YOUTH PARTICIPATION IN THE CASSAVA VALUE CHAIN IN THE UPPER WEST AKIM DISTRICT, EASTERN REGION, GHANA BY EYRAM KWAKU BOESI (10932959) THIS THESIS IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF A MASTER OF PHILOSOPHY DEGREE IN AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS AND AGRIBUSINESS COLLEGE OF BASIC AND APPLIED SCIENCES UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON. DECEMBER, 2023 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh i University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ii DEDICATION This thesis is first dedicated to the Almighty God. It is also dedicated to my family and friends for their love, care, and support. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS All gratitude and great honor to the almighty God for the favor, guidance, and wisdom He has given me to complete this thesis. I appreciate the Department of Agricultural Economics and Agribusiness, University of Ghana, Legon for offering me the opportunity to pursue my master’s degree in Agricultural Economics. I extend my warmest appreciation to my supervisors, Prof. Bruce Sarpong and Dr. Freda Asem, for their constructive comments and guidance during the research process. I acknowledge the roles played by all the lecturers of the Department of Agricultural Economics and Agribusiness, University of Ghana, Legon, for their immense contributions to the success of this work. I appreciate the efforts of my wonderful course-mates who were available to assist anytime I called on them and all individuals and other stakeholders who offered their time and expertise to help obtain valuable information for the study. My sincere gratitude goes to the Member of Parliament for Upper West Akim, Hon. Frederick Obeng Adom, for his timely intervention in providing financial support to pay part of my fees. To those who have contributed in diverse ways but cannot see their names here, I say a very big thank you for everything. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh iv ABSTRACT The study’s main objective is to assess youth’s participation in the cassava value chain in the Upper West Akim District. Specifically, to describe the activities involved in the cassava value chain, describe the perceptions of the youth toward the cassava value chain, analyze the proportion of the youth involved in the cassava value chain, and estimate the factors influencing the youth’s participation in the cassava value chain. This study employed a combination of purposive and simple random sampling methods, and 284 youth respondents between the ages of 18 and 35 years were interviewed using a structured questionnaire. Data was analyzed using descriptive statistics and a binary logistic regression model. Out of the total sample size, 40 percent of the youth were into cassava production, 32.5 percent were into cassava processing, and 27.5 percent were into cassava marketing. On average, most of the youth (32%) strongly agreed to have been actively engaged in the cassava value chain activities, were interested in improving their knowledge and skills, and planned to be involved more in the chain in the future. The overall perception index of the youth toward the cassava value chain was positive. This index showed that the youth perceived the prospects of the cassava value chain as promising and were ready to explore any innovations to enhance their activities in the value chain. From the logit results, gender (4.53), primary education (2.49), marital status (2.31), perceptions (0.24), credit access (1.78), land access (3.30), and extension access (1.85) positively and significantly influenced participation in cassava production. Gender (-1.77), JHS education (0.59), credit access (0.46), and market access (0.82) significantly influenced participation in cassava processing. Gender (-1.44), household size (0.18), perceptions (0.42), and market access (2.54) significantly influenced youth participation in cassava marketing. The study recommends that modern technologies be made available and accessible to the youth to make activities along the cassava value chain easier. Promote industrialization in the district, specifically, the cassava processing factory. Intensify training of the youth on modern farming practices, value addition, and entrepreneurship. Moreover, making available and accessible to the youth improved cassava varieties, farmlands, credit, markets, and extension services to increase their participation in the cassava value chain. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh v TABLE OF CONTENT DECLARATION ............................................................................................................ i DEDICATION ............................................................................................................... ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .......................................................................................... iii ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................. iv TABLE OF CONTENT .................................................................................................. v LIST OF TABLES ...................................................................................................... viii LIST OF FIGURES ...................................................................................................... ix LIST OF ACRONYMS .................................................................................................. x CHAPTER ONE ............................................................................................................. 1 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Background of the Study ....................................................................................... 1 1.2 Statement of the Problem ...................................................................................... 4 1.3 Research Questions ............................................................................................... 7 1.4 Objectives of the Study ......................................................................................... 8 1.5 Relevance of the Study .......................................................................................... 8 1.7 Organization of the Study ..................................................................................... 9 CHAPTER TWO .......................................................................................................... 10 LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................. 10 2.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 10 2.2 Youth Participation in Agriculture ...................................................................... 10 2.3 Benefits in the Agriculture Industry .................................................................... 11 2.5 Cassava Value Chain ........................................................................................... 15 2.6 The Activities Involved in the Cassava Value Chain .......................................... 18 2.6.1 Production ..................................................................................................... 18 2.6.2 Processing ..................................................................................................... 19 2.6.3 Marketing...................................................................................................... 20 2.7 Youth Participation in the Cassava Value Chain ................................................ 21 2.8 Perception of the Youth on the Cassava Value Chain ........................................ 24 2.8.1 Perceptions of Youth on Cassava Production ............................................... 24 2.8.2 Perceptions of the Youth on Cassava Processing ......................................... 26 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh vi 2.8.3 Perceptions of the Youth on Cassava Marketing.......................................... 27 2.9 Factors Influencing Youth Participation in the Cassava Value Chain ................ 29 2.10 Innovations in the Cassava Values Chain to Attract the Youth ........................ 33 2.11 Agricultural Policy Changes Affecting Youth Participation............................. 35 2.12 Factors Influencing Participation of the Youth in the Cassava Value Chain Explained ................................................................................................................... 37 CHAPTER THREE ...................................................................................................... 44 METHODOLOGY ....................................................................................................... 44 3.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 44 3.2 Conceptual Framework ....................................................................................... 44 3.3 Theoretical Framework ....................................................................................... 48 3.4 Method of Data Analysis .................................................................................... 50 3.4.1 Analyzing the Proportion of Youth Involved in the Cassava Value Chains 50 3.4.2 Describing the Activities Involved in the Cassava Value Chain .................. 51 3.4.3 Perceptions of the Youth in the Cassava Value Chain ................................. 51 3.4.4 Estimating the Factors Influencing Youth Participation in each of the Cassava Value Chains ........................................................................................... 52 3.5 Variables Explained ............................................................................................ 54 3.6 Hypotheses Underlying the Study ....................................................................... 57 3.7 Hypothesis Testing with the test Statistic (t-Test) .............................................. 58 3.7.1 Independent Samples T-test.......................................................................... 58 3.8 Diagnosis Tests ................................................................................................... 59 3.8.1 Multi-collinearity Test .................................................................................. 60 3.8.2 Pearson Correlation Test .............................................................................. 60 3.9 Method of Data Collection .................................................................................. 61 3.9.1 Research Design ........................................................................................... 61 3.9.2 Source of Data .................................................................................................. 