UNIVERSITY OF GHANA DETERMINANTS OF E-LEARNING ADOPTION IN UNIVERSITIES: EVIDENCE FROM A DEVELOPING COUNTRY BY ERIC ANSONG 10244419 A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF OPERATIONS AND MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEMS, UNIVERSITY OF GHANA BUSINESS SCHOOL, UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF AN MPHIL IN MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEMS DEGREE AUGUST, 2015 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh i DECLARATION I do hereby declare that this work is the result of my own research and has not been presented by anyone for any academic award in this or any other university. All references used in this work have been fully acknowledged. I therefore bear responsibility for any shortcomings. ________________ ________________ Eric Ansong Date (10244419) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ii CERTIFICATION I hereby certify that this thesis was supervised in accordance with procedures laid down by the University. ________________ ________________ Dr. Richard Boateng Date (Supervisor) ________________ ________________ Dr. John Effah Date (Co-Supervisor) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh iii DEDICATION To my Dear Dad (Richard Boakye Yiadom), Lovely Mum (Gladys Anomwaa), Siblings (Lydia, George, Georgina and Emelia) and sweet nieces (Christine and Jacklyn) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh iv ACKNOWLEDGMENT Praise be unto the name of the most high God, who has been my provider and guardian. Though only my name appears on the cover of this thesis, many people have contributed to its production. I owe my gratitude to all those people who have made this thesis possible and because of whom my graduate experience has been one that I will cherish forever. Foremost, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisor Dr. Richard Boateng for the continuous support of my study and research, for his patience, motivation, enthusiasm, and immense knowledge. His guidance helped me in all the time of research and writing of this thesis. I could not have imagined having a better advisor and mentor for my MPhil study. I am also thankful to Dr. John Effah, my co-supervisor. I express my warm thanks to Mr. Frank Ansong who ensured this dream saw daylight. Your invaluable support both financially and spiritually will linger in my heart always. I’m really grateful. Many friends have helped me stay sane through these difficult years. Their support and care helped me overcome setbacks and stay focused on my study. I am grateful to Mr. & Mrs. Entsua-Mensah and family, Agya Owusu, Prof. A. Alemna, Dr. Adams, Henry N. Tabiri, Salimata, Linda Owusu, members of Christ’s Church of Universal Light-Nkawkaw, and my cousins. I am thankful for your aspiring guidance, invaluable constructive criticism and friendly advice. I thank my fellow MPhil MIS course mates: Nii Barnor, Augustus, Commodore, Hammond, Alfred, Hubei and Dzifa for the stimulating discussions, for the sleepless nights we were working together before deadlines, and for all the fun we have had in the period. My profound gratitude also goes to Daniel Opoku for helping me with the data analysis and insightful suggestions to this thesis. Last but not the least, words cannot express how grateful I am to my father, my mother, and my siblings for all of the sacrifices that they’ve made on my behalf. Your prayers for me were what sustained me thus far. I say a big thanks to you all, your contributions were not in vain. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh v TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION.................................................................................................................................... i CERTIFICATION ................................................................................................................................ ii DEDICATION...................................................................................................................................... iii ACKNOWLEDGMENT ..................................................................................................................... iv TABLE OF CONTENTS ..................................................................................................................... v LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................................... ix LIST OF FIGURES .............................................................................................................................. x LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVATIONS ............................................................................. xi ABSTRACT ......................................................................................................................................... xii CHAPTER ONE ................................................................................................................................... 1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................. 1 1.1 Research Background .............................................................................................................. 1 1.2 Research Problem .................................................................................................................... 3 1.3 Research Purpose ..................................................................................................................... 6 1.4 Research objectives .................................................................................................................. 7 1.5 Research questions ................................................................................................................... 7 1.6 Significance of research ........................................................................................................... 7 1.7 Chapter outline ........................................................................................................................ 8 CHAPTER TWO ................................................................................................................................ 10 LITERATURE REVIEW .................................................................................................................. 10 2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 10 2.2 Learning in Universities ........................................................................................................... 10 2.2.1 Traditional Learning .......................................................................................... 11 2.2.2 Distance Learning .............................................................................................. 12 2.2.3 Blended Learning ............................................................................................... 14 2.3 Defining E-learning ................................................................................................................ 15 2.3.1 E-learning Characteristics .................................................................................. 16 2.3.2 Types of E-learning systems .............................................................................. 21 2.4 Review of E-learning Research ............................................................................................. 25 2.4.1 Discussion of issues and evidence ..................................................................... 28 2.4.2 Stakeholder Perspectives of E-learning Literature ............................................ 39 2.4.3 Conceptual Approaches in E-learning Research................................................ 41 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh vi 2.4.4 Research Gaps and Future Research Directions ................................................ 44 2.5 Summary ................................................................................................................................. 46 CHAPTER THREE ............................................................................................................................ 47 RESEARCH FRAMEWORK ............................................................................................................ 47 3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 47 3.2 Technology-Organisation-Environment (TOE) framework - An Overview .................... 48 3.3 Research Model and Hypotheses .......................................................................................... 50 3.3.1 Technological Context ....................................................................................... 52 3.4.2 Organisational Context ........................................................................................... 54 3.4.3 Environmental Context ........................................................................................... 55 3.4.4 The Nature of the course .................................................................................... 57 3.4 Measuring the constructs ...................................................................................................... 58 3.5 Summary ................................................................................................................................. 58 CHAPTER FOUR ............................................................................................................................... 60 METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................................................. 60 4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 60 4.2 Research Paradigm ................................................................................................................ 61 4.3 Research Design and Methods .............................................................................................. 63 4.4 Conducting the Survey .......................................................................................................... 66 4.4.1 Questionnaire Development............................................................................... 66 4.4.2 Selection of Sample for the Study ..................................................................... 68 4.4.3 Data Collection Method ..................................................................................... 69 4.5 Data Analysis .......................................................................................................................... 70 4.6 Ethics for the survey analysis (observed ethics) .................................................................. 71 4.7 Summary ................................................................................................................................. 71 CHAPTER FIVE ................................................................................................................................ 73 CONTEXT OF THE STUDY ............................................................................................................ 73 5.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 73 5.2 E-learning in universities in Developing Counties .............................................................. 73 5.3 E-learning in Ghanaian Universities .................................................................................... 74 5.3.1 University of Ghana ........................................................................................... 75 5.4 The SAKAI ............................................................................................................................. 77 5.5 Summary ................................................................................................................................. 