organic manures consist of vital nutrients such as natural hormones and vitamins that aid growth (Leonard, 2006). Inorganic forms of nutrients absorbed by the plants are not readily available and therefore must be transformed or mineralized through microbial activity for plants use. It has been established that, the content of K in manure is comparable to commercial fertilizer in the inorganic form (Motavalli et al., 2009). Studies have shown an improvement in crop yields are improved when manure is applied rather than chemical fertilizers (Xie and MacKenzie, 2006). Through timely and adequate application of organic manure that decomposed improves crop yield and quality (Pimpini et al., 2002; CAST, 2006). A study by Zhang et al., (2008) using cattle feedlot manure revealed that 2 kg of the manure 12 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh contains the same amount of N as 1 kg of urea for plant uptake. The application of manure improves soil physical condition and increases P and biological activity (CAST, 2006) A survey conducted by Mclutire et al., (2002) stated that in an on-station research -1 organic manures applied were approximately 2.5 to 20 tons’ ha , while farmers’ -1 application ranged from 175 to 700 kg ha which is greatly below the standard. William et al., (2005) revealed that currently at farmers’ fields enough manure to sustain yields is not within their reach. Organic manure nutrients are not readily available for plant growth; it requires microbial activities to make nutrients available for plant to absorb. The organic manure varies in their nutrient content due to diet, storage, bedding material and method of application (Harris et al., 2001). In spite of the considerable variation, farmers in some cities appreciate organic manure (urban wastes) when applied its residual effect remain in the soil for 2 or 3 years and requires little soil amendment (Leonard, 2006). Boateng and Oppong (2005) stated that application farmyard manure improved soil physical properties. In some African countries like Kenya, manure value is about five times more than its chemical fertilizer equivalent value (Lekasi et al., 2008). The effect of manure on the physical properties of soil as well as its role in plant nutrient supply greatly determine to be the factor. Bationo and Mokwunye (2002), stated that application of organic materials as crop residue or manures form greatly has beneficial effects on the soils’ chemical and physical properties. It has been revealed by Koppen and Eich (2003) that farmyard manure use can reduce nutrient deficiency in soils, such as K and P deficiencies and increases pH values, and the Mn content of the soil declined. The poultry manure litter potential is not known as for neutralizing soil acidity and raise soil pH 13 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Compost can serve as a slow-release fertilizer and the nutrient value is dependent on its components. In comparison with fresh manure, the nitrogen is in a more stable form and not susceptible to loss as NH3 gas (Leonard, 2006). The quantity and quality of the compost materials can be regarded in a waste management strategy for soil enhancement. Compost constituents should be in proportions that decompose to give a stable product (Harris et al., 2001). Using different materials greatly provide quality nutrients for plant growth. Lopez-Real (2005) recommended co-composting sawdust and waste market wastes. He defined the ranges of stated NPK as 0.75 – 1.5 % (N), 0.25 – 0.5 % (P2O5) and 0.5 – 1.0 % (K2O). 2.5.4 Integrated Nutrient Management This implies upgrading of soil fertility to increase production and productivity per unit area, and to reduce nutrient losses to the environment. This can be attained through proper management of nutrients sources for plant growth which consist of soil minerals and decomposing soil organic matter, mineral and synthetic fertilizers, animal manures and composts, by-products and wastes, plant residues, and biological N-fixation (BNF) (Singh et al., 2002). It has been reported that, combining organic and chemical fertilizer is beneficial. It has an added advantage of mitigating the deficiencies of some micro and macronutrients in areas where only N, P and K fertilizers are applied. Field trials conducted by Chand et al. (2006) evaluated the beneficial effect of combining organic and chemical fertility (NPK fertilizer and green manuring) and nutrient uptake in mint (Mentha arvensis) and mustard (Brassica juncea) plants for seven consecutive years. Their findings indicated that, the 14 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh combination of manure and fertilizer greatly contributed to maintaining soil fertility and crop productivity. 2.5.5 Tomato Seed Drying: The container, with the separated seeds is placed in an air drier for three to four days at 28-30°C. During the drying process, high temperatures could result in germination. To avoid this, the seeds should be stirred two or three times daily to ensure uniformity in the drying process and get the desired moisture content of 6- 8%. Stirring also loosens up any seeds that may be clumped together (Opena et al., 2001). 2.5.6 Seed Storage: Dried seeds have a storage life of three to five years when properly stored. Placing seeds in air-tight containers such in manila or foil envelopes, cloth/mesh bags, jars and metal can are ideal for storage conditions. It is also important to label containers carefully, particularly, variety and year (Opena et al., 2001). 2.6 Challenges associated with tomato production There are several challenges associated with tomato production (Geoffrey et al., 2014). According to a study by (Bediako et al., 2007) that assessed tomato production constraints at Bontanga Irrigation Project in the Northern Region of Ghana , some challenges he identified to affect tomato production included salinity, water logging, soil erosion and degradation, sedimentation, build-up of pests and diseases as a result of irrigation-related problems. Moreover, there are a lot of physiological problems associated with tomatoes due mainly to specific adverse environmental conditions (Boyhan and Kelley, 2003). However for the purpose of this study, the following diseases are discussed. 15 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.6.1 Blossom-End Rot Blossom-end rot (BER) is a calcium deficiency that occurs at the blossom end of the fruit (Boyhan & Terry kelley, 2014; Taylor, Locascio, & Alligood, 2004). It is a condition characterised by formation of a black necrotic sunken tissue(s) at the blossom end of the fruit. The disease develops early in fruit formation when the fruits are still small (smaller than a fingernail) at a critical time for calcium deposition in newly forming tissue. Environmental stress factors that could result in BER include drought and high relative humidity which causes calcium (Ca) deficiency (Casey Barickman, Kopsell, & Sams, 2014). 2.6.2 Flower abortion Tomato is a warm season crop and needs relatively moderate temperatures to set fruit. However according to Boyhan and Kelley (2014) night time temperatures above 21°C will cause flower abortion which in turn will reduce yields. Additionally, Ozores et al., (2013) have identified that extreme temperatures such as high daytime temperatures above 29°C, high night-time temperatures (above 21 °C), or low night time temperatures (below 13 °C) cause high flower abortion. Interference with the pollination and fertilization processes may result in flower loss (Rabinowitch et al, 2010). Moreover, when the tomato plant has a lot of flowers but lacks sufficient nutrients, it will automatically abort some of them (Ozores-Hampton & Stansly, 2011). 16 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.6.3 Fruit Cracking According to Domínguez et al., (2012), fruit cracking occurs as a result of the fruit cuticle composition and their mechanical performance which happens in tomato production during ripening because the internal pressure is unable to sustain the degraded cell walls of the pericarp and therefore directly transmit the pressure to the epidermis and cuticle. It has been reported that tomato fruit cracking causes a major disorder and high economic losses. However, several environmental factors led into the critical role play in fruit growing, ripening and cracking (Domínguez et al., 2012). For instance, high relative humidity and low radiation decreased the amount of cuticle and cuticle components accumulated. It has also been identified that cracking growth rates of tomatoes vary within the genotypes, while genotypes with cracking sensitive surface higher growth rates compared to cracking resistant type (Domínguez et al., 2012). 2.6.4 Puffiness This is when the tomato appears somewhat bloated, light in weight and soft. In general, the appearance of the fruit looks good but when cut there is little or no gel or seed, the fruit is nearly empty. According to Boyhan and Kelley (2014), puffiness affects fruits that develop under very cool or very hot temperatures (below13° C and above 32° C.) respectively, which interferes with normal seed set. 17 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.7. Common Bacterial diseases of tomato Tomato production is faced with several challenges including diseases. This section presents some of these diseases in the context of the study. These are categorized into bacterial, fungal and viral diseases are presented below: 2.7.1 Bacterial spot The disease is one of the most common and serious problem in tomatoes cause by the bacterium Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. vesicatoria. The disease occurs throughout the growing phase of the plant, the disease symptom can be cited on leaves, stems and fruit. Usually Bacterial spot begin as small water-soaked lesions, eventually develop into necrotic and brown in the center (Gleason & Edmunds, 2006). The disease gradually transmitted into new leaves through rains splash.(Gleason & Edmunds, 2006). The leaves turned yellow when heavily infected, followed by leaves withering then drop from the plant. The leaves first start getting the disease gradually develop with persist rainfall The infection usually appears at fruit initiation but can stage during plant development (Gleason & Edmunds, 2006). Several practices can be used to avert/reduce black spot disease. These include planting of disease-free plant, transplants far apart, staked plants to avoid crowding on the ground, irrigate plants at the base, preferable in the morning, crop rotation, field hygiene and sanitation, (Gleason and Edmunds 2006). 18 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.7.2. Bacterial wilt The bacterial wilt disease caused by the bacterium Ralstonia solanacearum on tomato and other solanaceous plants has being known as one of the most damaging plant pathogens (Champoiseau & Momol, 2009) The pathogen strains affect a wide range of crop plants, ornamentals and weeds and over 50 families and 200 plant species in the world (Champoiseau & Momol, 2009). However, the occurrence of the disease has been noted in wet tropics, sub-tropics and some temperate regions. 2.7.3 Bacterial speck Another group of the bacteria that affects the tomato production is the bacterial speck. It is caused by Pseudomonas syringae pv. The bacterial speck cause oval to elongated lesions on tomato stems and petioles. These leaflet lesions are very small, round and dark brown to black. 2.8. Common Viral Diseases of Tomato These virus are of different types, the diseases are severe in tomato production with no chemical control measures (Hanssen, Lapidot, & Thomma, 2010). The preventive measures are use of genetic resistance, field hygiene and eradication of disease crop (Hanssen et al., 2010). 2.8.1 Tomato spotted wilt virus (TSWV) These viruses of tomato are described in Australia in 1915, while etiology in 1930 determined it as viral disease of genus Tospovirus; family Bunyaviridae (TSWV) (Sherwood et al., 2009). The viruses known to be transmitted by thrips (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) and replicate in both the thrip vectors and the plant hosts. 19 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (Sherwood et al., 2009 Within few days symptoms of infection by these viruses are often evident after emergency seedling, and within the first 50–60 days after planting result into rapid progress of disease (Culbreath, 2011). It has been noted that early infections lead into reduction in crop yield than when crops are established in the field. This virus results stunting, ring spots and bronzing on infected plants. The tomato fruit when infected produces irregular shape, dark streaks and chlorotic spots. It has been recommended that use of cultivars with moderate field resistance with good agricultural practices become ideal of management of the disease. (Culbreath, 2011). 