62 3.10 Sample Size ....................................................................................................... 62 3.11 Sampling Techniques ........................................................................................ 63 3.12 Data Collection Techniques .............................................................................. 63 3.13 Study Area ......................................................................................................... 63 CHAPTER FOUR ......................................................................................................... 65 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ................................................................................... 65 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh vii 4.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................... 65 4.2 Socio-economic Characteristics of the Respondents .......................................... 65 4.3 Describing Youth Participation in the Activities Involved in each of the Cassava Value Chains. ............................................................................................................ 74 4.4 The Perceptions of the Youth in the Cassava Value Chain ................................. 77 4.5 Factors Influencing Youth’s Participation in the Cassava Value Chain ............. 82 4.6 Predictions on the Logit Regression.................................................................... 90 4.7 Results of Hypothesis tested ............................................................................... 91 CHAPTER FIVE .......................................................................................................... 93 SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS ................. 93 5.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 93 5.2 Summary of the Study ......................................................................................... 93 5.3 Conclusions ......................................................................................................... 94 5.4 Recommendations ............................................................................................... 96 5.5 Future Studies and Interventions ......................................................................... 97 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................. 98 APPENDICES ............................................................................................................ 112 Appendix 1: Multi-Collinearity Test ....................................................................... 112 Appendix 2: Pearson Correlation Test Matrix ........................................................ 113 Appendix 3: Predictions on the Logit Regression ................................................... 114 Appendix 4: Paired t-test ......................................................................................... 116 Appendix 5: Paired t-test (Perceptions) .................................................................. 117 Appendix 6: CORRELATION MATRIX ............................................................... 118 QUESTIONNAIRE .................................................................................................... 120 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh viii LIST OF TABLES Table 3.1 Description of Explanatory Variables, Measurement, and a-priori Expectations .................................................................................................................. 53 Table 4.1: Socio-economic Characteristics of the Respondents ................................... 67 Table 4.2 Gender Distribution of the Youth in the Cassava Value Chain .................... 69 Table 4.3 Level of Participation in Cassava Production ............................................... 71 Table 4.4 Level of Participation in Cassava Processing ............................................... 73 Table 4.5 Level of Participation in Cassava Marketing ................................................ 74 Table 4.6. Describing the Cassava Production Activities ............................................. 75 Table 4.7. Describing Cassava Processing Activities ................................................... 76 Table 4.8. Describing Cassava Marketing Activities.................................................... 76 Table 4.9. Perceptions of the Youth in Cassava Production ......................................... 78 Table 4. 10. Perceptions of the Youth in the Cassava Processing ................................ 79 Table 4. 11. Perceptions of the Youth in the Cassava Marketing ................................. 80 Table 4.12: Estimation of the Factors Influencing Youth Participation in the Cassava Value Chain .................................................................................................................. 83 Table 4.13 Wald Test of the Hypothesis of the Explanatory Variables in the Logit Model. ........................................................................................................................... 91 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ix LIST OF FIGURES Figure 3.1 Conceptual Framework ............................................................................... 45 Figure 3.2 Study Area map: Upper West Akim District ............................................... 64 Figure 4.1 Participation of the youth in the cassava value chain .................................. 68 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh x LIST OF ACRONYMS AGRA Alliance for a Green Revolution in Africa ASCL Ayensu Starch Company Limited CAADP Comprehensive African Agriculture Development Programme CEAR Centre for Econometric & Allied Research FAO Food and Agriculture Organisation FAOSTAT Food and Agriculture Organisation Statistics FBO Farm-Based Organisation GASIP Ghana Agricultural Sector Investment Programme GDP Gross Domestic Product GIS Geographical Information System GLSS Ghana Living Standards Survey GSS Ghana Statistical Service GVC Global Value Chains GYEEDA Ghana Youth Employment and Entrepreneurial Development Agency HQCF Producing High-Quality Cassava Flour ICT JHS Information and Communications Technology Junior High School ILO International Labour Organization LPM Linear Probability Models MOFA Ministry of Food and Agriculture NGO Non-Governmental Organization NYDPF National Youth Development Policy Framework NYP National Youth Policy OLS Ordinary Least Square PERD Planting for Export and Rural Development PRA Participatory Rural Appraisal SDG Sustainable Development Goal University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh xi SSA Sub-Saharan Africa TPB Theory of Planned Behavior TRA Theory of Reasoned Action VCDP Value Chain Development Program VIF Variance Inflation Factor University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background of the Study The Comprehensive African Agriculture Development Programme (CAADP) highlights the need for increased agricultural productivity to achieve food security, poverty reduction, and lower food prices for the poor (Brüntrup, 2011). With Africa’s population projected to grow by 40% by 2030, agriculture offers significant career opportunities for young people (Development Bank of Africa, 2016). To make agriculture attractive and profitable for the youth, the sector must address the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of no poverty, zero hunger, and decent work (SDGs 1, 2, and 8). In Ghana, agriculture contributes over 21% to the GDP, growing at 8.4% in 2021 compared to a 5.4% GDP growth rate overall. It employs 32% of the population, provides livelihoods for 52% of the labor force, and supplies critical raw materials for industry (GSS, 2021). Despite agriculture’s importance, the youth unemployment rate remains high at 13.4%, partly due to youth perceptions of agriculture as low-paying, labor-intensive, and lacking prestige (Yami et al., 2019). Definitions of "youth" vary by organization but are generally in the 15-35 age range (Kidido et al., 2017; African Youth Charter, 2006). This study defines youth as individuals aged 18-35 engaged in agriculture-related activities. With the majority of Africa’s population under 25, engaging the youth in agribusiness could stimulate University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2 economic growth and tackle high unemployment. Currently, 12.6% of young people globally are unemployed, with Ghana's youth prioritizing respectable jobs with better benefits (ILO, 2013). Ghana's unemployment rate has recently shown an upward trend, with the latest average reported at 14.7% for the first three quarters of 2023, according to the Ghana Statistical Service. This figure highlights persistent challenges in the labor market, particularly among youth aged 15 to 35 and females (13.8%), who experience higher unemployment rates compared to their male (11.4%) counterparts. Agriculture employs 36% of Ghana’s population, including 50.86% female and 49.14% male youth, with most in rural areas (FAOSTAT, 2022). Youth involvement is vital to sustaining productivity, as they bring physical energy, adaptability, and modern skills to the sector (Naamwintome et al., 2013). Cassava production, in particular, provides numerous job opportunities across the value chain, from cultivation to marketing, that can reduce unemployment, support food security, and offer income generation (Cock & Connor, 2021). However, only 5% of Ghanaian youth are engaged in agriculture, with 70% expressing no interest in the sector due to barriers like limited access to land and resources, inadequate infrastructure, and high input costs (Heifer International, 2021; Twumasi et al., 2019). Youth-targeted programs lack funding, and limited access to affordable technology discourages involvement in cassava processing and value addition (Adeyanju et al., 2021; Haruna et al., 2019). These challenges are exacerbated by inadequate policies, limited extension services, and slow digital adoption, making agriculture unappealing to youth (Magagula & Tsvakirai, 2020). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3 An interplay of socio-economic, environmental, and institutional factors further complicates youth participation. Formal employment restricts educational opportunities, limiting access to capital and modern technologies. Climate change and soil degradation exacerbate production costs and low profitability. Inadequate policies and institutional support impede extension services and market access, while the slow adoption of digital tools undermines efficiency and competitiveness. To address these issues, the Ghanaian government has introduced programs like Planting for Food and Jobs, the Ghana Youth Employment and Entrepreneurial Development Agency (GYEEDA), and the Ghana Agricultural Sector Investment Program (GASIP) (MoFA, 2015). These initiatives, along with investments in agribusiness factories, have expanded job opportunities in various agricultural value chains, helping to improve the image of agriculture (Speth et al., 2015). This study examines youth engagement in the cassava value chain in Ghana’s Upper West Akim District. The district is notable for cassava processing, which supports local economies and attracts traders. The study aims to identify whether factors impacting youth engagement align with previous research findings, providing insights that could guide policies to empower youth through agriculture. This analysis can reveal practical implications for engaging youth in sustainable agricultural development and provide data to develop institutional and infrastructure strategies to empower marginalized youth through agriculture. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4 1.2 Statement of the Problem One important area of the agricultural industry is the cassava value chain, which can provide smallholder farmers and other value chain participants with jobs and revenue. A rising number of enterprises are interested in using cassava as a raw material for a variety of industrial processes, such as the manufacturing of ethanol, biofuels, and other goods, because of its low production costs and high starch content (Sharma, 2022). For instance, Guinness Ghana Breweries makes Ruut Extra Premium beer from raw cassava. The Central Region's Ayensu Starch Company Limited, a cassava starch processing business situated in Bawjiase in the Awutu Senya West District, is still having difficulty securing enough raw materials to run its operations at maximum efficiency. As part of the government's flagship programs, the "One District, One Factory" initiative, a Starch Processing Company is also being built at Mepom in the Upper West Akim district, creating opportunities for farmers to boost output and get access to a ready market. Furthermore, the growing demand for gluten-free products has increased the use of cassava flour as a substitute for wheat flour. The demand for cassava-based products is expected to continue to grow, particularly in urban areas where consumers are looking for convenient and healthy snack options (Aidoo & Abdoulaye, 2020). Cassava by-products also present economic opportunities. Cassava leaves and peels can be used as a source of animal feed, particularly for ruminants, enabling farmers to increase income by selling their cassava by-products. According to Okike et al. (2022), the development of cassava-based animal feed products could create a new market for farmers and increase the value of their cassava production. Cassava is a drought-tolerant crop that can be grown in marginal areas, making it an important crop for climate change University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5 adaptation. Amelework et al. (2021) asserted that cassava can play an important role in climate change adaptation, particularly in areas that are prone to drought and other climate-related challenges. The promotion of cassava production in these areas could help to improve food security and reduce the vulnerability of farmers to climate change. There have been significant improvements in the technologies used for cassava processing. These technologies include improved varieties, mechanization, and processing equipment. Improved varieties of cassava have been developed that are high- yielding, disease-resistant, and tolerant to drought and other environmental stresses. Mechanization has also increased the efficiency of cassava processing, reducing post- harvest losses and increasing productivity. Processing equipment, such as grating machines, hydraulic presses, and flash dryers, have also been developed, making cassava processing easier, faster, and more efficient. So, the question that comes to mind is why are the youth in rural communities not taking advantage of these opportunities to engage more in the cassava value chain. Jirgi et al. (2019) evaluated youth engagement in cassava production under the Value Chain Development Program (VCDP) in the Bida Local Government Area of Niger State, Nigeria. The findings indicated that young people's participation was at a moderate level. A different study on youth participation in agriculture entrepreneurship by Akrong and Kotu (2022) found that young Beninese entrepreneurs would generally prefer to work in other economic sectors than agriculture. According to research by Akrong et al. (2021), youths are far less likely to engage in agriculture when they have greater access to education and institutional support services like training and credit. This research demonstrates that young people regard the agriculture industry in University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6 underdeveloped nations to be generally unappealing (Glover et al., 2015, Akrong et al., 2020). The benefits and drawbacks of youth participation in the cassava value chain were highlighted in other studies. For instance, a study by Okechukwu et al. (2014) in Nigeria discovered that youth participation in cassava growing and processing was hampered by a lack of access to land, finance, and market knowledge. Similarly, a study by Ng’atigwa et al. (2020) in Tanzania found that limited access to finance, access to land, credits, and markets, and the perception that cassava farming is a low-status occupation were the major constraints to youth participation. From the preceding paragraphs, youth participation in the cassava value chain is critical for promoting food security, creating employment opportunities, and promoting sustainable agriculture practices. However, the factors that influence youth involvement in this sector vary across different regions and countries. In some areas with cassava industries, young people are actively engaged in the cassava value chain, while in others, their participation is limited or non-existent. Young people are allegedly abandoning farms or expressing a wish to do so, and many of them are opting not to seek careers in agriculture (Bello et al., 2015). Despite the global insights, there is limited information on drivers of youth choices of different activities in the various cassava value chains as well as the factors influencing their involvement in the various value chains in Ghana. This study addresses this gap by exploring the socio-economic, cultural, and institutional factors influencing youth University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 7 participation in cassava production, processing, and marketing in the Upper West Akim District, Eastern Region, Ghana. Building on previous research (Jirgi et al., 2019; Akrong & Kotu, 2022; Okechukwu et al., 2014; Ng’atigwa et al., 2020), this study provides detailed insights into the drivers of youth choices in the cassava value chain and their level of involvement in its various segments. It emphasizes the interactions between socio-economic, cultural, and institutional factors shaping youth participation. Furthermore, it offers context-specific recommendations for policymakers, stakeholders, and development organizations aiming to promote youth engagement in the cassava value chain in Ghana. The cassava value chain can be shown visually as follows in a diagrammatic display: Source: Adapted and modified from FAO (2014) 1.3 Research Questions This research is directed toward finding answers to the questions that follows: 1. What percentage of the youths are involved in the cassava value chain? 2. What kind of activities are involved in the cassava value chain that the youth participate in? Inputs Manufacturing Cassava Production Cassava Processing Processed Cassava Marketing Raw cassava Marketing Inputs Marketing University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 8 3. What perceptions do youths in the district hold toward the cassava value chain? 4. What are the determinants of youth participation in each of the cassava value chains? 1.4 Objectives of the Study The study’s main objective is to assess youth’s participation in the cassava value chain in the Upper West Akim District. Specifically, this study sought the following: 1. analyze the proportion of youth involvement in each cassava value chain. 2. describe the activities involved in each cassava value chain by youth. 3. describe youth perceptions of the cassava value chain. 4. estimate the factors influencing youth participation in each cassava value chain. 1.5 Relevance of the Study It is crucial to examine how young people view agriculture to offer factual proof that supports or refutes their intention to pursue a career in it. By providing policymakers with guidance, the findings can have a significant impact on the course of policy. This research intends to contribute to the development of evidence-based agricultural policies by identifying the agricultural activities that resonate with youth. For instance, policy programs like planting for food and jobs. The findings will help policymakers put plans in place to educate and create awareness about the vast and unlimited opportunities agriculture offers the people, especially the youth. The awareness couples with proper and attractive policy initiatives to arouse the interest of the youth to take advantage of the benefits of participating in agriculture. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 9 The research will additionally aid in the effective execution of government programs aimed at advancing the agricultural industry. The government must work in meaningful partnerships with youth to develop interventions and services that are appropriate for their empowerment. This includes fostering an environment where the youth feel empowered to make contributions to the economic, social, and cultural advancement of themselves, their families, and the country at large. 1.7 Organization of the Study This study is divided into five chapters. Chapter One constitutes the introduction, and focuses mainly on the background of the study, problem statement, objectives, and the significance of the study. Reviews of the literature on theoretical and empirical investigations connected to this subject are included in the second chapter. The approaches used to answer the research questions, the conceptual and theoretical foundation of this thesis, a brief description of the study area, methods for gathering data, and analytical strategies are all covered in Chapter Three. Chapter four offers a comprehensive analysis of the observed data, and Chapter Five includes a summary of the conclusions, findings, and recommended courses of action. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 10 CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Introduction A review of the literature that is pertinent to this topic is given in this part of the research. The concepts and terms utilized in this study are defined and explained. Literature on the methods and theoretical foundations of the estimation of the variables affecting young people's involvement in the cassava value chain. This chapter also reviews other studies' findings and their empirical applications. 2.2 Youth Participation in Agriculture Research on youth participation in agriculture reveals both commonalities and variations across different contexts. Akinnagbe and Ogundele (2019) found significant youth involvement in crop production (65.6%) and vegetable farming (50.8%), with an overwhelming 98% of participants exhibiting a favorable attitude toward agriculture. Despite this positive outlook, the challenges of initiating small-scale agricultural ventures and the limited income derived from agricultural produce emerged as key barriers. Similarly, Kimaro et al. (2015) observed that rural youth preferred investing in their farms over working as laborers, highlighting agriculture's role in meeting socio- economic needs such as food, healthcare, and education. However, the study emphasized that while youth see agriculture as a viable livelihood, systemic support is necessary to maximize its potential. Nnadi and Akwiwu (2008) investigated the factors influencing youth participation in agricultural activities in Nigeria and found that 84% of the population engaged in tasks University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 11 such as clearing, planting, fertilizing, and harvesting. Socio-demographic factors, including age, education, marital status, and household size, were significant determinants of participation. This aligns with findings from Wuni et al. (2017), who examined the reasons behind youth unemployment in Ghana’s Bawku Municipality. The study attributed the issue to barriers such as limited access to land and financial constraints, rather than a lack of interest in agriculture. Notably, 72% of the youth expressed a willingness to pursue careers in the sector, suggesting that systemic challenges, rather than personal preferences, hinder their active involvement. Studies diverge on youth enthusiasm, with Akinnagbe and Ogundele (2019) reporting 98% favorable attitudes, whereas Wuni et al. (2017) found a disconnect between interest and active participation due to systemic barriers. Additionally, there's disagreement on agriculture's economic benefits, with Kimaro et al. (2015) emphasizing its role in meeting socioeconomic needs, while Wuni et al. (2017) highlight financial limitations and land access issues leading to unemployment. The importance of education and socio-demographic factors also varies across studies. To reconcile these discrepancies, this research adopts a holistic approach, exploring diverse agricultural activities, systemic factors, regional differences, and gender dynamics. By integrating these perspectives, the study aims to bridge the gap between enthusiasm and practical involvement, providing actionable strategies to enhance youth engagement in agriculture. 2.3 Benefits in the Agriculture Industry Beyond primary production, agriculture is a vital sector for economic growth, employment security, and food security in many nations. With their enthusiasm and University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 12 inventiveness, young people can become very influential in this field. The agricultural value chain offers a range of options for youth to participate and contribute meaningfully, spanning from production to processing, distribution, and marketing. Participation of young people in primary agricultural production can increase food security and provide revenue (Ahaibwe et al., 2013; Proctor & Lucchese, 2012). The next generation needs to know about the increased business and employment opportunities in the value chain industry. Youths can also benefit from agribusiness prospects. These involve farming and supply chain establishing services like processing, wholesaling, and retailing in addition to on-farm production. These agricultural ventures have the potential to produce income and employment opportunities for youth (Yami et al., 2019). For example, it is estimated that by 2030, the food and beverage industry in Africa will bring in over $1 trillion in revenue and may offer additional opportunities for youth employment (Yami et al., 2019). Other studies highlight youth's potential in this area. Fadeyi (2022) underscores the significance of youth in the production of crops and cattle, showcasing their ability to embrace contemporary farming methods and augment agricultural output. Young entrepreneurs might find a variety of options in the agribusiness sector. A report by FAO (2016) underlines the potential for value addition, such as processing, packaging, and branding of agricultural products. Youth engagement in agribusiness can add value to raw materials, create employment, and contribute to economic growth. Within the agricultural value chain, ICT can be extremely important. Research conducted by Boateng (2012) and Fadeyi (2022) demonstrates how ICT tools such as weather University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 13 forecasting, market information systems, and mobile apps help young farmers make more informed decisions that increase their income and production. For young entrepreneurs, institutions and middlemen offer access to capital, training, and market assistance. Babu et al. (2021), addressed the need for strengthening support in these areas for fostering young farmers' capacity-building and participation in the industry and stressed that more has to be done in this regard. Globalization and market expansion present youth with opportunities to participate in agricultural exports. A report by UNCTAD (2020) points out the growth in international trade of agricultural products and how youth can tap into these opportunities by establishing export-oriented enterprises. Capacity building is essential to equip youth with the necessary skills and knowledge. The influence of training programs, vocational schools, and mentorship in improving young people's capacity to effectively engage in the agricultural value chain is highlighted by research conducted by Davis et al. (2015). International organizations and governments have acknowledged the significance of youth in agriculture. According to Poulton et al. (2014), youth involvement and support for agriculture are prioritized by programs like the Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development Programme (CAADP) of the African Union. It is crucial to acknowledge the challenges youth may face in the agricultural value chain, including land tenure issues, access to resources, and market uncertainties. Addressing these challenges is essential to maximize the opportunities available. 2.4 Limitations on the Involvement of Youth in Agribusiness Youth disinterest in agribusiness is influenced by both “push and pull” factors, as highlighted by several studies. Sumberg et al. (2012) emphasize that improved access University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 14 to education and urban employment opportunities are key pull factors drawing young people away from agriculture. On the other hand, Proctor and Lucchese (2012) and Njoku (1999) focus on push factors such as limited access to land, outdated farming equipment, inadequate rural infrastructure, and insufficient funding. This divergence in emphasis suggests that effective solutions must address both the appeal of urban opportunities and the structural issues plaguing rural agricultural systems. A significant barrier to youth participation in agriculture is limited access to critical resources, as noted by Noorani (2015) and Leavy and Smith (2010). They argue that ensuring access to land, finances, and infrastructure is essential for increasing youth engagement. Trevor and Kwenye (2018) expand on this view, identifying additional barriers such as a lack of technical support, inadequate road networks, poor storage facilities, and the absence of agricultural insurance. This broader perspective highlights the need for systemic changes, extending beyond basic resource provision to include policy support and institutional capacity-building. Youth perceptions of agriculture also play a crucial role. Kimaro et al. (2015) and Chikezie et al. (2012) both agree that poor economic returns and rural poverty dissuade youth from pursuing careers in agriculture. However, while Kimaro et al. attribute this to systemic inefficiencies, Chikezie et al. argue that youth often lack awareness of agribusiness opportunities. This discrepancy suggests that improving the sector's performance must be paired with targeted communication strategies to reshape youth perceptions and highlight the potential of agribusiness. Most studies generalize the challenges faced by youth without addressing regional and cultural variations. For instance, land access challenges may differ significantly University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 15 between urban peripheries and rural areas. Additionally, there is a limited exploration of how youth aspirations and perceptions can be reshaped to align with agribusiness opportunities. Few studies also consider how modern technological innovations, such as precision farming or digital platforms, might mitigate systemic challenges and attract young people to agriculture. The current study aims to provide a context-specific analysis of the challenges and opportunities for youth in agribusiness across different socio-economic settings. It will incorporate data on youth perceptions to better understand how these align with the realities of agribusiness. Additionally, the study will explore the role of emerging technologies and innovative practices in overcoming barriers and creating new opportunities. Assessing existing policies and their implementation will also offer actionable recommendations to enhance youth participation in agriculture. 2.5 Cassava Value Chain The value chain refers to a sequence of activities a business undertakes to provide a product or service, where value is added at each step, enhancing its competitive edge in the market (De Marchi et al., 2018; Gereffi, 2019). This process aims to improve the quality of the product while considering the opportunity cost of the new procedures involved (Lee et al., 2018). Value chain analysis helps businesses identify areas for improvement, supports decision-making, and provides a competitive advantage by examining the distribution of rewards, the role of upgrading, and the governance dynamics within the chain (Kaplinsky & Morris, 2000). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 16 Several studies have examined cassava value chains across different regions, focusing on various stages like production, processing, and distribution. Koomson et al. (2020) analyzed the cassava value chain in Ghana, identifying multiple routes from farm to consumer and pointing out the challenges of upgrading due to inconsistent grading and weighing techniques. Kimathi et al. (2007) studied cassava flour value chains in Kenya and Uganda and found significant potential in cassava chips for animal feed, though limited organizational capacity and inadequate policy frameworks hindered technological adoption. Asiedu (2009) focused on technological barriers in West and Central Africa, such as limited access to quality seed, machinery, and fertilizer, as well as the effects of climate change. Kleih et al. (2013) explored the demand for high-quality cassava flour (HQCF) in Ghana and identified the need for standardized processing, especially for the food and non-food industries. Njukwe et al. (2014) highlighted the importance of stakeholder partnerships in Cameroon to enhance cassava production and consumption, underscoring the need for innovative processing techniques. In Nigeria, Hadiza (2012) found that poor infrastructure, financial constraints, and subpar machinery hindered cassava production in Kaduna State. Koomson et al. (2020) and Hadiza (2012) provided detailed mappings of cassava value chains in their respective regions, but Koomson’s study was more comprehensive, covering all stages from production to consumption. In contrast, Njukwe et al. (2014) and Kimathi et al. (2007) focused more on specific stages such as processing and market integration. Both Asiedu (2009) and Kimathi et al. (2007) emphasized technological constraints, but they differed in their focus on policy interventions. While Asiedu University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 17 stressed the lack of quality seeds and fertilizers, Kimathi pointed to the absence of clear guidelines for value-added technologies in the public sector. While Kleih et al. (2013) and Koomson et al. (2020) identified strong market demand for high-quality cassava products, they also pointed out challenges related to upgrading, particularly due to the lack of standardization across the value chain. Asiedu (2009) and Hadiza (2012) highlighted gender-related barriers, with Asiedu noting the difficulties faced by women processors in accessing resources, while Hadiza focused on financial and infrastructural challenges. There are also conflicting findings in the literature. Studies like those of Kimathi et al. (2007) and Asiedu (2009) highlight significant technological constraints as major obstacles to improving the cassava value chain. However, research by Kleih et al. (2013) and Koomson et al. (2020) suggests that despite these challenges, there is a growing market demand for cassava products, particularly HQCF, indicating a disconnect between market opportunities and technological capabilities. Moreover, while some studies emphasize the need for stronger governance and policy frameworks (Kimathi et al., 2007; Asiedu, 2009), others advocate for collaborative approaches through partnerships and stakeholder engagement (Koomson et al., 2020; Njukwe et al., 2014). The current study seeks to provide a comprehensive analysis of the cassava value chain, with a focus on both market demand and technological constraints. Unlike previous studies, which often focused on specific segments, this study will evaluate the entire value chain, from production to consumption, and assess the role of governance in improving value chain efficiency. It will also examine the socioeconomic and gender- University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 18 related barriers that impact value chain development, particularly for smallholders and processors. The study aims to offer policy recommendations to enhance access to resources, infrastructure, and finance, thereby facilitating value chain upgrading and improving overall performance in the cassava sector. 2.6 The Activities Involved in the Cassava Value Chain The Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) technique describes the activities that are part of the cassava value chain. This approach entails identifying and analyzing the activities involved in each stage of the value chain by collaborating with stakeholders at those stages. Additionally, the PRA technique aids in identifying possibilities and problems facing the cassava value chain and in the development of solutions (Kalyesubula & Oonyu, 2019). Numerous tasks are involved in the cassava value chain, such as distribution, marketing, processing, and production. 2.6.1 Production Cassava farmers predominantly operate in rural areas characterized by inadequate infrastructure, according to Antwi-Boateng (2020) and Adebayo et al. (2020). These rural areas lack sufficient infrastructure, posing significant challenges for farmers. As a result, they are often forced to sell their cassava in its fresh form. The amount sold depends on the size of their cassava fields, the amount harvested, and the food requirements of their households. They typically sell most of their harvested cassava roots at the farm gate or village markets to small traders or retailers. These farmers usually obtain planting material from their farms or their neighbors, and they typically University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 19 weed their fields manually using hoes. Cassava production involves land preparation, planting, weeding, fertilizer application, pest and disease control, and harvesting. Farmers typically use traditional methods, such as manual labor and hand tools, to cultivate cassava. Land preparation is the first step in cassava farming. This involves clearing the land of weeds, stumps, and other debris, and then tilling or plowing the soil. This can be done manually or with machinery depending on the scale of the farm. Planting is done after land preparation, cassava stems are planted in furrows or ridges. The stems are usually cut into 20-30 cm long pieces with at least two buds per piece. Weeding is required to control the growth of weeds that compete with cassava for nutrients and water. Depending on the size of the farm, herbicides or manual labor might be used to control weeds. Applying fertilizer is also necessary to enhance soil fertility and raise yield. The kind and quantity of fertilizer needed depend on the kind of soil and the nutrient requirement of the cassava variety. Cassava farming is prone to pests and diseases that can significantly reduce yield. Common pests include cassava mealybug and cassava green mite, while common diseases include cassava mosaic disease and cassava brown streak disease. Cassava is usually harvested after 8-18 months, depending on the variety and the intended use of the crop. Harvesting involves uprooting the cassava stems and removing the tubers from the ground. 2.6.2 Processing For home consumption, traditional methods of cassava processing are primarily performed by women at the household level. Cassava processing involves the conversion of raw cassava roots into a range of value-added products, including gari, fufu, cassava flour, chips, and starch. Processing activities involve peeling, washing, University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 20 grating, pressing, fermentation, drying, milling, and packaging (Okuneye & Olagunju, 2020; Adebayo et al., 2021). Peeling and washing are important steps in cassava processing, as they remove the outer skin and dirt from the roots, which can affect the quality of the final product. Grating is another crucial step that involves breaking down the cassava into small pieces using manual or motorized graters to facilitate further processing. Pressing is another important step that involves squeezing out the water from the cassava mash. This step is critical in producing high-quality cassava products such as fufu, gari, and cassava flour. Fermentation is a critical step in cassava processing, as it helps to reduce the cyanide content and improve the flavor and texture of the final product. Fermentation can occur naturally or be induced by adding starter cultures. Drying is an important step in cassava processing, as it helps to extend the shelf life of the final product and reduce the risk of spoilage. Milling and packaging is the final step in cassava processing. Milling involves grinding the dried cassava into flour. This flour can be used as a raw material in the production of a range of cassava- based products, including bread, biscuits, and snacks. Several studies have reported the use of traditional or modern milling techniques for cassava processing. Packaging is done to protect processed products and make them more marketable (Adesina et al., 2016; Marfo et al., 2018). 2.6.3 Marketing Marketers of cassava and its associated goods include retailers and wholesalers. Retailers, who are typically found closer to their communities, are crucial in collecting cassava at collection points and transporting it in convenient small quantities to final customers or wholesalers. They purchase raw roots and other shelf-stable cassava University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 21 goods, such as chips and flour, and then they rent cars to deliver them to the village or city markets and along the sides of the road. The wholesalers employ cars to deliver the roots to the cities after purchasing from several stores and occasionally straight from the producers. Marketing activities play a critical role in the success of cassava value chains. The marketing activities involved in cassava value chains can be categorized into four main areas: production, processing, distribution, and consumption. Production marketing activities involve the promotion of cassava production through the provision of inputs such as improved varieties, fertilizers, and pest control measures. These activities are essential for improving the quality and quantity of cassava produced. Processing marketing activities involve the transformation of cassava into various products, including flour, starch, and ethanol. These activities are essential for adding value to cassava and increasing its marketability. Distribution marketing activities involve the movement of cassava and its products from the production and processing sites to the markets. These activities are necessary for ensuring that cassava and its products are available to consumers at the right time and places. Consumption marketing activities involve the promotion of cassava and its products to consumers. These activities are essential for creating awareness of the nutritional benefits of cassava and its products (Ogunsina, 2015; Fakayode & Bamire, 2015). 