COMMUNICATION STRATEGY AND ADOPTION OF INTEGRATED
PEST MANAGEMENT (IPM) PRACTICES BY VEGETABLE FARMERS
AT THE WEIJA IRRIGATION PROJECT, GHANA.
BY
\ALFRED OSEI
A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL
EXTENSION OF THE FACULTY OF AGRICULTURE, UNIVERSITY OF
GHANA LEGON, IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR
THE AWARD OF MASTER OF PHILOSOPHY (M.Phil) DEGREE IN
AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION
UNIVERSITY OF GHANA
LEGON, ACCRA
JUNE 2001
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G 371201
SB 950.394052
bltc, C.1
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I, ALFRED OSEI, do hereby declare that, this thesis with the exception of the
identified quotations is a product of my own research, written entirely by me.
None of the materials contained herein, has been presented either in whole or in
part for the degree of this University or any other degree elsewhere.
DECLARATION
ALFRED OSEI
(STUDENT)
DR. OWURAKU SAKYI-DAWSON
(SUPERVISOR)
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DEDICATION
To my father, Lawrence K. Okyere,
my mother, Dora Korantemaa,
my siblings and my son Lawrence Osei Okyere.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
... ’Not by might nor by power, but by My Sp irit’, Says the LORD o f hosts (Zechariah
4:6). I am most grateful to the Most High God for seeing me through my education to
this level. Glory be to His holy name.
Much o f the credit for the successful completion o f this research goes to my supervisor,
Dr. Owuraku Sakyi-Dawson, for his guidance, encouragement, patience, interest and
support throughout the preparation and writing o f this work. May the Most High God
bless him abundantly.
I am also thankful to the other lecturers, staff and students o f the Department o f
Agricultural Extension, University o f Ghana for their co-operation.
To my parents, Mr. Lawrence K. Okyere and Dora Korantemaa, I say ‘Ayekoo and
God bless you’ for your immeasurable love, sacrifice and unflinching support in
pursuance o f my academic endeavour. Special gratitude also goes to my siblings for
their love, co-operation and support in various ways.
My friends Victor Afrifa Gyamfi, Frank Owusu Acheampong and Osei Yaw Ampomah
are to be commended for their tireless support in diverse ways.
Finally, I wish to express my gratitude to the staff and farmers o f Weija Irrigation
Project for their kind assistance.
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ABSTRACT
To enhance food security, crop losses due to disease and pest damage must be reduced.
Improved technologies for pest control using appropriate and environmentally sound
technologies to promote food security is a major priority for many developing nations.
Integrated Pest Management, IPM (also referred to as Integrated Crop Management
(ICM)) is one o f such approaches to promoting food security. Its adoption by farmers is
therefore critical. In Ghana, few empirical evidence about the communication strategies
employed to effectively disseminate IPM practices exists. This study .therefore
examines the influence o f communication strategies on adoption o f IPM. The findings
are based on data collected from farmers at the Weija Irrigation Project which typifies
intensive vegetable farming in the Greater Accra District. It has also been the centre o f
a lot o f agricultural projects especially in the area o f Agricultural Extension, such as the
IPM Farmers ’ F ield School. (IPM/FFS).
Data were collected from 105 vegetable farmers comprising 55 FFS participants and 50
non-participants using structured interview schedule from March to April 2000. The
analysis involved frequencies, percentages, cross-tabulations and chi-square test.
Practices incorporated in the IPM/FFS for vegetable farmers in the study area and
which the study focused on include: use o f neem seed extract as bio-pesticide, manure
application, mulching, use of improved seeds, reduction or avoidance o f use o f
chemical pesticides, scouting and row planting. The study reveals that there were
generally high levels o f awareness o f all the practices incorporated in the IPM for
vegetables in the study area. The main sources o f information were AEAs through FFS,
agricultural input sellers, co-operative society, other farmers, friends and relatives.
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Communication strategy used were mainly individual and group methods and
Participatory Action Research (PAR).
The adoption rate o f Farmers’ F ield Schools participants was significantly higher than
non-participants. Farmers also testified to the advantages o f using the IPM practices.
These include higher yields, decreased incidence o f pests and diseases and increase in
crop diversity. However, identified constraints to adoption o f IPM practices included:
tediousness o f some o f the practices (high labour input), high cost and lack o f
availability o f some o f the inputs.
The use o f Farmers' F ield Schools, which is a Participatory Action Research (PAR)
methodology, is recommended since programmes are planned with active involvement
or participation o f the target beneficiaries, and at their level o f information uptake and
learning.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
CONTENTS
Declaration
Dedication
Acknowledgement
Abstract
Table of contents
List o f tables ...
List o f figures ...
List of appendices
List of abbreviations
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CHAPTER ONE: INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT AND FOOD
SECURITY ....................................................................... 1
1.0 I n t ro d u c t io n ................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Background ................................................................................................... 1
1.1.1 Food s e c u r ity .................................................................................... 2
1.1.2 Constraints to food security ... ... ... ... ... 4
1.2 IPM as an option for enhancing food security ... ... ... 5
1.3 Current developments in IPM ........................................................................ 7
1.4 Historical review o f IPM implementation in G h a n a ................................ 8
1.4.1 Pest outbreaks (1 9 8 0 -1 9 9 2 ) ......................................................... 9
1.5 The status of IPM in G h a n a ........................................................................ 10
1.6 Vegetable IPM in Ghana ......................................................................... 12
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1.7 Problem statement ....................................................................... 13
1.8 Research questions ....................................................................... 17
1.9 Main objective ....................................................................... 17
1.10 Specific objectives ....................................................................... 17
1.11 Significance o f the Study .......................................................... 17
1.12 Hypotheses ..................................................................................... 18
1.13 Conceptual framework .......................................................... 18
1.14 Operational definitions of c o n c e p t s ............................................ 19
1.14.1 IPM ..................................................................................... 19
1.14.2 Communication strategy ............................................ 19
1.14.3 Adoption of IPM practices 20
1.14.4 Personal Socio-economic characteristics 20
1.14.5 Impacts o f IPM intervention,.. .............................. 21
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW .............................. 22
2.0 Introduction 22
2.1 Adoption o f innovations 22
2.2 The process o f adoption 24
2.3 Attributes o f innovations and adoption 25
2.3.1 Relative advantage ......................................................... 25
2.3.2 Com patib ility ....................................................................... 26
2.3.3 Complexity ....................................................................... 28
2.3.4 Trialability ....................................................................... 29
2.3.5 Observability or visibility ............................................ 29
2.4 Personal socio-economic characteristics and adoption 30
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2.4.1 Age .......................................................... .............................. 31
2.4.2 Gender......................................................... .............................. 32
2.4.3 Education ............................................ .............................. 32
2.4.4 Farm income ... .............................. 33
2.4.5 C re d i t ......................................................... .............................. 33
2.4.6 Size of farm ................. 34
2.4.7 Tenure status ... .............................. 35
2.4.8 Labour availability .............................. .............................. 36
2.5 Communication strategies .........................................
2.6 Channels o f communication ...
2.7 Diffusion o f innovations .......................................................
2.8 PM FFS /TOT training m ethodology.........................................
2. 8.1 Gender issue in farmers’ field schoo l..............
2.9 Real Returns to IPM and its diffusion .......
2.10 Assessment o f household and village level impacts o f IPM
2.11 Summary
2.12 Conclusion
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CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
3.0 Introduction ...
3.1 Research design ................
3.2 Study area
3.3 Population of study ..................
3.4 Sampling technique and sample size
3.5 Pre-testing ..............................
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3.6 Instrument development
3.7 Data collection
3.8 Data a n a ly s i s ..................
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CHAPTER FOUR: INTERGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
4.0 I n t ro d u c t io n ..................................................................................................
4.1 Conceptual basis o f IPM .........................................................................
4.2 Training content o f farmers’ field school
4.3 Selected IPM practices for the s tu d y ..........................................................
4.3.1 Preparation and application of neem seed extract ..................
4.3.2 Manure a p p l ic a t io n .......................................................................
4.3.3 Mulching
4.3.4 Improved seeds
4.3.5 Reduction o f pesticide use ..........................................................
4.3.6 Agro-ecosystem analysis (AESA) ............................................
4.3.7 Row p lan ting .....................................................................................
4.4 IPM message preparation
4.5 Conclusion
CHAPTER FIVE: CHARACTERISTICS OF THE FARMERS
5.0 I n t ro d u c t io n ..................................................................................................
5.1 Age o f farmers ......................................................................................
5.2 Educational level of fa rm ers ........................................................................
5.3 Gender distribution of farmers ............................................
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5.4 Farm size ...................................................................................................
5.5 Economic enterprises o f fanners ........................................................... 77
5.6 Source o f farm labou r...................................................................................... 78
5.7 Source of credit ...................................................................................... 79
5.8 Production constraints... ... ... ■■■ 80
5.8.1 Major crop pests and diseases ............................................ 80
5.9 Pest control strategies used by farmers ............................................. 81
5.10 Conclusion .................................................................................................... 81
CHAPTER SIX: COMMUNICATION OF IPM PRACTICES................. 83
6.0 Introduction ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 83
6.1 Sources o f IPM in fo rm a tio n ......................................................................... 83
6.2 Methods through which farmers received IPM p rac tices......................... 90
6.3 Awareness ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 96
6.4 Sources o f information and awareness of IPM practices ... 98
6.5 Communication strategies and awareness creation of IPM practices ... 99
6.6 Constraints to effective extension delivery in the study area ... ... 102
6.7 Conclusion .................................................................................................... 103
CHAPTER SEVEN: ADOPTION OF INTEGRATED PEST
MANAGEMENT .......................................................... 105
7.0 In t ro d u c t io n .................................................................................................... 105
7.1 Adoption of the selected IPM practices .............................. 105
7.1.1 Adoption of neem seed extract ............................................ 106
7.1.1.1 Reasons for non-adoption of neem seed extract ... 107
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7.1.2 Adoption of manure application ............................................
7.1.2.1 Reasons for non-adoption of manure application
7.1.3 Adoption o f mulching........................................................................
7.1.3.1 Reasons for non-adoption o f mulching .................
7.1.4 Adoption o f improved seed v arie tie s ............................................
7.1.4.1 Reasons for non-adoption o f improved seeds.................
7.1.5 Adoption o f reduction o f pesticide use ..............................
7.1.6 Adoption o f sco u tin g .......................................................................
7.1.6.1 Reasons for non-adoption o f scouting .................
7.1.7 Adoption o f row planting
7.1.7.1 Reasons for non-adoption of row planting
7.2 Communication strategy and adoption o f selected IPM practices ...
7.2.1 Extension method by adoption of neem seed ex trac t.................
7.2.2 Extension method and adoption o f manure application
7.2.3 Extension method and adoption o f mulching..............................
7.2.4 Extension method and adoption o f improved seed varieties ...
7.2.5 Extension method and adoption o f pesticide reduction
7.2.6 Extension method and adoption o f s c o u tin g ..............................
7.2.7 Extension method and adoption of row planting
7.3 Overall adoption pattern o f IPM in the study area ..............................
7.4 Characteristics o f farmers and adoption o f IPM practices ...............
7.5 Conclusion ............... .......................................................
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CHAPTER EIGHT: IMPACT OF IPM INTERVENTION 129
8.0 Introduction ... 129
8.1 Impact o f IPM intervention in the study area ... ................. 130
8.1.1 Crop d ivers ity ....................................................................... 131
8.1.2 Yields o f v e g e ta b le s .......................................................... 132
8.1.3 Farm size 133
8.1.4 Incidence o f pests and diseases .............................. 133
8.1.5 Business opportunity and stability o f income................. 134
8.1.6 Labour requirement ... 135
8.1.7 Health s t a t u s ....................................................................... 135
8.1.8 Development o f functionary g r o u p s .............................. 136
8.2 Conclusion ..................................................................................... 136
CHAPTER NINE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND
RECOMMENDATIONS .............................. 138
9.0 Introduction ... 138
9.1 Summary 139
9.2 Socio-economic characteristics and adoption of IPM 141
9.3 Communication strategies, adoption and benefits o f IPM 142
9.4 Conclusion 145
9.5 Policy implications ....................................................................... 145
9.6 Research implications... 146
9.7 Recommendations ....................................................................... 147
REFERENCES............................................................................................................ 148
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Table 3.1 Data collection scheme-main concepts, information required, sources o f
information and data collection techniques ... ... ... 59
Table 5.1 Age o f farmers ....................................................................................... 74
Table 5.2 Educational level o f farmers ........................................................... 75
Table 5.3 Gender distribution o f farmers ........................................................... 76
Table 5.4 Distribution o f farm size ......................................................................... 77
Table 5.5 Economic enterprises o f f a r m e r s ........................................................... 78
Table 5.6 Source o f farm labour ......................................................................... 79
Table 5.7 Source o f credit ...................................................................................... 80
Table 6.1 Source o f information: Preparation and application o f neem seed extract 85
Table 6.2 Source o f information: Manure application ............................... 95
Table 6.3 Source o f information: M u lch in g ........................................................... 86
Table 6.4 Source o f information: Planting improved s e e d s .............................. 87
Table 6.5 Source o f information: Reduction o f pesticide application ... 88
Table 6.6 Source o f information: S c o u t in g ........................................................... 88
Table 6.7 Source o f information: Row planting ............................................. 89
Table 6.8 Methods o f extension: Preparation and application o f neem seed extract 91
Table 6.9 Methods o f extension: Manure application 92
Table 6.10 Methods o f extension: M u lch ing ......................................................... 93
Table 6.11 Methods o f extension: Planting improved seeds ... ... ... 93
Table 6.12 Methods o f extension: Reduction o f pesticide use ................ 94
Table 6.13 Methods o f extension: S c o u t in g .................................................. ... 95
Table 6.14 Methods o f extension: Row planting ............................................ 95
LIST OF TABLES
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Table 6.15 Awareness o f IPM practices by FFS and NFFS farmers... ... 97
Table 6.16 Sources o f information and awareness o f IPM p rac tices................. 99
Table 6.17 Extension methods and awareness o f IPM practices.......................... 101
Table 6.18 Sources o f information and extension m e th o d s ............................... 102
Table 7.1 Extent o f adoption o f neem seed e x t r a c t ............................................. 107
Table 7.2 Multiple reasons for non-adoption o f neem seed e x t r a c t ................. 108
Table 7.3 Extent o f adoption o f manure app lic a tio n ............................................. 109
Table 7.4 Extent o f adoption o f mulching ........................................................... 110
Table 7.5 Multiple reasons for non-adoption o f mulching ............................... I l l
Table 7.6 Extent o f adoption o f improved seed varieties ............................... 112
Table 7.7 Multiple reasons for non-adoption o f improved seed varieties ... 113
Table 7.8 Extent o f adoption o f reduction o f pesticide U s e ............................... 113
Table 7.9 Extent o f adoption o f scouting ........................................................... 115
Table 7.10 Multiple reasons for non-adoption o f scouting ............................... 115
Table 7.11 Extent o f adoption o f row planting ... ... ... ... 116
Table 7.12 Multiple reasons for non-adoption o f row planting ................. 117
Table 7.13 Extension method and adoption o f neem seed extract ............ 118
Table 7.14 Extension method and adoption o f manure a p p l ic a t io n ............ 119
Table 7.15 Extension method and adoption o f mulching .......................... 119
Table 7.16 Extension method and adoption o f improved seed varieties 120
Table 7.17 Extension method and adoption o f pesticide reduction ............ 120
Table 7.18 Extension method and adoption o f scouting .......................... 121
Table 7.19 Extension method and adoption o f row planting ... ... ... 122
Table 7.20 Overall adoption o f IPM ... ... ... ... ... ... 123
Table 7.21 Age and overall adoption pattern ... ... ... ... ... 124
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Table 7.22 Gender and overall adoption pattern ................. ... ... 124
Table 7.23 Source o f farm labour and overall adoption ............................... 125
Table 7.24 Extent o f adoption, reasons for non-adoption and implications ... 127
Table 8.1 Impact o f IPM intervention......................................................................... 131
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Appendix 1 Interview questionnaire for the farmer ................................ 155
Appendix 2 Checklist for AEAs .......................................................................... 159
LIST OF APPENDICES
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LIST OF FIGURES
PAGE
F igure 1 A conceptual framework o f the impact o f communication strategy
on adoption o f 1PM ......................................................................... 18
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
AEA: Agricultural Extension Agent
AESA: Agro-ecosystem Analysis
AIAEE: Association for International Agricultural and Extension Education
ECC: European Economic Community
EEC: Biological Control Committee
FAO: Food and Agriculture Organisation
FFS: Farmers’ Field School
GDP: Gross Domestic Product
HYV: High-yielding Varieties
IDA: Irrigation Development Authority
IIED: International Institute for Environment and Development
IITA: International Institute for Tropical Agriculture
ILEIA: Information Centre for Low-External-Input and Sustainable Agriculture
IPM: Integrated Pest Management
IRRI: International Rice Research Institute
LDC: Less-Developed Countries
LEISA: Low External-Input for Sustainable Agriculture
LGB: Larger Grain Borer
MoFA: Ministry o f Food and Agriculture
NBCC: National Biological Control
NGO: Non-governmental Organisation
NPRP: National Poverty Reduction Programme
OECD: Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development
PAR: Participatory Action Research
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PPMED: Policy Planning, Monitoring and Evaluation Department
PPRSD: Plant Protection and Regulatory Service Department
SARI: Sahara Agricultural Research Institute
SDC: Swiss Development Co-operation
SPSS: Statistical Package for the Social Scientist
TCP: Technical Co-operation Project
TOT: Training o f Trainers
UNDP: United Nations Development Project
USAID: United States Agency for International Development
WEICO: Weija Irrigation Company
WHO: World Health Organisation
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CHAPTER ONE
INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT AND FOOD SECURITY
1.0 Introduction
This chapter is the introduction, and covers the background to the study, importance o f
crop protection, IPM as an option for enhancing food security, 'historical review o f IPM
in Ghana, the status o f IPM in Ghana and vegetable IPM in Ghana. In addition, it
considers the problem, statement research questions, main and specific objectives,
significance o f the study, hypotheses, conceptual framework and operational definitions
o f concepts.
1.1 Background
IPM developed in the 1970s as a response to the negative side effects using pesticides.
Pests were becoming resistant to chemical treatments, and the health o f farmers, farm
workers and consumers was in danger. These hazards were far greater in the Third
World countries, and today’s evidence suggests that the situation has become even more
volatile. The latest WHO figures suggest that at least 3 million, and perhaps as many as
25 million agricultural workers are poisoned each year by pesticides, and some 20,000
deaths can be directly attributed to agro-chemical use. Studies from the Philippines have
computed the alarming costs o f pesticide to the national economy, showing these
negative effects extent far beyond the individual (Pretty, 1995)
IPM has become one o f the widely used catchwords in agricultural development and
environmental conservation programmes. Successful IPM programmes are o f importance
for the world’s food security and for maintaining a healthy environment. Its success also
requires a change from pesticide-dominated management to information management o f
cropping systems on local up to global scales. Everybody claims to like IPM and even to
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do IPM, but the actual content o f this term differs widely. A particular concern in this
regard is that chemical companies redefine the term IPM in order to use it to boost
pesticide sales. Hence, the question o f measuring the success o f IPM programmes
becomes crucial. Major goals for an IPM initiative are to reduce dependency on
chemical pesticide, and achieve sustainable intensification at a level o f pesticide use that
corresponds with the social optimum (Waibel, Fleischer, Kenmore, Feder, 1999).