2.8.2 Cucumber mosaic virus (CMV) This virus belong to family Bromoviridae and a member of the genus Cucumovirus in the (Van Regenmortel, 2000). The can poison over 1200 plant species, with no significant economic losses to many important agricultural crops (Scholthof, 2011). It is one of the common diseases of tomato when it occurs can be devastating. The disease can be transmitted through aphids, with series of symptoms such as stunting, distorted and strapped (faciated) leaves, stems and petioles. There are very little options in controlling losses due to CMV infection, destruction of weed hosts that harbour the virus is recommended to help in suppressing disease spread. 2.9. Common fungal diseases of tomato 2.9.1. Early blight Is one of major fungal disease of tomato foliage, caused by Alternaria solani (Gleason & Edmunds, 2006). The affected leaves show symptoms like round to oblong, dark brown lesions with distinct concentric rings within the lesion the symptoms are generally associated with bright yellow chlorosis (Gleason & Edmunds, 2006). While the stem 20 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh lesions are slightly sunken, brown and elongated with very pronounced concentric rings and symptoms for fruits may include velvety spore mass. 2.9.2. Late blight This disease is known to be caused by Phytopthora infestans, its symptoms are dark water-soaked, greasy lesions on stems and foliage. (Gleason & Edmunds, 2006). High moisture causes the plant to develop whitish-gray, fuzzy sporulation seen on the undersides of leaf lesions and directly on stem lesions. The disease can be easily spread and infect late blight pathogen warm days and cool nights coincide with adequate moisture. 2.9.3. Fusarium wilt This is soil borne disease of tomatoes caused by Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. lycopersici spread through infested seed, seedlings, stakes plant, infected soil or equipment during initial plantation stage. (Gleason & Edmunds, 2006). The symptoms are yellowing and wilting on one side of the plant in the hottest day, yellowing and wilting of the plant then the entire plant wilts. The control measures are fumigation which usually delays disease onset and reduced the total disease incidence. 2.10. Weeds Weed control should therefore be a cultural practice in order to increase production and productivity per unit area, because it drastically reduce yield if not controlled Culpepper. (2014). Weeds compete with plant for sunlight, mineral nutrients, water and space. Weeds harbor pest increase their incidence during production and even contaminate the produce during harvesting. According to (Culpepper, 2014), the effective way of weed 21 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh control is the planting of healthy and vigorous seedlings that can grow faster than the weeds and form canopy to suppress their growth. 2.11. Essential Nutrients for tomato production 2.11.1 Phosphorus For seed production, the amounts of phosphorus (P) required for seed formation is high (Koppen and Eich, 2003). The tomato fruit for seed production required great amount of phosphorus than non-fruiting or vegetative plants (CAST, 2006). 2.11.2 Potassium At the initial crop production stage, potassium and nitrogen requirement are of almost equal proportion. In the early stage of fruit development potassium demand increases as fruiting is in progress while nitrogen demand gradually reduces (Niassy et al., 2010). It has been noted that nitrogen demand increases at vegetative growth, While, potassium absorption increases at fruiting as it is the major cation in tomato fruit and has major critical effects on fruit quality (Niassy et al., 2010). Therefore, due to high demand of potassium at fruiting, the nutrients content should be maintained at higher levels during the fruiting stages than during the vegetative and flowering stages (Niassy et al., 2010). When fruits are deficient in potassium has negative impact on the flavour and shelf life quality, can also suffer from ripening disorders which will result to blotchy ripening, gray wall, cloud, lack abnormal pigment of the fruit (Niassy et al., 2010). 22 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.11.3 Calcium For fruit growth and development calcium requirement is critical at the time of cell development and lack of this element in fruit can result into development of blossom end rot (Morgan, 2006). 2.12. Sources of Nutrients for Tomato Production There are various materials which can be used as nutrients for tomato production, these sources can be in various forms; natural, synthetic, recycled wastes or a range of biological products through microbial inoculants. The nutrient sources can be grouped into organic, mineral or biological. The soil contains mineral and organic nutrient as a source, due to it limited supply in the soil for plant growth, often supplementation of nutrient through fertilizer application is needed for better plant growth (Hanson et al., 2010). It has been noted that soil nutrient content greatly depends on the rock formation from where the soil originated from. When plant grow from soil consist of decay matters the nutrients will be recycled for plant use (Naika, 2005). It has been noted that micronutrients activities cannot be useful if the soil supplied in adequate amounts by the soil unless deficiency in plant occurs. Tomato production in green house need growth medium in order to require all nutrients for plant growth (Sainju et al., 2003). 2.13. Effect of Organic and Inorganic Fertilizers on Growth, Yield and Shelf Life Vegetable growers, especially commercial growers, depend on either chemical fertilizers or organic manure or both to improve growth of the plant and increases yield output. 23 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Application of fertilizer is a major activity by which nutrient status of soils can be improved to meet crop needs and in so doing maintaining the fertility of the soil and increasing its productivity. Fertilization could have both negative and positive impacts on the state of the soil and its ability to provide the sound environmental conditions necessary for plant growth and increases yield. Tomato production can be influenced by the amount and type of nutrients supplied to increases yield, ant the same time gives flavor to the fruits, and promote shelf-life of the fruit (Sainju et al., 2003). Dupriez and De Leener (1989), in their publication on Africa Gardens and Orchards reported that chemical fertilizers lower plant resistance to pest and disease attack, reduces fruit taste and shelf life of vegetables. It has been reported that in tomato production split application of fertilizers were beneficiary in obtained optimum growth and yield (Jones, 1999). 2.14. Yield The yield of a crop can determine as an increase in the total number of quality fruits harvest and realization of profit from the total cost of production. (Heuvelink and Dorais, 2005). According to Sainju et al. (2003) application of organic and chemical fertilizer has proven to increases tomato yield as compared with no fertilization. Williams et al., (1991) from the study on organic fertilizer responses of cucumbers, revealed that cucumber can be grown on different types of soil but for good yields in the tropics, it requires soil with higher organic manure. Application of combination of organic and inorganic fertilizer was significant in increasing crop yield compared to sole fertilizer application of organic manure (Quansah et al., 1998). Tomato plants fertilized with 24 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh organic manure and chemical fertilizers proved produce high yields than organic (Hanson et al., 2000). Sendur et al., (1998) narrated that despite recommended combination of fertilizer respect to growth and fruit yield of tomato, inorganic fertilizers yielded in their individual application. 2.15. Shelf Life or Quality of Tomato Fruit Shelf life is the ability for the fruit when harvest to store for a long period with losing its quality Mondal (2000). The characteristic high-quality tomato fruits entail the following firm, uniform and shiny colour, good appearance, without signs of mechanical injuries, shriveling and bruises (Shahnawaz et al., 2011). Magkos et al., (2006) reported that consumers give preference organic substrates products compared to synthetic fertilizers products as they belief that organic foods products are healthier and safer. It has been reported by Hector et al., (1993) that cucumber requires magnesium to help obtain a deep-green coloration of its fruit. Tindall (2000), established that the consumption of crop product produced using inorganic fertilizer is not good for health due to the residual effect of chemicals on produce and recommended the consumption of organic fertilizer produced crops indicating organic fertilizer increases the productivity of the soil as well as crop quality and yield. The application of calcium percentage at transplanting has influence on the reduction in tomato fruit shelf life. Brady (1987), indicated that high nitrogen and phosphorus nutrient content fruit depresses calcium concentrations in fruit consequently causes reduction in the shelf life of the fruit. 25 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Munson (2005) attests that required potassium absorption in the fruit is generally higher in total soluble solids, carotenoids, sugars and acids has a longer shelf life. Tucker et al., (2004), stated that appropriate dose of potassium is required as potassium enhance thin skinned fruits but increased fruit shelf life 2.16. Sources of Tomato Seeds by Sub-Saharan African Farmers Of all farm inputs, high-quality and adapted seeds and planting materials exert the most profound influence on agricultural productivity. A wider appreciation of the importance of quality seeds and their crucial role in agricultural and thus human development cannot be over-emphasized (Lanteri and Quagliotti, 2007). However, most farmers in Sub- Saharan Africa do not buy seed: they save their own or trade with other farmers. The major reasons assigned to this situation are agronomic and economic viz: the saved variety is the best suited to the local soil and climate and it saves money (Anon., 2001). A survey conducted by Clottey et al. (2009) on some tomato farmers in Ghana revealed that use of quality seed is of no economic benefit since fruit price at the market are the same, they therefore did not value use of seed quality. Thus, farmer-saved seed consist 80-90% of farmers in Sub-Saharan Africa (Almekinders et al., 1994; Walker et al., 1997a and Tripp, 2001). Adetumbi and Daniel (2004) also reported that for vegetables, about 60% of vegetable farmers used their previously saved seed while not more than 30% purchased seeds from dealers in a survey conducted in some parts of Nigeria. It is also reported that even in the developed world, specifically, UK, saving seed is widely practiced and may be as high as 40% of crops grown (Anum, 2009). 26 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.17. Tomato Seed Quality Seed quality can be determined as the ability for seed attain high germination percentage with quality seed vigor for plant growth. Quality seed should be free from pest and disease incidence, high yielding, with high shelf life value. (Hampton, 2002). When seed meet these requirements can be regarded as quality seed; high genetic purity and high germination percentage, a minimum of inert, weed and other crop seeds and are free from diseases, (Heatherly and Elmore, 2004). It means when seed lot meets the certification standard, it is good quality seed and if not, it cannot be seen as quality seed, but can use as grain. (Copeland and McDonald, 2005). Thus, seed quality varies and consist of the following attributes: seed health, varietal and physical purity, germination, vigour and size or weight (Ellis, 2001). 2.18. Seed purity The purity of a seed lot can be look into two angles: genetic and physical. The genetic purity of seeds is of the trueness to type whereby physical purity of seed refer to physical composition of the seed lot (Anon. 2009). The germination percentage of seeds are used to determine the planting value of the seed (Rindels, 1995). 2.19. Seed viability It is ability of a seed ’to germinate and develop into a new plant (Rindels, 1995). The viability and vigor of seed greatly enhances performance of seeds planted to develop into crop (TeKrony and Egli, 1991). The germinability of seed greatly depend on storage environmental situation surrounding the seed while in store and the materials used for storing seed are vital in seed enterprise (Rindels, 1995). The environmental temperature either cool or warm should be regarded when stored seed. The refrigerator or jars can be 27 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh used for storing seeds that prefer cool environment (Rindels, 1995). Several environmental factors greatly hinder seed germination at storage condition, such as moisture, inconsistent temperature during seed formation and maturity. Pre-harvest rain may also affect the viability of seed (Anonymous, 2008). The activity of microflora can also lead to damage resulting in loss of viability. This is because, the activity of all these organisms is controlled by relative humidity, temperature and moisture content of the seed, which are all environmental factors prevailing during seed storage. Treated seeds or seed storage materials with fungicides can help prolong the storage period (Anon, 2008). 