80 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh vii CHAPTER SIX ................................................................................................................................... 81 ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS ............................................................................ 81 6.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 81 6.2 Response rate .......................................................................................................................... 81 6.3 Demographic profile of respondents .................................................................................... 82 6.4 Descriptive statistics............................................................................................................... 85 6.5 Exploratory Factor Analysis ................................................................................................. 86 6.5.1 Univariate analysis tests ..................................................................................... 87 6.5.2 Extraction of factors ........................................................................................... 88 6.5.3 Reliability and re-specification of factors .......................................................... 93 6.5.4 Reliability of the dependent variable ................................................................. 95 6.6 Correlation ............................................................................................................................. 96 6.7 Multiple regression analysis .................................................................................................. 98 6.7.1 Regression assumptions ..................................................................................... 99 6.7.2 The Regression Model ..................................................................................... 103 6.7.3 The Regression Equation Model ...................................................................... 104 6.7.4 Analysis of the Stakeholders ............................................................................ 105 6.7.5 Model Evaluation ............................................................................................. 109 6.8 Discussion of results ............................................................................................................. 112 6.8.1 Nature of E-learning Adoption ........................................................................ 112 6.8.2 Determinants of E-learning Adoption ................................................................... 116 6.9 Summary ............................................................................................................................... 126 CHAPTER SEVEN ........................................................................................................................... 128 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION ....................................................... 128 7.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 128 7.2 Summary of the Research Process ..................................................................................... 128 7.3 Summary of the Research Findings ................................................................................... 129 7.3.1 Nature of E-learning Adoption ........................................................................ 129 7.3.2 Determinants of E-learning Adoption .............................................................. 130 7.4 Implications of the Study..................................................................................................... 133 7.4.1 Implication for research ................................................................................... 133 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh viii 7.4.2 Implication for Practice.................................................................................... 134 7.4.3 Implication for Policy ...................................................................................... 134 7.5 Limitations and Future Research Directions .................................................................... 135 REFERENCES .................................................................................................................................. 137 APPENDICES ................................................................................................................................... 157 Appendix A - Introduction Letter for Participants ................................................................... 157 Appendix B- Research Questionnaire ......................................................................................... 157 Appendix C- Descriptive Statistics .............................................................................................. 167 Appendix D- Principal Component Analysis .............................................................................. 168 Appendix E- Stakeholders and activities on the E-learning platform...................................... 169 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ix LIST OF TABLES Table 2.1: Article Distributions by Issues................................................................................ 27 Table 2.2: Categorized issues .................................................................................................. 29 Table 2.3: E-learning papers and perspectives ........................................................................ 40 Table 4.1: Relevant situations for different research strategies ............................................... 65 Table 4.2: Questionnaire Development ................................................................................... 68 Table 6.1: Demographic Characteristics of Respondents ........................................................ 83 Table 6.2: Means and Standard Deviation of the Factors ....................................................... 87 Table 6.3: KMO and Bartlett's Test ......................................................................................... 89 Table 6.4: Rotated factor component matrix .......................................................................... 93 Table 6.5: Rejected items…………………………………………………………………….94 Table 6.6: Reliability of Scales- independent variables ........................................................... 95 Table 6.7: Reliability of Scale – Dependent Variable ............................................................. 97 Table 6.8: Correlation Matrix .................................................................................................. 98 Table 6.9: Tests of Normality ................................................................................................ 103 Table 6.10: Model Summary ................................................................................................. 104 Table 6.11: ANOVA Table .................................................................................................... 105 Table 6.12: Multiple Regression Analysis of University of Ghana ....................................... 105 Table 6.13: ANOVA Table for Students ............................................................................... 106 Table 6.14: Multiple Regression Analysis of Factors of E-learning Adoption for students .. 107 Table 6.15: ANOVA Table for Instructors ............................................................................ 108 Table 6.16: Multiple Regression Analysis of Factors of E-learning Adoption for Instructors .............................................................................................................................. 108 Table 6.17: ANOVA Table for Administrators ..................................................................... 109 Table 6.18: Multiple Regression Analysis of Factors for Administrators ............................. 109 Table 6.19: stakeholders and period of using the system ...................................................... 113 Table 6.20: Activities performed on the E-learning platform ............................................... 115 Table 6.21: Summary of hypotheses and results for University of Ghana ........................... 117 Table 6.22: Summary of hypotheses and results for stakeholders ......................................... 121 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh file:///E:/l file:///E:/l file:///E:/l file:///E:/l file:///E:/l file:///E:/l file:///E:/l file:///E:/l file:///E:/l file:///E:/l file:///E:/l file:///E:/l file:///E:/l file:///E:/l file:///E:/l file:///E:/l file:///E:/l file:///E:/l file:///E:/l file:///E:/l file:///E:/l file:///E:/l file:///E:/l file:///E:/l file:///E:/l file:///E:/l x LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2.1: Blended learning plan ............................................................................................ 14 Figure 2.2: The Sharma and Mishra model ............................................................................. 20 Figure 3.1: Technology, Organisation, and Environment Framework .................................... 50 Figure 3.2: Conceptual framework for e-learning adoption .................................................... 51 Figure 5.1: A sample interface of UG’s Sakai E-learning system ........................................... 80 Figure 6.1: Scree Plot ............................................................................................................... 89 Figure 6.2: Residual plots ...................................................................................................... 101 Figure 6.3: E-learning Adoption Model................................................................................. 127 Figure 7.1: E-learning adoption factors for stakeholders ....................................................... 133 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh file:///E:/EricAnsong__chapters%201_7.docx file:///E:/EricAnsong__chapters%201_7.docx file:///E:/EricAnsong__chapters%201_7.docx file:///E:/EricAnsong__chapters%201_7.docx file:///E:/l file:///E:/l file:///E:/l file:///E:/l file:///E:/l xi LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVATIONS CD–ROM Compact Disc Read-Only CMS Course management systems DVD Digital Versatile Disc E-learning Electronic Learning HTML HyperText Markup Language ICT Information and Communication Technology IS Information System IT Information Technology LMS Learning Management Systems MP3 Moving Picture Experts Group (MPEG -3) PDA Personal Digital Assistant SaaS Software as a Service TV Television RFID Radio-Frequency Identification RSS Rich Site Summary UG University of Ghana University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh xii ABSTRACT Electronic Learning (e-learning) – the use of ICT to support learning – has become paramount in the growth of universities worldwide. Universities are now including e-learning modules in their curricula to support and in some cases replace the face-to-face educational methods. This has spurred a lot of studies into e-learning adoption in higher learning institutions. However, studies looking at e-learning adoption from a multi-stakeholder perspective are quite missing in literature, especially in developing countries. Previous studies tend to focus on one of the three major categories of e-learning stakeholders: students, instructors and administrators. Again, the studies sometimes tend to have a singular focus on e-learning adoption determinants: technological, organisational and environmental. This study, therefore, sought to explore the technological, organisational and environmental determinants of e-learning adoption in University of Ghana using a multi-stakeholder approach. Another construct (Nature of the course) was