As with the provision o f any new on-farm technology, the methods (strategies) used- to
disseminate relevant information and skills to farmers and to encourage them towards
their sustained practice o f IPM-are as important as the technology itself for rallying
wide-scale acceptance. Although there are various IPM technologies for different crops
and while there are alternative methods to diffusing these practices, all these instruments
and efforts uniformly aim at altering existing farm use o f pesticides and promoting
effective and efficient pest-management practices. Farmers are IPM ’s main target
beneficiaries. However, others may benefit from externalities that derive from sustained
IPM practice and /or the IPM dissemination efforts (Waibel et al, 1999).
1.1.1 Food Security
Poor people often and consistently lack access to the food required for them to lead a
healthy and productive life. Food insecurity is the oldest o f humanity’s concerns and
remains the greatest o f contemporary problem (FAO, 1996).
Despite improvements in the world food predicament, the underlying causes o f food
crises have not disappeared. About 100 million Africans go hungry everyday and a total
o f about one billion people worldwide are classified likewise (Benneh, Tims and
Asenso-Okyere, 1996). Asenso-Okyere, Benneh and Tims, (1997) estimated that the
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total number o f people around the world suffering from chronic under nutrition or
chronic food insecurity was between 800 and 900 million people in the last 20 years, but
apparently declining slowly. Sub-Saharan Africa however showed an increase over the
last period from about 100 million to about 200 million. This demonstrates the difficult
problems o f Africa in past years and the appropriateness o f renewed interest in food
security research and other programmes. With the supplies o f food aid decreasing around
the world, reliance on food aid to supplement domestic supplies in West Africa is
becoming an increasingly risky policy (Asenso-Okyere, et al, 1997).
The key requirement for food security is availability o f adequate food supplies and
access to food by the poor (Benneh, et al, 1996). The availability o f adequate food
supplies is a function o f agricultural production. The agricultural sector dominates the
economies o f most countries in sub-Saharan Africa, contributing about one-third o f the
region’s GDP and employing about two-thirds o f the economically active population
(FAO, 1996).
Chronic food insecurity constitutes a major challenge to efforts to alleviate poverty.
Ghana has been struggling with food problems and the situation has reached crises
proportions. Although there are local and regional variations in the severity o f the
problem, one important characteristic o f the current food crises is its national character.
There have been food shortages in both rural and urban areas. The fact o f the matter is
that with a population growth rate o f 2.5-3.0 percent per annum, food production has not
been able to match the annual growth rate o f population, let alone outstrip it (Bourenane
and Mkandawire, 1987). According to Waibel et al, (1999), successful 1PM programmes
are o f central importance for the world’s food security and for maintaining a healthy
environment.
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1.1.2 Constraints to Food Security
Factors that contribute to food insecurity include the following:
• Unfavourable agro-climatic conditions.
• Application o f fanning practices that are unsustainable.
• Limited opportunity for off-farm employment.
• Low soil fertility.
• High rate o f post harvest losses due to lack o f effective storage facilities as well
as limited knowledge about appropriate food storage and preservation
techniques.
Sinha, (1976) also indicated the following:
a) Labour shortages during specific seasons and/or in particular households.
b) Lack o f inputs, agricultural services or institutions and appropriate technology.
c) Limited opportunities to cope with food deficits due to a shortage o f employment and
income-generating activities, low levels o f remuneration, lack o f incentives or price and
marketing constraints.
d) Conflicts and wars.
In addition to the afore mentioned constraints, pests cause significant losses in
productivity and their control can therefore contribute to solving the problem o f food
insecurity and poverty to a large extent.
Global losses in crop production due to pests are o f the order o f US$300 billion
annually. The costs o f pesticides to developing countries are a major drain on foreign
exchange at the national level, as well as requiring a significant outlay by farmers at the
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village level. The estimated expenditure by international development agencies on pest
control projects in 1988 was at US$150 million (Rothschild, 1991).
FAO estimates indicate that up to 40% o f harvests in developing countries are lost due to
weeds, diseases and insect attack. Added to this, another 10 to 20% in post-harvest losses
implies that more than half o f the annual crop production may be destroyed. This figure
compares unfavourably to the situation in developed countries, where crop losses total
approximately 25%. With pests and diseases being one o f the major obstacles to higher
agricultural production, much emphasis is put on pest control in the national agricultural
programmes and strategies (Farah, 1994).
1.2 IPM as An Option for Enhancing Food Security
World population will increase by 2.5 billion by the year 2020, and overall food
requirements in developing countries will double. More food will have to be produced in
ways that generate income for poor rural populations and that also make food affordable
to poor people in cities.
Growing demand must be met primarily by increasing production on land already under
cultivation (productive and marginal lands), and by reducing post-harvest losses. Efforts
to intensify production to meet these objectives should be sustainable, i.e. they should
conserve natural resources and make minimal use o f external inputs. Crop protection,-the
reduction o f losses caused by pests-is one obvious strategy for increasing the food
supply. Pre-harvest and post-harvest agricultural losses are estimated to amount to one-
third o f potential production. Quality aspects (pest-free and residue-free agricultural
products) are becoming important in light o f market liberalization and the importance
that many developing countries attach to exports (SDC, 1994).
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Efforts to intensify agricultural production will continue as a result o f the need for food
security among rapidly growing populations in developing countries. But changes in
agricultural systems and in the intensity o f land use have impacts on the pest problem.
Crop protection aspects must accordingly be incorporated as an integral part o f
sustainable efforts to intensify production; they will become even more important in the
future (SDC, 1994).
Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is a method o f pest control, which combines different
pest control techniques and integrates them into the overall farming system. According
to Smith and Reynolds’s (1966) definition, as cited in Afreh-Nuamah, (1996), a
definition, which has been embraced by the Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO)
o f the United Nations:
“IPM is a p est management system which in the context o f the associated environment
and the population dynamics o f the pest species, utilizes all suitable techniques and
methods in as compatible a manner as possible, and maintains the pest population levels
below those causing economic injury".
The ultimate goal o f any IPM programme therefore should be sustainable, cost effective,
within the capabilities o f the users, and should not harm humans or the environment.
IPM strategy combines several benign pest control techniques such as the use o f natural
predators, biological pesticides and adapted cultural practices, including breeding plants
for pest and disease resistance, with a diminished and less frequent utilisation o f
chemical pesticides. As the negative and dangerous impacts o f pesticides on human life
and on the environment have become better known in recent decades, scientists
developed more natural, cost-effective, and less ecosystem-disruptive and harmful
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methods to control pests without heavily relying on chemical pesticides as in the case o f
Integrated Pest Management (IPM) (Farah, 1994).
Studies show that some IPM programmes have been and still are very successful in pest
management. Examples are rice in Indonesia, cassava in Africa and Soybean in Brazil.
IPM implementation has also been successful for tree crops in West Africa (NRI, 1992).
This demonstrates that IPM can work in practice, a conclusion supported by the results
o f case studies mostly based on experiments in farmers’ fields (Farah, 1994). It has also
been recommended at a workshop held in Addis Ababa that the IPM Fanner F ield
School concept, which is a participatory training methodology, be adapted into Ghana’s
extension delivery systems. The crops selected as targets for this programme were:
vegetable (tomato, okra, garden egg and cabbage), maize (storage), rice (upland and
valley bottom) (Afreh-Nuamah, 1996). Ghanaian authorities are now promoting and
implementing sustainable agriculture and IPM programmes as an alternative to the sole
use o f pesticides. Akumadan farmers are used as an example o f how the change in policy
has benefited the community in general by improving crop yields and lessening the risk
o f severe exposure to pesticides (Davis, 1997).
1.3 Current Developments in IPM
In 1957, “ Integrated Pest Management” was first proposed as a concept, which promoted
the use o f biological control (mostly free), good agronomic practices (good for crop
yields), and other means before investing in chemical pesticides (costly, destroy natural
enemies, create environmental and health social costs) to control pests. At that time, as
now, many farmers used pesticides on a calendar basis, governments promoted their use,
and they were considered an essential aspect o f “modern” agriculture. Sometime later,
largely due to basic misuse o f “economic thresholds”, IPM also began to be defined as
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“spray only when the pest exceeds the threshold”. The original concept was to promote
good practices; the second concept was useful for selling pesticides. According to Kiss
and Meerman, (1991), recent developments have shown that IPM could be more
practical and field-oriented to the benefit o f the ordinary farmer especially when it is
adopted not as a technology, but as an approach and strategy for developing technologies
for solving pest and disease problems as and when they occur.
A w ider view o f IPM has been developed in recent years as a result o f farmer focused
Farmer F ield School programmes. The basis o f this view is derived from the original
biologically intensive IPM concepts. Academic definitions are replaced with
understandable straight principles:
• Grow a healthy crop
• Observe field regularly (i.e. weekly)
• Conserve natural enemies; and
• Understand ecology and become expert in the field (Afreh-Nuamah, 1996).
1.4 Historical Review of IPM Implementation in Ghana
According to Dixon, (undated), from 1980 to date, Ghana has been confronted with
numerous pest outbreaks which pesticides played important role in controlling.
However, in certain cases, such as the cassava and mango mealy bug outbreaks,
chemical control was neither effective nor successful. This therefore necessitated the
formation o f committees to take a critical look at how best to control such pests.
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1.4.1 Pest Outbreaks (1980 -1992)
Though there were other outbreaks like the variegated grasshoppers, armyworms etc. the
listed pests raised concern o f the authorities and led to the formation o f various
committees at different times and levels:
• Cassava Mealy bugs
• Cassava Green Mite
• Mango Mealy bug
• Water Hyacinth K[L ‘
The outbreak o f cassava mealy bug was first detected in the Volta Region in Ghana in
1980. In 1981 it had spread to the eastern Region, where students and MoFA (PPRSD)
staff formed task forces and embarked on mechanical and chemical control and imposed
internal quarantine without any success. In 1982, mealy bug had spread to other regions.
Without any success with pesticides and other control methods, MoFA requested for
assistance from FAO in 1983. FAO in response approved a Technical Co-operation
Project (TCP) for the control o f this exotic pest o f cassava. In 1984 Cassava
Improvement Committee was formed involving the Research Institutions, the
Universities, MoFA and the Ministry o f Health (Nutrition Department) with the under-
listed objectives:
• To find ways and means to control the cassava mealy bug.
• To co-ordinate other cassava improvement activities in the country.
• To adopt the FAO consultants report/recommendations on the biocontrol o f the
cassava mealy bug.
• To introduce and test improved/tolerant varieties from IITA to pests and diseases.
• Larger Grain Borer
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There was also the implementation o f Biological Control Program as a component o f
African-wide Biological control programme under the leadership o f IITA/PHMD. In
1985, the World Bank Team commended the cassava mealy bug control programme as
very successful. Between 1986-1991, there were other outbreaks o f Variegated
grasshoppers, armyworms, Sigatoka, whitefly etc. In 1992, Integrated Pest Management
(IPM) was adapted as the official strategy for pest control by MoFA/ PPRSD. There was
also the establishment o f the National Biological Control Committee (NBCC) with
working groups on LGB, vegetable pests, mango mealy bug and Cereal Stem borers.
1.5 The Status o f IPM in Ghana
IPM has also been recognised as one o f the practical alternative measures that could be
used to deal with the many problems emanating from increasing pesticide use, especially
at the farm level. However, its implementation had been restricted to few isolated crops
in the developed world (Afreh-Nuamah, 1996).
The process o f adoption o f IPM as a major component o f Ghana’s Plant Production/
Protection Strategy is documented by Afreh-Nuamah, (1996). This was in recognition o f
the fact that excessive use o f pesticide especially on crops like vegetables (tomato,
cabbage and garden eggs) had led to unacceptable residues in market produce resulting
in risks to consumers and commodity rejection on the international market. Increasing
incidence o f farmer poisoning and long-term effects o f pesticides on aquatic and
terrestrial ecosystems was further causing concern to agriculturists and
environmentalists. According to the document, in August-September 1993, two
specialists (Director, Plant Protection and Regulatory Services Department o f MoFA and
an IPM specialist o f the University o f Ghana, Legon) were sent to represent Ghana at the
Global IPM meeting in Bangkok, Thailand. They noted the widespread adoption o f
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participatory IPM (as national strategies) in South East Asian rice fields and the
subsequent considerable reduction in the amount o f pesticide use.
As a follow-up, a national IPM Advisory Committee (i.e. a National Integrated Crop
Protection Advisory Committee) was formed in 1995. This committee chaired by the
honourable Deputy Minister o f Food and Agriculture (MoFA) in charge o f crops,
consisted o f prominent scientists concerned with IPM from the Universities and research
institutions, directors o f relevant departments o f MoFA (i.e. Extension Services, Crop
Services and Plant Protection and Regulatory Services), agrochemical sellers and
farmers. After this, number o f proposals for funding by the FAO were initiated but
because o f the experience o f the participatory IPM on rice, the FAO accepted to fund a
pilot project for the adaptation o f the Asian IPM training methodology (the IPM farmer
field schools (FFS) concept) to Ghanaian conditions under Government o f Ghana/FAO
Technical Co-operation Programme (TCP/GHA/4553-Rice IPM). This pilot project was
sited at the Dawhenya Irrigation Project (Afreh-Nuamah, 1996). Follow-up training
programmes for rice farmers were established at five irrigation sites (Tono in the Upper
East Region; Bontanga, Northern Region; Afife, Volta Region; Asutsuare, Eastern
Region and Ashaiman, Greater Accra Region) from where the trainers (facilitators) were
drawn. The main objective o f these follow-up programmes being to extend the
experience gained from Dawhenya to other Regions so that farmers on these projects can
benefit from IPM training.
The results from both the pilot project at Dawhenya in 1995 and the follow-up training
programmes at the five (5) irrigation projects showed marked similarities between Asian
and Ghanaian irrigated rice ecosystems. For example a wide varieties o f insect pests and
their natural enemies have been observed, and without use o f pesticides, rice yields were
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increased, a good indication that IPM as practised in Asia would also work in Ghanaian
irrigated rice systems.
The Fanner Field School concept has been recommended to be adapted into the
Ghanaian extension delivery system. It has also been recommended that pilot
programmes on ciops which depend on much pesticides and with considerable scientific
and technical information available both locally or from elsewhere, be established
(Afreh-Nuamah, 1996). Consequently, the following crops were selected as targets for
this programme: vegetables (tomato, okra, garden eggs and cabbage), cowpea, cotton,
pineapple, plantain, maize (storage) and rice (upland and valley bottom). IPM FFS has
actually started on cowpea under the CRSP/ Cowpea programme (Afreh-Nuamah, 1996).
1.6 Vegetable IPM in Ghana
Small scale farmers are the main pillars o f Ghana’s agricultural production, producing
over 90 percent o f the country’s food crops. Consequently, the Medium term
Agricultural Programme (MTADP) o f the country focuses attention on increased small
holder productivity for food crops through expansion o f area cultivated, increased
research, efficient supply and utilization o f inputs and strengthening o f the agricultural
extension services (Afreh-Nuamah, 1998).
According to FAO (1993), vegetable production has a great potential in Ghana. Both
private and government sectors are involved. The private sector is by far the most
important. In general, small holders abound throughout the country and several
companies have established vegetable farms near urban areas. Most vegetable farms are
small with an area o f 0.2-0.4ha, while commercial farms cultivate between 5-10
hectares. Most farmers practise intercropping. They grow vegetables throughout the year
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but sometimes sowing is so timed as to profit from rainfall. Other swampy areas are
reclaimed for vegetable production in the dry season.
The most common vegetables are: onion, shallot, hot pepper, tomato, eggplant, okra,
cocoyam leaves, cabbage, cauliflower, beans and pepper. Export-oriented production
focuses on pepper and okra. Weed control is reported to be the operation that takes the
maximum toll o f the farmers’ time and energy, and is the reason why many farmers
restrict vegetable production to smaller areas (less than an acre). Hand-picking sedentary
pests is a common practice among most women vegetable growers. Farmers who can
afford pesticides use them but often do so without adhering to proper and safe methods
o f application.
Experience has shown that Farmer F ield Schools have the greatest impact on production
systems where intensive use and abuse o f pesticides and other agro-chemicals is
practised. The crops that are best suited for vegetable IPM training are the ones that are
most widely grown, that are currently consuming most pesticides and other agro
chemicals, and that have major crop health problems. Two groups o f crops have been
observed to be the first potential target vegetables for an 1PM training programme:
solanaceous crops (tomato, pepper, garden egg), crucifers (cabbage, cauliflower). Second
priority targets are okra, cowpea and water melon (Janny and Afreh-Nuamah, 1997).
1.7 Problem Statement
The IPM concept is far from new. Farmers used integrated pest control long before
scientists coined the term. It has, however, gained widespread scientific recognition in
the past two decades (Rothschild, 1991; Lutz, Biswanger, Hazell and McCalla, 1998).
Traditionally, farmers have relied on indirect pest control measures o f crop rotation or
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intercropping, supplemented by mechanical means o f control such as pulling out o f
weeds, removal o f egg masses from plants, and destroying crop residues (Afreh-
Nuamah, 1995). Thus, in traditional farming systems, pest management is inseparable
from sound farm management. However, changes in farming systems during the past
half century lost sight o f this approach, and chemical control methods became the pillar
in the control o f pests and diseases in modem agriculture (Kiss and Meerman, 1991).
Consequently, there have always been the issue o f economic risks and positive returns
from using IPM rather than conventional, scheduled practices (Smith el al, 1989; Anon,
1990, as cited in: Afreh-Nuamah, 1996).
During the past decade, however, growing concerns about the risk and negative effects
o f chemical methods have spurred agriculturists, environmentalists, and economists to
explore pest management strategies that have fewer side effects on public health and the
environment. The most well known among these strategies is IPM (Lutz et al, 1998).
Integrated pest management [IPM] is increasingly recognised as a vital element in
sustainable agricultural development. In IPM, farmers use their knowledge o f ecological
processes in the agricultural system to combine a variety o f compatible tactics to increase
the productivity o f crops and reduce the impact o f pests, diseases and weeds. Pesticides are
used as little as possible, if at all, with corresponding benefit to farmers’ income, human
health and the environment. Although a number o f promising IPM options are becoming
available, adoption o f IPM at farm level, especially in Africa, is disappointingly slow. Poor
communication between farmers and researchers is believed by many stakeholders in the
agricultural development process to be a constraint limiting IPM adoption (NGO-IPM
Workshop Summary, 1999).