2.20 Seed Vigour It has been difficult to precisely define seed vigor compare to that of seed germination and seed size or weight (Ellis, 1991). Byrum and Copeland (1995) has defined seed vigour as performance of seed lots for acceptable germination in a wide range of environments. However, according to ISTA (2007), seed vigour is the sum of those properties of the seed that determine the potential level of activity and performance of the seed or seed lot during germination and seedling emergence. Earlier, Delouche (1974), indicated that seed vigour is a concept describing several characteristics associated with rate and uniformity of seed germination and emergence as well as seedling growth. He furthermore stated that a vigorous seed lot is one that have the ability to germinate very well under harsh environmental condition Importance of a seed vigor test is to be sure of the germination percentage of the seed lot before planting. The value of seed lots in a wide range of environments and also on the storage potential of the seed (ISTA, 2007). Seed vigor precedes loss of viability and 28 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh therefore seed vigour is as important as seed viability (Caddick, 2007). Seeds with low vigour will show stunted growth and abnormalities in the developing shoot and root system and subsequently affect crop establishment (Caddick, 2007). 2.21. Seed Germination Seed germination could also be referred to as the ability of a seed, when planted under normal sowing conditions, to give a normal seedling (McDonald, 2000; AOSA, 1999). The standard germination test is designed to provide a first and a final count. The purpose of the first count is basically to determine the strong seedlings (vigour) that have germinated and the final count is to provide a sufficiently long period that even weak seeds are coaxed or provided every opportunity to be considered germinable (Byrum and Copeland, 2005). Therefore, the germination percentage is the sum of strong and weak seedlings (Byrum and Copeland, 2005). Germination is the most important function of a seed as it is an indicator of its viability and growth (Barua et al., 2009). 2.22. Seed Health Seed health refers to the presence or absence of pathogens like fungi, nematodes, bacteria, viruses, insects and the status of seeds in a seed lot (Mathur and Kosgdal, 2003; Mew and Gonzales, 2002). These contaminants often include seeds from weed that compete with target seeds for nutrients. These other seeds, residues of other plant parts, soil particles and insect eggs that can degrade the quality of the seed lot (Mew and Gonzales, 2002). When seeds are used for sowing, seed-borne pathogens may cause disease or death of plants resulting in crop loss (Morre and Tymowski, 2005). 29 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.23 Post-harvest handling and losses of tomato According to Mrema and Rolle (2002), maturity of a fruit or vegetable ready for harvest is crucial to its subsequent storage and marketable life and quality. The Food and Agriculture Organization (2008) has outlined three stages in the life of fruits and vegetables, namely; maturation, ripening, and senescence. Maturation is suggestive of the fruit being ready for harvest while harvesting denotes the end of the growth cycle and the beginning of a series of stages of very important activities that ensure that the consumer gets the vegetable in the preferred state and at the best of desired quality. However, tomato is very perishable (Kumah et al., 2011). Moreover, the quality and market value of tomatoes depends on the timeliness of harvest and the level of care in handling. Meanwhile harvesting fresh-market tomatoes is labour intensive and requires multiple pickings (Orzolek et. al., 2006). 30 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER THREE 3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS 3.1. Experimental site The experiment was conducted in West Africa Centre for Crop Improvement (WACCI) research field at the University of Ghana Farm (5 º 36 N, 0 º 10 W, and 68 ASL), Legon, Accra. Land, equipment and watering facility were provided by WACCI to enhance smooth running of the experiment. 3.2. Experimental design The field was marked out into four blocks using Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD), which consisted of seven treatments with four replications per treatment. Each 2 plot measured 2.5 m wide by 3.0 m long (7.5 m ), footpaths 50 cm within blocks and 1 m 2 apart between blocks with total land area of 17 m by 24 m equal to 408 m . A planting spacing of 75 cm between rows and 50 cm within rows was adopted giving a population of 560 plants for the experiment. 31 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.3 Land Preparation and application of fertilizer treatments The previous crop grown in the field was cowpea, which was cleared from the field, demarcated, ploughed and harrowed, then applied different rates of organic manure was applied two weeks before transplanting. Growth and yield of tomato responses to different organic manures application rate (Dantata, et al., 2011). The treatments were as followed: treatment one cow dung 20 tons/ha, treatment two poultry manure 20 tons/ha, treatment three cow dung 10 tons/ha + poultry manure 10 tons/ha, treatment four cow dung 15 tons/ha + poultry manure 5 tons/ha, treatment five cow dung 5 tons/ha + poultry manure 15 tons/ha, treatment six, NPK 150 kg/ha applied at planting + urea 100 kg/ha, applied under equal split application at flowering and immediately after first harvest, while treatment seven was control without application of organic manure no chemical fertilizer. 3. 4. Sample collection of Soil and Organic manure data Eight soil samples were randomly taken per plot before ploughing. The samples were taken from seven treatments replicated four times to determine fertility content of the soil and to analyze the pH, %C, %N, Available P(mg/kg), Cmol/kg K, Particle size Distribution of %Sand, % Silt, %Clay and Texture (SCL) and also, organic manure; cow dung and poultry manure samples were taken to determine their nutrient value of % N, % P, % K, and %C. The soil samples were composited, then primary samples were air-dried and passed through two millimeters sieve and analyzed at the University of Ghana Soil laboratory. 32 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.5. Tomato seed and nursery management The tomato Petomech is Determinate/Bush/Compact (D) variety. Seed sachets were purchased from Agrimat at its Madina shop, and later nursed the seed in a seed tray. Nursery seed trays were filled with media, which consisted of 75% top soil mixed with 25% cocoa peat. The nursery media was watered for two days, then seeds were sown on the third day. The seedlings were watered once every morning and hand pick weeds; for four weeks then seedlings were transplanted to the field. 3.6. Weed control Timely weeds control is necessary for healthy crop production to achieve maximum yield output per unit area. This was achieved through twice weekly weeding of the plots throughout the production cycle. Weeding was done from the first week after transplanting to enhance optimum nutrients uptake by the plants. 3.7. Irrigation Water supply for crop production is very important especially during the dry period in production. The most critical period for in crop production for water requirement is during flowering and fruit initiation, whereby at flowering and fruiting stage adequate soil moisture content is needed to avoid flower abortion and bloom end rot. Therefore, twice daily watering of plots was conducted for the first four weeks then followed by daily drip irrigation of the plots for the remaining period in the production cycle 33 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.8. Staking The plants were staked at three weeks after planting, by inserted staking pools into the soil about 10-15 centimeters beside the plants, tie the plants and branches with a rope to prevent the fruits from touching the soil to prevent fruit rotting and encourage quality seed production. 3.9. Pests and disease control measures The nematicide Fulan 3% G is systemic insecticide and nematicide also acts as contact and stomach pesticide, controls all soil insects affecting agricultural crops, prevent nematodes problem in the field was applied two days before planting, Early fruiting stage calcium was applied 150g per 15 litter of water to control blooms end rots, The insecticides and pesticides applied twice weekly on the crops to prevent from insects and pest’s damages, while D-Lion fungi 2020 copper hydroxide at 30- 60 grams per 16 litre of water, Insecticide such as Attack 5% WDG non-systemic and highly insecticide controls wide ranges of insect pests 1 sachets dilute in 15 litre of water to spray the field. Insecticide like AKAPE (Anty Ataa) Broad Spectrum Insecticide 250ml. Applied on crops at a rate mix 30ml in 15 Litres of water. Remarks: apply between 7-14 days intervals, from transplanting through harvesting. 3.10. Field Data Collection The following data were taken weekly for two months per replicate from the experiment., using the central six rows per plants per replicate: - chlorophyll content of leaves using chlorophyll meter reader, number of branches per plant by counting the entire branches 34 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh per plant, number of leaves per plant by counting the entire leaves of the plant, plant height using foot ruler meter, stem diameter using Vernier caliper. Then continued collecting data on days to 50% flowering, day to 50% fruiting, days to 50% ripening through physical observation of flowers, fruiting and red ripe fruit per plot respectively, then count marketable and unmarketable fruit numbers per plot, using an electronic weighing scale at (WACCI) farm to weigh marketable and unmarketable fruit per plot to determine fruit weight. The red ripe marketable fruit per plot, per treatment are mixed and weigh into three seed extraction fermentation duration to do seed extraction and fermentation. The marketable fruit are mature red ripe fruit, when extracted seed will be viable, while unmarketable fruit are immature or affected fruit, when extracted the seed will not be viable. 3.10.1. Plant height at harvest (cm) The plant height was measured using foot ruler meter from the soil surface to the apex of the main stem for each treatment/plant 3.10.2. Chlorophyll content The chlorophyll content of the leaves was measured using chlorophyll meter for eight weeks at a weekly interval, 3.10.3. Number of leaves 35 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Number of leaves of each treatment were counted and the total number of leaves recorded as the number of leaves for each treatment, 3.10.4. Number of branches Number of branches of each treatment were counted and the total number of branches recorded as the number of branches for each treatment 3.10.5. Stem diameter (mm) This was measured at about 10 cm from the base of the plant using Vernier caliper at reproductive stage (50% flowering). 3.10.6. Days of 50% flowering This was determined by counting the number of days from transplanting until 50% of the plants had flowered 3.10.7. Days of 50% fruiting This was determined by counting the number of days from transplanting until 50% of the plants had fruiting 3.10.8. Days to 50% red ripe fruits harvested This was determined by counting the number of days from transplanting till 50% of the fruits were matured for harvesting. The total number of fruits harvested from each plant were counted to determine the number of fruits per plant. 3.10.9. Fruit weight per plant (kg) The total number of fruits harvested and count from each plant was weighed with an electronic weighing scale to determine the weight of fruits per plant. 36 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.10.10. Marketable fruits After harvest, good quality fruits were selected from the produce and weighed to determine the yield of marketable fruits they are mature red rip fruit without any insect and pest damage. 3.11 Manual Seed Extraction: Matured tomato fruit are extracted manually and fermented for two, three and four days to determine seed quality. The duration of fermentation dependent on ambient room temperature. Temperatures above 25°C are adequate for fermentation in a day whereas cooler temperatures would require at least two days. Seed quality may be lost if fermentation is allowed to occur for more than three days quality (Opena, Chen, Kalb & Hanson, 2001). 