added to the traditional constructs of the Technology-Organisation-Environment (TOE) framework to underpin the study. Eight factors were identified after the review of e-learning literature: IT infrastructure, perceived ease of use, organisational compatibility, expected benefits, educational partners, competitive advantage, content of the e-learning course and e-learning curriculum. Using a quantitative survey research method, a total of 417 e-learning stakeholders in the University of Ghana responded to the questionnaire. The data was analysed by means of factor analysis, correlation and multiple regression. The findings established that IT infrastructure, organisational compatibility, expected benefits, competitive pressure, educational partners, content of the e-learning course and e-learning curriculum influence students’ adoption of e-learning. Also, perceived ease of use, educational University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh xiii partners and e-learning curriculum influence instructors to adopt e-learning. On the other hand, IT infrastructure, organisational compatibility and expected benefits are adoption determinant factors for the e-learning administrators. The analysis further revealed that e-learning was yet to receive a university-wide adoption and again, a more complex organisational compatibility leads to e-learning being less adopted in the institution. The findings from the study contributes to the body of knowledge by extending the Technology, Organisation and Environment framework in an e-learning study to include a fourth factor which is the Nature of the course. Again, the findings provide a multi-stakeholder perspective to the study of e-learning adoption. The originality of the study lies in the multi-stakeholder (student, instructors and e-learning Administrators) perspective with a multi-dimensional framework (Technology, Organisation, Environment and Nature of Course) approaches to the study of e-learning adoption in a developing country. The study therefore recommends that university authorities take into consideration the adoption determinant factors when introducing e-learning systems. Future studies can consider researching into mobile enabled learning (m-learning) since it is an emerging trend in the educational sector. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1 Research Background “Responsive design will become a critical aspect of online education in the very near future. Those institutions willing to engage with learners in the online environment they are most comfortable in are sure to have the effort reflected in increased satisfaction and retention” (Schmitz, 2014). The convention of face-to-face interaction has prevailed ever since communities adopted the model of schools and classes to facilitate education. The most common practice has always been a classroom with one or more teachers and students, with both groups meeting physically and in real time. With the arrival of computer technology and the internet, the traditional setup of learning is evolving into a form mostly referred to as “Electronic Learning (e-learning)”. Clark and Mayer (2011) define e-learning as “instruction delivered on a digital device such as a computer or mobile device that is intended to support learning”. Hogan and Kedrayate (2010) also see e-learning as a blended approach that combines online and face-to-face training. There are different technologies that instructors use as tools for e-learning. These include; Internet, intranet, extranet, satellite broadcast, audio/video tape, interactive TV, CD–ROM and many others (SØrebØ, Halvari, Gulli & Kristiansen, 2009). Rouse (2005) further categorized e- learning technologies into: voice-centred technology, such as CD or MP3 recordings or webcasts; video technology, such as instructional videos, DVDs, and interactive video conferencing and Computer-centred technology delivered over the Internet or corporate intranet. E-learning may or may not be in real time. Students interact with teachers, and feedback is provided in a timely and appropriate manner. With the spread of internet usage, e-learning has become vastly widespread and many universities are using it to support teaching and learning (Kanuka & Anderson, 2007). Deng University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2 and Tavares (2013) also confirm this assertion that the latest development of Internet technologies has led to a lot of universities investing considerable resources in e-learning systems to support teaching and learning. According to the Giga Information Group, nearly 75 percent of the 129 top US universities use e-learning systems (Wang & Wang, 2009). This innovation that started in developed countries is rapidly becoming global. E-learning has recently become more popular in many developing countries (Alkhalaf, Drew, AlGhamdi & Alfarraj, 2012). Tagoe (2012) also asserts that though the up-scale of e-learning in developing countries, especially in Africa, is slow compared to the situation in western countries, the last decade has witnessed some intensive efforts on the part of university administrators to implement e-learning strategies in order to catch up with their counterparts in the developed countries. Universities and other higher learning institutions adopt and implement e-learning systems because of the numerous benefits they derive from it. E-learning offers new possibilities for learning and leads to drastic changes in educational practice (Jia et al., 2011). For instance, the concept of traditional education does not fit well with the new world of lifelong learning in which the roles of teachers, students and curriculum are changing (Marold, Larsen & Moreno, 2000). E-learning becomes mostly useful in situations where there is no alternative for learning (Horn & Staker, 2011). For instance, in small, rural and urban schools which are unable to offer a broad set of courses with highly qualified teachers in certain subject areas; in the advanced courses that many schools struggle to offer on their campuses; in remedial courses for students who need to recover grades to graduate; and with home-schooled and homebound students. Again, teaching in the traditional classroom is instructor-centric where the instructor mainly controls class content including topic, course material, progress and discussions (Baloian, Pino & Hoppe, 2000). But the role of communication and interaction in the learning process is a University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3 critical success factor in contemporary educational paradigms (Brown, 2013). It is within this context that e-learning can and should contribute to the quality of Education. The application of information and communication technologies (ICTs) such as the Internet to education offers opportunities for educational institutions to expand their reach to learners anytime and anywhere. In addition to accessibility, e-learning has the potential of increasing interactivity, collaboration and delivery of content which contribute to increasing learner satisfaction and reducing attrition rate in educational institutions (Wilson & Beatty, 2001). There is therefore, the need for stakeholders in the educational sector of universities in Developing countries, particularly in Ghana, to strive to adopt e-learning to complement and supplement teaching and learning. 1.2 Research Problem E-learning has generated a lot of interest in information systems research and valuable studies have been conducted in this regard. The very high adoption rate of e-learning in universities (Alkhalaf, Drew & Alhussain, 2012) has led to a sustained research into e-learning adoption in universities over the years. E-learning is a practice which encompasses different actors: students, faculty and administrators (Persico, Manca & Pozzi, 2014). Research into e-learning should therefore be conducted from these perspectives. However, e-learning literature reviewed seem to focus mostly on only one of these stakeholders. For instance, Lee, Yoon and Lee (2009) analysed learners’ acceptance of e-learning services from the students’ perspective in South Korea. They pointed out the perceived usefulness as the greatest predictor of intention to use e-learning. Tagoe (2012) also studied students’ perceptions on incorporating e-learning into teaching and University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4 learning at the University of Ghana where it was discovered that e-learning depended on three critical factors and the first of these factors was the ownership of computers. Similarly, Duan et al. (2010) also conducted a study on students’ e-learning take-up intentions in China and suggested that only perceived compatibility had significant positive influence on the likelihood of students’ e-learning take-up. From the instructor’s perspective, Motaghian et al. (2013) also looked at factors that influence e-learning adoption and identified perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use and system quality as adoption determinant factors. These single stakeholder approaches tend to provide only one sided view of e-learning adoption determinants. Bhuasiri et al. (2012), on the other hand focused, on two groups of stakeholders in developing countries; Information Communication Technology experts and faculty, and also identified perceived ease of use and organisational compatibility as factors that influence e- learning adoption. On the other hand, these studies failed to look at the universities from an institutional perspective taking into consideration are the stakeholders involved in e-learning adoption. There is, therefore, the need for studies which will look at e-learning from a multi- stakeholder perspective which will provide a more general viewpoint to the factors that determine e-learning adoption in higher learning institutions. Again, the different stakeholders may exhibit different tendencies in terms of the factors that influence their adoption of e- learning systems and these will provide interesting insights which will be worth studying. An organisation functions along three dimensions of Technology, Organisation, and Environment which influence the organisation’s ability to adopt or reject new technology (Lee, Wang, Lim & Peng, 2009). Researchers of the e-learning literature reviewed tend to look at the determinants of e-learning adoption mostly from a single factor approach. For instance, Czerniewicz and Brown (2009) saw organisational factors such as policy and culture as the determining factors for the adoption of e-learning in universities. They postulated that, there is University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5 indeed a crucial relationship between policy and use, but organisational culture is fundamental to mediating how that relationship is played out. Duan et al. (2010) also sought to examine, from an innovation adoption perspective, Chinese undergraduate students’ intention to adopt e-learning degree programs for their postgraduate study. They suggested that only perceived compatibility has significant positive influences on the likelihood of students’ e-learning take- up. But their study fell short of the need to explore the possible influence of other factors, such as government policies, language issues, and the cultural experience of studying online. In another breath, Motaghian et al. (2013) considering the technological factors asserted that perceived usefulness is one of the factors for e-learning adoption. According to Motaghian et al. (2013), subjective norm and information quality had a positive effect on perceived usefulness. Also, self-efficacy, service quality, subjective norm and information quality had an influence on perceived ease of use. In addition, perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use and system quality all increased instructors’ intension to use e-learning systems; however, perceived usefulness was the most important influencing factor on instructors’ intension and their actual use of the systems (adoption). Other e-learning papers (Palacios-Marqués et al., 2013; Chen, 2014; Schmitz, 2014) looked at e-leaning from the technical perspective, such as e-learning interface design, data centre management, security, performance, and service management. On the other hand, Bhuasiri et al. (2012) tend to extend the study on e-learning to find out other critical success factors that influence the acceptance of e-learning systems. They discovered that, the most important factors influencing e-learning success was related to increasing technology awareness and an attitude toward e-learning, enhancing basic technology knowledge and skills, improving learning content, requiring computer training, motivating users to utilize e-learning systems, and requiring a high level of support from the university. Hence, there is the need for a multi-facet perspective in identifying the determinants of e- learning. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6 Nonetheless, e-learning adoption in universities in developing countries has had a fair share of research. For instance, Motaghian et al. (2013) identified perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use and system quality as factors that increase instructors' intention to use e-learning systems in Iran. In Kenya, Barker et al. (2013) suggested that resources should be sustainable, for example CDROMs and DVDs which are not dependant on internet access for full acceptance of e-learning systems. On the other hand, these authors proposed the need to replicate their studies in other countries to find other factors that influence e-learning adoption in universities. From the on-going discussion, there is the need to research into practical ways of integrating e-learning into universities in developing countries from a holistic point of view by taking into consideration all the categories of factors that influence the adoption of e-learning from a multi- dimensional perspective. Similar to the work of Raouf, Naser and Jassim (2012), in their study on finding determinants of e-learning implementation success used the Technology Organisation and Environment (TOE) framework which was deemed fit to cover all the issues relating to the adoption of e-learning systems in the higher education sector. They discovered that, information systems (IS) expertise and expected benefits are key determinants of e- learning implementation success. Thus, a study from the perspective of all stakeholders and using a comprehensive framework will give more understanding to factors that determine the adoption of e-learning among universities in developing countries. 1.3 Research Purpose The main purpose of this research is to explore the technological, organisational and environmental determinants of e-learning adoption in universities in developing countries. The study focuses on the University of Ghana. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 7 1.4 Research objectives In relation to the purpose, this research seeks to: 1. Describe the nature of e-learning adoption in Ghanaian universities. 2. Explore the determinants of e-learning adoption in Ghanaian universities. 1.5 Research questions 1. What is the nature of e-learning adoption in Ghanaian universities? 2. What are the determinants of e-learning adoption in Ghanaian universities? 1.6 Significance of research First, this research contributes to, arguably, the limited literature in the area of e-learning adoption of a multi-facet and multi-dimensional perspective from a developing country. Thus, serving as a stepping stone for subsequent studies in this field. Second, the findings of this study maps out the e-learning adoption and implementation strategies not only in the University of Ghana but also universities in Africa and other universities in developing countries in general. Again, the findings of this study can inform e-learning systems’ designers, instructors, administrators and students of the best practices to apply in the adoption and implementation of e-learning in their activities. For the systems administrator and designer, the study identifies some of the challenges or weaknesses in the e-learning systems that require improvement or redesigning. Furthermore, the study can inform instructors and students of the best practices in the use of e-learning systems to maximize productivity. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 8 Finally, the study findings can also inform the policy making bodies, how best to improve the deployment and management of e-learning systems at the university level and at the National and international levels. 1.7 Chapter outline The thesis is arranged in seven (7) different chapters, which correspond to the steps taken in the study. Chapter one: Introduction; This chapter gives an outline of the research and it covers the background of the research, research problem, research purpose, objectives of the study, research questions, significance of the research and the organisation of the research. Chapter two: Literature Review; Literature relevant to the study is reviewed in this chapter. Theories and models that form the foundation of e-learning adoption in universities are identified, their possible linkages explored, and study propositions advanced. Chapter three: research framework; This chapter explores the research framework used for the study, which guided the research design, data collection methods, instruments, and served as a yardstick for the data analysis and discussions. Chapter four: Methodology; The research methodological approach which highlights the research strategy and paradigm and the discussion of sampling techniques and size are utilized. The instrument for data collection and the method used as well as data processing and analysis are expounded in this chapter. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 9 Chapter five: Context of the study: A brief overview of e-learning adoption and implementation strategies in universities in developing countries and the profile of University of Ghana’s e- learning programs is captured in this chapter. Chapter six: Analysis and Discussion: This chapter deals with the data presentation, analysis of findings and discussion. Chapter seven; Summary; The summary of the research, implications (and recommendations) to research, practice and policy and the future research directions are discussed. Finally, references and appendices. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 10 CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Introduction As noted in the previous chapter, the world is gradually moving from the traditional mode of learning to the use of electronic devices to support teaching and learning with the call for research which will focus on the three major actors of the e-learning system using a framework which captures the three dimensions of technology adoption (technology, organization and environment). This chapter therefore reviews contemporary and pertinent literature in the area of e-learning. The chapter begins with an overview of the literature which pertains to the conceptual understanding of learning and e-learning, in terms of its genesis, definitions, actors, characteristics, service types and deployments. Such a presentation provides a basis for understanding e-learning as a concept in modern day education. Furthermore, a rigorous review of e-learning research was conducted to reveal current knowledge gaps and lead-ins for future research, taking into consideration research methodologies, themes, theories and the various perspectives of the research. The chapter ends with a summary and gaps for future research. 2.2 Learning in Universities The mode of teaching and learning in universities go beyond the impartation of knowledge or skills. Previously, Teachers and lecturers were seen as the most significant source of knowledge and their role was to impart knowledge to the learners. In contrast, teaching and learning during the past few decades, were not focused on the mastery of content per se, but rather on the production of new knowledge. Teachers and lecturers form merely one spectrum of the sources of knowledge and their role is to facilitate learning and to assist learners in producing new University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 11 knowledge (Brown, 2003). The different learning methods in universities (Traditional learning, Distance Learning and Blended learning methods) are discussed below. 2.2.1 Traditional Learning Traditional learning refers to a classroom-based and instructor-led learning. It is also referred to as a face-to-face learning (Hall, 2002). The medium over which instruction is transmitted distinguishes traditional learning from the other types of learning. In the traditional learning situation, the instructor or teacher stands in front of the students and gives instructions. The instructor sends and receives direct feedback from the students (Hamid, 2002). The teachers have a total control over the learning environment in a traditional learning setting– adapting, realigning or changing learning environment whenever necessary. Arguably, Classroom training or traditional learning provides many advantages for learning. Traditional learning is the main form of learning and it is believed to be strongly engrained in everyone’s school experience and will be difficult to dislodge it as an accepted approach to education. It is easy to interact with peers in a face-to-face setting and there is a lower possibility of misinterpreting messages (Tai, 2005). The traditional learning method provides fast and flexible development and delivery of instruction, real-time application of knowledge to complex situations, immediate student interaction among the instructor and participants. Again, it provides the opportunity for immediate feedback from the instructor. On the other hand, traditional learning is faced with some challenges (Tai, 2005). In terms of resources, the building infrastructure where learning can take place is an expensive resource to University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 12 acquire. In terms of content and learner (student), there is the lack of easy repetition of lessons taught that were not clear to students. There is also a lack of flexibility in terms of sudden postponement or cancellation of class and classes beginning at specific times. 2.2.2 Distance Learning Distance learning in developing countries has emerged as a way of widening access to education for tertiary applicants who qualify, but could not otherwise gain admission due to the limited space in the existing tertiary institutions (Kwapong, 2009). Distance learning can also be referred to as a mode of delivering education and instruction, often on an individual basis, to students who are not physically present in a traditional setting such as a classroom. Distance learning provides access to learning when the source of information and the learners are separated by time and distance, or both (Honeyman & Miller, 1993). The first distance education course in the modern sense was provided by Sir Isaac Pitman in the 1840s, whose mode of instruction was through mailing texts transcribed into shorthand on postcards and later receiving transcriptions from his students in return for correction - the element of students’ feedback was a crucial innovation of Pitman's system (Tait, 2014). The University of London was the first university to offer distance learning degrees, establishing its External Programs Department in 1858 (Rothblatt, 1988). The University of London was referred to as "People's University" by Charles Dickens (a 19th century English writer and social critic) because it provided access to higher education to students from less wealthy backgrounds. In 1858, Queen Victoria commissioned the External Programs Department, making the University of London the first to offer distance learning degrees to students (University of London International Programs, 2014). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 13 Other universities around the world began to use correspondence or distance courses in the first half of the 20th century, especially to reach rural students. According to White (1982), Australia with its vast distances was especially active in this regard; the University of Queensland established its Department of Correspondence Studies in 1911. Universities in Africa were not left out. The University of South Africa, formerly an examining and certification body, started to present distance education tuition in 1946. At this point, it is imperative to draw the distinction between distance learning and e-learning since at some point they do overlap or are used interchangeably in some cases but are not identical. The use of ICT in education clearly distinguishes distance learning from e-learning. Distance learning can occur in a traditional classroom without the use of ICT, but implementation of e-learning is impossible without ICT integration. For example, sending books/course content to the students through mail. Sometimes these educational terms can be merged to create an educational scenario, but technically they are different (Asabere & Mends- Brew, 2012). The growth of distance education has evolved over a period of four generations: printed instruction, early technology in broadcasting systems, online instruction, and web- based teleconferencing (Morabito, Sack & Bhate, 1999). The early adopters of distance learning programs used purely paper based tools to send and receive educational materials to their students. Later, these printed materials were supplemented with technological tools such as CD-ROMs, DVDs and other electronic media. The growth of the internet has also promoted the use of the online as a medium for sending and receiving educational materials and instructions between students and their tutors. Finally, students and their tutors are able to communicate using the teleconferencing technology where instructors and their students discuss issues and others online by telecommuting. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 14 Figure 2. 1: Blended learning plan 2.2.3 Blended Learning Blended learning is sometimes referred to as hybrid learning or flipping the classroom. Blended learning is a formal education program in which a student learns at least in part through delivery of content and instruction via digital and online media with some element of student control over time, place, and path or pace (TeachThought, 2013). Blended learning combines classroom and online education. While education experts continue to debate the efficacy of blended learning, its very existence has challenged them to re-evaluate not just technology’s place in (and out of) the classroom, but also how to reach and teach students more effectively. The figure below outlines the plan of a typical blended learning system as postulated by Lin and Wang (2012). Source: Lin & Wang (2012) The quest for a blended learning method started as a result of students and learners reporting on the lack of a sense of belonging or community during online learning which prevents the development of shared feelings and emotions between learners and instructors. Researchers have found that these variables are some of the most important factors influencing learner satisfaction and learning transfer effectiveness (Sergiovanni, 1994). Delivering vivid learning experiences to online learners require creating a sense of presence, a feeling of immediacy, and University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 15 a broad awareness of the real and vivid learning environment (Lim, Morris & Kupritz, 2014). Blended learning, therefore, becomes the best option in this regard. The blended learning instruction integrates the advantages of e-learning methods with aspects of the traditional face- to-face teaching approach (Lin & Wang, 2012). 2.3 Defining E-learning Higher learning institutions all over the world are adopting e-learning as the best means of delivering quality education to their students. It is becoming more popular as the most effective method of teaching and learning, disseminating information and knowledge in institutions of higher learning and organisations (Noh, Isa, Samah & Isa, 2012). However, there is still not a standard definition of what e-learning entails, as both academics and industry players are making significant strides to bring to bear a standard definition. Pailing (2002) asks very interesting questions: “Is e-learning all about the use of Internet or CD-ROM? Does it mean synchronous or asynchronous tutoring using videoconferencing, teleconferencing or something else?” Activities related to the supporting of the education process by ICT (i.e. e-support) are not supposed to be defined as e-learning as some authors postulate (Lowenthal, Wilson & Parrish, 2009). Zounek (2009) also claims the relatively set of phrases such as Computer-Based Training (CBT), Internet-Based Training (IBT) or Web-Based Training (WBT) should not be used to denote e-learning as cited in Klement and Dostál (2014). As a result of this, a consensus was reached in Europe upon the use of a unified definition for e-learning, which was understood as the application of new multimedia technologies and the Internet in education, in order to improve its quality by enhancing access to resources, services, the exchange of information and cooperation (Šimonová, 2010). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 16 Arguably, e-learning consists of a complexity of elements which makes researchers and practitioners suggest different definitions with respect to the technologies involved, their extent of integration into learning processes and how learning occurs among participants in terms of time. This complexity has led to different authors and researchers viewing e-learning with varied lenses. For instance, Gotschall (2000) and Hall (2002) refer to e-learning as online learning, web-based learning, distance learning and technology-based learning. On the other hand, Liebowitz and Frank (2011) see e-learning to be a subset of distance education that was common since the middle of the 1980s. It is, therefore, worthy to note that no matter the angle an author takes, e-learning encompasses all the various teaching and learning activities carried out using electronic medium. An e-learning approach can take advantage of coaching and facilitated learning by building online knowledge repositories, such as lessons learned and best practice systems. Deducing from the above, in this study e-learning which is also known as online learning, Open and distance learning (ODL) or web-based learning describes electronic learning that utilizes electronic communication for teaching and learning (Oztekin, Delen, Turkyilmaz & Zaim, 2013). 2.3.1 E-learning Characteristics E-learning can be looked at from many different ways and these differences need to be more consistently known, deliberated, and valued. While dissertations might include thick descriptions of the context and type of online learning, journal articles (possibly due to restrictive word limits) often lack this type of rich and extremely important detail (Lowenthal, Wilson, & Parrish 2009). The authors further contend that when online learning is taken "out of context," problems arise among researchers, practitioners, and students. The lack of University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 17 specificity when talking about e-learning makes it problematic. The following are some of the distinguishing features of e-learning: Synchronous and Asynchronous, instructor-led and learner-led, the Harasim’s Topology and the models of Sharma and Mishra (2007). These elaborations of e-learning will bring out the various features which will provide a better understanding of the various components of the e-learning technology. 2.3.1.1 Synchronous and Asynchronous Possibly, the earliest distinction made about e-learning was between synchronous forms and asynchronous forms of online learning (Mackay & Stockport, 2006; Hrastinski, 2008). Synchronous e-learning is where communication occurs at the same time between students and instructors and where information is accessed instantaneously. In simple terms, synchronous learning involves the instructor and the learner being online at the same time to communicate and engage instructional activities. On the other hand, asynchronous learning allows instructors and learners to be online at different times, or proceed in an entirely self-paced mode with no instructor presence (Horton, 2006 as cited in Lowenthal, Wilson and Parrish, 2009). Persico, Manca and Pozzi (2014) outlined brainstorming, group problem solving and others as synchronous activities that go on during e-learning whilst collective writing is seen to be an asynchronous activity. This distinction was especially useful with the rise of email, bulletin boards, and threaded discussion tools – contrasted with broadcast forms of delivery. Most online learning these days are mediated by Learning Management Systems (LMSs), which now come standard with both synchronous and asynchronous communication tools. Increasingly, online courses include a mix of synchronous and asynchronous activities. Even when an instructor does not include any synchronous learning activities per se, he or she might use a chat tool to hold set office hours. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 18 Thus, it may be unproductive to characterize a course as simply being either synchronous or asynchronous, when in fact a mix of elements is used (Lowenthal, Wilson & Parrish, 2009). 2.3.1.2 Instructor-led and Learner-led Horton (2006) asserts that instructor-led and learner-led categorization are also one of the commonly used criteria for differentiating e-learning. Brandon (2007) also categorizes it as group paced and self-paced. However, e-learning is classified as instructor-led when courses are facilitated solely by an instructor. This is often self-designed and produced with a group of students forming a class. Such courses which are instructor-led typically fall on a traditional semester schedule in an asynchronous environment (Lowenthal, Wilson & Parrish, 2009). In instructor-led courses, the students are expected to complete the course according to the instructor's predefined guidelines which typically include set deadlines. Learner-led e-learning on the other hand, refers to the situation where the learner can proceed at his or her own pace (Horton, 2006). This method of e-learning mostly takes place in the working environment rather than the higher learning institutions. 2.3.1.3 The Harasim's Typology A famous researcher in online education, Harasim (2006) has developed a typology which is seen to be one of the early descriptions of the diversity that exists across the e-learning landscape. In her paper titled, “A history of e-learning: Shift happened”, she differentiates between three types of e-learning. These include- Online collaborative learning, Online distance education and Online computer-based training. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 19 Most universities use this online collaborative learning method of e-learning. It involves using the asynchronous, synchronous, or a combination of the two forms of communication to bring a group of students and a teacher together. Again, online distance education method too is essentially a correspondence or independent study course that uses technology (example; email) for students to access course materials and turn in assignments. This type of online learning is used by K-12 (a term for the sum of primary and secondary education) and post-secondary institutions. It is essentially a one-to-one or one- to-many model (Lowenthal, Wilson & Parrish, 2009). According to Harasim (2006), online computer-based training refers to the use of the web for access to online courseware or individualized learning modules. She further states that, there is typically neither peer collaboration nor communication with an instructor or tutor in this model. This is often the preferred method of online learning in corporate and workplace spaces, adding to the flexibility needed for on-the-job and just-in-time learning. 2.3.1.4 Sharma and Mishra model Sharma and Mishra (2007) have postulated a model to put e-learning into 4 major categories. The figure below illustrates these categorizations. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 20 Source: Adapted from Sharma and Mishra (2007) Web-based learning in the first place refers to all types of media, including audio and video in digital form delivered and used over the web; both synchronous and asynchronous interaction. The advent and widespread of information technology (IT) and the Internet or world wide web means that opportunities have been identified for developing e-learning systems or online learning (Deng & Tavares, 2013). A lecturer may use a class website as a supplement to their face-to-face delivered classes. Internet-based learning also involves all types of media, including audio and video in digital form delivered and used over the internet mostly in asynchronous interaction. Computer-based learning deals with all types of media, including audio and video in digital form used on stand-alone machines or computers including those not connected to the Internet. Learning may occur with the use of CD-ROMs and diskettes. The entire website for a particular study can be copied onto a CD-ROM for the students with slow and unreliable or no Internet access. Technology-based learning/ e-learning Computer-based learning/ e-learning Internet-based learning/ e- learning Web-based learning/ e- learning Figure 2. 2: The Sharma and Mishra model University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 21 Technology-based learning includes the integration of all types of media including traditional TV and radio into learning processes. For instance, through technology, courses can be delivered exclusively online or through radio to students in remote locations and supplementary materials mailed out to them. 2.3.2 Types of E-learning systems E-learning systems can be categorized into Course Management Systems and Learning Management Systems. Again, e-learning systems may be grouped into Open Source Systems and Commercial Systems. 2.3.2.1 Learning Management System Learning Management Systems (LMS) are software programs for the administration, documentation, tracking, reporting and delivery of electronic educational technology (also called e-learning) courses or training programs (Ellis, 2009). LMSs range from systems for managing training and educational records to software for distributing online or blended/hybrid college courses over the Internet with features for online collaboration. Learning management systems are the framework that handles all aspects of the learning process. They are the infrastructure that distributes and manages instructional content, identifies and assesses individual and organisational learning or training goals, tracks the progress towards meeting those goals, collects and presents data for supervising the learning process of the organisation as a whole (Szabo & Flesher, 2002). Learning management systems are used for various purposes; Colleges and universities use LMSs to deliver online courses and supplement on-campus courses; business training University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 22 departments use LMSs to deliver online training, as well as to automate recordkeeping and employee registration. There are now dozens of different types of learning management systems used by organisations to manage e-learning and deliver course materials to employees (Mindflash, 2015). The editors of CampusComputing (2013) have outlined the market share of the various learning management systems as of Fall 2013 with Blackboard the leading provider with a 41 percent market share, Moodle (23 percent), Desire2Learn (11 percent) and Instructure being the next three largest providers. LMSs possess online course launching and tracking capabilities. That is, the ability to manage courses which mix online and classroom instruction. Also, communication and collaboration (Web 2.0) tools have been included as part of LMSs. These tools provide social learning and networking. LMSs also have the ability to produce tests and assessments both as part of the courses and separately. Many vendors are beginning to add mobile learning functionality to their LMSs so learning can be accessed on smartphones and other small mobile devices. Along with mobile learning, social learning (offering tools like Facebook) is an important new offering, which LMS providers are rushing to include. Again, some learning management systems are offered as software that is installed internally in the institution (“behind the firewall”). Some are offered as hosted or SaaS (Software as a Service) solutions which are also referred to as Cloud Computing and “on-demand” services (McIntosh, 2015). 2.3.2.2 Course Management System Course management systems (CMS) may be referred to as Content management systems. CMSs have been available since the late 1990s. Janssen (2015) defines a course management system as a set of tools that allow the instructor to create online course materials and post it on University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 23 the web without having to handle HTML or other programming languages. An integral part of higher education in recent times is course management systems. The administrative component, of course management systems may include class rosters and the ability to record students' grades. However, the teaching component of CMS could include learning objects, quizzes, class exercises and tests. The course management system may also comprise of tools for real-time chat, or asynchronous bulletin board type communications. The CMS tool also looks at all aspects of teaching, learning and teacher-student interaction (Technopedia, 2015). WebCT and Blackboard are some of the major types of CMS. Again, some U.S institutions have developed projects such as CourseWorks, CHEF and Stellar. Some colleges also develop their own small-scale course management systems (Technopedia, 2015). 2.3.2.3 Open Source Systems Open source software is a general term that refers to practices in production and development of software where the source code is made publicly available (Conole & Oliver, 2007). The open source movement has had a significant impact on industries where online services are part of the core business. Linux, for example, is used as the operating system for 29 percent of web servers, while Apache is the clear market leader in web server software. MySQL and its more scalable counterpart Postgres are robust database systems, while PHP is an increasingly used scripting language enabling the easy integration of data from these databases within web pages (Abel, 2005). Higher education has been as quick to implement these technologies as many other industries. For instance, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology in Ghana introduced “Moodle”- an open-source and course management e-learning system in the second semester University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 24 of the 2005-2006 academic year (Serbe Marfo & Okine, 2011). There are now also educational open source products available that appear to provide real alternatives to commercial systems. Prominent in this arena is Moodle, the most widespread open source virtual learning environment, recently adopted by the British Open University amongst other big players. Another initiative, SAKAI, led by several top-ranking US institutions, is developing a suite of e-learning tools and the associated architecture. Efforts have also been successful in linking U- Portal, an open source portal, with both SAKAI and Moodle (Conole & Oliver, 2007). Some researchers have raised objections to open source systems claiming they are usually poorly documented and relatively anarchic in their development and therefore subject to ‘feature creep’ in a way that their commercial counterparts are not. There is no doubt that open source development culture is very different from what university systems departments are used to. They need to develop better ways of engaging with the open source communities if they are to influence the products. Far from being chaotic, though successful, open source projects are run by exceptional leaders who combine technical skills with organisational and communications abilities and ‘manage’ their dispersed communities effectively (Woods & Giuliani, 2005). 2.3.2.4 Commercial System Commercial systems are designed for sale to serve a commercial need. Commercial software is usually proprietary software, but in some cases it may be public-domain software. Proprietary systems refer to any computer software that has restrictions on any combination of the usage, revision, copying or distributing modified versions of the software (Webopedia, 2015). Proprietary software usually can be distributed at no cost or for a fee. Proprietary software may also be referred to as closed-source software. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 25 In the late 1990s, a lot of commercial electronic learning systems were produced in the race to make profit from the budding online and blended learning environment market. In the United Kingdom, for instance, several universities developed their own in-house e-learning systems to later create commercial versions of such systems. The blackboard learning system is one of the most popular commercial systems which originated from the University of British Columbia in Canada and in 2006 merged with WebCT; another leading e-learning system (Littlejohn & Pegler, 2007). Many universities find it difficult in deciding on the type of e-learning systems to implement. Using an open system instead of a commercial system means the institution can possibly avoid “vendor lock-in”, where the company sets the tone and development priorities of the system. On the other hand, implementing commercial systems means the institutions do not have to employ software developers (Littlejohn & Pegler, 2007). 2.4 Review of E-learning Research A review is a legitimate and important method of conducting a research (Sofiadin, 2014). Sumranwong (2011) posits that, an effective literature review analyses and synthesizes quality literature, provides a strong basis for a research topic, helps to justify the choice of research approach and provides an explanation of the new ideas in the proposed research. A literature review gives the researcher a better understanding of the existing body of knowledge, helps the researcher to identify new research that is needed, provides a solid theoretical basis for the proposed research, verifies the existence of the research problem, demonstrates how the proposed research will contribute something new and assists with the structuring of a valid research approach, methodologies, objectives and research questions. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 26 Similar to the work of Boateng, Molla and Heeks (2009), this review was conducted in four phases namely; literature classification, review methodology, presentation of findings and a summary of the findings. The classification scheme adopted in this review process is discussed in the literature classification phase. The details of the review on e-learning issues and conceptual approaches are found in the presentation of findings and evidence section. Finally, the review presents conceptual approaches in e-learning research and also research gaps and future research directions. It must be emphasized that, with the research objectives in mind, the classification of e-learning literature was done to expound the nature of e-learning adoption in universities and also find out the determinants of e-learning adoption in universities. Therefore, to satisfy this purpose, the review focused on e-learning adoption. Adoption in the context of this study refers to as taking up and using e-learning systems for academic and educational purposes. The e-learning literature on adoption was taken into consideration looking at factors that influenced the success and adoption of e-learning. These factors were categorized into three major groups (technological, environmental and organisational factors) to better understand the nature of e-learning adoption and also the determinants of adoption of e-learning in universities. Table 2.1 summarizes the different categorization of research papers into the factors that influence adoption, theories used and the issues discovered. Later, these papers were categorized based on the stakeholder perspective. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 27 Table 2.1: Article Distributions by Issues Article Theory Sample & Methodology Adoption Determinants Motaghian, Hassanzadeh & Moghadam (2013) Technology Acceptance Model and IS success model Survey of 115 university instructors Structural Equation modelling  Perceived usefulness  Perceived ease of use  System quality. Islam (2013) The basic Technology Acceptance Model Longitudinal survey of 249 university students Partial least squares (PLS) approach  Perceived usefulness  Perceived ease of use  Purpose of usage  Perceived learning assistance  Perceived community building assistance Amirkhanpour, Kaufmann & Garcia-Gallego (2014) Conceptual framework Online questionnaire distributed to all the public and private Universities.  Integration of social learning elements such as various social media tools. Persico, Manca & Pozzi (2014) Technology Acceptance Model Grounded theory Questionnaires and interviews selected Students and teachers  A mixture of top- down and bottom-up approach to adoption Hassanzadeh, Kanaani & Elahi (2012) Delone and McLean Model Measuring e- learning Systems Success (MELSS) model Questionnaires completed by 369 instructors, Students and alumni of 5 Universities Structural Equation modelling  Technical system quality  Educational system quality  Content and information quality  Service quality  User satisfaction  Intention to use  User loyalty to system  Benefits of usage  Goal achievement Raouf, Naser & Jassim (2012) TOE Framework Questionnaires completed by 120 faculty members. Structural Equation modelling  IS expertise  Expected Benefits  IT infrastructure  Competitive Pressure  Educational partners Namisiko, Munialo & Nyongesa, (2014) TAM and TOE Online Questionnaires submitted to a total of 500 participants which included Instructors, Students and Administrators  Availability of ICT infrastructure  E-learning Curriculum  Instructors’ competencies University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 28 Both descriptive and inferential statistics  Performance Expectancy  Perceived Usefulness  Perceived Ease of Use  Competitive Pressure Baumann- Birkbeck et al. (2014) Conceptual framework Two academic cohorts were used for the study Observed Learning Outcome (SOLO)  Content of E- learning course  E-learning curriculum Sánchez, Hueros & Ordaz (2013) Technology Acceptance Model 226 students at the University of Huelva completed a survey questionnaire Structural Equation modelling  Technical Support  Computer Self- Efficacy  Perceived Ease of Use  Perceived Usefulness  Attitude  System Usage Source: Author’s construction 2.4.1 Discussion of issues and evidence The studies as outlined in table 2.1 above, have varying propositions on the factors that support or inhibit the adoption of e-learning in higher learning institutions or universities. These propositions are grouped into the three main determinants of adoption (technology, organisation and environment) and an additional factor which is referred to as the Nature of the course to be offered on the e-learning platform. Each category has received a fair share of research attention as shown in table 2.2 below. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 29 Table 2 2: Categorized issues Factor Examined Technology Organisation Environment Nature of course  Perceived ease of use ✓  Educational system quality ✓  E-learning curriculum ✓  System quality ✓  IT infrastructure ✓  Content of E-learning course ✓  Educational Partners ✓  Expected Benefits ✓  Size of the institution ✓  Instructors’ competencies ✓  Perceived Usefulness ✓  Human and financial resources ✓  Competitive Pressure ✓  E-learning experts ✓ Source: Author’s construction 2.4.1.1 Technological Factors The technological factors are made up of the internal and external technologies that are relevant to the organisation as postulated by Tornatzky and Fleischer (1990). Technologies may include both equipment as well as processes which may promote or inhibit the adoption of e-learning systems. Technology in this case does not only refer to the actual software and hardware features of the platform, but also how well technology is adapted to the best practices of University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 30 teaching and learning (Sharma & Pandit, 2011). In the review of e-learning literature, a number of issues were raised and these issues under the technological factors are grouped into Perceived ease of use (Bhuasiri et al., 2012; Namisiko, Munialo & Nyongesa, 2014; Motaghian, Hassanzadeh & Moghadam, 2013; Islam, 2013; Tseng, Lin & Chen, 2011), IT infrastructure (Raouf, Naser & Jassim, 2012; Hassanzadeh, Kanaani & Elahi, 2012; Namisiko, Munialo & Nyongesa, 2014; Sharma & Pandit, 2011) and e-learning experts (Palacios- Marqués, Cortés-Grao & Carral, 2013; Raouf, Naser & Jassim, 2012). These issues are elaborated below. 2.4.1.1.1 Perceived ease of use Davis (1989) asserts that, perceived ease of use refers to as the degree to which the prospective user expects an e-learning system to be free of effort. Users of the e-learning system should be comfortable using it with little or no effort or assistance. If they find it easy to use, they tend to adopt it. Transforming "learning" into "e-learning" is not just about developing online courses, rather they should be useful and easy to use e-learning tools (Frimpon, 2012). Tseng, Lin and Chen (2011) in their study on evaluating the effectiveness of e-learning systems using some universities in Taiwan discovered that, the most significant measures of e-learning effectiveness was the use of enhanced multimedia features that can attract the learners’ attention and may eventually increase learners’ attractiveness. Again, reducing the waiting time for learning materials to load may improve the quality of the system. Lee, Yoon and Lee (2009) see design of learning contents as being positively related to the perceived ease of use of the system. Furthermore, the management should actively maintain and improve the responsiveness of instructors to learner inquiries. In this way, the users of the system will find the system easier to use. Other researchers (Bhuasiri et al., 2012; Namisiko, Munialo & Nyongesa, 2014; Motaghian, Hassanzadeh & Moghadam, 2013; Islam, 2013) using various University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 31 technology adoption models have postulated that one key technological determinant of e- learning adoption is perceived ease of using the system. 2.4.1.1.2 IT infrastructure Studies by Lin and Lin (2007) and Mitsweni and Biermann (2008) have revealed that institutions that have advanced IT infrastructure will have more chance to an extent in implementation success regarding web applications such as e-learning. This goes to affirm Namisiko, Munialo and Nyongesa’s (2014) assertion that the availability of ICT infrastructure in the university is a major determinant of user’s adoption of e-learning. E-learning depends on three critical factors and the first of these factors is the ownership of computers (Tagoe, 2012). E-learning as the name implies thrives on the availability of IT infrastructure which include internet, intranet, extranet, satellite broadcast, audio or video tape, interactive TV, CD– ROM and many others (SØrebØ, Halvari, Gulli & Kristiansen, 2009). Rouse (2005) further categorized e-learning technologies into: Voice-centred technology, such as CD or MP3 recordings or webcasts; video technology, such as instructional videos, DVDs, and interactive videoconferencing and computer-centred technology delivered over the internet or corporate intranet. A study by Sharma and Pandit (2011) has confirmed the assertion that the availability of ICT infrastructure supports e-learning adoption. In the study, the authors discovered that users do not have an interest in the e-learning programs at centres which are not sufficiently equipped for the training of learners and resource persons, although they (the learners and resource persons) are ICT savvy. Such centres lacked regular electricity supply, sufficient facilities and other consumables. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 32 2.4.1.1.3 E-learning experts Professional, technical and instructional design support are significant factors in the success of every e-learning system (Csete & Evans, 2013). The more information systems (IS) expertise related to e-learning which exists in the institution means the more the likelihood of successful implementation of e-learning (Raouf, Naser & Jassim, 2012). The universities should have the necessary IS experts who have good knowledge about the e-learning Applications (including the open source and the proprietary applications) and the technologies needed to implement them. Also, the institutions should hire highly specialized persons in e-learning Applications and technologies. Again, the universities should give their experts the necessary training in these technologies in order to increase the chance of a successful implementation of e-learning. The availability of e-learning experts provides the necessary support and assistance to the users. In a study on the outstanding knowledge, competencies and web 2.0 practices for developing a successful e-learning project management, it was discovered that, the factors that influence the use and success of e-learning programs were the technical expertise of the project managers (Palacios-Marqués, Cortés-Grao & Carral, 2013). The ability of the ICT experts to provide the needed assistance to the users of the systems promote the adoption of the system. Perceived learning assistance is the most critical factor for achieving better academic performance in an e-learning environment. This assistance comes from the ICT experts who provide the needed support to the users of the e-learning system (Islam, 2013). 