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IPM appears to present such a clearly preferable approach that it may seem strange that it
is not universally adopted (Bull, 1982; Rothschild, 1991; Farah, 1994). Although crop
protection specialists generally accept IPM as the ultimate goal o f any crop protection
measure against pests and diseases, few o f them actually practise the concept. Others
however, consider it as a sophisticated, theoretical, or largely academic discipline, which
cannot solve the real world’s problems (Kissman and Meerman, 1991). According to
Kenmore (1989), though there is considerable research and demonstration-plot data to
show that IPM is workable, there is still a lingering doubt about its reliability under all
circumstances. Afreh-Nuamah, (1996) also states that although various institutions
involved in research, development and implementation o f IPM have made a tremendous
effort and have attempted various strategies, these have resulted in limited success.
Constraints that limit IPM implementation operate across the entire political,
institutional, socio-economic and technical environment in which the pest problem is
experienced.
Until recently, relatively little attention has been paid to the incorporation o f
dissemination and adoption in research programmes (Hainsworth and Eden-Green,
2000). One o f the fundamental shifts is the greater emphasis on direct farmer
involvement in Farmers' F ield School. The IPM Farmers’ F ield School is a novel
extension mechanism, and thus involves an embodiment o f communication strategy
Communication strategies used to disseminate information on innovations influence the
adoption o f the innovations. Weaknesses in communication strategies therefore seem to
contribute significantly to the low adoption. This makes strategies o f communicating
IPM practices a critical problem, for they are likely to influence their adoption.
According to Rogers (1995), the relationship between communication methods and
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attributes o f the innovation interact to slow down or speed up the rate o f adoption.
Agricultural extension has the role o f helping farmers to form sound opinions and to
make good decisions by communicating with them and providing them with the
information they need. Once the needs o f an area or community have been identified, it
is the task o f extension workers to choose the teaching methods or strategies that are
most effective in achieving their educational objectives. This situation is applicable to
IPM as well.
Different communication strategies are widely used in different situations in the
dissemination o f information in agricultural extension delivery activities. There is
evidence that whenever innovation information is adequately communicated, there are
high levels o f adoption o f those innovations, which translate into high levels o f
development (Rao, 1966). He added that there is a strong correlation between
communication and social, economic and political development.
One o f the major problems o f introducing an improved or new idea into a social system
is how to adequately communicate the idea. Communication does not take place in a
social vacuum. It takes place in a social context o f system and sub-system variables and
values (Beal, Blount, Powers and Johnson, 1966). This makes the socio-economic
characteristics o f farmers very crucial in studies o f adoption as well.
This study therefore seeks to address the problem that the low adoption o f IPM practices
may be associated with the communication strategies used in communicating them to
farmers.
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1.8. Research Questions
1. Which communication strategies (methods) are more effective in the dissemination o f
IPM messages?
2. To what extent do personal socio-economic characteristics influence adoption o f
IPM practices?
1.9 Main Objective
To determine ways o f enhancing the adoption o f IPM practices through use o f more
effective communication strategies.
1.10 Specific Objectives
1.To describe the various communication strategies used in disseminating IPM practices.
2. To determine the level o f adoption o f IPM practices.
3.To determine the relationship between communication strategies (methods) and
extent o f adoption o f IPM.
4. To determine the relationships between personal socio-economic characteristics o f
farmers and adoption.
5. To suggest communication strategies likely to enhance adoption o f IPM.
1.11 Significance of the Study
The findings are likely to contribute to understanding o f how communication methods or
strategies contribute to effectiveness o f empowering farmers to make their own decisions
with regard to pest management. Through the enhanced adoption, it is hoped to
contribute to reducing the problem o f crop losses due to pests, thus minimising the
problem o f food insecurity and poverty.
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1.12 Hypotheses
1. There is no relationship between personal socio-economic characteristics o f farmers
and adoption o f IPM.
2. There is no relationship between communication strategies and IPM adoption.
1.13 Conceptual Framework
Figure 1 shows a framework for analysis o f the influence o f communication strategy or
strategies on adoption o f IPM practices. It is based on the assumption that adoption o f
IPM practices is influenced by personal socio-economic characteristics o f farmers and
communication strategies as well as the nature o f the IPM practices themselves.
Also, an IPM project is expected to produce economic and non-economic benefits. On
the farm household level, economic benefits for example are: increased yield, more
stable income, increased business opportunity and improved health.
Figure 1: A Conceptual Framework of the Impact o f Communication Strategy on
Adoption of IPM Practices
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Operational Definition o f Concepts
1.14.1 IPM
Rabb (1972) defined Pest Management as the intelligent selection and use o f pest control
actions that will ensure favourable economic, ecological, and sociological consequences.
Van Schoubroeck, Herens, de Louw, Louwen and Overtoom, (1992), however, defined
IPM as a pest management strategy that attempts to apply more than a single pest
management technique in such a way that the different methods complement each other.
They added that IPM is a broad ecological approach to pest control, utilising a variety o f
control technologies compatibly in a single pest management System; IPM can draw
upon a number o f different pest management methods. These include biological and
cultural controls, physical controls, the use o f pest-resistant varieties and a number o f
other techniques.
Based on the above definitions, the conceptual definition o f IPM for this study is: pest
management strategy which utilizes a combination o f non-chemical crop protection
methods such as the cultivation o f resistant varieties, mulching, use o f neem extract,
manure application, row planting and a number o f other methods in a manner that brings
under control pests and diseases, whilst ensuring a sound and safe agro-ecosystem.
1.14.2 Communication Strategy
Extension is the conscious communication o f information to help people form sound
opinions and make good decisions (van den Ban and Hawkins, 1999). MacDonald and
Hearle (1984:34) identify different communication strategies that could be used in
development work. These include: individual methods, by working with groups and
through the mass media. This formed the basis o f classification o f communication
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strategies. For the purpose o f this study, communication strategy and extension method
are synonymous.
Farm ers’ F ield School is a methodology based on a structured learning process in a
group context. The concept allows farmers to explore areas o f research that are o f
particular interest and importance to them. This training concept is not only limited to
IPM in the strict sense. The flexibility o f the concept and the experiential learning on
which it is based has made it a widely used extension tool (Stoll, 1997).
1.14.3 Adoption o f IPM P ractices
Adoption: According to Rogers (1995), adoption is defined as the decision (and
behaviour) to make use o f a technology or practice. For the purpose o f this study,
adoption o f an IPM practice is the use o f the practice as an integral part o f pest
management. Any farmer who has not adopted any o f the practices is designated a non-
adopter. I f a farmer adopts from one to four o f the practices, that farmer is designated a
low adopter. I f a farmer adopts from five to seven o f the practices, that farmer is
designated a high adopter
N on-adoption is the situation where a farmer has been introduced to a recommendation
but does not use it.
1.14.4 Personal Socio-Economic Characteristics
This is defined to include age, educational status, gender, source o f credit, labour and
production constraints.
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1.14.5 Impacts o f IPM Intervention
This is defined as the effect o f 1PM programme on farmers and their practices. This
includes farmers’ health status, diversity o f crops grown, incidence o f pests and diseases,
health status, use o f pesticides, labour requirement, business opportunity and stability o f
income.
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CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Introduction
IPM has not been widely adopted in spite if its numerous advantages. Whilst the causes
o f the low adoption are many, inadequate communication methods seem to contribute
significantly. Personal socio-economic characteristics o f farmers are also likely to
contribute to its pattern o f adoption. Investigating the causes o f low adoption in light o f
communication strategies and personal socio-economic characteristics would contribute
to ways o f improving its adoption.
The purpose o f this chapter is to review literature relevant to the study. The literature on
adoption and diffusion o f innovations, the process o f adoption and attributes o f
innovation as related to adoption are reviewed first. The chapter then proceeds to
examine personal socio-economic characteristics o f target groups in relation to adoption.
The chapter also reviews methods o f extension and returns to IPM and its diffusion
methods o f extension and returns to IPM and its diffusion.
2.1 Adoption of Innovations
An innovation is an idea, method or object which is regarded as new by an individual,
but which is not always the result o f recent research (van den Ban and Hawkins, 1999).
According to Feder, Just and Zilbermann (1982), adoption o f technological innovations
in agriculture has attracted considerable attention among development economists
because the majority o f the population o f less-developed countries (LDCs) derives its
livelihood from agricultural production and because new technology apparently offers
opportunity to increase production and income substantially. But the introduction o f
many new technologies has been met with only partial success as measured by observed
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rates o f adoption. The conventional wisdom is that constraints to the rapid adoption o f
innovations involves factors such as the lack o f credit, limited access to information,
aversion to risk, inadequate farm size, inadequate incentives associated with farm tenure
arrangements, insufficient human capital, absence o f equipment to relieve labour
shortages (thus preventing timeliness o f operations), chaotic supply o f complementary
inputs (such as seed, chemical, and water) and inappropriate transportation
infrastructure. For instance, McGuirk and Mundlak’s (1991) analysis o f the adoption o f
high-yield varieties in the Punjab showed that adoption was restrained by the availability
o f water and fertilizer. Private investment in the drilling o f wells, and private and public
investment in the establishment o f fertilizer production and supply facilities removed
these constraints and contributed to the diffusion o f modern what and rice varieties in the
Punjab.
However, many development projects have sought to remove some o f these constraints
by introducing facilities to provide credit, information, orderly supply o f necessary and
complementary inputs, infrastructure investments, marketing network etc. Removal o f
these constraints was expected to result not only in adoption o f the improved practices
but also in a change in crop composition, which was thought to further increase average
farm incomes. Expectations, however, have been realized only partially. As past
experience shows, immediate and uniform adoption o f innovation in agriculture is quite
rare. In most cases, adoption behaviour differs across socio-economic groups and time.
Some innovations have been well received while other improvements have been adopted
by only a very small group o f farmers (Feder, Just and Zilbermann, 1982),
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2.2 The Process of Adoption
Rogers, (1962), as cited in, Feder et al, (1982) defines adoption process as “the mental
process an individual passes from first hearing about an innovation to final adoption” .
Final adoption at the individual farmer’s level is defined as the use o f a new technology
in long-term equilibrium when the farmer has full information about the new technology
and its potential. This definition corresponds to Schultz’s (1975) as cited in Feder et al,
(1982) contention that the introduction o f new technologies results in a period o f
disequilibrium behaviour where resources are not utilized efficiently by the individual
farmer.
Research studies have demonstrated clearly the extensive delays which often occur
between the time farmers hear about favourable innovations and the time they adopt
them, and what happens during this time. The following stages are often used to analyse
the adoption process:
i. Awareness: the individual first hears about the innovation;
ii. Interest: the individual seeks further information about it;
iii. Evaluation: the individual weighs up the advantages and disadvantages o f using it;
iv. Trial: the individual tests the innovation on a small scale;
v. Adoption: the individual applies the innovation on a large scale in preference to old
methods (van den Ban and Hawkins, 1999).
In most cases, agricultural technologies are introduced in packages that include several
components, for example, high-yielding varieties (HYV), fertilizers, and corresponding
land preparation practices. While the components o f a package may complement each
other, some o f them can be adopted independently. Thus, farmers may face several
distinct technological options. They may adopt the complete package o f innovations
introduced in the region or subsets that can be adopted individually. In these cases,
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several adoption and diffusion processes may occur simultaneously. The definition o f
adoption above refers to the “degree o f use” o f a new technology as a quantitative
measure o f the extent o f adoption. A distinction needs to be drawn, however, between
new technologies which are divisible (such as HYV or new variable inputs) and
innovations, which apply to the whole farm and are not divisible, at least at a practical
level (e.g., harvesters). For non-divisible innovations, the extent o f adoption at the farm
level in a given period is necessarily dichotomous (use/ no use); but, in the aggregate, the
measure becomes continuous (e.g., the percentage o f farmers using harvesters (Feder et
al, 1982).
2.3 Attributes of Innovations and Adoption
For an innovation to be easily adopted, it must have certain characteristics. The
following characteristics o f innovations have been identified:
2.3.1 Relative Advantage
Relative advantage is the degree to which a technology is perceived to be better than the
idea it supersedes in terms o f economic profitability, social prestige, physical
convenience, low initial cost, lower perceived risk, decreasing discomfort, psychological
satisfaction or saving o f time. A cheaper technology will be adopted faster than a more
expensive one (Rogers, 1995; Roling, 1990 in: Mwangi, 1998). The relative advantage
o f an innovation, as perceived by members o f a social system, is positively related to its
rate o f adoption (Rogers, 1995).
Availability and cost also influence technology adoption. In Kenya, for example, many
farmers adopted tractor land preparation, though costly, because the government made
tractors readily available to farmers for hire. As an example o f how physical convenience
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influences technology adoption, many farmers in Kenya preferred planting maize and
beans in the same hole, against research recommendations, because it was more
convenient. They also refused to plant two rows o f beans between rows o f corn,
recommended by researchers through the Training and Visit Extension System, because
doing so required more labour for planting and weeding which was a major constraint
during the weeding period (Mwangi, 1998).
Technologies can be classified as cost-reducing or cost-increasing. Here one may
distinguish the impact o f innovation on fixed cost and variable cost. Since cost derives
from a number o f inputs, some cost-reducing innovations are categorized according to
their impact on specific inputs to production. For example, a new and improved type o f
harvesting equipment may be most noted for its labour-saving effect. A new irrigation
technology may be described according to whether and to what extent it has a water-
saving effect. In some cases an innovation may have multiple effects. For example, the
tomato harvester is labour-saving but capital- and energy-using. Modern irrigation
technologies are yield-increasing, water-saving, and capital-using (Caswell and
Zilberman, 1986).
2.3.2 Compatibility
Compatibility is the degree to which a technology is perceived to be consistent with the
farmer’s goals and aspirations; socio-cultural values, norms and beliefs, and past
experiences; needs o f potential adopters; and existing farm practices. Technologies
compatible with existing farm practices encourage a positive attitude toward change,
improve the agent’s credibility, and may be adopted faster. An idea that is more
compatible is less uncertain to the potential adopter, and fits more closely with the
individual’s life situation. Such compatibility helps the individual give meaning to the
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new idea so that it is regarded, as familiar. An innovation can be compatible or
incompatible with socio-cultural values and beliefs, with previously introduced, or with
client need for innovation. An innovation’s incompatibility with cultural values can
block its adoption (Rogers 1995; Mwangi, 1998).
For example, Punjabi farmers covered their new tractors with blankets to keep them
warm (as they had done their bullocks) but never thought to replace the oil or air filters,
causing the tractors to break down (Rogers, 1995).
An innovation may be compatible not only with deeply imbedded cultural values but
also with previously adopted ideas. Compatibility o f an innovation with a preceding idea
can either speed or retard its rate o f adoption. Old ideas are the main mental tools that
individuals utilise to assess new ideas. Previous practice provides a familiar standard
against which an innovation can be interpreted, thus decreasing uncertainty. Obviously,
however, i f a new idea were completely congruent with existing practice, there would be
no innovation, at least in the minds o f the potential adopters. In other words, the more
compatible an innovation is, the less o f a change in behaviour it represents.
One dimension o f the compatibility o f an innovation is the degree to which it meets a felt
need. Change agents seek to determine the needs o f their clients, and then to recommend
innovations that fulfil these needs. Discovering felt needs is not a simple matter; change
agents must have a high degree o f empathy and rapport with their clients in other to
assess their needs accurately.
Potential adopters may not recognise that they have a need for an innovation until they
are aware o f the new idea or its consequences. In these cases, change agents may seek to
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generate needs among their clients but this must be done carefully or else the felt needs
upon which a diffusion campaign is based may be only a reflection o f the change agent’s
needs, rather than those o f clients. The compatibility o f an innovation, as perceived by
members o f a social system, is positively related to its rate o f adoption (Rogers, 1995).
2.3.3 Complexity
Complexity is the degree to which a technology is perceived as relatively difficult to
understand or use. Any new idea may be classified on the complexity -simplicity
continuum. Some innovations are clear in their meaning to potential adopters whereas
others are not. The complexity o f an innovation, as perceived by members o f a social
system, is negatively related to its rate o f adoption (Rogers, 1995; Mwangi, 1998). It
may be necessary to introduce a package o f several relatively simple but related
innovations. Each on its own may be easy, but the relationship between them may be
difficult to understand (Rogers, 1995). For instance, a young Bahati farmer attempted to
keep pigs without knowing what that entailed. He consulted livestock professionals on
housing and feeding but later wondered why his weanors were experiencing unusually
low growth rates. He had neglected regular control o f internal parasites. For him, swine
production was a complex technology that required a thorough understanding for
effective implementation (Rogers, 1995).
A committee o f rural sociologists has classified practices in terms o f their complexity,
which roughly represents the speed with which acceptance may be expected to occur.
The gradient is as follows:
(1) Change in materials and equipment only, without change in techniques or operation
(e.g. new variety o f seed);
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(2) Change in existing operations with or without a change in materials or equipment
(e.g. change in rotation o f crop).
(3) Change involving new technologies or operation (e.g. contour cropping).
(4) Change in total enterprise (e.g. from crop to livestock farming).
2.3.4 Trialability
Trialability is the degree to which a technology may be experimented with on a limited
basis to determine its efficacy before adopting it on a large scale. New ideas that can be
tried on the instalment plan are generally adopted more rapidly than innovations that are
not divisible. A farmer will be more inclined to adopt an innovation which he has tried
first on a small scale on his own farm, and which proved to work better than an
innovation he had tried immediately on large scale. The latter involves too much risk.
This trial is a means to dispel uncertainty about the new idea. The trialability o f an
innovation, as perceived by members o f a social system, is positively related to its rate o f
adoption (Rogers, 1995). A farmer tried to grow 20 acres o f maize in Kitale D istrict in
Kenya but lost the crop due to drought. A second farmer sowed 100 acres o f wheat in
Mau Narok but excessive rain destroyed the wheat. I f these farmers had grown the crops
first on a smaller scale, they would have avoided crippling losses (Mwangi, 1998).
2.3.5 Observability or Visibility
Observability is the degree to which the results o f a technology are visible or observable.
The result o f some ideas are easily observed and communicated to others, whereas some
innovations are difficult to observe or to describe to others. Farmers learn much from
observing and discussing their colleague’s experiences. The observability o f an
innovation as perceived by members o f a social system, is positively related to its rate o f
adoption (Rogers 1995). The more viable a new practice is and the easier its results are
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to observe, describe and communicate to others, the more rapidly it will be adopted.
Material innovations and concrete ideas that are easily observable are adopted faster than
less concrete ones (Mwangi, 1998).
Although it cannot be said with certainty, the following additional generalisations seem
likely to apply to practice adoption rates:
1. Practices involving large capital outlay will be adopted more slowly than those
requiring small amounts o f capital.
2. The more compatible a practice with existing farming operations, the more likely it
will be adopted quickly.
3. Traits or practices readily communicated by conventional method used by farmers
will be adopted more readily than those that are not.
4. The more difficult it is to retract a decision and the subsequent consequences, the
slower adoption is likely to be.
5. Costly and complex practices that can be taken a little at a time will likely be adopted
more quickly than where this is not possible (Lionberger, 1968).