3.11.1. Seed extraction: From the research, red ripe mature tomato fruit are harvested manually crushed in water and ferment for a period two, three, and four days and separate the gel mass embedding the seeds from the pulp. The extracted seeds are sun dry for a day, then dry under room temperature for 4 days, at 12% moisture content per harvest (Yadar et al., 2004; Jadi and Singh 2009), the extracted seed are weighed to determined seed weight per seed extraction fermentation duration per treatment. Then seed are packaged into air tide plastic containers stored under normal dry room temperature for next production. (Fig.1) 3.11.2. Seed extraction, fermentation and washing process 37 a b University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh c Figure 1: a) Seed extraction, b) fermentation and washing process c) Fruit quality The seeds were stirred and loosened two to three times daily to enhance uniform drying of seeds and to avoid seeds clumping together. High temperatures at the time of drying may cause seeds to germinate and seeds clumping together may become moldy thereby reduce seed quality and viability. The extracted seeds were screened remove debris, moldy seeds and any undesirable material before packaging into sealed plastic air tight container for storage. These procedures are meant to get the seeds to the desired 6-8% moisture content (Opena et at., 2001) for proper storage. 3.11.3 Seed packaged into sealed plastic air tight container for storage The seed extraction fermentation duration for 2, 3 and 4 days per treatment were packaged in air tide plastic container then stored in a cool, dry place under normal room temperature or under refrigeration condition for small quantity of seeds to prolong viability of the seed. Under farmer level ensure seeds in air tide containers are kept in cool, dry place to enhance seed viability. The treat seeds with fungicides or storage materials to encourage prolong storage period. 38 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2 days fermentation 2 days fermentation 3 days fermentation 3 days fermentation 4 days 4 days fermentation fermentation Figure 2: Seed packaged into sealed plastic air tight container for storage 3.12. Seed germination and seedling height The extracted seed were sown in a seed trays, Nursery seed trays were filled with soil media consisting of top soil and cocoa peat. The media was watered for two days, then the seeds were sown on the third day. The seedlings were watered once every morning for four weeks. From the different seed extraction duration, 25 seeds replicated four times were sown into seed trays to determine the seed germination percentage through recording of daily-germinated seedlings for two weeks, and measured plant height weekly for four weeks. The laboratory seed germination tests were conducted using blotter method of seed germination for two weeks to determine different seed extraction duration, seed germination percentages per treatment. From the different seed extraction duration, 25 seeds replicated four times were sown into petri dish blotter method for ten days to determine daily seed germination percentage. 39 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.13. Data analysis The Data collected was subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) using GenStat statistical software (2012 edition) and LSD was used to separate the means at 5% probability The cost benefit analysis took into consideration the cost involved in cultivating tomato as well as extracting the tomato seed for sale. The revenue that was made out of the seed sale was noted. The total revenue realized from seed sale minus the total cost of cultivating and extracting seed would give an idea of how beneficial it was to grow tomato for seed production for sale. CHAPTER FOUR 4.0 RESULTS 4.1 Chemical Analysis of Soil and Organic manure samples The soil and organic manure sampling has been conducted prior to application of organic fertilizers into the experimental plots. These are the chemical analysis results obtained 40 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh from the soil and organic manure samples taken from the experimental plots and the organic manure applied. (Table 1). Total Nitrogen: % N is very low, this means the soils contains small amount of N which range from (0.012 – 0.032%), it requires %N ranges (0.06% - 0.5%). Exchangeable base (K): The soil contains lower amount of exchangeable K which range from (0.035 – 0.095Cmol/kg). Depending on soil type, soils with high organic matter content tend to have high cation exchange capacity which is ideal for tomato production. Carbon: The carbon content of the soil range (0.68 – 1.02%) from very low to low. Available Phosphorus: The soils shows a moderately low amount of phosphorus thus P- fertilizer would have to be applied, while the require carbon percentage for tomato production ranges (1% -10%). pH: All vegetables are known to grow well in pH range of (5.0-6.5) from the table the pH range is (4.47-4.71) which is moderately acidic. So, soil needs limestone. 4.1.1 Soil Particle Size Distribution The sand content of the soil ranges from (60-62.5%). The silt content of the soil ranges from (5-10%). The clay content of the soil ranged from (30-35%). The soil was (Sandy, Clay, Loam), but for the clay the high percentage of the sand would help with immobilization of minerals. The high level of sand could also help with the use of limestone in adjusting the pH. Table 1: Chemical Analysis of Soil Samples Sampl Ph %C %N Avail K Particle Size Distribution Textur e No. P e (mg/k Cmol/k % Sand %Si %Cla g) g lt y 41 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 4.60 0.87 0.01 40.90 0.095 62.5 5 32.5 SCL 5 9 2 4.50 0.71 0.02 59.44 0,062 62.5 5 32.5 SCL 6 3 3 4.71 0.68 0.02 48.84 0.091 60.5 5 35.0 SCL 5 5 4 4.69 0.91 0.01 56.57 0.084 62.5 5 32.5 SCL 2 4 5 4.47 1.02 0.01 97.01 0.069 60.0 5 35.0 SCL 3 2 6 4.49 0.57 0.03 35.76 0.035 60.0 10 30.0 SCL 4 2 7 4.48 0.78 0.02 21.27 0.050 60.0 5 35.0 SCL 0 1 4.1.2 Chemical Analysis of Organic manures Samples Samples of the organic manures were also taken and analyzed; the analysis indicate that poultry manure has highest nutrients value in all the elements tested than cow dung. (Table 2) Table 2: Chemical Analysis of Organic manures Samples Sample ID. %N %P %K %C Cow Dung 1.136 0.43 0.06 16.72 Poultry Manure 2.152 2.43 2.75 29.03 4. 2. Chlorophyll content from weeks one to eight after transplanting After transplanting the tomato seedlings onto the treated experimental plots, the chlorophyll content of the leaves was measured for eight weeks at a weekly interval. The week one measurements indicate NPK 150 kg/ha + Urea 100 kg/ha recording the maximum chlorophyll content 9.7 and is significantly different compared to the other treatments. The minimum measurement was observed for cow dung at 10 tons/ha + poultry manure at 10 tons/ha with a value of 6.5 and is not significantly different from 42 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh poultry manure at 20 tons/ha, cow dung at 20 tons/ha, cow dung at 5 tons/ha + poultry manure at 10 tons/ha, cow dung at 15 tons/ha + poultry manure at 5 tons/ha and control respectively (Fig: 3). Week two measurements produced no significant differences among the treatments. The measurements recorded increased compared to the previous week. Poultry manure at 20 tons/ha recorded the maximum chlorophyll content of 17.0 with the minimum measured for control plot and cow dung at 5 tons/ha + poultry manure at 15 tons/ha. The measurements for week three as well increased as compared to week two measurements. The poultry manure at 20 tons/ha measured the maximum chlorophyll content of 42.0 and is not significantly different compared to the other treatments. Cow dung at 20 tons/ha recorded 33.3 as the minimum value. Measurements of chlorophyll content for week three are significantly not different from each other. The measurement for week four is not of much difference from the third week. The NPK 150 kg/ha + Urea 100 kg/ha recorded the maximum chlorophyll content and is significantly different compared to the other treatments which are significantly not different from each other. The minimum measurement for the week is 28.2 which is recorded for cow dung at 15 tons /ha+ poultry manure at 5 tons per hectare. The fifth week measurements provided values which are slightly higher than the previous week. Cow dung at 20 tons/ha recorded the minimum chlorophyll value 34.8 and is not significantly different from poultry manure at 20 tons/ha, cow dung at 5 tons/ha + poultry manure 15 tons/ha, cow dung at 10 tons/ha + poultry manure at 10 tons/ha and cow dung at 15 tons/ha + poultry manure at 5 tons/ha. The effect of poultry manure at 20 tons/ha on chlorophyll content is not different from cow dung at 15 tons/ha + poultry manure at 5 43 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh tons/ha and the control field. N P K at 150 kg/ha + Urea 100 kg/ha also had an effect on chlorophyll content which is not different from the control. The chlorophyll content of the leaves increased from the fifth week to the sixth week and as well treatment effects were significantly different from each other. Poultry manure at 20 tons/ha recorded the minimum chlorophyll content of 41.8 and is significantly not different compared to cow dung at 20 tons/ha, cow dung at 5 ton/has + poultry manure at 15 tons/ha, cow dung at 10/ha + poultry manure at 10 tons/ha, cow dung at 15 tons/ha + poultry manure 5 tons/ha and the control. The NPK at 150 kg/ha + urea at 100 kg/ha is also significantly not different from the control. The maximum chlorophyll content of 54.8 for week six was recorded for NPK at 150 kg/ha + urea at 100 kg/ha. For the seventh week, the NPK at 150 kg/ha + urea at 100 kg/ha recorded 53.7 as the maximum and is significantly higher compared to the other treatments. The minimum chlorophyll content of 40.9 for the week was recorded for cow dung at 5 tons/ha + poultry manure at 15 tons/ha and is not different compared to the other treatments. The chlorophyll content of the leaves continued to increase for the eighth week with the NPK at 150 kg/ha + urea at 100 kg/ha as well recording the maximum of 58.7 but is not significantly different compared to cow dung at 20 tons/ha of value 55.1 (Fig. 3). The minimum measurement of 47.8 was recorded by cow dung at 5 tons/ha + poultry manure at 15 tons/ha and is not different compared to poultry manure at 20 tons/ha, cow dung at 10 tons/ha + poultry manure at 10 tons/ha, cow dung at 15 tons/ha + poultry manure at 5 tons/ha and the control treated field. Cow dung at 20 tons/ha recorded 55.1 chlorophyll content and is as well not different compared to chlorophyll measurement of the control, cow dung at 10 tons /ha+ poultry manure at 10 tons/ha and cow dung at 15 tons/ha + poultry manure at 5 tons/ha. 44 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Weeks after transplanting PM 20 tons CD 20 tons CD 5 tons + PM 15 tons CD 10 tons + PM 10 tons CD 15 tons + PM 5 tons NPK 150 tons + U 100 tons Control Bars represent LSD bars less than 5% significance Figure 3: Chlorophyll content from weeks one to eight after transplanting 4.3. Number of branches from weeks one to eight after transplanting The number of branches produced for the first week after transplanting were not different among the treatments. Cow dung at 20 tons/ha and cow dung at 15 tons/ha + poultry manure at 5 tons/ha recorded 3.0 branches which are not different comparing them to the other treatments which produced 4 branches each. For the second week NPK at 150 kg/ha + urea at 100 kg/ha produced 5.0 branches as against the other treatments which recorded 4.0 branches each. The branches produced for the second week are not different from each other statistically. The number of branches recorded for the third week increased 45 Chlorophyll content University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh compared to the second week. The control field recorded the minimum number of branches of 5.0 and is significantly lower than the NPK at 150 kg/ha + urea at 100 kg/ha and cow dung at 15 tons/ha + poultry manure at 5 tons/ha. Poultry manure at 20 tons/ha, cow dung at 20 tons/ha, cow dung at 5 tons/ha + poultry manure at 15 tons/ha and cow dung at 10 tons/ha + poultry manure at 10 tons/ha, all produced 6.0 branches each which are not different from each other. The branches produced for the fourth week are significantly different compared to the treatment effects. Poultry manure with 9.0 branches is significantly higher than branches produced for the control which is 7.0 and is in turn not different compared to cow dung at 15 tons/ha + poultry manure at 5 tons/ha. Cow dung at 20 tons/ha produced 8.0 branches and is not different from cow dung at 5 tons/ha + poultry manure at 15 tons/ha, cow dung at 10 tons/ha + poultry manure at 10 tons/ha and NPK at 150 kg/ha + urea at 100 kg/ha. The number of branches continues to increase from the previous week number. For week 5 poultry manure recorded 13.0 branches as the maximum number with the control recording 9.0 as the minimum number of branches. There are no significant differences among the number of branches produced for the treatments. Similar trend is recorded for the sixth week with poultry manure producing the maximum number of branches of 19.0 and control maintaining the minimum of 13.0 branches. The treatment recorded no significant effect in the number of branches produced. The control continues to produce the minimum number of branches for the seventh week. It recorded 17.0 but is not different statistically from cow dung at 10 tons/ha + poultry manure at 10 tons/ha which recorded the maximum of 25.0 branches. The branches produced for the seventh week are not significantly different compared to each other. The eighth week number of 46 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh branches recorded had increased compared to week seven, but the increase produced no significant effect (Fig. 4). 