2.7 Youth Participation in the Cassava Value Chain The involvement of youth in the cassava value chain has been the subject of several studies, which explore their participation in production, processing, and marketing. Muhammad et al. (2020) conducted a study in Kwara State, Nigeria, and found that the majority of youth involved in cassava production were under 30, with a mean age of 25 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 22 years. Similarly, Akinwumi et al. (2018) reported that most cassava farmers in Nigeria were between the ages of 18 and 35. Baidu-Forson et al. (2015) found that 48% of cassava farmers in Ghana were under 35 years old, indicating significant youth involvement across West Africa. Afolabi et al. (2018) also reported that 51.3% of respondents were below the age of 35, highlighting the important role of youth in cassava production and processing in Nigeria. Ezedinma et al. (2020) confirmed that 60% of cassava farmers in Nigeria were under 35 years old, underscoring the prominence of youth in the sector. Despite the high participation rate, challenges remain. Afolabi et al. (2018) noted that youth face barriers such as limited access to finance, technical skills, and poor market linkages, which hinder their full engagement in cassava value chain activities. Furthermore, studies by Chikezie et al. (2012) and Adepoju and Adegbite (2019) found that while youth were involved in cassava farming, their participation was mainly limited to labor on the farm, without involvement in processing or marketing. These findings highlight the need for greater opportunities for youth to engage in other facets of the value chain, such as processing and marketing, through training and financial support. Youth involvement in cassava processing is also critical to the value chain. Akrong and Kotu (2022) and Okechukwu et al. (2019) found that young people are actively engaged in tasks like peeling, grating, and frying cassava, as well as producing high-value products like starch and flour. However, their participation is largely restricted to small- scale, manual operations, with limited access to training, technology, and financial University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 23 resources. The studies recommend enhanced efforts to transition youth from traditional practices to more automated and efficient processing methods, alongside capacity- building initiatives, technological innovations, and promoting entrepreneurship. In cassava marketing, Nweke et al. (2017) found that young people were involved in activities such as transportation, storage, and selling, with many utilizing modern marketing techniques like mobile phones and social media. Olaomo and Molnar (2022) also explored gender roles in cassava marketing and processing in Nigeria, revealing that while more men were involved in processing, women dominated the marketing phase. Their study found that about 29% of the youth involved in processing and marketing were under 40 years old. The study recommended that youth be trained in both processing and marketing skills to facilitate their participation in formal, more profitable sectors of the cassava value chain. Across these studies, there is a consensus that youth involvement in cassava production is high, with a particular focus on those aged 18 to 35. However, their participation tends to be confined to farm labor or manual, small-scale processing activities, which limits their potential to fully capitalize on the value chain. While studies like Afolabi et al. (2018) and Chikezie et al. (2012) identify significant barriers, such as poor access to finance, technical skills, and market linkages, Akrong and Kotu (2022) and Okechukwu et al. (2019) stress the need for more automated processing techniques and capacity building. There is a clear need for initiatives that go beyond simply engaging youth in production to include formal processing and marketing skills, which would open up additional avenues for youth to participate in the value chain. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 24 Studies lack a comprehensive focus on gender and the intersectionality of youth involvement across different roles in the cassava value chain. While Olaomo and Molnar (2022) examined gender dynamics in marketing and processing, there is little discussion of how gender-specific challenges might affect youth participation in cassava processing and marketing. Additionally, while most studies emphasize the barriers faced by youth, they often do not explore the effectiveness of existing government policies or initiatives aimed at empowering youth in these sectors. The current study seeks to address these gaps by providing a comprehensive analysis of youth involvement in the entire cassava value chain, production, processing, and marketing. Unlike previous studies that focus separately on each segment, this study will examine how youth can be better integrated across all phases of the value chain, with a particular focus on overcoming the financial, technological, and market-related barriers identified in the literature. It will also explore the gender dynamics in youth participation, particularly in processing and marketing, to assess how gender roles and inequalities may limit youth engagement and how they can be addressed. 2.8 Perception of the Youth on the Cassava Value Chain 2.8.1 Perceptions of Youth on Cassava Production Several studies have investigated the perceptions of youth on cassava cultivation in Africa. A study by Muhammed et al. (2020) in Nigeria found that youth perceive cassava cultivation as profitable and an important source of income, with high market demand for cassava products. The youth also agreed that cassava production improves their livelihood. The researchers also found that improved planting materials and University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 25 various agricultural programs will encourage rural youth participation in cassava production. Similar work done by August (2020) found that youth perceive cassava cultivation as a means of achieving financial independence and reducing poverty and that youth were motivated to engage in cassava cultivation because of the high yields and low input costs associated with the crop. The study also found that youth were attracted to the flexibility of cassava cultivation, as it can be grown on both small and large scales. In Ghana, a study by Darko-Koomson et al. (2020) found that youth perceive cassava cultivation as a means of improving food security and generating income. The study found that youth were attracted to cassava cultivation because of the high yields and resistance to pests and diseases. The study also found that youth were motivated to engage in cassava cultivation because of the high demand for cassava products in local and international markets. Njiraini et al. (2021) in Kenya found that youth perceive cassava cultivation as a means of creating employment opportunities and reducing poverty. The study found that youth were attracted to cassava cultivation because of the low input costs and high market demand for cassava products., the youth were motivated to engage in cassava cultivation because of the potential to earn income from both the sale of cassava products and the provision of labor for cassava processing. One of the main reasons why the youth view cassava production negatively is its perceived lack of profitability. A study by Oladele et al. (2021) in Nigeria found that young people viewed cassava farming as a less prestigious occupation compared to other agricultural activities like poultry farming and vegetable production. The youth often view cassava production as a traditional and outdated agricultural activity that University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 26 lacks innovation and modernization. Henning et al. (2022) and August (2020) found that young people perceive cassava farming as a low-tech activity that offers little opportunity for technological innovation and creativity, making cassava farming less attractive to young people interested in modern and innovative agricultural practices. Cassava farming is a labor-intensive time-consuming activity that requires significant physical effort. Many young people view cassava production as a difficult task that offers little reward for their labor. For example, a study by Chisanga et al. (2019) in Zambia found that young people hesitated to engage in cassava farming due to the heavy labor required and the long time it takes to harvest and process the crop. The youth prefer less physically demanding jobs, such as office work or trading, to cassava cultivation (Ogunlade et al., 2020). 2.8.2 Perceptions of the Youth on Cassava Processing Adebayo et al. (2020) conducted a study in Nigeria to assess the perceptions of youth toward cassava processing. The study found that the majority of youth (82.2%) had a positive perception of cassava processing as a source of income generation. They identified the need for training and access to finance as critical factors for successful cassava processing ventures. According to a study by Afolabi, et al. (2010), young people in Nigeria perceive cassava processing as a low-value and low-prestige activity, with limited potential for income generation. The study found that young people are often more interested in pursuing careers in the formal sector, such as banking or IT, rather than in agriculture or food processing. Another study by Magagula et al. (2020) in South Africa found that young people perceive cassava processing as a dirty and University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 27 physically demanding activity that is not suitable for women. This negative perception, coupled with a lack of modern processing technologies, has led to a decline in the cassava processing industry in the country. Similarly, a study by Afolayan et al. (2017) in Nigeria found that young people negatively perceive cassava processing due to the lack of modern processing technologies, poor working conditions, and low profitability. The study recommended the use of modern processing technologies, such as high- pressure steamers and flash dryers, to make cassava processing more attractive to young people. 