2.4 Personal Socio-Economic Characteristics and Adoption
In communication-adoption studies, it is usual to investigate the personal and social
characteristics o f respondents in order to understand their relative influence in the
adoption behaviour (Onu, 1991). Van den Ban and Hawkins (1999) stated that there are
many situations in which all farmers cannot be recommended to adopt an innovation
because this decision should depend on their resources and personal values. Fliegel
(1984) noted that each farmer, male or female, young or old, more or less educated, is
ultimately a unique individual with a host o f characteristics that may well affect how
information is received, processed and either used or not used in the production process.
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Lionberger, (1968) also stated that all people are to some degree “set in their ways” and,
to a degree, incapable o f perceiving pertinent relationships in new situations, or
analysing them in terms o f adjustment alternatives, and o f making satisfactory
adjustments to them. Nevertheless, people vary greatly in this respect. The farmer who is
inclined to mental rigidity tends to resort to the traditional formula o f hard work,
persistence, and thrift in matters o f farm management. A mentally flexible person is
capable o f perceiving significant elements in novel situations, o f dealing with them
mentally, and o f making adjustments to them. The latter would most certainly be
associated with high adoption rates.
Reasons why farmers adopt farm practices more quickly at one time than another relate
to the situation in which they find themselves when alternative courses o f action become
known. Although situational factors are many and varied, only a few have been the
subject o f research. These include farm income, size o f farm, tenure status, community
prestige, sources o f farm information used, level o f living, and the complexity o f the
practice or change involved. He adds that individual and personal factors like age, years
o f school completed and such selected psychological characteristics as mental flexibility
and orientation toward farming as a business, also affect adoption (Lionberger, 1968).
2.4.1 Age
Elderly farmers generally seem to be somewhat less inclined to adopt new farm practices
than younger ones. However, according to Rogers (1995), there is inconsistent evidence
about the relationship o f age and innovativeness; about half o f some 228 studies on this
subject show no relationship, a few show that earlier adopters are younger, and some
indicate they are older.
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2.4.2 Gender
The issue o f misconception and non-recognition o f the role o f women in agricultural
development has been gaining momentum since the early 1970’s. It is gradually being
recognised that the role o f women in agriculture is important, and that the neglect o f
women in development interventions is a major reason why many programmes fail to
reach target goals (Roling, 1988 in: Ahmad and Ismail, 1988). According to Ahmad and
Ismail, (1988), there is an increasing recognition o f the need to integrate women in
mainstream agricultural development. From a global perspective, the Food and
Agriculture Organisation o f the United Nations developed a plan o f action for
strengthening the role o f women in agricultural development.
2.4.3 Education
Schooling has been valued as a means o f increasing knowledge about new farm
technology. The assumption is that schooling facilitates learning, which in turn is
presumed to instil a favourable attitude toward the use o f improved farm practices. Be
that as it may, the relationship between years o f schooling and farm practice adoption
rates is likely to be indirect, except in cases where persons learn specifically about new
practices in school. Where this is not the case, education may merely create a supposedly
favourable mental atmosphere for the acceptance o f new practices (Lionberger, 1968).
Rogers (1995) stated that earlier adopters have more years o f formal education than later
adopters. He added that earlier adopters are more likely to be literate than are later
adopters.
Huffman (1977), as cited in: Feder el al, (1982), stated that farmers with higher
education possess higher allocative ability and adjust faster to reduction in nitrogen
prices by adopting nitrogen-intensive technologies. He further noted that education is
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particularly important when extension activities are less intense. Evenson (1973) as cited
in (Feder et al, 1982), found that education plays a strong role in determining rates o f
adoption o f technology in developing agriculture. Some indirect support for this
assertion can be inferred from other studies surveyed in Lochheed, Jamison, and Lau
(1980) in Feder et al, (1982). These studies found a significant relationship between
education indicators and farm productivity. Since adoption o f innovations generally
increases productivity, the importance o f education (and extension) in affecting adoption
behaviour seems to be implied.
2.4.4 Farm Income
High farm income nearly always is associated with high farm practice adoption levels. A
reciprocal cause-and-effect relationship is likely. Alertness to change and quick adoption
o f new farm practices suited to prevailing farming conditions leads to higher incomes.
This in turn makes more capital available for the adoption o f new practices. However,
the fact that low-income farmers are slow to adopt practices that they could well afford
suggests that factors other than income are operative. The actual adoption and use o f an
innovation involves some cost to the farmers, for instance the initial cost o f the
innovation itself. As such, the individual needs to have a certain level o f income if he is
to adopt the innovation (Lionberger, 1968).
2. 4.5 Credit
The need to undertake fixed investments may prevent small farmers from adopting new
innovations quickly. Access to capital in the form o f either accumulated savings or
capita! markets is necessary in financing the adoption o f many new agricultural
technologies. Thus, differential access to capital is often cited as a factor affecting
differential rates o f adoption. This is, in particularly, the case with indivisible
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technology, such as tractors or other machinery that requires a large initial investment.
These implications have been confirmed by descriptive and empirical work on the role o f
credit as well (Lipton, 1976; Bhalla, 1979; Cline, 1979 in: Feder el al, (1982).
On the other hand, others have argued that lack o f credit is not a crucial factor inhibiting
adoption o f innovations that are scale neutral. A number o f studies, however, have found
that lack o f credit is an important factor limiting adoption o f HYV technology where
fixed pecuniary costs are not large (Feder et al, 1982).
2.4.6 Size of Farm
Farm size is one o f the first factors on which the empirical adoption literature focused.
Farm size can have different effects on the rate o f adoption depending on the
characteristics o f the technology and institutional setting. More specifically, the
relationship o f farm size to adoption depends on such factors as fixed adoption costs, risk
preference, human capital, credit constraints, labour requirements, tenure arrangements
etc (Feder et al, 1982). However, according to Lionberger, (1968), size o f farm is nearly
always positively related to the adoption o f new farm practices. He added that many new
technological advances require large-scale operations and substantial economic
resources for their use. Also, use o f improved farm practices produces economic benefits
which permit expansion o f farming operations, which in turn makes it economically
possible to use more improved farm practices. An often-mentioned impediment to
adoption o f new technology by smaller farms relates to fixed costs attached to
implementation. Large fixed costs cause a reduced tendency to adopt and a slower rate o f
adoption on smaller farms Feder et al, (1982). These conclusions are supported by Weil,
(1970) in Feder et al, (1982), who found in Africa that adopters o f ox cultivation cropped
larger areas and operated significantly larger farms than those using hand cultivation.
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Several studies reviewed by Binswanger (1978) in Feder et al, (1982) have found a
similarly strong positive relationship between farm size and adoption o f tractor in south
Asia.
Other empirical studies have shown that inadequate farm size also impedes efficient
utilization and adoption o f certain types o f irrigation equipment such as pumps and
tubewells (Hodgdon, 1966; Dobbs and Foster, 1972; Gafsi and Roe, 1979 all in: Feder et
al, (1982).
2.4.7 T enu re S tatus
It is well known that farm owners have more complete control over farming operations
than tenants. Owners can make decisions to adopt new practices, but tenants must often
obtain the concurrence o f the owner before trial or use. This is particularly true where
some financial backing by the owner is required. Consequently, adoption rates are
usually higher for farm owners than for those who rent their farms.
According to Lionberger (1960), a farmer may farm on his own land, or he may be a
tenant farmer. Tenancy can range from lease, rent or mortgage depending on local
conditions. The kind o f user or ownership right that an individual has over the farmland
tends to affect the farmer’s decision to adopt or reject innovations. Where the farmer has
individual ownership rights, he has more control over his operations than a tenant who
has to rely on the good will and willingness o f the landlord to adopt certain innovations.
However, differences between owners and renters are likely to vary greatly regionally
due to differences in tenancy arrangements and freedom accorded the renters to make
decisions.
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2.4.8 Labour Availability
Labour availability is another often-mentioned variable which affects farmers’ decisions
regarding adoption o f new agricultural practices or inputs. Some new technologies are
relatively labour saving, and others are labour using. For example, ox cultivation
technology is labour saving, and its adoption might be encouraged by labour shortage.
On the other hand, high yield variety (HYV) technology generally requires more labour
inputs so labour shortages may prevent adoption. Moreover, new technologies may
increase the seasonal demand on labour so that adoption is less attractive for those with
limited family labour or those operating in areas with less access to labour market (Feder
et al, 1982). Hicks and Johnson (1974) in: Feder el al, (1982) have found that higher
rural labour supply leads to greater adoption o f labour-intensive varieties in Taiwan.
2.5 Communication Strategies
Farmers have need as to the kind o f extension methods and channels o f communication
to be used to present messages to them (Maunder, 1973). For messages to reach farmers
effectively, certain methods need to be used. Mwangi, (1998), citing Mung’ala, (1996)
and Rudebjer and Temu, (1996) stated that change agents may know the solution to
problems confronting farmers, yet be unable to communicate these solutions if they lack
effective communication skills, and do not apply sound extension education principles.
Maunder, (1973) and MacDonald and Hearle (1984:34) identify different
communication methods that can be used in development work. These include individual
methods, by working with groups and through the mass media.
Individual methods are important because learning is an individual process so that
although extension agents must use group and mass methods to reach large members o f
people and to stimulate joint action planning and carrying out projects o f common
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interest, personal contacts serve many essential purposes. Individual methods include
farm and home visits, office calls, telephone calls, personal letters and informal contact.
Group methods include general meetings, meetings for method demonstrations, results
demonstrations, farm walk or tours, field days or farmers’ days at agricultural
experiment stations. Group methods are essentially effective in moving people from the
interest stage to the trial stage o f learning. When the reaction o f the majority o f the group
is favourable, the majority o f the members may proceed to the adoption stage. Group
extension methods, effectively arranged and conducted, take full advantage o f the
external and internal forces o f group dynamics.
Choice o f farmers who participate in group meetings and who are visited by extension
agents is also very important. I f the farmers choose these people themselves, most o f the
contacts are likely to be with the innovators and the early adopters. The extension agent
can try to establish contacts with the opinion leaders in order to increase his impact on a
wider group o f farmers. Active promotion o f an innovation may be taken over from
extension agents by farmers who have adopted it already. Such farmers are not always
well suited to this task if the innovation is difficult to implement. Such is the case with
Integrated Pest Control where management has to be adapted to a farmer’s specific
situation (van den Ban and Hawkins, 1988).
Mass methods include the use o f radio, newspapers, magazines, posters, exhibits and
printed materials to reach large numbers o f people quickly. These methods are
particularly useful in making large numbers o f people aware o f new ideas and practices
or alerting them to sudden emergencies. They serve as an important and valuable
function in stimulating farmer interest in new ideas (Maunder, 1973).
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Participatory Action Research (PAR) is an extension methodology developed during the
1970s and draws together the personal and the political. Recognising the marginalizing
effects o f ‘universal science’ and the ways in which it produces ignorance, PAR aims to
challenge relations o f inequality by restoring people’s se lf respect and agency. By
exploring the experiences and knowledge o f poor, oppressed and exploited groups, PAR
works to confront systems o f domination. Local people are involved at all stages in
research. Rather than being the objects o f research, they become the producers and
owners o f their own information.
The techniques employed in PAR include:
> Collective research - meetings, socio-dramas, public assemblies;
> Critical recovery o f history - through collective memory, interviews and witness
accounts, family coffers;
> Valuing and applying ‘folk culture’ - through the arts, sports and other forms o f
expression.
> Production and diffusion o f new knowledge through written, oral and visual forms
(IIED, 1993).
Extension work deals with people o f different educational status, levels o f living,
cultural background, age and values. These differences therefore demand a wide range o f
approaches and a great variety o f methods in order to arrive at the ultimate aims o f the
rural extension, which are to increase the knowledge o f the rural population, change their
attitudes and improve their skill. It has been recognised that the flow o f information,
both upstream and downstream, could be improved at all levels. Identified constraints
include inadequate farmer involvement in identifying problems and in testing technical
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recommendations, poor information transfer between research organisation and
extension services and badly disseminated research results (lies and Sweetmore, (1991).
2.6 Channels o f Communication
A communication channel is the means by which messages get from one individual to
another. The nature o f information-exchange relationship between a pair o f individuals
determines the conditions under which a source will or will not transmit the innovation
to the receiver, and the effect o f the transfer (Rogers, 1995).
Channels o f communication, i.e. visual, spoken and written are used to package the
message through the various methods to farmers. “ Seeing is believing” is an axiom o f
extension education. Picture writing is an ancient form o f communication. Pictures,
charts, diagrams, exhibits and posters perform vital communication functions in most
advanced society. Visual and oral channels are about the only ones for extension workers
to serve illiterate people. Spoken channels are useful for all types o f extension methods
such as farm and home visits, office calls, meeting o f all kinds, radio, and television and
telephone calls. Except for radio and television, they allow two-way communication,
which is a big advantage. Lack o f understanding can be detected and cleared up on the
spot. Not only words but also gestures and expressions o f both speaker and listener
contribute to clear communication. Written communication has greater status and carries
more authority than oral communication (Maunder, 1973).
Research has shown that different channels perform different functions in the adoption-
diffusion process. Some channels enable the idea to be heard or read while others enable
a practice to be seen. Each channel is suited to a particular stage in the adoption-
diffusion process. According to Wilkening el al, (1962), a farmer may hear about a new
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idea through one channel; learn more about it through another and learn the specific
details needed to put it into practice through still another. Farmers are exposed to sim ilar
information from a variety o f senders in both the public and private sectors. Those
senders use a range o f channels to reach audiences and consciously use message
repetition to make an impact on their audiences. Different communication channels have
different effects (van den Ban and Hawkins, 1988).
Mass media channels are often the most rapid and efficient means to inform an audience
o f potential adopters about the existence o f an innovation, i.e. to create awareness
knowledge. It is also good for emergency purpose. Mass media channels include the use
o f media such as radio, the stage and public platform which enable a source o f one or
few individuals to reach an audience o f many.
On the other hand, inter-personal channels are more effective in persuading an individual
to accept a new idea, especially in the channel links two or more people who are similar
in socio-economic status, education or other important ways. Interpersonal channels
involve a face-to-face exchange between two or more individuals.
2.7 Diffusion o f Innovations
The nature and speed o f diffusion o f innovations depend ultimately on the combined
effect o f a large number o f recurring factors. They include the features o f the innovation,
the characteristics o f the adopters and their situation, the type o f information sources that
come into play, the structure o f the communication relationships, the course o f preceding
stages o f the process and the results o f new forces in the psychological field o f the
potential adopters o f the innovation. The dissemination o f innovations depends on the
specific condition o f particular situations. One and the same factor can have a
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completely different significance and possibly also a completely different effect. Thus
the extension worker is well advised to analyse each situation afresh and with great care
to find out which factors can cause the target groups to change their behaviour (Albrecht,
Bergmann, Diederich, Grosser, Hoffmann, Keller, Payr and Sulzer, 1989).
People do not live apart from others and independent o f their influences. We are all
members o f many social groups or systems. This is a requirement for achieving desired
ends for se lf and society. Few decisions can be made without regard for others whom are
involved directly or indirectly. Whether a farmer lives in a neighbourhood or a
community, he always has neighbours (Lionberger, 1968).
Farmers are keen observers o f how other farmers work, and in some countries, but not
all, they spend much time discussing their farm experiences with their friends and
neighbours. They learn much in this way, although most realise that they learn more
from some colleagues than from others. They know who gets good yields or good results
in their village, and who experiments with new methods. Some o f these successful or
progressive farmers are willing to share their experiences with other farmers. In this way,
they become opinion leaders in the village because they help other farmers solve
problems they consider to be important. Thus, opinion leaders have considerable
influence on the way in which people in their village think and farm (van den Ban and
Hawkins, 1988:113). People habitually talk to each other about their farm problems.
Advisement is another function. People who seek information from others often want
advice along with the facts. They may even seek clear-cut answers to their own personal
problems. Others seek reinforcement for decisions already made. Hearing someone agree
with them makes them comfortable and confident in the decisions that they have already
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made. In still other cases, a local stamp o f approval is sought from highly respected
sources (Lionberger, 1968).
2.8 IPM FFS /TOT Training Methodology
According to Stoll (1997), the concept o f Farmers' F ield School was originally
developed as an extension methodology for IPM in rice. This methodology is based on a
structured learning process. The concept allows farmers to explore areas o f research that
are o f particular interest and importance to them. This training concept is not only
limited to IPM in the strict sense. In Asia, many NGOs and farmers’ organisations have
adapted and interpreted it to suit their own specific situations and interest. Some o f these
organisations apply the Farmers’ Field School concept not to IPM as such, but to
agricultural system development in general. The flexibility o f the concept and the
experiential learning on which it is based have made it a widely used and valuable
extension tool.
He added that these approaches start with a participatory problem analysis and local
knowledge. The experimental site is usually the farmers’ field or a special experimental
site identified by the farmers’ group. The key to this approach is to teach farmers to
experiment with their local knowledge or new/external information in order to make it
effective and suitable to their specific situation. Farmers and extension workers gain
methodological skills to develop their own solutions. This challenges conventional
research paradigms and calls for a new relationship and respect between the various
actors involved. Examples o f this approach are the development o f neem extracts in
Thailand, the MASIPAG programme in the Philippines where farmers select and breed
rice varieties according to their own criteria, and coffee farmer cooperatives that rear
their own beneficial insects.
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The FFS approach was designed originally as a way to introduce knowledge on
integrated pest management (IPM) to irrigated rice farmers in Asia. The Philippines and
Indonesia were key areas in implementing this extension effort. Experiences with IPM-
FFS in these two countries have since been documented and used to promote and expand
FFS and FFS-type activities to other countries and to other crops. Currently, FFS
activities are being implemented in many developing countries, although only a few
operate FFS as a nationwide system. The World Bank has incorporated the FFS in some
o f its agricultural projects (Quizon, F eder, and Murgai, 2001)
A t present, a typical FFS educates farmer participants on agro-ecosystems analysis, or
what can be more generally described as integrated pest and crop management (IPCM),
as it includes practical aspects o f “ ... plant health, water management, weather, weed
density, disease surveillance, plus observation and collection o f insect pests and
beneficials” (Indonesian National IPM Program Secretariat, 1991, p.5). The FFS
approach relies on participatory training methods to convey knowledge to field school
participants to make them into “ ...confident pest experts, self-teaching experimenters,
and effective trainers o f other farmers” (Wiebers, 1993).
The Farmers Field School (FFS) training methodology originated from the FAO
Intercountry programme in Asia where it has been used to train over one million rice
farmers. The IPM/FFS distinguishes itself from conventional top-down extension
packages by its participatory and farmer centred approach. Farmers gain fundamental
understanding o f the agro-ecosystem and economy o f their crops on which they base
their crop management decision. Training o f Trainers (TOT) courses are organised to
prepare extension staff o f the Ministry o f Food and Agriculture to conduct FFS training.
These TOT courses are practical-oriented and require all participants to grow and
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monitor the target crops and to learn the problems that farmers face throughout a
cropping season. Trained extension staff in turn conducts training programmes for
farmers (Afreh-Nuamah, 1996).