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Weeks after transplanting PM 20 tons CD 20 tons CD 5 tons + PM 15 tons CD 10 tons + PM 10 tons CD 15 tons + PM 5 tons NPK 150 tons + U 100 tons Control Bars represent LSD bars less than 5% significance Figure 4: Number of branches from weeks one to eight after transplanting 4.4. Number of leaves from weeks one to eight after transplanting The number of leaves produced for each plant was counted over the period for eight weeks. The number of leaves counted per plant per treatment was not significant among the treatments except for week five. The maximum leaf number produced for week one after transplanting was 21.0, which was recorded for NPK at 150 kg/ha + urea at 100 kg/ha and was not different compared to the other treatments. The minimum leaf number counted was 16.0, which was recorded for cow dung at 20 tons/ha and cow dung at 15 tons/ha + poultry manure at 5 tons/ha. The second week leaf numbers increased with 47 Number of branches University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh NPK at 150 kg/ha + urea at 100kg/ha recording the maximum leaf number and cow dung at 15 tons/ha + poultry manure at 5 tons/ha the minimum of 20.0. The leaf numbers produced doubled in the third week compared with week 2. Week three counted 56.0 as the maximum leaf number for poultry manure at 20 tons/ha with the control recording 34.0 as the minimum. On the average cow dung at 20 tons/ha recorded the minimum of 47 leaves (Fig. 5). The leaf numbers per plant continue to increase in the four week, but there are no significant differences among the treatments. Poultry manure at 20 tons/ha recorded the maximum leaf number of 87.0 with the control recording 60.0 leaves. The fifth week counts recorded most plants with more than one hundred leaves except the control plot. All the treatments counted leaf numbers that are significantly higher than the control field. Control plants counted on average 89.0 leaves with cow dung at 20 tons/ha the maximum of 129.0 leaves. Although in the subsequent weeks there are increases in leaf numbers there are no significant differences comparing each treatment to the other (Fig 5). 48 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 180 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Weeks after transplanting PM 20 tons CD 20 tons CD 5 tons + PM 15 tons CD 10 tons + PM 10 tons CD 15 tons + PM 5 tons NPK 150 tons + U 100 tons Control Bars represent LSD bars less than 5% significance Figure 5: Number of leaves from weeks one to eight after transplanting 4.5. Plant height (cm) from weeks one to eight after transplanting The plant heights were also measured to find the effect of treatments on the height of the plant. Week one plant height recorded 10.0 cm as the minimum height for cow dung at 15 tons/ha + poultry manure at 5 tons/ha, with the control measuring a 12.3 cm and the minimum, but there are no significant differences among the treatments. The recorded height for week two increased slightly compared to week one. The control measured the maximum height of 14.6 cm as compared to cow dung at 20 tons/ha which recorded the minimum heights of 12.3 cm. No significant differences were recorded among the treatments for week two (Fig. 6). Similarly, week three measurements did not produce 49 Number of leaves University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh any difference among the treatments. The maximum height measured for NPK at 150 kg/ha + urea at 100 kg/ha was 20.8 cm compared to the minimum of 16.1 cm for the control field. Week four follows a similar trend as week three with poultry manure at 20 tons/ha recording the maximum of 30.1 and the control the minimum of 23.5 cm. Plants heights measured for week 5 were also not significantly different comparing each treatment with the other. Minimum plant height measured is 35.0 cm for the control field with cow dung at 15 tons/ha + poultry manure at 5 tons/ha recording the maximum of 43.7 cm. Week six measurements also produced no significant differences. The control field continues to record the minimum plant height of 49.6 cm with cow dung at 15 tons/ha + poultry manure at 5 tons/ha measuring the maximum of 57.4 cm. The control field measurement continued to record the minimum plant height of 59.2 cm for week seven, although it is an increase on the previous week, with cow dung at 5 tons/ha + poultry manure at 15 tons/ha measuring the maximum of 68.1 cm. There were no significant differences among the treatments. The eighth week produced a similar trend with no significant differences comparing the treatments. 50 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Weeks after transplanting PM 20 tons CD 20 tons CD 5 tons + PM 15 tons CD 10 tons + PM 10 tons CD 15 tons + PM 5 tons NPK 150 tons + U 100 tons Control Bars represent LSD bars less than 5% significance Figure 6: Plant height (cm) from weeks one to eight after transplanting 4.6. Stem diameter from weeks one to eight after transplanting The stem diameter of plants was measured to ascertain the effect of treatments on it. Measurements were taken for eight weeks at weekly intervals. The treatments applied had no significant effects on stem diameter of plants for the eight weeks period except for week seven. Stem diameter of plants of NPK 150 kg/ha + urea at 100 kg/ha measured 2.89 mm as the maximum diameter with cow dung at 20 tons/ha recording the minimum for week one. The diameter increased in the second week and NPK at 150 kg/ha + urea at 100 kg/ha measured the maximum diameter 3.45 mm with cow dung at 20 tons/ha recorded the minimum of 2.72 mm (Fig. 7). The stem diameter continues to increase in size for the third week, with poultry manure at 20 tons/ha recording the maximum of 5.01 51 Plant height (cm) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh mm and the control the minimum of 4.29 mm. the fourth week follows a similar trend as the control measured the minimum of 3.89 mm and poultry manure at 20 tons/ha recording the maximum of 5.29 mm. For the fifth week, treatments had no significant effect on stem diameter with poultry manure at 20 tons/ha measuring the maximum diameter and the control the minimum of 6.51 mm. The control treatment continues to record the minimum diameter of 8.52 mm with poultry manure at 20 tons/ha the maximum of 10.82 mm for week six. For the seventh week, the treatments had significant effect on the stem diameter (Fig. 7). The control measured 8.86 mm and is not significantly different compared to NPK at 150 kg/ha + urea at 100 kg/ha. Poultry manure at 20 tons/ha recorded 11.63 mm and is not different statistically compared to cow dung at 20 tons/ha, cow dung at 5 tons/ha + poultry manure at 15 tons/ha, cow dung at 10 tons/ha + poultry manure at 10 tons/ha and cow dung at 15 tons/ha + poultry manure at 5 tons/ha. 52 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Weeks after transplanting PM 20 tons CD 20 tons CD 5 tons + PM 15 tons CD 10 tons + PM 10 tons CD 15 tons + PM 5 tons NPK 150 tons + U 100 tons Control Bars represent LSD bars less than 5% significance Figure 7: Stem diameter (mm) from weeks one to eight after transplanting 4.7. Days to 50% flowering The days to 50 percent flowering was measured to determine the effect of treatments on flowering. The days to 50 percent flowering were not significantly affected by the treatments, with NPK at 150 kg/ha + urea at 100 kg/ha plants flowering earlier at 60 days as the minimum and control field plants flowering later at 63 days as the maximum (Table 3). 53 Stem diameter (mm) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.8 Days to 50% fruiting The days to 50 percent fruiting when recorded was affected by the treatments significantly. Poultry manure at 20 tons/ha fruited within 79.0 days and is not significantly different from cow dung at 20 ton/has, cow dung at 10 tons/ha + poultry manure at 10 tons/ha, cow dung at 15 tons/ha + poultry manure at 5 tons/ha and NPK at 150 kg/ha + urea at 100 kg/ha (Table 3). The control field fruited at 82.0 days and is not different compared to cow dung at 20 tons/ha and cow dung at 5 tons/ha + poultry manure at 15 tons/ha. Poultry manure at 20 tons/ha fruited significantly earlier than the control and cow dung at 5 tons/ha + poultry manure at 15 tons/ha. 4.9 Days to 50% ripening Fruits treated with NPK at 150 kg/ha + urea at 100 kg/ha ripped early at 99.0 days, was not significantly different compared to poultry manure at 20 tons/ha, cow dung at 20 tons/ha, and cow dung at 15 tons/ha + poultry manure at 5 tons/ha which ripped at 100.0 days (Table 3). The control field ripped lately at 104.0 days but is not different from cow dung at 5 tons/ha + poultry manure at 15 tons/ha and cow dung at 10 ton/has + poultry manure at 10 tons/ha. NPK at 150 kg/ha + urea at 100 kg/ha ripped significantly earlier compared to the control. Poultry manure at 20 tons/ha and cow dung at 20 tons/ha as well ripped earlier in 100.0 days compared to the control which ripped late in 104.0 days. 54 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 3: Days to 50% flowering, fruiting and ripening Days to 50% Days to 50% Days to 50% Treatment flowering fruiting ripening PM 20 tons 61.7 79.0 100.0 CD 20 tons 61.5 80.2 100.0 CD 5 tons + PM 15 tons 62.2 81.5 102.0 CD 10 tons + PM 10 tons 61.7 79.7 102.0 CD 15 tons + PM 5 tons 61.2 79.5 100.0 NPK 150 kg + U 100 kg 60.2 79.2 99.0 Control 62.5 81.7 104.0 LSD (P = 0.05) 1.9 NS 1.62 2.2 4.10 Marketable fruit number, weight and unmarketable fruit number and weight The harvested ripped fruits were separated into marketable and unmarketable fruits and then counted and weighed accordingly. Marketable number of fruits harvested per plant was not significantly affected by the treatments applied. Poultry manure at 20 tons/ha produced the maximum number of fruits of 111.0 fruits per plant but was not significantly different compared to the other treatments. The control field produced the minimum number of 43.0 marketable fruits. The weight of the marketable fruits was also not affected by the treatment significantly (Table 4). The un ripe and abnormal fruits out of the lot were selected as unmarketable fruit per plant. The control field recorded the minimum number of 4.0 unmarketable fruits with NPK at 150 kg/ha + urea at 100 kg/ha recording the maximum of 18.0 fruits per plants. There were no significant differences among the treatments for the unmarketable fruits as 55 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh well as its weight (Table 4). Table 4: Marketable fruit number, weight and unmarketable fruit number and weight Marketable Marketable Unmarketable Unmarketable Treatment fruit number fruit weight fruit number fruit weight (g) (g) PM 20 tons 111.0 4794.0 10.0 320.0 CD 20 tons 92.0 4419.0 5.0 184.0 CD 5 tons + PM 15 tons 81.0 3020.0 9.0 264.0 CD 10 tons + PM 10 tons 90.0 4511.0 7.0 199.0 CD 15 tons + PM 5 tons 89.0 3977.0 9.0 230.0 NPK 150 kg + U 100 kg 99.0 3268.0 18.0 227.0 Control 43.0 1820.0 4.0 109.0 LSD (P = 0.05) 46.5 NS 2783.0 NS 10.13 NS 250.5 NS 4.10.1. Marketable fruit harvests The fruit are mature red ripe fruit without any damage on the seed. Marketable fruit harvest for seed extraction and fermentation 56 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 8: Marketable fruit harvests 4.10.2. Unmarketable fruit harvests These are immature fruit drop from the plant either by insects, pest damage or physically affected by other means. Unmarketable fruit seed cannot be used for seed Figure 9: Unmarketable fruit harvests 4.10.3 Marketable fruit number and weight per hectare The maximum number of marketable fruits per hectare was recorded for poultry manure at 20 tons/ha with a weight of 21307.0 kg. The control field produced the minimum number per hectare and weighed 8090.0 kg. There was no significant effect of treatments on the number of marketable fruits per hectare and its weight (Table 5). Table 5: Marketable fruit number and weight per hectare Marketable fruit Marketable fruit weight Treatment number per hectare (kg) per hectare 57 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh PM 20 tons 492222 21307.0 CD 20 tons 410000 19640.0 CD 5 tons + PM 15 tons 361111 13420.0 CD 10 tons + PM 10 tons 401111 20050.0 CD 15 tons + PM 5 tons 394444 17674.0 NPK 150 kg + U 100 kg 437778 14522.0 Control 192222 8090.0 LSD (P = 0.05) 206669 NS 12369.1 NS 