2.4.1.2 Organisational Factors Some of the e-learning determining factors are influenced by the organisation. These are the supportive or inhibiting factors generated as a result of the characteristics and resources of the institution, including the institution’s size, degree of centralization, degree of formalization, managerial structure, human resources, the amount of slack resources, and linkages among University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 33 employees. These are the internal social mechanisms of the institution. E-learning papers reviewed had organisational factors which were grouped into Organisational compatibility (Duan et al., 2010; Raouf, Naser, & Jassim, 2012; Bhuasiri et al., 2012), Expected benefits/ Perceived usefulness (Liaw & Huang, 2013; Islam, 2013; Motaghian, Hassanzadeh & Moghadam, 2013), Size of the institution (Persico, Manca & Pozzi, 2014), human and financial resources (Raouf, Naser & Jassim, 2012; Persico, Manca & Pozzi, 2014). 2.4.1.2.1 Organisational compatibility The greater the compatibility between the applications of e-learning with the practical applications of the institution that had adopted it in terms of beliefs, values and past experiences, needs, priorities and policies, the better the influence on the success of the implementation of e-learning (Raouf, Naser & Jassim, 2012). This is because, compatibility will lead to an easier dealing between the e-learning applications and the practical ordinarily applications. Technology awareness, motivation, and changing learners’ behaviour were prerequisites for successful e-learning implementations in a study by Bhuasiri et al. (2012). The university as a whole should be ready to accept the use of the e-learning systems to support teaching and learning. Organisational support significantly predicts learners’ intention to adopt further e-learning (Sawang, Newton & Jamieson, 2013). 2.4.1.2.2 Expected benefits/Perceived usefulness Perceived benefits refers to the belief that new technologies provide more benefits than old ones (Raouf, Naser & Jassim, 2012). One of the determinants of adoption in the literature reviewed was the expected benefits the stakeholders derived from using the system. This assertion is confirmed by Motaghian et al. (2013) in their research using an integrated model to assess the influence of IS-oriented, psychological and behavioural factors on instructors’ University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 34 adoption of web-based learning systems. Survey data collected from 115 university instructors were analysed using structural equation modelling to examine the theoretical model and concluded that perceived usefulness was the most important factor affecting intention and actual use of e-learning systems. Other researchers who hold similar views include Liaw and Huang (2013) and Islam (2013) who conducted their studies using a conceptual model and the basic Technology Adoption model (TAM) respectively. Liaw and Huang (2013) postulated that perceived usefulness can be influenced by interactive learning environments, perceived self-efficacy and perceived satisfaction. Tagoe (2012) also posits that there is a significant relationship between perceived usefulness and the frequency at which one uses e-learning systems. 2.4.1.2.3 Human and financial resources Introducing technology per se is not sufficient to produce changes, at least in educational settings (Persico, Manca and Pozzi, 2014). Rather, larger investments are needed, encompassing not only the provision of new tools and platforms, but also investments in terms of human resources (through training and guided, contextual reflective practice) and time, that is, recognition of the time commitment of the innovators, long-term investments for gradual change. The human resources to manage and use the system should be well developed to be able to use it. Also, human and financial resources readiness has a significant influence on the adoption of e-learning systems (Raouf, Naser & Jassim, 2012). Financial resources should be available to acquire ICT tools and equipment. The human resources should also be ready to accept and use the systems. A study by Tagoe (2012) on students’ perceptions on incorporating e-learning into teaching and learning at the University of Ghana discovered that, computer skills are critical to the introduction of e-learning in any university. Hence, all the various stakeholders should possess the requisite expertise to use the e-learning system. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 35 2.4.1.3 Environmental Factors The environmental context includes the size and structure of the industry, the firm’s competitors, the macroeconomic context, and the regulatory environment (Tornatzky & Fleischer, 1990). In this context, the environment of a university includes other competing universities, agencies such as Non-Governmental Organisations (NGO’s), Governments, local authorities and ministries. All these entities have an influence in one way or the other on the affairs of the university. E-learning adoption in this sense is not an exception. Environmental issues identified in the e-learning adoption literature reviewed include Educational Partners (Islam, 2013; Hassanzadeh, Kanaani & Elahi, 2012; Raouf, Naser & Jassim, 2012), Competitive Pressure (Raouf, Naser & Jassim, 2012; Amirkhanpour, Kaufmann & Garcia- Gallego, 2014). 2.4.1.3.1 Educational Partners Educational partner readiness has a significant influence on the external diffusion of e-learning (Raouf, Naser & Jassim, 2012). Educational partners such as Non-Governmental organisations (NGOs) and multi-national agencies are indispensable contributors to the successful implementation of projects in developing countries mostly in African countries. In a UNESCO funded project, Bates (2001) postulated that governments have to play a very crucial role in the implementation of e-learning projects in Africa. In the report, governments should provide the necessary infrastructure such as internet connectivity to support e-learning projects in African countries. NGOs contribution to the e-learning adoption is highlighted in the e-learning literature reviewed on developing countries. For instance, in Malawi, Microsoft is training teachers through the Malawi Learning Partnership network (Gondwe, 2012). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 36 Governments play active roles in the implementation of e-learning systems in higher educational institutions. Governments provide support in the form of grants and subventions to the various universities in their countries. For instance, the active role of the Korean government has contributed to the introduction of e-learning into Korean colleges and universities (Uzunboylu, 2006). The author further postulates that, there was evidence that the European Commission (EC) has positively affected the European countries that have introduced e-learning systems in their higher educational institutions. This assistance includes: providing necessary infrastructure and equipment, implementing teacher training, delivering useful content and services, encouraging cooperation and networking, promoting digital literacy and launching European virtual campuses. In a study on finding the determinant factors of information communication technology (ICT) adoption by government-owned universities in Nigeria (Eze et al., 2013), government supports in the forms of legal protections, tax laws, and outright funding are necessary requirements for the diffusion and adoption of ICT’s among colleges in the country. 2.4.1.3.2 Competitive Pressure Universities are virtually in a competition for dominance, prestige, popularity and even for students. Technological innovations in one university are viewed as threats to another university. For instance, the implementation of e-learning in other universities has encouraged i-Learn Centre (iLeC) of Universiti Teknologi MARA (a public university in Malaysia) to move forward to also adopt e-learning (Noh et al., 2012). E-learning has been used in formal and also in informal education by several Malaysian universities. For instance, University Tun Abdul Razak and Open University Malaysia (OUM) offered all their degree programs by blended or hybrid mode. One of the most significant e-learning systems is the development of I-Learn portal which is the e-learning platform of the Open University of Malaysia (OUM). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 37 This knowledge, therefore, served as a boost of motivation for iLeC to implement even a better e-learning platform. Again, they inspired iLec to develop their own e-learning platform. Universities who adopt e-learning are recognized as being better in the functions of the higher education. This opens new opportunities in the fields of teaching and transferring knowledge to the students, the exchanging of the expertise between the teachers and students and to spread the good reputation of the institution which adopts and implements it (Raouf, Naser & Jassim, 2012). Again, the institution is able to increase the number of its students and the leverage of the scientific level of its lectures. 2.4.1.4 The nature of the course The review of e-learning literature also highlighted other factors which fall outside of the traditional determining factors of e-learning adoption. These factors relate to the nature of the courses offered using the e-learning systems. Issues under the nature of the course include the content of the course (Hassanzadeh, Kanaani & Elahi, 2012; Amirkhanpour, Kaufmann & Garcia-Gallego, 2014; Šolc, Legemza & Sütőová, 2012) and E-learning Curriculum (Baumann-Birkbeck et al., 2014; Namisiko, Munialo & Nyongesa, 2014; Anderson, Plevin & McKinnon, 2012). 2.4.1.4.1 Course content The content and information quality has the most direct effect on user satisfaction (Hassanzadeh, Kanaani & Elahi, 2012). Whenever the quality of the content of the e-learning course is high, users are more satisfied with the use of the information system or the e-learning system. Facilities such as forum, chat, collaborative learning tools, possibility of class discussions and others in e-learning systems can result in user satisfaction and hence higher University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 38 adoption. Availability of complementary assets, integrated social learning elements such as various social media tools helps to make the e-learning system user friendly (Amirkhanpour, Kaufmann & Garcia-Gallego, 2014). The content of the course should be structured to meet the various needs of the users. The most appreciated benefits of e-learning are the visualization of explained lessons, attractively of learning environment, provision of a platform for individual study and testing, especially for external students, and study programs with higher number of students (Šolc, Legemza & Sütőová, 2012). 2.4.1.4.2 E-learning Curriculum Some subjects are difficult to teach and learn. Chemotherapeutic pharmacology, for instance, is a traditionally challenging subject (both teaching and learning) (Anderson, Plevin & McKinnon, 2012). E-learning has been proposed to enhance chemotherapeutic education by overcoming some of the challenges presented by traditional teaching methods. Baumann- Birkbeck et al. (2014) in their study on the benefits of e-learning in chemotherapy pharmacology education discovered that, students adopt e-learning systems because of the nature of the course offered on the e-learning platform. The combination of words and pictures presented simultaneously in the e-learning system and complemented with animation and narration provides better illustrations in the course. The students are, therefore, able to better understand the course. The absence of a proper e-learning curriculum is a major obstruction to effective deployment and adoption of e-learning in universities. For an effective e-learning strategy, a proper e- learning curriculum that is not pulled directly from books and classroom courses should be designed (Namisiko, Munialo, & Nyongesa, 2014). Course syllabus which requires the use of a lot of resources and demonstrations tend to be high