According to Afreh-Nuamah, (1996), at the farmers’ field school, crop management
decisions relating to soil preparation, seed selection, nursery establishment etc. are made
based on what is referred to as the four key principles o f FFS training. These are:
i. “G row a healthy crop” allows plants to recover better from environmental or pest
injury, avoids nutrient deficiencies related with pest attack (insects and diseases), and
promotes natural defences to many insects and diseases inherent in plants.
ii. “Conserve n a tu ra l enem ies” provides free biological control o f insects and diseases.
Parasites, predators and pathogens have long been recognised to control pest insects, but
recent research shows microbial antagonists, and competitors o f plant diseases are also
important. Vertebrate natural enemies are also essential for control systems.
Conservation usually implies avoiding inappropriate pesticide applications (herbicides,
fungicides and insecticides all have impact on insect and disease natural enemies) or
improving soil organic matter necessary for beneficial soil microorganisms. Natural
enemy habitat protection and development are more active methods o f conserving
natural enemies (e.g. owl houses, mulching for spiders, floral nectaries for parasites).
iii. “Observe crops regu larly” means informed decision making for appropriate
interventions to be made quickly for water, soil and plant management. Inputs used are
based on ecological and economic assessment.
iv. “F a rm ers become experts” in their own field is crucial for long-term management
o f soils, pests and crops. Expertise implies a basic understanding o f the agro-ecological
system, and decision-making processes (Afreh-Nuamah, 1999).
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The formation o f clubs or associations o f farmers is encouraged so that farmers can meet
and interact regularly and find solutions to common concerns (Afreh-Nuamah, 1996).
The key features o f the IPM/FFS methodology that have made it a more sustainable
system for the delivery o f extension services include the following:
• Adoption o f participatory and farmer-centred and knowledge-based approaches.
• Emphasis on more environmentally sustainable crop production practices
• Adoption o f farmer-to-farmer extension practices.
• Thorough training o f extension staff and farmers.
• Formation o f farmer groups or associations.
• Formation o f IPM committees at both national and regional levels.
• Budgeting at regional and district offices o f Ministry o f Food and Agriculture to
cover IPM/FFS activities (Afreh-Nuamah, 1996; Afreh-Nuamah, 1999).
In Ghana, the FFS has been embraced as an emerging extension tool because o f the
growing realisation that future agricultural growth for resource-poor farmers must be
knowledge-intensive and deal with complex environments which have characteristics
that are often specific to a particular location (Afreh-Nuamah, 1999). The potential in
this training strategy as a novel extension mechanism has been recognised by the
relevant government authorities in the country. Arrangements have been made to
institutionalise the practice. A National IPM/FFS implementation committee chaired by
a Deputy Minister o f the Ministry o f Food and Agriculture (MoFA) has been established
to oversee the institutionalisation o f the IPM/FFS. The IPM/FFS is an effective weapon
against ignorance. It facilitates change o f attitudes and perceptions o f farmers (NPRP,
undated).
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Farmers F ield Schools (FFS) are conducted for the purpose o f helping farmers to
discover and learn about the field ecology and integrated crop management. The field is
the primary classroom, both in the TOT courses as well as the FFSs. There are no
standard recommendation or packages o f technologies offered. In the FFS, farmers
collect data in the field and undertake action based on their findings in their own fields
(discovery-based decision making). Farmers become active learners and independent
decision makers through learning by doing. Farmers compare studies in their own fields
and become field level experts in ecology management. The decisions on what action
needs to be taken in the field become more and more based on actual finding by
participants themselves through ‘Exercise’. (Afreh- Nuamah, 1999).
2. 8.1 Gender Issues in Farmers’ Field School
During the conduct o f Training o f Trainers course and Farmers’ F ie ld Schools, every
effort is made to encourage the participation o f women or women’s groups in these field
activities. Women farmers make significant and quality contributions to the planning o f
Farm ers’ F ield Schools and all the associated activities.
In some communities, women are primarily home bound taking care o f the children, the
home and marginally doing some subsistence farming just to provide supplement to the
family food requirements. In such locations, there are usually a low percentage o f
women in the Farmers’ F ield Schools devoted to discussion o f specific gender issues in
such schools. In a few other locations, where there are large proportions o f women
involved in vegetable and irrigated rice production, women voluntarily participate in
Farm ers' F ield School activities. Gender composition o f Farm ers' F ie ld School groups
vary considerably (Afreh-Nuamah, 1999).
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2.9 Real Returns to IPM and Its Diffusion
IPM performance can be evaluated from at least two basic farm levels. The basic farm
level analysis investigates whether IPM and its dissemination -in so far as these change
farmers’ knowledge and thereby effect more efficient farm input use (particularly o f
pesticides)- result in higher farm profits.
Although there are various IPM technologies for different crops and while there are
alternative methods to diffusing these practices, all these instruments and efforts
uniformly aim at altering existing farm use o f pesticides and promoting effective and
efficient pest management practices. IPM ’s primary objective is to help restrain pest
damage at a level that maximises farmers’ economic returns, while utilising the smallest
level o f chemical input. Farmers are IPM’s main target beneficiaries. However, others
may benefit from externalities that derive from sustained IPM practice and/or the IPM
dissemination efforts (Waibel etal, 1999).
For IPM and its dissemination, the desired impact on profits comes from raising farmers’
knowledge (k). This rise in k leads to a change in the input mix and practices used, and
in particular, to a smaller use o f pesticides. Supposedly, higher farming returns follow
from this decline in farmers’ demands for pesticides and perhaps, o f other inputs (such as
labour) and from the rise in outputs owing to improved plant protection and cultivation
practices overall.
Most farmers learn o f IPM practices, directly or indirectly, through IPM diffusion
programmes. Ceteris paribus, smallholders who have been exposed to some form o f IPM
dissemination have greater or equal awareness and knowledge than their counterparts
who have not been reached by any IPM diffusion programmes. Different dissemination
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efforts entail varying costs, even though they are focused in like fashion on raising
farmers’ IPM awareness. Expectations are that these efforts payoff in experimentation
and knowledge creation by farmers themselves, and ultimately to sustained IPM practice
by them. The degree to which these desired outcomes occur depends on the particular
IPM diffusion efforts followed. Briefly stated, a farmer’s technical IPM knowledge (Kt)
depends on the type o f programme exposed. The common belief is that with a more
intensive training programme (like FFS), farmers learn and retain more IPM-related
knowledge compared with others who undergo less rigorous training, such as the IRRI-
type o f IPM extension (or FMPR) (Waibel et al, 1999).
2.10 Assessment o f Household and Village Level Impacts o f IPM
The impact o f IPM programmes can be viewed from a range o f perspectives, from the
impact on international trade, the national economy and international organisations at the
highest level o f aggregation to the effects on the day-to-day decisions made by crop
producers at the microeconomic level.
Household and village impacts are among the most profound effects o f a given IPM
intervention. This should not imply, however, that these effects are easily measured. The
application o f IPM involves improved understanding o f agro-ecological principles under
dynamic ecological and economic conditions. New approaches are therefore needed to
integrate the relevant technique from both the social and natural sciences to study the
impact o f IPM on farmers’ practices and local decision-making processes (Waibel et. a l,
1999).
As a knowledge-intensive technology, IPM requires a more subtle approach than that
which has commonly been applied in studies o f technology adoption. IPM is not simply
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a single decision rule, but rather a set o f inter-linked concepts. Rather than measure IPM
adoption as, for example, a binary variable (adopt/not-adopt) with a fixed effect on input
demand and / or production efficiency, we view IPM knowledge as a dynamic
continuum, implying a more complex relationship between knowledge acquisition and
farmer practice. The evidence shows that knowledge o f IPM may be substantially
heterogeneous, even among participants in the same IPM programme, and that farming
practice itself is an important source o f new knowledge. Unlike many other technologies,
the impact o f IPM depends on the ongoing interactions between natural conditions and
farmers’ knowledge. In cases where there is no pest infestation, there may be little
impact from IPM knowledge other than the knowledge that prophylactic pesticide sprays
may be unnecessary. In cases o f pest infestation, however, one may observe profoundly
different decisions that are rooted in farmers’ knowledge o f IPM.
IPM techniques are acquired by farmers through some type o f communication. Besides
the direct link between farmers and IPM programmes, much o f the impact o f IPM
programmes at the household and village level may arise from farmer-to-farmer transfer
o f information and technology (Waibel et al, 1999). They add that the impact o f a given
IPM intervention can be measured using metrics common to studies o f technology
adoption such as the impact o f technology on yield and yield variability, production and
cost efficiency, and demand for inputs. However, farmer practice is not a blank slate
upon which IPM training programmes imprint new concepts and decision rules. Instead,
improved understanding o f agro-ecological principles interacts with existing local
knowledge within a framework given by prevailing socio-economic and ecological
conditions. Local information networks and power structures also influence the
processes o f information generation and sharing.
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In Ghana, the positive impact o f the IPM/FFS on productivity o f farmers has led to the
extension o f the project to cover 9 out o f the 10 regions. Yields o f particular farmers
have increased to between 25%-100% depending on rate o f adoption. Crops tackled
since the inception o f the programme are rice, vegetables, plantain and cassava and
ignorance about pests and diseases has been replaced by insight into the ecosystem and
the interactions among pests and natural enemy populations (Afreh-Nuamah, 1996).
2.11 Summary
Evidence from literature suggests that factors that need to be considered in studies o f
adoption include credit, access to information, age, educational status o f farmers, farm
size, tenure system, and labour availability. Rogers (1995) also indicates that in general,
innovations that are perceived by receivers as having greater relative advantage,
compatibility, trialability, observability and less complexity will be adopted more rapidly
than other innovations.
According to Maunder, (1973), farmers have need as to the kind o f extension methods
and channels o f communication to be used to present messages to them. The available
methods include various forms o f individual, group and mass extension methods.
In Ghana, the Farmers’ F ield School (FFS) training methodology has been embraced as
an emerging extension tool and it distinguishes itself from conventional IPM extension
packages by its participatory and farmer centred approach. Literature is also explicit on
real returns to IPM and its diffusion and the assessment o f household and village level
impacts o f IPM.
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2.12 Conclusion
Adoption o f technological innovations in agriculture has attracted considerable attention
but the introduction o f new technologies has, in several instances, been only partially
successful, as measured by their observed rates o f adoption. Constraints to the adoption
o f a technology involves the attributes o f the technology itself such as its relative
advantage over previously introduced technologies, its compatibility with the existing
value, past experiences, and needs o f potential adopted, its complexity, trialability and
observability.
Personal and socio-economic characteristics o f farmers such as age, education, farm
income, credit, size o f farm, tenure system and labour availability have also been
reviewed in relation to adoption o f innovations. Communication strategies, channels o f
communication, diffusion, FFS/TOT training methodology, real returns to IPM and its
diffusion, assessment o f household and village level impacts o f IPM have also been
reviewed.
This study will therefore contribute to knowledge and literature on factors contributing
to the low adoption o f IPM and suggest extension methods o f enhancing the diffusion
and adoption o f IPM messages since extension methods are very crucial in studies o f
adoption. The implication from the literature is that to enhance the adoption o f IPM, the
extension methods should be such that the farmers will be able to diagnose their own
problems.
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CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
3.0 Introduction
This chapter describes the research methodology used for the study. It describes the
study area, research design, study population, sampling technique and sample size, pre
testing, instrument development and data collection. This chapter also describes methods
for processing and analysing the data collected.
3.1 Research Design
There are several important factors to consider when choosing an appropriate research
methodology. One o f these is the appropriateness o f the methodology to the research
objective. Survey was found suitable for this study because according to Kumekpor
(1999), survey implies a careful scrutiny or investigation o f a demarcated geographical
area in order to have a comprehensive view o f the nature, conditions and composition o f
social groups, institutions or processes within such a defined area.
Babbie, (1983:209) also states that survey research is perhaps the most frequently used
mode o f observation in the social sciences. And they may be used for descriptive,
explanatory, and exploratory purposes. They are chiefly used in studies that have
individual people as the units o f analysis. Survey research is probably the best method
available to the social scientist interested in collecting information from a population too
large to observe directly. Surveys are also excellent vehicles for measuring attitudes and
orientations in a large population. The methodological approaches employed for this
study follow the principles o f quantitative research. This study involved the development
o f an instrument and employed mainly quantitative measurement criteria for recording as
well as analysing the data.
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3.2 Study Area
The study was conducted at Weija in the Greater Accra Region o f Ghana, where the
Weija Irrigation Company (WEICO), a jo in t project between the Ministry o f Food and
Agriculture and the European Economic Community (E.E.C.) is sited. The Weija
irrigation project was started in September 1977 with financial backing from the
European Economic Community with the following objectives:
1. To raise the nutritional quality o f the national diet with the steady supply o f good
quality vegetables throughout the year at moderate prices.
2. To increase the production o f import substitutes and the production o f non-
traditional export crops to lessen the dependence on cocoa.
3. To contribute directly or indirectly to the provision o f employment.
4. To encourage the growth o f other sectors through linkage.
The Weija Irrigation Project is part o f the Government o f Ghana’s programme to raise
the standard o f living o f the rural people through the development o f modern agriculture.
Following the modest successes achieved by the pilot project, WEICO was incorporated
in 1982 and became operational in April 1983. WEICO was charged with supervising
the operations o f farmers at the project site.
The project is located in the driest part o f the coastal belt, with a mean annual rainfall o f
846mm (33.3 inches). A survey conducted by Janny and Afreh-Nuamah (1997) revealed
that there are two main cropping seasons: May-September (rain fed) and October-April
(irrigated).
Land ownership at Weija is strictly on lease basis. The land tenure system basically has
undergone two stages o f development. The first stage is the period before the
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establishment o f Weija Irrigation Company. During that period, land was by and large
owned by the people o f Weija village, thus, land was communally owned. Land was
vested in the chief from whom individuals acquired it for their farming activities. The
second stage o f development is the period after the establishment o f the Weija Irrigation
Company, when the land was acquired by the Government in collaboration with the
European Economic Community (E.E.C) to establish the Weija Irrigation Project in
1977. From this period, land has been vested in the Weija Irrigation Company (WEICO)
from whom individuals acquire their land.
A study conducted at Weija by Freku (1998) revealed that farmers did not have direct
problem with the leasehold tenure system in the area. Problems farmers faced in the area
were not directly related to the land tenure system. WEICO is charged with supervising
the operations o f farmers at the project site. Over the years, the project has been
achieving modest successes but one o f the major problems that has been o f grave
concern to farmers and officials is pest damage.
Farmers on the Weija Irrigation Project have started cultivating export crops like gowar
(cluster beans) and tinda (a cucurbit). They also cultivate a wide range o f vegetables
such as pepper, tomatoes, garden egg, okra, cabbage and marrow. These crops are
mainly grown for export as well as for the local market. Because o f high pest damage
from a variety o f pests and lack o f appropriate knowledge and skill in pest and crop
management, the project conducted season-long training for farmers at Weija in
integrated pest and crop management in Farmers’ F ield School from 24th o f August to
18lh o f December 1998. Participation o f farmers in the Farm ers’ F ie ld School
programme was voluntary.
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3.3 Population of Study
The ‘Universe o f study’ is the population from which the sample is to represent (Poate
and Daplyn, 1993). The ‘universe o f study’ for this study comprised vegetable farmers o f
the WEICO project area. These were made up o f those who were trained in the season-
long IPM/FFS programme organised by the project and vegetable farmers in the area
who did not participate in the training and Agricultural Extension agents (AEAs) in the
study area. Some o f the farmers were illiterate while others have received formal
education to various levels.
3.4 Sampling Technique and Sample Size
In general terms, sampling enables the researcher to study a relatively small number o f
units in place o f the target population, and to obtain data that are representative o f the
whole target population. Sampling is, thus, the process o f choosing the research units o f
the target population, which are to be included in the study (Sarantakos, 1993). For the
purpose o f sampling, sampling frames constructed by the extension agents were
employed. The sampling frames used for the selection o f individual farmers who
participated in the season-long Farmers' F ield School (FFS farmers) and those who did
not participate in the programme (NFFS farmers) were the lists o f farmers compiled by
the AEAs. A total target population o f 208 vegetable farmers comprising 109 FFS
farmers and ninety-nine (99) NFFS farmers was employed. According to Babbie
(1983:158) a sampling frame is the list or quasi-list o f elements from which a probability
sample is selected. Properly drawn samples provide information appropriate for
describing the population elements composing the sampling frame. Surveys o f
organisations are often the simplest from a sampling standpoint because organisations
typically have membership lists. In such cases, the list o f farmers constitutes an excellent
sampling frame.
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In view o f the varying sampling frames for the two categories o f farmers, a sample size
o f 55 FFS farmers were selected from the FFS sampling frame, and 50 farmers from the
NFFS population to make up a total sample size o f hundred and five (105). This
represents about 50% o f each o f the categories. Thus, the sample size for each category
o f farmers is proportional to its representation as in the constructed sampling frame.
Simple random sampling was used because it gives all units o f the target population an
equal chance to be selected (Moser and Kalton, 1971; Babbie, 1983; Sarantakos, 1993).
A sample drawn at random is unbiased in the sense that no member o f the population has
any more chance o f being selected than any other member.
Thus, a total o f 105 vegetable farmers and three Agricultural extension agents were
involved in the study. The 105 vegetable farmers comprised fifty-five FFS-trained
farmers and fifty farmers who had not participated directly in the training programme.
The Weija Irrigation Project was purposively selected for the study because it has been
the focus o f extension activities by virtue o f the fact high pest damage from a variety o f
pests and lack o f appropriate knowledge and skills in pest and crop management caused
significant losses in vegetable production in the area. Thus necessitating the season-long
Farmers ’ F ield School programme in vegetable IPM in the area.
3.5 Pre-Testing
One way o f checking the effectiveness o f the research design and other issues related to
data collection is to use pre-tests and pilot studies, both o f which have become a part o f
any survey research, and a standard feature o f modern methodology (Sarantakos, 1993).
Waltz and Strickland (1984) suggest that interviews should be pre-tested. Pre-testing is
the final stage in questionnaire construction-and one o f the most important. In pre
testing, flaws in the questionnaire are identified and corrected (Bailey, 1987). Morse and
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Morse and Field (1996) indicate that pre-testing is important as the quality o f the study
relies on the quality o f the questions. And the aim o f the pre-test is to demonstrate the
trustworthiness o f the research tool and to refine the method o f data collection if there is
the need for that. According to Kidder and Judd, (1986), pre-testing fulfils the following
purposes:
> to clarify unforeseen problems with regards to questions wording, respondent’s
comprehension o f the question, question sequence and questionnaire administration,
> to decide the need for additional questions on some topics and elimination o f
others,
> to determine the length o f administration o f a questionnaire (and possibly the need
to shorten it),
> to enable the researcher phrase close-ended response alternatives from open-ended
responses collected for the final questionnaire.
In line with the above, the questionnaire was pre-tested to ensure its validity, reliability
and objectivity. Pre-testing was also done in order to identify some o f the IPM practices
and communication strategies/methods used to disseminate them. Following the pre
testing exercise, some o f the questions were modified. The final questionnaire contained
both close- and open-ended questions.