4.11 Research Challenges Throughout production caterpillar was one of the major insect pest affect crop yield. Early application of nematicide (Fulan), weekly twice spraying of insecticide, fungicide and pesticides such as attack, D-Lion Fungi 2020, AKAPE and Hercules greatly reduce pests and diseases incidence and avoid other pests and diseases in the tomato research. Caterpillar suck the fruit Lava inside the fruit Lava exposed from the fruit Figure 10: Caterpillar damage on tomato fruits 58 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.12 Weight of seeds per seed extraction fermentation and per treatment The ripe fruits harvested were put together according to treatments from all the four replicates and divided into three equal weight to be used for seed extraction. Seed from one portion was extracted by leaving the fruit pulp in water for two (2) days before extracting the seed. The second portion was left in water for three days before extraction while the portion four was left in water for four days before extraction. This method of seed extraction was applied to all the treatments used. Seeds obtained from the various treatments were sun dried for a day and dry under room temperature for four days and weighed afterwards (Table 6). Cow dung at 20 tons/ha recorded a total of 55.8 kg per hectare of seeds as the maximum weight with the control recording the least of 20.6 kg per hectare. The next maximum total weight is obtained by poultry manure at 20 tons/ha with a weight of 31.5 kg per hectare, followed by NPK at 150 kg/ha + urea at 100 kg/ha with a weight of 30.8 kg per hectare. The other treatments recorded weights between 26.6 kg per hectare to 28.6 kg per hectare (Table 6). For the individual days of extraction per treatment application, cow dung at 20 tons/ha rd seeds extracted on the 3 day recorded a maximum of 27.1 kg per hectare and control seeds extracted on day 4 had the least seed weight of 6.0 kg per hectare. All the treatments produced more seeds than the control field. The various seed weights obtained per treatment per day are as shown in Table 6. Table 6: Weight of seeds per seed extraction fermentation and per treatment Treatment Days of seed Weight of Total weight fermentation seeds of seeds (kg/ha) (kg/ha) 59 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2 11.1 Poultry manure 20 tons/ha 3 12.8 31.5 4 7.5 2 15.7 Cow dung 20 tons/ha 3 27.1 55.8 4 13.0 2 7.6 Cow dung 5 tons + poultry manure 15 3 12.6 28.6 tons 4 8.3 2 8.8 Cow dung 10 tons + poultry manure 10 3 7.8 tons 4 10.0 26.6 2 12.3 Cow dung 15 tons + poultry manure 5 3 8.8 28.3 tons/ha 4 7.1 2 13.3 NPK 150 kg + urea 100 kg/ha 3 9.1 30.8 4 8.3 2 7.1 Control 3 7.5 20.6 4 6.0 4.13 Germination test of Seeds The seeds extracted from the fruits were tested for their germination ability using the blotter method and the seed tray method. The fruit pulp containing the seeds was soaked in water for two, three or four days before extracting the seeds. The germination ability of the seeds was tested to determine the effect of treatments and duration of fermentation on germination. The blotter method recorded higher percent values compared to the seed tray method (Table 7). There were no significant differences among the treatments, duration of fermentation and treatment x duration of fermentation interaction for the 60 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh blotter method (Table 7). The seed tray method recorded 72.0 percent and above germination, but less than 95.0 percent. There was significant difference among treatments and days to extraction of seeds, but interaction effects produced no significant differences. For days to extraction, a fermentation duration of 2 days recorded the maximum percentage of 86.5 which is significantly different compared to 3 days (78.1 percent) and 4 days (78.0 percent). Cow dung at 10 tons /ha + poultry manure at 10 tons/ha recorded 75.6 percent germination, which is significantly not different from cow dung at 5 tons/ha + poultry manure at 15 tons/ha and NPK at 150 kg /ha+ urea at 100 kg/ha. Cow dung at 20 tons/ha recorded the maximum percentage of 86.0 and is significantly different compared to the control, cow dung at 10 tons/ha + poultry manure at 10 tons/ha, NPK at 150 kg/ha + urea at 100 kg/ha and cow dung at 5 tons/ha + poultry manure at 15 tons/ha. Cow dung at 20 tons/ha is significantly not different compared to poultry manure at 20 tons/ha and cow dung at 15 tons/ha + poultry manure at 5 tons/ha. The interaction effects are significantly not different, but germination of seeds extracted from cow dung at 20 tons/ha and soaked in water for two days recorded 93.0 percent as the maximum and cow dung at 10 tons/ha + poultry manure at 10 tons/ha and soaked in water for four days had the minimum percent germination (Table 7). Table 7: Percent germination for blotter and seed tray method Blotter method Seed tray method Days of seed Days of seed Treatment fermentation Mean fermentation Mean 2 3 4 2 3 4 61 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh PM 20 tons 99.0 98.0 97.0 98.0 89.0 81.0 79.0 83.0 CD 20 tons 100.0 100.0 98.0 99.3 93.0 79.0 86.0 86.0 CD 5 tons + PM 15 tons 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 88.0 74.0 76.0 79.3 CD 10 tons + PM 10 tons 97.0 93.0 98.0 96.0 81.0 74.0 72.0 75.6 CD 15 tons + PM 5 tons 100. 93.0 93.0 95.3 88.0 81.0 78.0 82.3 NPK 150 kg + U 100 kg 100 97.0 96.0 97.6 81.0 81.0 77.0 79.6 Control 95.0 100.0 98.0 97.6 86.0 77.0 78.0 80.3 Mean 98.7 97.2 97.1 86.5 78.1 78.0 LSD (P = 0.05); Treatment = 4.1 NS 4.3 Days = 2.7 NS 2.8 Treatment*Days = 7.0 NS 7.5 NS 4.14 Seedling heights for week one and two The seeds extracted from the different treatment combinations were sown and seedling height was measured for four weeks at weekly interval. No significant differences in height were observed for treatments and fermentation duration, for week 1. The seedling height increased in the second week and recorded significant differences among the treatments, as well as the days to seed extraction. The interaction effect of the treatments and days to seed extraction was not significant. For week two the seeds extracted three days after fermenting measured 3.71 cm in height and is significantly lower than those from two and four days. Cow dung at 15 tons/ha + poultry manure at 5 tons/ha recorded seedling heights of 3.98 cm and is significantly different from cow dung at 10 tons/ha + poultry manure at 10 tons/ha. Cow dung at 20 tons/ha with seedling height of 3.90 cm is significantly not different from poultry manure at 20 tons/ha, cow dung at 5 tons/ha + poultry manure at 15 tons/ha, cow dung at 15 tons/ha + poultry manure at 5 tons/ha and 62 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh NPK at 150 kg/ha + urea at 100 kg/ha. The interaction effect of the combination of treatment and days to extraction are significantly not different. The minimum seedling height of 3.71 cm was recorded poultry manure at 20 tons/ha and its seeds extracted at day four. The same height was measured for cow dung at 20 tons/ha and seeds extracted at day four and cow dung at 5 tons/ha + poultry at 15 tons/ha and the seeds extracted at the four days (Table 8). Table 8: Seedling heights for weeks one and two Seedling height week 1 Seedling height week 2 Treatment Days of seed Days of seed fermentation Mean fermentation Mean 2 3 4 2 3 4 PM 20 tons 0.66 0.87 0.85 0.80 4.13 3.81 3.71 3.88 CD 20 tons 0.54 0.67 0.74 0.65 3.97 3.71 4.03 3.90 CD 5 tons + PM 15 tons 0.83 0.65 0.70 0.72 4.28 3.59 3.71 3.86 CD 10 tons + PM 10 tons 0.83 0.74 0.40 0.66 3.83 3.47 3.39 3.56 CD 15 tons + PM 5 tons 0.60 0.64 0.53 0.59 4.16 4.03 3.75 3.98 NPK 150 kg + U 100 kg 0.70 0.84 0.70 0.75 3.84 3.96 3.77 3.85 Control 0.78 0.66 0.54 0.66 4.21 3.74 3.78 3.91 Mean 0.71 0.72 0.64 3.97 3.71 4.03 LSD (P = 0.05); Treatment = 0.13 NS 0.20 Days = 0.08 NS 0.13 Treatment*Days = 0.22 NS 0.36 NS 4.14.1 Seedling heights for week three and four The seedling height for week three was affected by the number of days of fermentation. Seedlings from seeds extracted 2 days after fermentation recorded a height of 6.8 cm and is significantly different from seedlings obtained from seeds fermented for 3 and 4 days. 63 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The treatments had no significant effect on the seedling height for week three. The interaction effects of the treatments and number of days had no significant effect on seedling height for week three. The measurement of seedling height for week four was affected by days to which the seeds were extracted. The seedling height for day two was 9.6 cm and is significantly different from seeds fermented for three and four days. The treatments had no significant effect on seedling height for week four. The interaction between treatment and days to seed extraction had no significant effect on seedling height (Table 9). Table 9: Seedling heights for week three and four Seedling height week 3 Seedling height week 4 Treatment Days of seed Days of seed fermentation Mean fermentation Mean 2 3 4 2 3 4 64 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh PM 20 tons 6.83 6.94 6.78 6.85 9.54 9.61 8.42 9.19 CD 20 tons 6.86 6.19 6.65 6.57 9.75 8.51 9.17 9.14 CD 5 tons + PM 15 tons 6.95 5.83 5.99 6.26 9.70 8.10 8.35 8.72 CD 10 tons + PM 10 tons 6.21 6.39 5.58 6.06 9.60 7.93 7.66 8.40 CD 15 tons + PM 5 tons 6.83 6.40 6.14 6.46 9.55 8.92 8.55 9.01 NPK 150 kg + U 100 kg 6.21 6.38 6.18 6.26 9.70 8.93 8.52 9.05 Control 7.49 6.07 6.13 6.56 9.47 8.47 8.56 8.84 Mean 6.77 6.31 6.21 9.62 8.64 8.46 LSD (P = 0.05); Treatment = 0.61 NS 0.76 NS Days = 0.40 0.50 Treatment*Days = 1.07 NS 1.32 NS 4.15 Cost Benefit Analysis for Producing Tomato Fruits The cost of producing tomato fruits for sale commercially and how beneficial it is to the farmer was determined under the cost benefit analysis. The cost of producing fruits as against the revenue obtained from the fruit is beneficial for most of the treatments, with the exception of the control and cow dung at 5 tons/ha + poultry manure at 15 tons/ha which produced a loss in revenue (Table 10). Table 10: Cost Benefit Analysis for Producing Tomato Fruits 2 Cow dung 20tons Cost (GH¢) / 7.5m Cost (GH¢) / Hectare (Cost of production for fruit 36.42 48,560.0 Revenue from fruits 44.10 58,800 Profit/loss 10,240.00 Poultry Manure 20tons 65 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Cost of production for fruit 36.42 48,560.00 Revenue from fruits 47.94 63,920.00 Profit/loss 15,360.00 CD 10tons + PM 10tons Cost of production for fruit 36.42 48,560.00 Revenue from fruits 45.10 60,133.30 Profit/loss 11,573.30 CD 15tons + PM 5tons Cost of production for fruit 36.42 48,560.00 Revenue from fruits 39.76 53,013.30 Profit/loss 4,453.30 CD 5tons + PM 15tons Cost of production for fruit 36.42 48,560.00 Revenue from fruits 30.19 40,253.30 Profit/loss - 8306.70 NPK 150kg + Urea 100kg Cost of production for fruit 31.79 42,386.70 Revenue from fruits 32.67 43,560.00 Profit/loss 1,173.30 Control Cost of production for fruit 26.42 35,226.70 Revenue from fruits 18.20 24,266.70 Profit/loss - 10960.00 4.16 Cost Benefit Analysis for Producing Tomato Seeds The loss for the control plot could be avoided if the soil was amended with some nutrient supplement. The loss for the cow dung at 5 tons/ha + poultry manure at 15 tons/ha is not so huge and might be caused by underutilization of the manure (Table 11). For the production of seeds for commercial sales, the analysis produced a loss for all the treatments, indicating that it is not beneficial producing seeds. This could be as a result that, after producing the fruits, an additional cost is involved in extracting the seeds. This therefore increases the cost of production for seeds (Table 11). The tomato fruit (Pectomech) also does not have much seeds within as the flesh of the fruit. It will only become beneficial if the flesh of the fruit is put to another use after the seeds have been 66 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh extracted. Table 11: Cost Benefit Analysis for producing Tomato Seeds 2 Cow dung 20tons Cost (GH¢) / 7.5m Cost (GH¢) / Hectare Cost of production for seed 41.78 55,706.70 Revenue from seeds 10.00 13,333.30 Profit/loss - 42373.40 Poultry Manure 20tons Cost of production for seed 41.78 55,706.70 Revenue from seeds 6.00 8,000.00 Profit/loss - 47,706.70 CD 10tons + PM 10tons Cost of production for seed 41.78 55,706.70 Revenue from seeds 4.80 6,400.00 Profit/loss - 49,306.70 CD 15tons + PM 5tons Cost of production for seed 41.78 55,706.70 Revenue from seeds 5.00 6,666.70 Profit/loss - 49040.00 CD 5tons + PM 15tons Cost of production for seed 41.78 55,706.70 Revenue from seeds 5.16 6,880.00 Profit/loss - 48826.70 NPK 150kg + Urea 100kg Cost of production for seed 33.66 44,880.00 Revenue from seeds 5.50 7,333.30 Profit/loss - 37546.70 Control Cost of production for seed 31.78 42,373.30 Revenue from seeds 3.72 4960.00 Profit/loss - 37413.3 CHAPTER FIVE 5.0 DISCUSSION 67 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5.1 Effect of treatments on Chlorophyll content Chlorophyll content is the green colouring matter of the leaves of plants. The colour is mostly displayed because of nitrogen nutrients absorbed by the plant. The chlorophyll content measured showed significant differences among the treatments for most of the recorded weekly measurements. The differences could be due to the nitrogen released by the treatments applied into the soil. The results revealed that fields treated with nitrogen have plants with high chlorophyll content. The control plot has over the period recorded lower chlorophyll content values as compared to the other treatments. This is because the control plot where no treatment was applied could not have a supply of nitrogen nutrients over the period to record high chlorophyll content. The other fields where treatment was applied, nitrogen nutrients were slowly released into the soil for use by the plants and this might have produced high chlorophyll content than the control. The NPK at 150kg/ha + urea at 100 kg/ha recorded high chlorophyll content than the organic treatments, because it releases nitrogen quickly into the soil than the organic fertilizers. 