2.8.3 Perceptions of the Youth on Cassava Marketing Studies by Ephrem et al. (2021) and Akinyele et al. (2016), found that youth were aware of the potential benefits of engaging in cassava marketing, including the opportunity to earn income, gain skills, and improve their livelihoods. Furthermore, the study found that youth were willing to participate in cassava value chain activities, such as production, processing, and marketing. Murimbika et al. (2021) Perceived social norms and agripreneurial intention among youths toward cassava value chain activities in Nigeria. The study found that youth perceived cassava as a profitable crop, and were interested in engaging in cassava value chain activities. However, the study also identified several constraints to youth participation, including limited access to finance, lack of training and technical skills, and inadequate infrastructure. Amaza et al. (2017) assess the awareness and perception of youth towards the cassava value chain in Nigeria. The researchers found that young people positively perceived cassava marketing and saw it as a profitable venture. They also found that lack of access University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 28 to finance and inadequate market information were significant challenges that hindered youth participation in the cassava value chain. According to a study by Forson et al. (2018), youth perceive cassava farming and marketing as profitable and high-paying. Youth also perceive cassava marketing as having unlimited market opportunities, with few opportunities for value addition and product diversification. Across the studies, there is a recurring theme of youth perceiving cassava farming and marketing as potentially profitable, but this is tempered by significant barriers such as low prestige, high labor demands, and lack of modern technology. While cassava production is generally seen as a reliable source of income, the negative perceptions about its labor-intensive nature and the low-tech aspects of cassava processing create a disincentive for youth to pursue it as a long-term career. This is in contrast to other sectors like poultry farming or vegetable production, which are often seen as more prestigious and less physically demanding. These findings suggest that while youth recognize the economic benefits of cassava, they are deterred by perceptions of it as an outdated and less innovative field. This study aims to provide a more holistic view of the youth’s perceptions across all aspects of the cassava value chain, production, processing, and marketing. Unlike previous studies that focus on one or two segments, this study will assess how youth view cassava as a whole and explore the interconnectedness of their perceptions in relation to the entire value chain. By providing a comprehensive analysis, the study aims to identify more targeted interventions, such as training programs, access to finance, University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 29 and the introduction of modern technologies, to make cassava cultivation and processing more appealing and viable for youth. 2.9 Factors Influencing Youth Participation in the Cassava Value Chain Academic research has focused on youth involvement in agribusiness and agriculture. Withanage (2019) examined the elements influencing young people in Sri Lanka who are interested in starting their agriculture businesses. The estimated binary logistic model revealed that, while parental education had a negative impact, attitude, acceptance, parental satisfaction with agricultural income, parental income, ownership of agro-machines, land, expected government support, and credit facilities strongly positively influenced the aspirations of young people towards agricultural entrepreneurship. The study suggests several strategies, including successful awareness- raising campaigns to change the attitudes of parents and society at large, skillfully crafted training and knowledge-enhancing programs to explain the opportunities that earn trust, and addressing the challenges the industry faces in terms of technological advancements; marketing and seeking out international opportunities; forming successful organizations for young farmers and enabling them to gain the necessary bargaining power; and providing essential facilities like irrigation and water conservation systems, local seed banks, and so on. The binary logit model was employed by Nwibo et al. (2016) to evaluate the factors influencing agribusiness in rural households located in the Ishielu Local Government Area of Ebonyi State. The study discovered that the decision to engage in agriculture University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 30 was positively influenced by experience, annual income, household size, and educational attainment, whereas age had a negative correlation with this decision. The variables to be included in the econometric model were determined using the information from this investigation. This analysis, however, did not take into account the various agribusiness endeavors. The various agribusiness endeavors that rural youths engage in were taken into account in the current study. Using probit regression analysis, Jirgi et al. (2019) evaluated youths' involvement in cassava cultivation under the value chain development program (VCDP) in the Bida Local Government Area of Niger State, Nigeria. According to the data, the majority of the farmers in the research area were married men with an average age of 32 years and a household size of six (6) members. They also had low levels of formal education. Age, gender, education level, marital status, household size, kind of farming, and cooperative membership all had an impact on the moderate level of youth participation under the VCDP. Ogunmodede et al. (2020) estimated the factors impacting Nigerian youth's decision to pursue agriculture as a means of employment using a binary logit model. The study concluded that while education and employment decreased the likelihood of engaging in agribusiness, age and years of experience positively influenced adolescents to take advantage of employment possibilities along the agricultural value chain. The current study on the need to model young people's decision to become agricultural entrepreneurs was informed by this one. This study did not, however, specifically look at the selection of agricultural activities. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 31 Magagula and Tsvakirai (2020) looked into the variables influencing young people's intentions to engage in agribusiness in South Africa. The study's conclusions showed that while marital status had a negative impact on a young person's intention to pursue agriculture, parental financial support, engaging in agricultural studies in school, and the perceived economic benefits of agriculture all positively influenced youths' intentions to pursue agribusiness. This study offers information on the factors that influence a youth's willingness to participate in agribusiness, even though it does not address the factors that influence the decision to engage in agriculture. Ng'atigwa et al. (2020) examined youth involvement in Tanzanian horticulture and agribusiness using the ordered logit model. Youth engagement in horticulture agribusiness was positively influenced by education, innovative management, financial availability, a favorable impression of horticulture for agribusiness, and better packaging materials, according to the study. However, youth involvement in Tanzanian horticulture agribusiness was significantly impacted by gender and land size. This study did not take into account the various facets of horticulture and agribusiness (farming and trading). The current study, however, takes into account the various agricultural operations because they result in varying degrees of benefit (profit). Twumasi et al. (2019) evaluated the factors influencing participation and the intensity of tertiary youth participation in agriculture in Ghana by using the twofold hurdle model. The findings showed that young participation in agriculture was influenced by perceived input costs, credit availability, land availability, educational opportunities, and agricultural studies. Conversely, the perceived cost of agricultural inputs and being a man decreased the level of participation. Other factors that affected the level of University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 32 participation were youth course of study, loan availability, land accessibility, and the perceived benefits of agriculture. The present investigation of the sequential decisions made by young entrepreneurs along the cassava value chain was inspired by this earlier study. As compared to Twumasi et al. (2019), the current study expanded the idea of youth involvement decisions to encompass the cassava value chain. Adeyanju et al. (2021) employed the endogenous switching probit model to examine the effect of agricultural programs on youth participation in agribusiness. They discovered that while formal employment had a negative influence on youth participation in agricultural programs, age, education, migration status, perception of training, and mental health had a positive impact. Conversely, the findings indicate that wealth, gender, and loan availability all had a positive impact on agricultural participation, whereas mental health and education had the opposite effect. This study provided insight into the current study's hypothesis by demonstrating how the previously listed factors affect young people's involvement in agribusiness. This study, however, does not go so far as to demonstrate how these variables affect various agribusiness activities. Furthermore, Nnadi and Akwiwu (2008) examined the factors influencing young involvement in rural agriculture in Imo State, Nigeria, using a logistic regression model. Their empirical findings showed that juvenile participation in agribusiness activities was significantly influenced by age, marital status, education, household size, parents' occupation, parents' farm income, and dependent status. Similar to this, Akpan et al. (2015) used the logistic model to study the factors influencing rural youth's decisions and involvement in agricultural production in Nigeria. The findings showed that youth's University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 33 decision to participate in agricultural activities in the study area was positively influenced by their years of involvement in social organizations, their access to ICT (information and communications technology), their type of land ownership, and their availability to state-owned agricultural programs. A study of current empirical research on young people's decisions in agriculture has demonstrated that a variety of factors, varying in terms of socioeconomic, political, and geographic context, affect young people's decisions to participate in agribusiness. While existing literature provides valuable insights into youth participation in agriculture, the current study will offer a more specific and comprehensive analysis of how various factors interact to influence youth decisions within the cassava value chain. By focusing on specific barriers like access to land, technology, and finance, and exploring how these factors can be integrated into tailored interventions, the study aims to address significant gaps in the literature and propose actionable solutions for increasing youth participation in agribusiness. 