3.6 In s trum en t Development
Sproull (1988: 176)) defines a research instrument as “any type o f written or physical
device which is purported to measure variables” . The type o f instrument used for data
collection depends on the data collection method and type o f data to be collected. Some
factors which, influence the choice and use o f specific instruments are that instrument,
inter alia;
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> Measure the variables appropriately;
> Be sufficiently valid and reliable;
> Yield the appropriate level o f measurement for each variable;
> Refuse an appropriate amount o f time;
> Be easy to administer;
> Be easy to interpret;
> Incur costs within researchers budget.
The nature or type o f information collected for each concept, sources o f information and
data collection techniques are as contained in Table 3.1.
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Table3.1Data Collection Scheme Main Concepts, Information Required, Sources o f
Information, and Data Collection Techniques
Main concepts Information Required Source o f
Information
Data Collection
Technique
IPM
• IPM Practices • Farmers
• Extension Agents
• Interview
Questionnaire
• Focus Group
Discussion
Personal Socio-
Economic
Characteristics o f
Farmers
• Age
• Sex
• Marital Status
• Main occupation
• Production constraints
• Source o f Credit
• Farm Size
• Farmers • Interview
Questionnaire
Communication Strategy
• Sources/channels of
Information
• Methods o f Information
Delivery
• Farmers
• Extension Agents
• Interview
Questionnaire
• Focus Group
Discussion
Adoption o f IPM
Practices
• Awareness
• Adoption
• Non-adoption
• Farmers
• Extension Agents
• Interview
Questionnaire
• Focus Group
Discussion
Impact o f IPM Practices
• Cop Diversity
• Yields
• Incidence o f Pests anc
Diseases
• Stability o f income
• Business opportunity
• Labour requirement
• Farmers
• Extension Agents
• Interview
Questionnaire
• Focus Group
Discussion
3.7 D ata Collection
Data were collected from March to April 2000. The interview questionnaire was
administered to farmers individually to avoid influence from family members and
neighbours. In all, 105 vegetable farmers were interviewed. The farmers were
interviewed at home and on their farms.
A Focus Group Discussion interview checklist was developed to obtain information on
general information about the study area, IPM practices promoted, communication
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strategies/method(s) employed in their dissemination and constraints to effective
extension delivery from the AEAs o f MoFA. Criteria for selection o f farmers who
participated in the season long Farmers ’ F ield School were also obtained through the
focus group discussion. Notes made from these interviews were necessary to guide
discussions on the findings o f the research. Appendix 2 shows the checklist employed
for the focus group interview. According to Kumekpor, (1999), focus group discussion
takes the form o f an exchange o f views and opinions through discussion with the group,
which is known to be concerned with and knowledgeable about the issues discussed.
3.8 Data Analysis
After the collection o f the primary data from the field, the researcher edited them by
examining for consistency, accuracy and appropriateness o f responses obtained. A
coding frame was then prepared for the survey interviews and from that the responses
were coded. Using the Statistical Package for the Social Scientists (SPSS), the analysis
was carried out. The main statistical tools applied were frequencies, percentages, cross-
tabulations and chi-square. According to Morse and Field, (1996), the purpose o f data
analysis is to impose some order on a large body o f information so that some general
conclusions can be reached and applied in practice
Chi-square test was used to establish whether or not the two categories o f farmers
differed significantly with regard to personal and socio-economic characteristics,
methods o f extension and level o f adoption. According to Sarantakos, (1993:385), chi-
square tests are the most popular and most frequently used tests o f significance in the
social sciences in general and in sociology in particular. Basically, it informs whether the
collected data are close to the value considered to be typical and generally expected, and
whether two variables are related to each other. Chi-square value for each cell was also
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calculated to establish the contribution o f each cell to the significance, in the case o f
those relationships with significant chi-squares. The chi-square values o f cells with
minimum expected frequency o f less than five exceeding twenty-five percent were
considered critical and in such situations some o f the cells were merged and the chi-
square value recalculated to ensure that the interpretation o f significance o f the chi-
square statistic was valid. Where chi-square values were not valid by virtue o f the fact
that cells with minimum expected frequency o f less than five exceeded twenty-five
percent, total frequencies were described. Where there was a significant difference
between the two categories o f farmers with respect to a particular personal socio-
economic characteristic, the total frequencies were subsequently cross-tabulated against
the level o f adoption o f the IPM practices to establish whether that personal or socio-
economic characteristic had any relationship with adoption.
The chi-square test was also used to establish whether or not there was a significant
relationship between the two categories o f farmers with respect to the level o f awareness
o f the IPM practices, sources o f information, methods o f extension and extent o f
adoption o f the IPM practices.
In addition, in instances where there is an invalid chi-square, in describing the
relationships, the following approaches were used:
i. I f the total or mean percentage of the independent variable was between 0 and 33.3
percent, it was described as markedly higher if any o f the percentages in the column for
that row is equal to or more than twice the total percentage. On the other hand, it was
described as markedly lower if any of the percentages in the columns for that row was
equal to or lower than half o f the total or mean percentage.
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ii. I f the total or mean percentage was between 33.4 percent and 66.7 percent, it was
described as markedly higher if any o f the percentages in the column for that row is
equal to or more than one and half times the total or mean percentage. On the other hand,
it was described as markedly lower if any o f the percentages in the columns for that row
was equal to or lower than one and half times that o f the total percentage.
iii. I f the total or mean percentage was between 66.8 percent and 100 percent, it was
described as markedly higher if any o f the percentages in the column for that row is
equal to or more than 1.25 times the total or mean percentage. On the other hand, it was
described as markedly lower if any o f the percentages in the columns for that row was
equal to or lower than the total or mean percentage divided by 1.25. (Sakyi-Dawson,
Personal Communication, February 28, 2001).
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CHAPTER FOUR
INTERGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
4.0 Introduction
The contents o f the extension message depend very much on the goal and the target
group, and also on the extension strategy. The actual content o f IPM differs widely.
However, it advocates the integration o f the management o f any given pest as well as the
appropriate cultural practices into the overall farming systems. There cannot be effective
IPM information delivery assessment without critically examining the IPM message
since the nature o f the message helps in deciding the appropriate channels and
communication methods. This chapter therefore examines the IPM practices in the study
area given by existing reports, AEAs and supervisors. It thus examines the conceptual
basis o f IPM; training content o f Farmers F ield School, IPM practices disseminated in
the study area and preparation o f IPM messages.
4.1 Conceptual Basis o f IPM
The concept o f IPM is subject to differing interpretations, ranging from simple
combination o f pesticides with other techniques to ecological habitat management
strategies. All actors involved in pest management, from pesticide dealers to ecologically
motivated grass roots NGOs, talk about IPM. A coherent pest management policy
presupposes a clear conceptual basis. In this regard, Swiss Development Cooperation
(SDC) regards IPM as a component o f sustainable agriculture, which links objectives in
productivity with the need to conserve resources. IPM is thus one strategy that farmers
can employ to make agricultural production systems more sustainable. SDC also regards
IPM, from a developmental perspective and from the viewpoint o f farmers, as a process
that enables farmers to develop solutions to their own crop protection problems and
make situationally appropriate decisions through experimental learning and their own
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research (supported by research and extension services). The goal is to increase farmers
income and to ensure that it can be sustained over time, and to reduce environmental and
health risks. The salient features o f the concept are listed below:
• Farmers are the most important decision-makers and shapers o f IPM.
• IPM is specific to each situation (in spatial and temporal terms). General principles
can be applied, but there are no universally valid prescriptions.
• Crop management is carried out in such a way that economic loss does not occur.
Every possible attempt is made to avoid the need to combat pests.
• Principles, decision-making criteria, and concrete options for action are developed
and imparted through applied research and extension services.
• Preference is given to methods o f biological control, use o f varieties with durable
resistance (horizontal, multiple resistance), measures that improve agronomic
management, and more stable and frequently diversified cultivation system.
• The use o f pesticides is limited. Preference is given to rapidly degradable pesticides
and preferably to biological pesticides with narrow-range effects (SDC, 1994).
Recent developments have shown that IPM could be more practical and field-oriented to
the benefit o f the ordinary farmer especially when it is adopted not as technology, but as
an approach and strategy for dealing with pest and disease problems as and when they
occur (Kiss and Meerman, 1991). IPM is predominantly a knowledge-driven technologY',
even though some physical technology is used; its implementation relies heavily on the
human element, and is thus influenced by the high variability in the ability to use
technology inherent in the diverse social groups. It is obvious that IPM practices will be
different for the same crop grown in different ecosystems. According to Altieri (1993).
IPM is information based and information feedback requires increased contact and
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communication among farmers, extensionists, and researchers so that the knowledge and
experiences o f farmers, the users o f the technology, can feed into the research agenda.
4.2 Training Content o f Farmers’ Field School
Farmer F ield Schools (FFSs) are basically defined as “schools without walls” situated
very close to or on the field where farmers come together regularly to:
a. learn and share experiences
b. learn and develop agro-skills and farm management tools and
c. bring to ‘life’ the 4 key IPM principles, viz-
d. growing a healthy crop season-long
e. monitoring fields regularly
f. conserving natural enemies (beneficials)
g. farmers becoming IPM experts in their fields.
At the FFS, the 4 key IPM principles take place within a participatory framework.
Growing a healthy crop requires basic agronomic skills like seed selection, soil
preparation, planting and nursing/transplanting. Thus, the farmer must be conversant
with the cropping calendar so that the crop potential could be achieved. ‘Preserving
natural enemies’ is a positive way o f saying ‘reduce pesticide use’. To be able to do this
requires the ability to recognise different factors in the crop eco-system and to
understand their interactions. This involves setting up zoos to enable the farmer
appreciate the different insect pests and the natural enemies (friendly insects). It also
helps the farmer to appreciate the damage caused by blanket spray o f chemical
pesticides.
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Regular field observations concern learning how to make observations in the field.
Observations are based on the collection and analysis o f field data. In the learning
situations, farmers use a formal process to gain these observational skills. In their own
fields these skills would be applied without the formality o f the learning process. In so
doing, they will become experts in their own farm operations, able to make inductive
decisions from observations in the field.
Finally, the purpose associated with ‘empowerment’ aspects o f the training is related to
the developmental process necessary to enable farmers to make their own decisions
about their farm management activities so that they may employ the IPM principles that
they have learned. In addition, farmers conduct on-farm Participatory Action Research
(PAR) with facilitators. Also farmers take collective and informed decisions about
managing their fields and conducting agro-ecosystem analysis (AESA).
A t the field school, a group of about 25-30 farmers agree to meet once a week for at least
half a day during an entire crop season. On a typical day, these farmers break into
subgroups (of five or six field teams), and spend one or two hours in the field making
observations, counting population densities o f different insect species, assessing crop
physiological conditions and recording observations. Each team then assembles outside
the field and discusses, analyses and interprets its data. The interpreted data are then
summarised, often in agro-ecosystem diagram and presented to the field school. These
diagrams include, for instance, a picture o f a typical rice plant at the stage o f growth o f
the crop for that week. Animals that eat rice and may produce symptoms that look
damaging are drawn on one side of the picture o f the rice plant, whilst animals that eat
such animals and thus protect the rice plant are drawn on the other side. This validates,
from fresh field observations, the concepts o f the balance o f nature, and o f population
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regulation in a physical representation that is not only available to farmers, but is created
by farmers.
IPM field schools are forums for community action, where farmers and trainers discuss
observations. They are 'schools’ with curricula, field experiments, agro-ecosystem
analysis, problem solving and group dynamics activities, and entry/exit ballot tests; all
talcing place in and around the farm. Through this process, participants discover the basic
principles directly, whilst mastering the processes necessary both to continue their own
learning process and to teach others. IPM training assists farmers to transform their
observations and create a more scientific understanding o f their crop agro-ecosystem
(Afreh-Nuamah, 1996).
The content o f each TOT and FFS training is developed through a series o f baseline
surveys, planning workshops, specialists, and with contributions from farmers. Training
is extensive and covers a wide range o f subjects including:
• Land preparation and nursery practices
• Crop growth and development, crop physiology
• Soil structure, characteristics and nutrient management
• Pest and disease identification and management
• Identification o f natural enemies and other beneficial arthropods
• Non-formal education skill, computer skills, report writing
• Economic analysis and marketing strategies (Afreh-Nuamah, 1999).
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In the field school, there are no standard recommendations or packages o f technology
offered. Farmers collect data in the field and undertake action based on their findings in
their own fields (discovery-based decision-making) (Afreh-Nuamah, 1999).
Trainers are primarily facilitators o f learning and only introduce new information when
it seems necessary and appropriate. Three main areas o f learning, ‘work’, ‘interact’ and
'empowerment’ are emphasized in the training programme. The general purposes
associated with ‘work’, include knowledge relevant to making management decisions,
concerning agronomic and ecological factors that must be made by a farmer practicing
IPM strategies.
4.3 Selected IPM Practices for the Study
A number o f IPM components are known and occasionally used with effect, such as
seedbed sterilization, crop sanitation, crop rotation, resistant varieties, planting periods,
mixed cropping, and the use o f trap crops. The farmers and AEAs interviewed in the
study area indicated that several practices o f IPM had been introduced to the study area.
The selection o f the IPM practices for the study was made on the basis that they have
general application in the area o f study. These were: Preparation and application o f neem
seed extract; manure application; mulching; improved seeds (certified seeds); reduction
o f pesticide use; agro-ecosystem Analysis (AESA); row planting.
4.3.1 Preparation and Application of Neem Seed Extract
Neem seed extract is an insect repellent, anti-feedant and insecticide. It is suitable for
large and small-scale farmers. Discussion with the AEAs revealed that neem leaf extract
could also be used as bio-pesticides.
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, 4.3.2 Manure Application
Manuring improves soil organic matter necessary for beneficial soil micro-organisms.
Measures that promote soil fertility may improve resistance capabilities in plants.
4.3.3 Mulching
Mulching controls weeds, maintains soil moisture and prevents leaching. It also provides
habitat for natural enemies (beneficial insects).
4.3.4 Improved Seeds
Improved seeds are high yielding and disease-resistant. New plant varieties with vertical
resistance to specific diseases are being widely adopted over large areas. But as pests
adapt to and overcome plant resistance, these varieties quickly become less useful and
must be replaced by other new varieties.
4.3.5 Reduction of Pesticide Use
The rapidly increasing and often unskilful use o f pesticides in developing countries is
proving to be basically unsustainable. It weakens the natural defences o f agro-ecological
systems and induces new crop problems and forms o f resistance; this in turn calls for
new active agents and an increased investment o f resources. The use o f pesticides
endangers the health o f users and consumers as well as the environment (soil, water).
The economic consequences o f pesticide use include rising ecological costs, greater
burden on the balance o f payments in developing countries caused by pesticide imports,
and less effective chemical crop protection for the individual farmer. Therefore, instead
o f treating symptoms, it is necessary to try new, primarily preventive approaches that are
based on a holistic analysis o f causes (SDC, 1994). The results o f pesticide overuse are
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well known: pest resistance requiring even higher doses and new chemicals; depletion o f
natural enemies that could otherwise hold some pest population in check; depletion o f
micro-organisms in the soil which contribute to proper soil structure and fertility; a chain
o f effects beyond the locality where the chemicals are applied, including threats to
wildlife and pollution o f drinking water and direct and indirect health hazards related to
transport, storage, use and disposal o f pesticides. Added to this are health hazards from
pesticide residues in foods sent to market, and the fact that some cheapest pesticides are
among the environmentally persistent and acutely toxic. Restrictive use o f pesticides
might constitute the first step in regenerating natural regulating mechanisms in the
ecosystem.
4.3.6 Agro-Ecosystem Analysis (AESA)
Agro-ecosystem analysis (AESA) is a powerful IPM monitoring tool that is used for the
empowerment o f farmers in the management o f their crop production system. As a tool,
it deals with the crop and its ecosystem in its totality by considering the following:
general information, the crop, soil and water, weather phenology, entomology and
pathology.
The aspects o f AESA considered for the study were: ‘scouting’ or ‘monitoring’.
‘Scouting’ or ‘monitoring’ essentially entails keeping a regular eye on the pest, and if
possible on the beneficial organisms too. At the simplest level, this allows a farmer to
avoid the expense o f spraying when pests are not present in significant numbers. The
avoidance o f such ‘prophylactic’ or ‘calendar spraying’ saves money and reduces the
amount o f pesticide use, and therefore the hazards associated with such use (Bull, 1982).
Scouting methods enable farmers to decide when the use o f pesticide is economical.
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4.3.7 Row Planting
Row planting at the appropriate distance ensures appropriate crop density and
ventilation, which create optimal microclimate so that the crop potential could be
achieved.
4.4 IPM Message Preparation
The message prepared by an extension worker must be clear as to its purpose. Objectives
must be specified, the content o f the message must be relevant to the audience and
directly linked to the intent or purpose o f the communication. In addition, the treatment
o f the message must be such as to be intelligible to the intended audience. IPM does not
require radical changes in farming systems: it always begins with local agricultural
practices. However, it is not a single decision rule but involves farmer-centred decision
making based on peculiar field situation. Complex ideas are not easily encoded in such a
way that an intended audience can, in turn, decode and derive the information contained
in the message. Preparation o f a message which can be understood by an audience
requires a considerable depth o f understanding o f the content o f the message. Such depth
o f understanding ideally includes practical experience with the implementation o f ideas
involved in the message, and also assumes considerable knowledge o f how particular
elements fit into the aggregate agricultural production process o f farmer clients
(Swanson, 1984).
4.5 Conclusion
Critical review o f IPM practices reveals that IPM, unlike the conventional approach to
crop protection, utilizes a variety of control measures in a single pest management
system. It is predominantly a knowledge-driven approach and its implementation
therefore relies heavily on the human element, though certain non-human elements are
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required. The idea to be conveyed to farmers should be simple and encoded in such a
way that the intended audience can, in turn, decode and derive the information contained
in the message. IPM requires farmers to be more observant and more analytical, and to
be able to adopt measures suitable to their needs in each situation. Participation o f the
people involved in development programmes is often seen as a way to make these
programmes more successful, especially for solving problems o f poor people.
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CHAPTER FIVE
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE FARMERS
5.0 Introduction
In communication-adoption studies, it is usual to investigate the personal and socio
economic characteristics o f respondents in order to understand their relative influence in
the adoption behaviours. The characteristics o f farmers investigated in the study area
include their age, gender, marital status and educational level. The rest are economic
enterprises (on-farm and off-farm economic enterprises), size o f farm holding, source o f
labour and source o f credit. This chapter also examines farmers’ production constraints
and the strategies they employ to control pests and diseases.
A comparison is made between farmers who have participated in Farm ers' F ield School
(FFS) and those who have not (NFFS). Chi-square test was used to establish whether the
two categories o f farmers differed in the socio-economic characteristics in question. This
helps to select critical personal and socio-economic characteristics in which the two sub
groups differ and therefore may influence their awareness and adoption o f IPM
activities.