5.2 Effects of treatments on number of branches The treatments effects on number of branches produced per plant were not significant for most of the recording weeks. However, the control plot produced less number of branches compared to the treated plots with organic and inorganic fertilizers. This could be due to the effect of the organic manure such as poultry manure which promotes an increase in the number of branches (Usman, 2015). The poultry manure recorded the highest number of branches over the period of measurement with the control the least. 68 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5.3 Effect of treatments on number of leaves The number of leaves produced per plant over the period generally was not significantly affected by the treatments. However, the control plot recorded the least number of leaves over the period. This could be due to less supply of nitrogen nutrients to the plants of the control plot, because Usman (2015) reported that poultry manure applied to fields planted with tomato increased the number of leaves of the plant. This could also be the reason why fields treated with organic and inorganic fertilizers produce more leaves than the control. Poultry manure produced the maximum number of leaves. 5.4 Effects of treatments on Plant height The plant heights recorded over the period for eight weeks produced no significant effects among the treatments. However, poultry manure produced plants with the maximum heights as compared to the control and the other treatments over the eight- week period. The nitrogen produced by the organic and inorganic fertilizers seems to increase the height of plants compared to the control. According to Usman (2015), poultry manure increases the height of plants of tomato compared to the other organic manure. The NPK at 150 kg/ha + urea at 100 kg/ha recorded plants with higher heights than the control. 5.5 Effects of treatments on stem diameter The measurements taken on stem diameter produced no significant effects among the treatments over the eight weeks period. From the third week of measurement onwards, the control recorded the least stem diameter as compared to the treated plots of organic and inorganic fertilizers. This could be due to the effect of the manure applied to the soil, although the effect is minimal compared to the control. The inorganic fertilizer, NPK 150 69 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh kg/ha + urea 1000 kg/ha, recorded similar stem diameter as the organic manure(Appiah, 2015). 5.6 Effects of treatments on Days to 50% flowering, fruiting and ripening The days to 50% flowering was not affected by the treatments applied. The plants applied with NPK at 150 kg/ha + urea 100 kg/ha flowered earlier compared to the control which flowered late. This may be due to the release of nutrients quickly into the soil by the inorganic than the organic fertilizers (Malhi & Gill, 2013). The treatments applied to the tomato field had significant effect on days to 50% fruiting. The poultry manure recorded less number of days to 50% fruiting compared to the other organic manures and the NPK at 150kg/ha + urea at 100kg/ha, with control fruit late. The poultry manure at 20t/ha as reported by Usman, 2015 of its effect on plant height, number of leaves and number of branches might have affected the poultry manure plants to early fruiting. Although poultry manure plants fruited early, the fruits of NPK at 150kg/ha + Urea at 100 kg/ha recorded early ripening of 50 % than the organic fertilizers, and the organic manure ripening early than the control. This as well mean that application of fertilizer affects the ripening and as well the growth of plants (Sun, Zhao, & Yang, 2017). 5.7 Treatment effects on number and weights of marketable fruits Number of fruits harvested and their weights were not significantly affected by the treatments applied. The poultry manure treated field produced more fruits with maximum weights than the other treated fields. It could result from the release of more nitrogen nutrients by the poultry manure to facilitate the number of fruits and its weight (Atta, 2011). The other organic treated fields also produced similar number of fruits and weight 70 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh as the inorganic treated field. The other organic manures might have produced similar quantity of nitrogen nutrient s as the inorganic fertilizer. However, the organic and inorganic treated fields produced more fruits with much weight than the control without any application of manure or fertilizer. This as well revealed that application of organic and inorganic fertilizers increases the yield of tomato (Li et al., 2017). The yield of marketable fruits per hectare and its weights followed a similar reason. 5.8 Effect of treatments on weight of seeds extracted and percent germination The fruits harvested from the tomato plants were weighed for the various treatments and their seeds extracted tested for germination. Fruits harvested from cow dung at 20 tons/ha produced more seeds of weight 55.8 kg/ha as compared to the control of 20.6 kg/ha. The treatment combinations of cow dung and poultry manure at different tons produced seed weights between 26.6 kg/ha to 28.6 kg/ha. The poultry manure at 20 tons/ha and NPK at 150 kg/ha + urea at 100 kg/ha recorded seed weight of 31.5 kg and 30.8 kg respectively. The weights obtained were seed weight irrespective of the number of days used to extract it. Seeds from the fruits were extracted by leaving the fruit pulp in water two, three or four days for fermentation before extracting. The various seeds obtained from which number of days was used to extract, was tested for germination. Two methods used, the blotter method and seed tray method. For the blotter method, the treatment or the days by which seeds were extracted did not affect germination. However, it could be observed that the longer the pulp remain in water before seeds are extracted affect the germination percentage and hence seed quality (Demir and Samit, 2001). It is recommended by o Eevera and Vanangamudi, 2006 that, seed must be extracted at 20 C and within 24 to 48 hours of pulp fermenting in water. 71 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The seed tray method showed that treatments affected germination as well as the number of days of fermentation. The percent germination declines as the number of days for fermentation prolong thereby affecting the seed quality (Demir and Samit, 2001). 5.9 Effect of treatments and days to seed extraction on seedling height The seedlings obtained from the germination test were measured for their height for four weeks period at one-week interval. The treatment and days of extraction had significant effect on the seedling height of tomato. Seedling height of tomato might be affected by how long the pulp is left to ferment in water. If the pulp is left more than two days to ferment it will affect the seed quality and thereby the growth of the seedling (Eevera and Vanangamudi, 2006). 5.10 Cost benefit analysis The cost for producing tomato fruits and seeds for commercial purpose was measured. It was profitable producing fruits than seeds, because producing seeds adds additional cost to the production cost of the fruits. Seeds production may be profitable if the pericarp of the tomato fruit has more flesh and can be used for canned tomato or puree. 72 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER SIX 6.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 6.1 Conclusion The study revealed that application of organic manure decreases the number of days to 50% flowering, fruiting and ripening as compared to the control with no fertilizer. Poultry manure 20 t/ha, gave the maximum yield 21, 307 kg/ha, and has fruit number of 492, 222 fruits/ha. Tomato seeds extracted and fermented for two days resulted in good quality seed (98.7% germination; blotter method; 86.5% germination; seed tray method) and seedling (height 9.6 cm). The study has revealed that fermenting of seeds for 2 days was the most profitable extraction method. 6.2 Recommendation Tomato pectomech variety produces few seed and as such care should be taken to minimize the cost of production to achieve profit in seed production. 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Statistical Research Information Department, Food import to Ghana. Mokwunye, V., Wang, P. Gniffke.S.K. Green, T. C. W. and R. M. (2006). Investigations in seed technological aspects in chilli (Capsicum annuum L.). Ph.D. Thesis, University of Agricultural Sciences Dharad. Morales-Olmedo, M., Ortiz, M., & Sellés, G. (2015). Effects of transient soil waterlogging and its importance for rootstock selection. Chilean Journal of Agricultural Research, 75(August), 45–56. http://doi.org/10.4067/S0718- 58392015000300006 Naika, H. (2005). Cultivation of tomato: production, processing and marketing. Agromisa Foundation and CTA, Wageningen. Obeng-Ofori, C. S. and Fianu, F. (2006). Sustaining soil fertility in Ghana: An integrated nutrient management approach., Pp. 41-60. Obeng-Ofori, D., Danquah, Y. E and Ofosu Anim, J. (2007). Vegetable and spice crop production in West Africa. Smart line publishers, p.53-59. Ozores-Hampton M, Stansly PA, S. T. (2011). Soil Chemical, Physical, and Biological Properties of a Sandy Soil Subjected to Long-Term Organic Amendments. Journal of Sustainable Agriculture, 35, 243–259. Quansah, C. (2000). The effect of poultry manure and mineral fertilizer on maize/cassava intercropping in peri-urban Kumasi, Ghana. RobdenOuden.(2014).file:///E:/myFiles/Natural%20plant%20fertilizer%20Fertiplus%C2 79 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh %AE%204-3- 3%20_%20Ferm-O-Feed.htm Rodale,. Sanchez P.A., Shepherd K.D., Soule M.J., Place F.M., Buresh R.J., I. A.-M. N., & Mokwunye A.U., Kwesiga F.R., Ndiritu C.G., W. P. L. (2007). Soil fertility replenishment in Africa. An investment in natural resource capital. Buresh R.J., Sanchez P.A., Calhoun F. (Eds.), Replenishing Soil Fertility in Africa, Soil Sci. Soc. Am. (SSSA), Spec. Publ., No. 51., Madison, WI, USA,. Sansoulet, E., & Cabidoche, S. (2007). Influence of different soil amendments on postharvest performance of tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum). Journal of Stored Products and Postharvest Research, 3(1), 11–13. Scholthof, K. B. G. et al. (2011). Top 10 plant viruses in molecular plant pathology. Mol Plant Pathol, 12, 938–954. Schwarz, D., Thompson, A. J., & Kläring, H.