5.1 Age of Farmers
Elderly farmers generally seem to be somewhat less inclined to adopt new farm practices
than younger ones. However, according to Rogers (1995), there is inconsistent evidence
about the relationship o f age and innovativeness.
Table 5.1 shows the age distribution o f farmers in the study area. Those between 15 and
34.5 years were grouped as young, those between 35 and 55 years as middle-aged, and
those 55 years and above as old.
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Table 5.1 Ages of Farmers
Age range (years) FFS NFFS Total
Freq % Freq % Freq %
15-34.5(young) 21 38.2 27 54.0 48 45.7
35-54.5(middle aged) 24 43.6 21 42.0 45 42.9
55 and above(old) 10 18.2 2 4.0 12 11.4
Total 55 100.0 50 100.0 105 100.0
X"= 6.06, df = 2, P < 0.05 (S)
The difference in age between the FFS farmers and the NFFS farmers is statistically
significant. The significance is due to the fact that a higher than expected number o f FFS
farmers are old, whilst fewer than expected NFFS farmers are in the old age category.
Since participation in the Farmers' Field School was voluntary, it suggests that older
farmers at the Weija Irrigation Project are more willing to learn about new practices to
improve upon their farming activities.
5.2 Educational Level of F arm ers
Formal education has been valued as a means o f increasing knowledge about farm
technology and thus facilitates learning, which in turn is presumed to instil a favourable
attitude towards the use o f improved practices. A predominantly literate group is
desirable since education provides individuals with a tool to accept positive changes, and
serves as a means o f facilitating farmers’ use o f written information sources and increase
their knowledge about new farm practices (Onu, 1991). According to Rogers (1995),
earlier adopters have more years o f formal education than later adopters.
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Educational level o f farmers was measured by asking respondents to indicate their levels
o f formal schooling. For the purpose o f the study, the categories considered were:
• No Formal Education
• Primary/J.S.S/Middle (Low Formal Education)
• Secondary/S.S.S/ Commercial Education/ Tertiary Education (High Formal
Education).
Table 5.2 shows that about 51.0% o f the sampled farmers had low formal education,
about 31.0% had no formal education, while about 18.0% had high formal education.
The difference between the two categories o f farmers with respect to educational level is
not statistically significant. Since participation in the Farmers' F ield School was
voluntary, this seems to suggest that educational level o f farmers in the area did not
affect farmers’ willingness to learn about more innovations.
Table 5.2 Educational Levels of Farmers
Educational Level FFS NFFS Total
Freq % Freq % Freq %
No Formal Education 16 29.1 16 32.0 32 30.5
Low Formal Education 29 52.7 25 50.0 54 51.4
High Formal Education 10 18.2 9 18.0 19 18.1
Total 55 100.0 50 100.0 105 100.0
X2 = 0.11, df = 2, 0.9 < P < 1.0 (NS)
5.3 Gender Distribution of Farmers
Table 5.3 shows the gender distribution of farmers in the area. A markedly lower
percentage of the FFS farmers are females. The difference between the two categories o f
farmers with respect to gender distribution is statistically significant. The significance is
due to the fact that a higher than expected farmers in the NFFS category are females,
whilst fewer than expected females are in the FFS group.
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Table 5.3 Gender Distribution of Farmers
Sex FFS NFFS Total
Freq % Freq % Freq %
Male 50 90.0 35 70.0 85 81.0
Female 5 9.1 15 30.0 20 19.0
Total 55 100.0 50 100.0 105 100.0
X' = 7.43, df= 1, P <0.05 (S)
The reason for the low level o f participation o f women in the Farmers' F ield School
could be due to the limited time at their disposal by virtue o f other domestic roles they
play. According to Afreh-Nuamah, (1999), in communities where women are home
bound talcing care o f children, the home and marginally doing some subsistence farming
just to provide supplement to the family food requirement, percentage o f women in
Farmers' F ield Schools is low. This was particularly true o f the study area. Therefore
every effort should be made to encourage their participation in such agricultural
development programmes.
5.4 Farm Size
The ownership o f land in the study area is strictly on lease basis. Table 5.4 shows the
distribution o f farm sizes. The average farm size is 3.5 acres. Farm holdings o f between
1.0 and 3.0 acres were categorised as small, 3.5-4.5 acres as medium and 5.0 acres and
above as large. From Table 5.4, about 50.0% o f the farmers cultivated small farms, about
15.0% medium farms and about 35.0% large farms.
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Table 5.4 Distribution of Farm Size
Farm Size (Acres) FFS NFFS Total
Freq % Freq % Freq %
1.0-3.0 acres (small) 25 45.4 27 54.0 52 49.6
3.5-4.5 acres (medium) 10 18.2 6 12.0 16 15.2
5 acres and above (large) 20 36.4 17 34.0 37 35.2
Total 55 100.0 50 100.0 105 100.0
X '= 1.08, d f=2 , 0.50 Less tedious,
machined, village/community
level preparation o f an extract
with more stable shelf life.
> Farmers’ Field School is
an effective way to introduce
innovations to farmers.
Manure Application H H NS FFS & NFFS:-High transportation
cost ;bulkiness; scarcity
-Alternative-compost, -in situ
green manure
Mulching L L NS FFS & NFFS:~time wasting,
tedious, high cost, scarcity
NFFS:-Lack o f knowledge
> Less time wasting and
tedious methods should be
developed
> Farmers’ Field Schools
enhance fanners’ knowledge
Improved Seeds H L S FFS:- costly; scarce
NFFS:- costly; scarce; low %
germination
> Improved seeds
should be made more
affordable and available
> Improve quality o f
certified seeds for right
perceptions o f farmers
> Farmers need more
insight into proper ways o f
extracting seeds themselves
Reduction Of Pesticide
Use
H (All) L * NFFS:- Normal pesticides are
more effective
> NFFS farmers need
to participate in Farmers’
Field Schools to know
effective methods o f reducing
the use o f pesticides.
> Farmers' Field
Schools is an effective way to
train fanners to reduce
pesticide use.
Scouting H L S FFS :Time wasting/tedious
NFFS: Lack o f knowledge
> Farmers’ Field Schools
expose farmers to practical
aspects o f training and enhance
farmers’ knowledge
Row Planting L L NS FFS & NFFS: tedious/ time
wasting
> Hired labour to
compliment family labour to
increase adoption
*chi-square test not valid H=High adoption L= Low adoption
Given that factors such as availability and affordability o f inputs are favourable, FFS
farmers are more likely to demonstrate a very high level o f adoption rate than NFFS
farmers since most o f the reasons given for non-adoption had to do with lack o f factors
like labour and other inputs, but not with the practices themselves. This is by virtue o f
the fact that Participatory Action Research (PAR) - the methodology employed at the
Farmers F ield School, improves farmers’ understanding o f the values o f the
recommended IPM components.
The findings also reveal that significant relationship exists between communication
strategies and adoption c f neem seed extract and scouting. Use o f group method/P AR as
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an IPM extension methodology therefore results in higher adoption of these practices in
the study area. However, with regard to mulching, improved seeds, pesticide reduction
and row planting, no significant difference exists. This implies that though,
communication strategies (methods) have far-reaching effects on adoption, according to
Lutz et al, (1998), adoption o f innovations is a function o f other factors such as cost and
returns.
Also from the study, farmers’ personal and socio-economic characteristics such as age,
gender and source o f labour did not have a significant relationship with the overall
adoption pattern.
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CHAPTER EIGHT
IMPACT OF IPM INTERVENTION
8.0 Introduction
IPM intervention is expected to produce economic and non-economic benefits that
accrue to farm households and the wider society. These include: cheaper and safer food,
improved environmental quality and savings in foreign exchange. Also natural regulating
mechanisms will be strengthened resulting in less soil and water pollution by toxic
substances. The following possible impacts o f IPM projects have also been identified:
improved economic well-being; improved knowledge and analytical capacity; diffusion
o f knowledge farmer-to-farmer; decreased health risk; and healthier ecosystem as result
o f improved understanding o f the ecosystem. Further, a successful IPM intervention is
expected to induce a process that will not only lead to better crop management decision
making but also stimulate a discovery process, strengthens the build-up o f institutional
capacities at village level and intensifies interaction. In effect, the grouping o f Farmers in
field schools offers additional opportunities for farming communities to address, as
powerful groups, development issues that will lead to reduction in poverty.
A t the household level, economic benefits for example are: savings on pesticide
purchase, increased yield, more stable income, increased business opportunities and
improved health status. Among the non-market benefits which nevertheless can be o f
economic relevance to individual decision-makers but which are not directly measured in
terms o f farm profit are: increased understanding o f the agro-ecosystem and increased
self-confidence. In addition, the national economy will be less dependent on imports
(food, crop protection agents) accompanied by corresponding hard currency savings
(SDC, 1994; W aibele/a/., 1999).
\
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Against this background, this chapter examines the impact o f IPM interventions in the
study area. The areas that are examined include: the impact o f IPM intervention on crop
diversity, yields, farm size, pest/disease incidence, income stability, business opportunity
and labour requirement.
8.1 Impact of IPM Intervention in the Study Area
Farmers were asked to indicate the changes they had observed since the introduction o f
IPM to the study area. The indicators o f change employed for the study include: diversity
o f crops grown, yields o f crops, farm size, incidence o f pests and diseases, income
stability, business opportunity and demand for labour. The impact o f IPM programmes
as perceived by farmers in the study area is shown in Table 8.1
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Table 8.1 Impact o f IPM Interventions
Indicators Changes Type of Farmer Total X1 Results
Observed FFS NFFS
Freq % Freq % Freq %
Crop Diversity Increased 29 54.7 13 27.1 42 41.6 X 2 = 7.92
No Change 24 45.3 35 72.9 59 58.4 df = I,
Total 53 100.0 48 100.0 101 100.0 P > 0.05 (S)
Yields Increased 49 96.1 28 56.0 77 76.2 X * = 22.39
No Change 2 3.9 22 44.0 24 23.8 cx '-b II
Total 51 100.0 50 100.0 101 100.0 P > 0.05 (S)
Farm Size Increased 9 16.4 5 10.0 14 13.3 X2 = 0.92
No Change 46 83.6 45 90.0 91 86.7 CL *-h II
Total 55 100.0 50 100.0 105 100.0 0.3
0.05 (S)
Increased 39 84.8 28 71.8 67 78.8 X2= 1.95
Income No Change 7 15.2 11 28.2 18 21.2 df = 1,
Stability Total 46 100.0 39 100.0 85 100.0 0.1
0.05 (S)
8.1.1 Crop Diversity
A basic understanding o f the agro-ecological system and informed decision by farmers
could enable them to spread IPM principles (such as crop rotation, traditional crop
management methods, sound nutrition) to other crops. This is because IPM requires
farmers to be more observant and more analytical, and to be able to adopt measures
suitable to their needs in each situation.
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Farmers’ responses regarding changes in their farming enterprises resulting from IPM
intervention with respect to crop diversity is shown in Table 8.1. About 55 A> o f the FFS
farmers indicated an increase in crop diversity, while about5 27% o f the NFFS farmers
indicated the same. On the other hand, about 45% o f the FFS farmers indicated no
change in crop diversity, while about 8% o f the NFFS farmers indicated the same.
The relationship between type o f farmer and crop diversity is statistically significant.
The significance is due to the fact that higher than expected FFS farmers indicated an
increase in crop diversity, while fewer than expected NFFS farmers indicated the same.
This finding is supported by Afreh-Nuamah (1999), who stated that high pest damage
from a variety o f pests and lack o f appropriate knowledge and skills in pest and crop
management at Weija caused farmers to abandon, for example, cabbage production for
several years. Some farmers, however, resumed cabbage production after the
introduction o f IPM.
8.1.2 Yields of Vegetables
Increased yield is one o f the economic benefits o f an IPM project. Improved yield, as
indicated by farmers, derived from effective control o f pests and diseases, sound plant
nutrition, use o f improved crop varieties, reduced incidence o f pests and diseases, use o f
appropriate pesticides and neem seed extract as bio-pesticides. The relationship between
type o f farmer and change in yields o f vegetables grown in the area is shown in Table
8.1. About 96% o f FFS farmers indicated an increase in yield, while 56% o f NFFS
farmers indicated the same. On the other hand, about 4% o f FFS farmers indicated no
change in yield, whole 44% o f FFS farmers indicated the same.
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The relationship between type o f farmer and yields o f crop is statistically significant.
The significance is due to the fact that higher than expected NFFS farmers indicated no
change in yield, while fewer than expected FFS farmers indicated the same. This is
supported by SDC, (1994); Waibel et al, (1999) and Afreh-Nuamah, (1999) who
indicated that adoption o f IPM recommendations results in higher yields.
8.1.3 Farm Size
Adoption o f improved farm practices produces economic benefits, which permit
expansion o f farm size. Table 8.1 reveals that about 13% o f farmers in the area indicated
an increase in farm size, while about 87% indicated no change in farm size. The
relationship between the two categories o f farmers with respect to change in farm size is
not statistically significant. This could be attributed to the limited irrigable farmland in
the area.
8.1.4 Incidence of Pests and Diseases
Pests (including weeds) and diseases affect crop yield, quality and appearance o f the
products and therefore the income o f the farmer. Limited spraying with chemical
pesticides encourages the proliferation o f beneficial insects which then bring pests under
control. Adopting certain cultural practices like rouging and destruction o f diseased
crops also minimizes the incidence of pests and diseases. The incidence o f pests and
diseases as indicated by respondents is indicated in Table 8.1. About 98% o f FFS
farmers indicated a decrease in the incidence o f pests and diseases, while about 82% o f
the NFFS farmers indicated the same. On the other hand, about 2% o f FFS farmers
indicated an increase in pests and diseases, while about 18% o f NFFS farmers indicated
the same.
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The. relationship between the two categories o f farmers with respect to change in
incidence o f pests and diseases is significant. The significance is due to the fact that a
higher than expected FFS farmers indicated a decrease in incidence o f pests and
diseases, while fewer than expected NFFS farmers indicated the same. This finding is
supported by Afreh-Nuamah (1999) that at Farmers’ F ield Schools, farmers learn about
effective pests/disease control strategies. Decrease in the incidence o f pests and diseases
invariably increases farmers’ income and hence improve their standard o f living.
8.1.5 Business Opportunity and Stability o f Income
Less damaged and quality vegetables as a result o f effective control o f pests and diseases
make the vegetables produced more attractive and marketable. Also, there are savings on
money which other wise would have been spent on agrochemicals like fertilizers and
chemical pesticides.
The state o f business opportunity and stability o f income o f farmers are as shown in
Table 8.1. Markedly lower percentage o f NFFS farmers indicated an increase in income.
The relationship between income stability and type o f farmer is not statistically
significant.
On the issue o f business opportunity, about 58% o f FFS farmers indicated an increase in
business opportunity, while about 54% o f NFFS farmers indicated the same. Also, about
42% o f FFS farmers indicated no change in business opportunity, while about 46% o f
NFFS farmers indicated the same. The relationship between change in business
opportunity and type o f farmer is not statistically significant. Fluctuating market prices
in the study area seem to militate against income stability. This was confirmed by AEAs
in the area. According to the AEAs, during a focus group discussion, some farmers in the
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area do not cultivate vegetables based on the cropping calendar in the hope o f making
more profit during lean seasons. In effect, grouping o f farmers into strong functional
associations would offer opportunities for farming communities to address the problem
o f fluctuating market prices.
8.1.6 Labour Requirement
Crop management practices are variable. In general, vegetable cultivation requires high
inputs and is labour-intensive. The changes observed in labour requirement as indicated
by farmers is shown in Table 8.1. About 56% o f FFS farmers indicated an increase in
labour requirement, while 28% o f NFFS farmers indicated the same. On the other hand,
about 44% o f FFS farmers indicated no change in labour requirement, while about 72%
o f NFFS farmers indicated the same. The relationship between the two categories o f
farmers with respect to labour requirement is statistically significant. The significance is
due the fact that a higher than expected FFS farmers indicated an increase in labour
requirement, while fewer than expected NFFS farmers indicated the same. Introduction
o f more labour saving practices would therefore go a long way to solving farmers’
labour problem.
8.1.7 Health Status
Health hazards are associated with the transport, storage, use and disposal o f pesticides.
Added to these are health hazards resulting from pesticide residues in foods sent to
markets and the fact that some pesticides are environmentally persistent and acutely
toxic. Use o f neem seed extract, safer spraying techniques, the use o f appropriate
spraying equipment and timely spraying, are among the causes o f improved health status
as indicated by farmers. Efficient and effective spraying techniques taking the necessary
precautionary measures like the use o f masks and gloves, educating farmers no', to eat or
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sell vegetables, which have been freshly sprayed with pesticides, are some o f the positive
impacts o f IPM intervention.
8.1.8 Development of Functionary Groups
According to Afreh-Nuamah, (1999), through participation in the Field Schools, farmers
quickly realise that the Farmers ' Field School environment can be effectively used to
address other community issues such as improved health status o f the farming
community due to drastically reduced pesticide poisoning and education for the youths.
He added that a typical programme o f an FFS session involves group dynamics, which
aim to strengthen group cohesion among farmers. These exercises emphasise group
processes that play an important role in the implementation o f local IPM programmes in
the field such as team building, cooperation, problem solving, decision making and
leadership.
8.2 Conclusion
This chapter has confirmed that several benefits accrue to IPM interventions. The direct
benefits derived by farmers using the crop production and protection skills acquired from
the training and its diffusion efforts include crop diversity as a result o f empowerment o f
farmers to make informed decisions, thus spreading IPM principles to other crops, high
yields, improved health status due to drastically reduced exposure to pesticides as a
result o f significant reductions in the use o f pesticides for crop production, a better
understanding o f the agro-ecosystem, reduced incidence o f pests and diseases, increased
business opportunity and a more stable income. FFS farmers were at advantage
compared to NFFS farmers.
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However, there was no significant relationship between the two categories o f farmers
with respect to stability o f income and business opportunity. With respect to labour,
introduction o f labour saving devices would go a long way to reducing the drudgery
associated with the adoption o f certain IPM practices.
Other benefits o f IPM include:
• safer environment resulting from drastic reduction in pesticide residues
• minimum contamination of food to the community,
• researchers fine-tune their agricultural research agenda to become more
targeted and particularly relevant and more responsive to small holder
farmer’s field problems,
• better organised farmer community groups that can be exploited to address
overall community development (Afreh-Nuamah, 1999).
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CHAPTER NINE
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
9.0 Introduction
Generally, adoption o f IPM has been reported to be below expectation. Whilst reasons
for the low adoption may be many, this study was undertaken with the main purpose o f
identifying the effect o f communication strategy on IPM adoption. Thus, it sought to
verify two main postulates: firstly, whether IPM adoption is related to communication
strategy used in its dissemination and secondly, whether there is a relationship between
personal socio-economic characteristics o f farmers and adoption. Other reasons for non
adoption o f the IPM practices were also identified. The study also sought farmers’
perception about the impact o f IPM interventions.