-P. (2014). Guidelines to use tomato in experiments with a controlled environment. Frontiers in Plant Science, 5(November), 1–16. http://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2014.00625 Stone, N. & Elioff, T. (2008). Durum grain quality as affected by nitrogen fertilization near anthesis and irrigation during grain fill. Agron J, 92(1035–1041). Taylor, M. D., Locascio, S. J., & Alligood, M. R. (2004). Blossom-end rot incidence of tomato as affected by irrigation quantity, calcium source, and reduced potassium. HortScience, 39(5), 1110–1115. Thompson, J.R. (1986). An Introduction to Seed Technology. New York, John Wiley and Sons 80 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Tjärnemo, E. (2010). Organic fertilizer responses of cucumbers on peat in Brunei. Experimental Agriculture., 14(299–302). Turner M., 2010. Les semences. Quæ, CTA, Presses agronomiques de Gembloux p9-10. USAID, 2010. Seed System Security Assessment Haiti, pp 115. Vallejo, N., Swift, M. J., Seward, P. D., Frost, P. G. H., Qureshi, J. N. and Muchena, F., & N. (2002). Studies on the effect of Azospirillum, nitrogen and NAA on growth and yield of chilli. South Indian Horticulture, 36(218). Van Regenmortel, M. H. V. et al. (2000). In Virus taxonomy: seventh report of the international committee on taxonomy of viruses. Varela, C., Sutanto, R., Suproyo, A. & Mass, A. (2003). Yield and quality of leafy vegetables grown with organic fertilizations. Acta Hort., 627(25–33). World Bank (2015). World Bank database 2015. Washington DC: World Bank. Retrieved from http://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/agriculture/overview Yadar, W., Ssali, H., Ahn, P. and Mokwunye, A. U. (2004). Suggested Cultural Practices for Tomato. International Cooperator’s Guide, 4–8. Yadar, SK, P. R Kumar and HCS Negi 2004; Jadi and Singh 2009. Comparison of different methods of tomato seed extraction Seed Res., 32:160-162 81 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDICES Appendix 1: Analysis of variance (ANOVA) for Chlorophy content week 1 Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr. Reps stratum 3 7.168 2.389 1.34 Treatments 6 29.665 4.944 2.77 0.043 Residual 18 32.112 1.784 Total 27 68.945 Appendix 2: ANOVA for Chlorophy content week 2 Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr. Reps stratum 3 38.67 12.89 0.71 Treatments 6 114.24 19.04 1.05 0.424 Residual 18 324.95 18.05 Total 27 477.86 Appendix 3: ANOVA for Chlorophy content week 3 Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr. Reps stratum 3 38.52 12.84 0.31 Treatments 6 259.96 43.33 1.06 0.424 Residual 18 738.53 41.03 Total 27 1037.01 Appendix 4: ANOVA for Chlorophy content week 4 Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr. Reps stratum 3 36.06 12.02 1.04 Treatments 6 210.29 35.05 3.03 0.031 Residual 18 207.99 11.56 Total 27 454.34 Appendix 5: ANOVA for Chlorophy content week 5 Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr. Reps stratum 3 221.00 73.67 3.52 Treatments 6 534.91 89.15 4.25 0.008 Residual 18 377.20 20.96 Total 27 1133.12 82 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Appendix 6: ANOVA for Chlorophy content week 6 Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr. Reps stratum 3 202.62 67.54 2.31 Treatments 6 509.30 84.88 2.91 0.037 Residual 18 525.39 29.19 Total 27 1237.31 Appendix 7: ANOVA for Chlorophy content week 7 Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr. Reps stratum 3 299.95 99.98 5.95 Treatments 6 372.20 62.03 3.69 0.014 Residual 18 302.26 16.79 Total 27 974.41 Appendix 8: ANOVA for Chlorophy content week 8 Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr. Reps stratum 3 321.23 107.08 6.66 Treatments 6 364.22 60.70 3.77 0.013 Residual 18 289.50 16.08 Total 27 974.95 Appendix 9: ANOVA for Days to 50% flowering Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr. Reps stratum 3 4.964 1.655 0.97 Treatments 6 12.929 2.155 1.26 0.324 Residual 18 30.786 1.710 Total 27 48.679 Appendix 10: ANOVA for Days to 50% fruiting Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr. Reps stratum 3 5.429 1.810 1.51 Treatments 6 28.429 4.738 3.95 0.011 Residual 18 21.571 1.198 Total 27 55.429 83 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Appendix 11: ANOVA for Number of branches week 1 Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr. Reps stratum 3 0.2252 0.0751 0.27 Treatments 6 1.0556 0.1759 0.63 0.705 Residual 18 5.0317 0.2795 Total 27 6.3125 Appendix 12: ANOVA for Number of branches week 2 Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr. Reps stratum 3 0.6458 0.2153 0.87 Treatments 6 1.6230 0.2705 1.09 0.406 Residual 18 4.4722 0.2485 Total 27 6.7411 Appendix 13: ANOVA for Number of branches week 3 Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr. Reps stratum 3 2.0188 0.6729 0.98 Treatments 6 7.4782 1.2464 1.81 0.153 Residual 18 12.3631 0.6868 Total 27 21.8601 Appendix 14: ANOVA for Number of branches week 4 Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr. Reps stratum 3 5.606 1.869 1.46 Treatments 6 21.236 3.539 2.77 0.044 Residual 18 23.026 1.279 Total 27 49.868 Appendix 15: ANOVA for Number of branches week 5 Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr. Reps stratum 3 5.598 1.866 0.38 Treatments 6 72.512 12.085 2.45 0.066 Residual 18 88.909 4.939 Total 27 167.019 Appendix 16: ANOVA for Number of branches week 6 Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr. Reps stratum 3 65.956 21.985 2.93 Treatments 6 113.409 18.901 2.52 0.060 Residual 18 134.877 7.493 84 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Total 27 314.242 Appendix 17: ANOVA for Number of branches week 7 Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr. Reps stratum 3 137.68 45.89 3.71 Treatments 6 148.83 24.81 2.00 0.118 Residual 18 222.90 12.38 Total 27 509.41 Appendix 18: ANOVA for Number of branches week 8 Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr. Reps stratum 3 88.61 29.54 2.47 Treatments 6 149.23 24.87 2.08 0.107 Residual 18 215.66 11.98 Total 27 453.50 Appendix 19: ANOVA for Number of leaves week 1 Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr. Reps stratum 3 43.81 14.60 1.45 Treatments 6 78.65 13.11 1.31 0.304 Residual 18 180.69 10.04 Total 27 303.15 Appendix 20: ANOVA for Number of leaves week 2 Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr. Reps stratum 3 13.84 4.61 0.17 Treatments 6 210.99 35.16 1.30 0.306 Residual 18 486.20 27.01 Total 27 711.03 Appendix 21: ANOVA for Number of leaves week 3 Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr. Reps stratum 3 128.4 42.8 0.26 Treatments 6 1207.4 201.2 1.21 0.348 Residual 18 3002.3 166.8 Total 27 4338.1 Appendix 22: ANOVA for Number of leaves week 4 Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr. Reps stratum 3 342.3 114.1 0.56 85 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Treatments 6 1841.3 306.9 1.50 0.235 Residual 18 3688.7 204.9 Total 27 5872.3 Appendix 23: ANOVA for Number of leaves week 5 Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr. Reps stratum 3 1971.2 657.1 2.97 Treatments 6 4861.7 810.3 3.66 0.015 Residual 18 3980.9 221.2 Total 27 10813.9 Appendix 24: ANOVA for Number of leaves week 6 Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr. Reps stratum 3 564.5 188.2 1.52 Treatments 6 978.5 163.1 1.31 0.301 Residual 18 2234.4 124.1 Total 27 3777.4 Appendix 25: ANOVA for Number of leaves week 7 Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr. Reps stratum 3 566.4 188.8 1.60 Treatments 6 886.4 147.7 1.25 0.329 Residual 18 2129.7 118.3 Total 27 3582.5 Appendix 26: ANOVA for Number of leaves week 8 Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr. Reps stratum 3 497.34 165.78 1.75 Treatments 6 847.01 141.17 1.49 0.237 Residual 18 1702.89 94.61 Total 27 3047.25 Appendix 27: ANOVA for plant height week 1 Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr. Reps stratum 3 22.480 7.493 2.36 Treatments 6 20.117 3.353 1.06 0.424 Residual 18 57.190 3.177 Total 27 99.787 Appendix 28: ANOVA for plant height week 2 Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr. 86 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Reps stratum 3 4.588 1.529 0.35 Treatments 6 33.563 5.594 1.29 0.310 Residual 18 77.900 4.328 Total 27 116.052 Appendix 29: ANOVA for plant height week 3 Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr. Reps stratum 3 24.65 8.22 0.57 Treatments 6 61.10 10.18 0.70 0.652 Residual 18 261.37 14.52 Total 27 347.12 Appendix 30: ANOVA for plant height week 4 Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr. Reps stratum 3 19.23 6.41 0.44 Treatments 6 126.96 21.16 1.45 0.251 Residual 18 263.05 14.61 Total 27 409.24 Appendix 31: ANOVA for plant height week 5 Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr. Reps stratum 3 9.30 3.10 0.15 Treatments 6 179.15 29.86 1.49 0.237 Residual 18 360.49 20.03 Total 27 548.95 Appendix 32: ANOVA for plant height week 6 Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr. Reps stratum 3 69.09 23.03 0.79 Treatments 6 197.43 32.90 1.13 0.385 Residual 18 524.05 29.11 Total 27 790.57 Appendix 33: ANOVA for plant height week 7 Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr. Reps stratum 3 71.07 23.69 0.64 Treatments 6 240.11 40.02 1.09 0.406 Residual 18 661.93 36.77 Total 27 973.11 Appendix 34: ANOVA for plant height week 8 Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr. 87 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Reps stratum 3 45.91 15.30 0.32 Treatments 6 335.44 55.91 1.18 0.358 Residual 18 850.32 47.24 Total 27 1231.67 Appendix 35: ANOVA for stem diameter week 1 Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr. Reps stratum 3 0.63150 0.21050 3.30 Treatments 6 0.52713 0.08786 1.38 0.276 Residual 18 1.14781 0.06377 Total 27 2.30644 Appendix 36: ANOVA for stem diameter week 2 Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr. Reps stratum 3 0.5533 0.1844 1.75 Treatments 6 1.1763 0.1961 1.86 0.143 Residual 18 1.8951 0.1053 Total 27 3.6247 Appendix 37: ANOVA for stem diameter week 3 Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr. Reps stratum 3 1.5944 0.5315 2.07 Treatments 6 1.8794 0.3132 1.22 0.341 Residual 18 4.6136 0.2563 Total 27 8.0874 Appendix 38: ANOVA for stem diameter week 4 Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr. Reps stratum 3 0.3768 0.1256 0.35 Treatments 6 5.0683 0.8447 2.38 0.072 Residual 18 6.3785 0.3544 Total 27 11.8236 Appendix 39: ANOVA for stem diameter week 5 Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr. Reps stratum 3 1.3077 0.4359 0.54 Treatments 6 10.6387 1.7731 2.21 0.090 Residual 18 14.4582 0.8032 Total 27 26.4046 Appendix 40: ANOVA for stem diameter week 6 Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr. 88 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Reps stratum 3 2.131 0.710 0.66 Treatments 6 16.934 2.822 2.62 0.053 Residual 18 19.377 1.077 Total 27 38.442 Appendix 41: ANOVA for stem diameter week 7 Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr. Reps stratum 3 3.788 1.263 0.86 Treatments 6 23.836 3.973 2.69 0.048 Residual 18 26.546 1.475 Total 27 54.170 Appendix 42: ANOVA for stem diameter week 8 Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr. Reps stratum 3 2.843 0.948 0.36 Treatments 6 23.950 3.992 1.53 0.223 Residual 18 46.816 2.601 Total 27 73.609 Appendix 43: ANOVA for Days to 50% ripening Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr. Reps stratum 3 4.679 1.560 0.67 Treatments 6 61.929 10.321 4.42 0.006 Residual 18 42.071 2.337 Total 27 108.679 Appendix 44: ANOVA for Marketable Fruits Number Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr. Reps stratum 3 1489.4 496.5 0.51 Treatments 6 10729.4 1788.2 1.83 0.151 Residual 18 17636.1 979.8 Total 27 29854.9 Appendix 45: ANOVA for Marketable Fruit Weight Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr. Reps stratum 3 8389629. 2796543. 0.80 Treatments 6 26523632. 4420605. 1.26 0.324 Residual 18 63171507. 3509528. Total 27 98084769. Appendix 46: ANOVA for Unmarketable Fruit Number Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr. Reps stratum 3 9.29 3.10 0.07 89 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Treatments 6 472.71 78.79 1.69 0.180 Residual 18 836.71 46.48 Total 27 1318.71 Appendix 47: ANOVA for Unmarketable Fruit Weight Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr. Reps stratum 3 5555. 1852. 0.07 Treatments 6 104095. 17349. 0.61 0.719 Residual 18 511937. 28441. Total 27 621587. Appendix 48: ANOVA for number of Marketable fruits per hectare Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr. Reps stratum 3 2.942E+10 9.807E+09 0.51 Treatments 6 2.119E+11 3.532E+10 1.83 0.151 Residual 18 3.484E+11 1.935E+10 Total 27 5.897E+11 Appendix 49: ANOVA for Weight of Marketable fruits per hectare Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr. Reps stratum 3 1.657E+08 5.524E+07 0.80 Treatments 6 5.239E+08 8.732E+07 1.26 0.324 Residual 18 1.248E+09 6.932E+07 Total 27 1.937E+09 Appendix 50: ANOVA for percent (%) Germination (Blotter method) Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr. Treatment 6 198.48 33.08 1.33 0.258 Days 2 42.29 21.14 0.85 0.432 Treatment. Days 12 248.38 20.70 0.83 0.618 Residual 63 1568.00 24.89 Total 83 2057.14 Appendix 51: ANOVA for percent (%) Germination (seed tray method) Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr. Treatment 6 769.90 128.32 4.58 <.001 Days 2 1348.95 674.48 24.09 <.001 Treatment. Days 12 352.38 29.37 1.05 0.418 Residual 63 1764.00 28.00 Total 83 4235.24 90 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Appendix 52: ANOVA for Seedling Height week 1 Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr. Treatments 6 0.34581 0.05763 2.22 0.052 Days 2 0.12457 0.06229 2.40 0.099 Treatments. Days 12 0.76027 0.06336 2.44 0.011 Residual 63 1.63511 0.02595 Total 83 2.86576 Appendix 53: ANOVA for Seedling Height week 2 Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr. Treatments 6 1.27850 0.21308 3.26 0.007 Days 2 1.83422 0.91711 14.03 <.001 Treatments. Days 12 1.26267 0.10522 1.61 0.112 Residual 63 4.11888 0.06538 Total 83 8.49428 Appendix 54: ANOVA for Seedling Height week 3 Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr. Treatments 6 4.9059 0.8177 1.42 0.222 Days 2 4.9962 2.4981 4.33 0.017 Treatments. Days 12 6.6601 0.5550 0.96 0.494 Residual 63 36.3513 0.5770 Total 83 52.9135 Appendix 55: ANOVA for Seedling Height week 4 Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr. Treatments 6 5.6063 0.9344 1.06 0.397 Days 2 21.6569 10.8285 12.27 <.001 Treatments. Days 12 7.1016 0.5918 0.67 0.773 Residual 63 55.6150 0.8828 Total 83 89.9798 91