Chapter 1 examines background. This comprises: the problem o f food insecurity,
constraints to food security, IPM as an option for enhancing food security, current
developments in IPM, historical review o f IPM implementation in Ghana, the status o f
IPM in Ghana and vegetable IPM in Ghana. Further to this, chapter one looks at the
problem statement, research questions, main objective, specific objectives, hypotheses,
conceptual framework and operational definition o f concepts. In chapter two, literature
relevant to the study is reviewed. Methodology used to carry out the study has been
presented in chapter three and IPM practices disseminated to farmers in the study area
have been discussed in chapter four. Characteristics o f farmers, communication o f IPM
practices, adoption o f IPM and impact o f IPM intervention have been discussed as
results in chapters five, six, seven and eight respectively.
This chapter therefore aims at summarising all activities and findings based on related
literature and the implications of the results o f the whole research exercise. It examines
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socio-economic characteristics and adoption, communication strategies/methods,
adoption and benefits that accrue from adopting IPM practices. The chapter ends with
conclusion, theoretical implication, research implication and recommendations.
9.1 Summary
In chapter 1, the potential o f IPM as a means o f reducing commodity losses due to pests
and diseases and thus enhance food security is outlined. In addition, special reference has
been made to vegetable production and expenditure on pesticides and their harmful
effects on humans and the environment, hence the need for IPM for food security and
sustainability. Chapter 1 further examines the historical review o f IPM implementation
in Ghana, the status o f IPM in Ghana and vegetable IPM in Ghana.
Chapter 1 further talks about the research problem. In the problem statement, the
widespread recognition, yet low adoption o f IPM as pest control measure, is outlined.
The role o f communication strategy in enhancing adoption o f IPM and thus enhance
food security is emphasized. The main and specific objectives o f the study have also
been indicated in this chapter. The research hypothesised that: i. there was no
relationship between socio-economic characteristics o f farmers and adoption o f IPM and
ii. there was no relationship between communication strategy and adoption o f IPM. A
conceptual framework indicating IPM practices, communication strategy and socio
economic characteristics as they simultaneously influence adoption, was developed.
In chapter 2, literature and documents are reviewed on adoption o f innovations, the
process o f adoption, attributes o f innovations and adoption vis-a-vis their relative
advantage, compatibility, complexity, trailabilty and observability or visibility. Further
to this, personal socio-economic characteristics and adoption (age, gender, education,
farm income, credit, farm size, tenure status, labour availability) were also indicated.
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This chapter also reviews various communication strategies including the methodology
and principles underlying the Farmers ’ F ield School concept. Gender issues in Farmers
F ield Schools, real returns to IPM and its diffusion and assessment o f household and
village level impacts o f IPM have also been reviewed.
The research methodology used for the study was developed and outlined in chapter 3.
Taking cognisance o f the objectives o f the study, survey was found suitable for this
study. Weija Irrigation Project was purposively chosen as the research site since it
typifies intensive vegetable production in Ghana and has attracted many extension
programmes including IPM Farmers’ F ield School. Two categories o f farmers were
interviewed. They were vegetable farmers who had taken part in the season long
Farmers' F ield School (FFS farmers) and those who did not take part (NFFS farmers),
using interview questionnaire. Simple random sampling was used to obtain the sample
for both categories o f farmers. One hundred and five (105) farmers comprising 55 FFS
farmers and 50 NFFS farmers were selected. Using the focus group interview checklist,
the researcher had discussion with AEAs assigned to the area.
Data gathered were analysed using the Statistical Package for the Social Scientist (SPSS)
software programme. The chi-square test o f significance was used to test the research
hypotheses. Prior to data collection, the questionnaire was pre-tested and identified flaws
were corrected. The questions finally contained open-ended and close-ended questions.
Data were collected over a one-month period.
Chapter 4 examines IPM practices given by existing reports and AEAs during the focus
group discussion. It examines the conceptual basis o f IPM, training content o f Farmer
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Field Schools, IPM practices disseminated to farmers in the study area, preparation o f
IPM messages and decision making in IPM.
The results o f the study have been discussed in chapters 5,6,7 and 8. These have been
broadly discussed under two main headings. These are: socio-economic characteristics
and adoption o f IPM and, communication strategies, adoption and benefits o f IPM
9.2 Socio-Economic Characteristics and Adoption o f IPM
Onu (1991) suggests that it is usual to investigate the personal and social characteristics
o f respondents in order to understand their relative influence in the adoption behaviour.
In chapter 5, personal and socio-economic characteristics o f the two categories o f the
farmers are compared. The personal socio-economic characteristics studied were age,
farmers’ level o f education, gender, and farm size. Others include economic enterprises
o f farmers, source o f farm labour and source o f credit. This chapter also examines
farmers’ production constraints and the strategies employed to control pests and
diseases.
Though elderly people seem to be somewhat less inclined to adopt new practices than
younger ones, evidence from this study suggests that there is no such relationship.
Rogers (1995) supports this inconsistent evidence about the relationship o f age and
adoption. Educational level, gender and source o f labour did not have any significant
relationship with adoption. However, with respect to source o f labour, though the
findings reveal that there is no relationship between source o f labour and adoption, Hicks
and Johnson (1974) in Feder et al, (1982) have found that higher rural labour supply
leads to greater adoption o f labour-intensive varieties in Taiwan. Also, Njoku (1989) in a
research on costs and returns o f rice production found that labour input was the greatest
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constraint to increased rice production particularly for land preparation, weeding and
harvesting.
The findings reveal that personal and socio-economic characteristics o f farmers such as
age, gender and source o f labour did not have a significant relationship with adoption.
The second research question: “To what extent do personal and socio-economic
characteristics influence adoption o f IPM practices? “ is duly answered.
9.3 Communication Strategies, Adoption and Benefits o f LPM
Farmers in the area have available a range o f pest management practices based primarily
on cultural, physical, and mechanical techniques to the use o f biological or chemical
pesticides. Farmers’ awareness o f the selected IPM practices was very high. However,
there was a significant difference between the two groups o f farmers with respect to
awareness o f scouting and mulching; the significance was due to the fact that a higher
than expected farmers who are aware o f these practices were FFS farmers. Farmers'
F ield Schools are therefore a very effective approach o f enhancing awareness knowledge
o f farmers.
From the study, farmers’ sources o f information on crop protection include: AEAs/FFS.
friends and relatives and agricultural input sellers. This is supported by van den Ban and
Hawkins (1999), who stated that sources used by farmers to obtain the knowledge and
information they need to manage their farms include: other farmers; government
extension organisations; private companies selling inputs, offering credit and buying
products; other government agencies; marketing boards and politicians; farmer'
organisations and NGO’s and their farm staff members; farm journal, radio, television
and other mass media. Tlvire was a significant difference between the two categories o f
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farmers with respect to sources of information. FFS farmers obtained information on
IPM recommendation mainly through AEAs/FFS, whereas NFFS obtained their
information from AEAs and other farmers and friends. None o f the farmers in both
categories indicated mass and print media. Promotion o f IPM through mass and print
media will therefore go a long way to increase farmers’ awareness o f general IPM
practices in the study area.
Extension work is a paramount component in the development o f IPM programmes.
Methods o f extension were found to be important determinants in the adoption o f IPM.
The results indicate that individual and group methods/PAR were the main methods
employed in communicating IPM practices. There is a significant difference between
FFS farmers and NFFS farmers with respect to methods o f communicating IPM
practices. Whereas FFS farmers indicated mainly Participatory Action Research (PAR),
NFFS farmers indicated individual methods such as farm and home visits by AEAs, as
well as farmer-to-farmer contact and group methods (namely result and method
demonstration). According to Afreh-Nuammah, (1999) the IPM Farmer F ield School is
participatory and farmer-centred. Also, Bull (1982) states that unless IPM is carried out
sensitively and with the fullest possible participation o f farmers, it will not succeed and it
will not help the poor. According to Escalada and Heong (1993), as cited in Lutz et al,
(1998), most IPM success stories have been preceded by research done in farmer’s fields
with the farmer actively participating in all stages o f the research process.
The results o f the chi-square analysis o f differential adoption rates for Farm ers' F ield
School participants and non-Farmer Field School participants reveal that Farmers ’ F ield
School participants had a statistically significant higher adoption level than non
participants with respect to neem seed extract, improved seeds and scouting. Also, FFS
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farmers showed a markedly reduced pesticide application than the NFFS farmers. This is
a significant finding in a farming system in which chemical pesticide application had
become almost a routine. The overall adoption pattern o f the practices indicated that FFS
farmers showed a significantly higher adoption than NFFS farmers. This finding
therefore addresses the research question 1: Which communication strategies or methods
are more effective in the dissemination of IPM practices?
The difference between the two categories o f farmers with respect to the adoption o f
manure application, mulching and row planting was not significant. The identified
constraints to adopting IPM practices include: tediousness, tediousness of some o f the
practices, time wasting/lack o f labour, perceived ineffectiveness o f some o f the practices,
seasonality (neem seeds extract), high cost o f inputs (such as improved seeds), scarcity
o f certain inputs and lack o f knowledge (expressed only by non-adopting NFFS farmers
with respect to neem seed extract, mulching and scouting). These findings are supported
by Lutz et. al. (1998) who stated that if IPM is to become widespread, farmers must have
the appropriate incentives, relevant knowledge, and practical techniques to make use o f
non-chemical based approaches.
Therefore, economic considerations for the farmer (e.g. how affordable in terms o f time,
labour and money) are o f immense importance in enhancing the adoption o f IPM. On the
issue o f labour, they state that to apply IPM, farmers need to accept a practice that is
usually more management and labour-intensive than the use o f chemical agents. They
also added that ultimately, the choice o f pest management technology will be influenced
by the costs, benefits, and availability o f competing alternatives, as well as any rules or
other social norms governing their use.
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The impact o f IPM and its diffusion efforts in the study area include crop diversity,
increase in yields o f vegetables, decrease in incidence o f pests/diseases, improved health
status, increase in income stability, increased business opportunity and increased labour
requirement. Increase in labour requirement associated with the adoption o f IPM practice
has been confirmed by this study (Chapter 8)
9.4 Conclusion
From the study, participants o f Farmers ’ F ield School showed a higher level o f adoption
than the non-participants. This implies that participation in Farmers’ F ield Schools
greatly enhances farmers’ knowledge and skill in IPM practices. According to Lutz e t al,
(1998), the involvement o f farmers in helping to generate locally specific techniques
suitable for particular farming systems appears to be an important factor determining the
success o f efforts to implement IPM, a finding that is likely to apply equally to other
sustainable production technologies and resource management approaches. Also
different factors do affect the adoption o f different innovations and this was particularly
true o f the farmers’ adoption o f the IPM practices. The findings also indicate that
adoption o f IPM does not only depend on communication strategy/methods employed in
disseminating IPM practices, but also on perceived economic advantages o f the practice.
Socio-economic characteristics of farmers did not have significant relationship with the
overall adoption pattern.
9.5 Policy Implications
Different factors do affect the adoption o f different innovations and this was particularly
true o f farmers’ adoption o f the IPM practices for the study. The findings reveal,
however, that farmers’ personal socio-economic characteristics do not influence
adoption o f IPM. The findings also reveal that strategies/methods o f communicating
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IPM practices to target beneficiaries do influence their adoption. The findings o f this
research therefore validate the theoretical framework upon which the research is based.
The findings also validate the fact that adoption o f IPM practices leads to increased
yield, informed decision by farmers to enable them spread IPM principles to other
crops, reduced incidence o f pests and diseases, a more stable income and improved
business opportunity. The findings also support the perception that IPM is labour-
intensive. There is therefore the need to develop more labour-savings methods o f pests
and disease control. Education should continue to be the main tool for disseminating
IPM strategies. Once farmers have had a minimum o f exposure to new technology that
offer clear benefits, they are often quite prepared to accommodate these methods o f pest
control into their traditional agricultural practices, either in whole or in part. However,
unless IPM is carried out sensitively and with the fullest possible participation o f
farmers, it will not succeed and it will not help the poor. Participatory Action Research
(PAR), experimental learning and teaching farmers to teach others are the strategies
preferred to achieve these aims. Through this, farmers’ real needs would be identified
and appropriate strategies.
9.6 Research Implications
The findings indicate that communication strategies/methods have effect on adoption of
IPM. The Farmers' F ield School approach has a very significant impact on adoption.
However, different factors such as labour availability and affordability, follow-up
programmes etc. do affect the adoption o f different innovations. Due to time and
financial constraints, the research could not delve into labour, financial service
availability and extension agents’ competence in extension delivery on adoption o f IPM.
I therefore suggest that further research be carried out in this direction.
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9.7 Recommendations
Based on the findings and conclusions o f the research, the following recommendations
have been made:
> IPM requires farmers to be more observant and analytical, and to be able to
adopt measures suitable to their needs in each situation. Farmers need encouragement
in the process o f adoption. Therefore, routine field evaluation o f adoption rates should
be promoted and institutionalised by both extension and research organisations to
enable them obtain undated impacts o f the technologies that they develop and promote.
> The overall costs o f training farmers could be reduced through training a core
group o f farmers within a geopolitical unit, such as a municipality, and then rely on
farmer-to-farmer training for disseminating the IPM messages to wider group o f
farmers. There are definite scale economies to the farmer-to-farmer training approach if
the quality o f the message transmitted does not deteriorate as it gets passed down the
line.
> Mass media methods should be employed to enhance awareness o f
environmentally sound practices not only to farmers but the general public. Farmers
already use many o f the practices traditionally. They simply have to become aware o f
the value o f such practices in the context o f crop protection.
> It is also recommended that farmers form clubs or associations so that they can
meet and interact regularly and find solutions to common concerns.
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PERSONAL COMMUNICATION
Sakyi-Dawson, O. (2001). Lecturer, Department o f Agricultural Extension, University o f
Ghana, Legon.
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APPENDIX 1
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION
UNIVERSITY OF GHANA
LEGON,ACCRA
TOPIC: COMMUNICATION STRATEGY AND ADOPTION OF INTEGRATED
PEST MANAGEMENT (IPM) PRACTICES BY VEGETABLE FARMERS
AT THE WEIJA IRRIGATION PROJECT
INTERVIEW QUESTIONNAIRE FOR THE FARMER
This questionnaire aims at studying the communication methods and adoption o f IPM
messages in your community. I would be grateful if you could answer the questions
below. Any information will be treated confidentially.
A. Personal/ Socio-Economic Data.
1 .Name..........................................................................................................................................
2.Name o f settlement (Town/village)...................................................................................
3. Age [ ] years
4. Sex l .M a le [ ] 2. Female [ ]
5.Ethnicit y .............................................................................................................................
6. Religion: (Tick the appropriate response)
1. Traditional/Indigenous
2. Islam
3. Christianity
4. Others (Specify)..................................................................................
7. Marital Status: 1.Single 2.Married
3.Divorced/separated 4. Widowed
8. Highest educational level attained:
1. No formal school
2. Primary
3. M.S.L.C./J.S.S.
4 .Secondary school/ S.S.S.
5 .Post Secondary
9. What is your major occupation?..........................................................................
10. What other income generating activity are you engaged in?
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11 .How long have you been farming?
1. 1 -4 [ ]
2. 5-9 [ ]
3. 10-14 [ ]
4. 15-19 [ ]
5. 20yrs and above
12. What is/are your main purpose (s) for farming?
1. Subsistence [ ]
2. Commercial [ ]
3. Both commercial& commercial [ ]
4. Other specify)...................................................
13 .What are your major crops?
Crops Rank Main Purpose Production Constraints
14. What is the total farmland available to you for farming?
....................Acres
15. What are the constraints associated with the land you are using? (e.g. Size, quality,
location, animal destruction).
16. What are your sources o f credit for your agricultural activity?
l.N on e 2. Friends
4. Money lender 8. Co-operative society
16. Credit union 32.Banks
64.Government programme 128.Traders
256. Other (Specify).......................................
17. What are the sources o f labour on your farm?
1. Family labour (FL)
4. Own Labour (OL)
16. O thers................................
18. Number o f members o f household available to provide labour to you?
19.What are the major pests and diseases, which affect your crops, and how do you
control them? (Crops may be repeated if there are more than 1 pest/disease).____________
Crop Pest/ Disease Control Strategy Is Strategy Effective?
l=Yes, 2=No
1.
2
3.
4.
5.
6.
2. Hired Labour (HL)
8. Reciprocal Labour (RL).
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B. IPM Information, Communication Strategy/Methods and Adoption.
20. What are your sources o f information on agricultural practices? (May indicate more
than one).
1. Other farmers
2. Friends
4. People selling agric Inputs
16. IPM FFS/AEAs
32. Others (Please specify)........................................................
21. Have you been introduced to any of the following IPM practices?
Practice Awareness
l=Yes 2=No
Information
Source
Communication
Strategy/Method
Used
Is Information
Sufficient?
l=Yes 2=No
Is Follow-Up
Available?
Neem Seed
Extract
Manure
Application
Mulching
Improved Seeds
Reduction of
Pesticide Use
Scouting
Row Planting
1. AEAs/FFS
2,Friends
& Relatives
4.1nput sellers
8. Co-operative
Society
INDIVIDUAL METHOD
l.Farm visit
2.Home visit
GROUP METHOD
4.Method demonstration
8.Result demonstration
16. PAR
MASS METHOD
1.Radio
2. Posters
4.None
22 Which o f the IPM Practices have you adopted or not adopted and why?
Practices l=Adopted
2=Not Adopted
Reason(s) for Adoption
3r Non- Adoption
Follow-up Required for
Adoption?
l=Yes 2=No
Neem Seed Extract
Manure Application
Mulching
Improved Seeds
Reduction of Pesticide Use
Scouting
Row Planting
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C. Impact o f IPM
23. How has the introduction o f IPM Practices impacted on the following?
Indicators of Change Changes
1 increased
2=Decreased
3= No Change
Reason for Change
Crop Diversity
Yields o f Vegetables
Farm Size
Pest/Disease Incidence
Income Stability
Business Opportunity
Labour Requirement
Thank you for your help.
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APPENDIX 2
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION
UNIVERSITY OF GHANA
LEGON, ACCRA
TOPIC: COMMUNICATION STRATEGY AND ADOPTION OF INTEGRATED
PEST MANAGEMENT (IPM) BY VEGETABLE FARMERS AT THE WEIJA
IRRIGATION PROJECT
CHECKLIST FOR AEAs
1. What types o f crops are grown in the area?
2. What production constraints have you identified in the area?
3. A discussion on IPM and Farmers ’ F ield School in the study area.
4. What IPM practices have been introduced to vegetable farmers in your area and why?
5. What communication strategies/methods do you employ in disseminating these
practices to fanners and what are your reasons for your choice?
6. What are the problems associated with extension delivery in the study area?
7. What teaching aids do you use?
8. What are the bases upon which farmers are selected for participation in Farmers ‘
F ield School?
9. What are the constraints associated with the adoption o f the IPM practices
disseminated to farmers?
10. How has the promotion o f IPM impacted on farmers and their enterprises in the area?
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