2.10 Innovations in the Cassava Values Chain to Attract the Youth The development of disease-resistant cassava varieties has revolutionized the crop's potential, significantly boosting yields and resilience against devastating diseases like Cassava Mosaic Disease (CMD) and Cassava Brown Streak Disease (CBSD). Through initiatives like the Next-Gen Cassava project, researchers have successfully bred varieties that reduce yield losses by up to 40% and increase yields to 30 tons per hectare, addressing food security concerns and enhancing income potential for smallholder farmers. Furthermore, cassava bio-fortification has led to vitamin A-enriched varieties, University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 34 such as yellow cassava, which provide essential nutritional benefits, particularly in regions facing nutrient deficiencies. Promoted by Harvest-Plus in West Africa, these bio-fortified varieties have gained traction in countries like Nigeria and Ghana, offering a sustainable solution to improve nutrition and food security. Innovations in planting and harvesting equipment have eased labor demands, making cassava farming less labor-intensive. Mechanical planters and harvesters, developed through collaborations with local manufacturers and research institutions, increase efficiency in planting and harvesting, leading to reduced costs and improved yields (Sanni et al., 2018). Post-harvest processing technologies have seen notable improvements, with solar dryers and small-scale milling machines introduced to reduce post-harvest losses. Improved cassava processing equipment enhances farmers’ ability to process cassava into high-quality products like flour and starch, thus increasing market value (Tewe & Lutaladio, 2019). Digital platforms, such as FarmCrowdy and AgroMall in Nigeria, revolutionize cassava farming by directly connecting farmers to markets, eliminating intermediaries, and securing higher prices. These platforms also provide vital data on market trends, weather, and best practices, empowering farmers to make informed decisions. Furthermore, blockchain technology is enhancing transparency and traceability in cassava value chains across Southeast Asia and sub-Saharan Africa, building trust and competitiveness in markets prioritizing sustainable sourcing. Recent investments in cassava-based ethanol production have created new revenue streams for cassava farmers, particularly in Asia. Ethanol derived from cassava has University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 35 applications as a renewable fuel source, offering economic and environmental benefits (Peng et al., 2021). High-quality Cassava Flour (HQCF) has emerged as a viable alternative to wheat flour, especially in Nigeria, where it reduces the cost of imported wheat and supports local farmers. Literature suggests that HQCF adoption has increased significantly in West Africa due to policies encouraging cassava’s inclusion in bread flour (Ogundari et al., 2021). The cassava value chain in Ghana is undergoing significant transformations, driven by innovations in disease-resistant varieties, mechanization, post-harvest processing, market linkages, and value addition. These advancements have the potential to attract youth to cassava farming, addressing concerns about food security, income generation, and environmental sustainability. 2.11 Agricultural Policy Changes Affecting Youth Participation Efforts to involve youth in agriculture face persistent barriers, such as limited access to land, finance, and training. Recognizing this, policy reforms in developing regions increasingly target these areas, with a strong emphasis on youth empowerment in the agricultural sector. Limited access to financing has been a key barrier to youth in agriculture. The ENABLE Youth program, funded by the African Development Bank (AfDB), provides training and loans specifically for young in agriculture. According to Ayinde et al. (2019), the program has significantly reduced youth unemployment and encouraged agricultural entrepreneurship. Secure land rights are critical for youth in agriculture, yet youth often face significant land access issues. Recent reforms in Kenya and Ghana have introduced incentives for land leasing and ownership transfers within families, enhancing youth access to arable land (Mabaya & Christy, 2021). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 36 Programs focused on training young agripreneurs have gained traction. For instance, the African Agribusiness Incubator Network (AAIN) provides hands-on training for youth in agribusiness management, crop processing, and marketing, increasing the appeal of agriculture as a viable career (Njeru & Kebede, 2020). Digital platforms like Precision Agriculture for Development (PAD) have modernized extension services by providing timely advice via mobile devices. These services deliver essential information on best practices and pest control directly to farmers, making agriculture more data-driven and appealing to younger generations (Fuentes & Alvarez, 2021). Digital platforms like Trotro Tractor (Ghana) and DigiFarm (Kenya) bridge resource gaps for young farmers, offering on-demand access to equipment and labor services, and boosting efficiency. Social media (Facebook, Instagram, WhatsApp) enables knowledge sharing, networking, and market connectivity among young farmers. Climate-smart agriculture initiatives promote sustainable practices, enhanced by policies incentivizing agroforestry, water conservation, and climate-resilient inputs. Governments in Ethiopia and Nigeria provide subsidies for climate-resilient seeds and organic fertilizers, making sustainable agriculture affordable and appealing to youth. Research shows these efforts increase youth engagement in sustainable agriculture. Youth-focused incubators and accelerators support innovation within the agricultural sector. Programs like Nigeria’s Agri-Hub provide young entrepreneurs with funding, mentorship, and networks, promoting the use of technology to address agricultural challenges (Mugambiwa & Tirivangasi, 2020). Tax incentives reduce the financial burden on agritech startups, encouraging innovation. In Kenya, youth agritech companies benefit from tax exemptions, making it easier to start and sustain technology- University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 37 driven ventures that enhance agricultural efficiency and productivity (Ogutu & Oino, 2021). Ghana has made significant strides in promoting youth participation in agriculture through policy reforms. Initiatives like the ENABLE Youth program, African Agribusiness Incubator Network (AAIN), and digital platforms (e.g., Precision Agriculture for Development, Trotro Tractor) address barriers to youth engagement, including limited access to finance, land, training, and resources. Policy reforms, such as land leasing incentives and subsidies for climate-resilient practices, enhance youth access to arable land and encourage sustainable farming. Social media platforms facilitate knowledge sharing and market access, while youth-focused incubators and accelerators (e.g., AgriHub) promote innovation and entrepreneurship. Tax incentives for agritech startups further encourage innovation. 2.12 Factors Influencing Participation of the Youth in the Cassava Value Chain Explained Land access Young people seeking to find a way to support themselves through farming in their homelands need access to land. A major requirement for starting a farming operation is obtaining land. This may provide most households with steady access to healthful, high- quality food while also creating jobs and revenue (Kidido et al., 2017). Although having access to fertile land is necessary for farming, getting such land can be extremely difficult for young people (Njenga et al., 2012), particularly in light of the current land tenure systems in many African nations. Land is essential to agriculture, and young people are routinely denied access to arable and productive land. This essentially deters University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 38 people from participating in the industry (Afande et al., 2015). One socioeconomic element that influences and deters young people from participating in agriculture is limited access to land (Divyakirti, 2015). Youths now face more obstacles in their quest for agricultural land and possibilities, according to White (2012), especially in a society where elderly persons are expected to occupy leadership roles. Many young people who are deprived of the chance to utilize or own family land have chosen to leave family farms in search of other employment opportunities, or take jobs as laborers or sharecrop tenants abroad (Amanor, 2008). Bezu and Holden's (2014) study in Southern Ethiopia found that young people would prefer to work in non-agricultural fields over agriculture due to restricted access to land. Ghana's youth have suffered greatly from a lack of access to land; as a result, the majority of them have given up on agriculture in favor of other means of income (Kidido et al., 2017). Infrastructure Access Africa's rural communities are recognized to encounter significant issues related to physical and social infrastructure, which are pushing the younger generation into urban areas (Afande et al., 2015). Mugisha and Nkwasibwe (2014) contended that providing rural communities with resources such as dependable energy, improved roads, amusing amenities, internet, high-quality basic healthcare, water, and sanitation will be crucial to empowering young people to engage in agriculture. Furthermore, the majority of young people find it challenging to access information due to the poor agricultural information infrastructure. The majority of young people have a one-dimensional impression of the industry since they are unaware of the opportunities that are accessible to them. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 39 Market Access Market access gives farmers the ability to procure agricultural services and inputs, as well as the know-how to deliver the finished product to customers. Farmers have the chance to make money in markets, which helps to lower poverty in developing nations (Van Schalkwyk et al., 2012). However, several obstacles prevent most African smallholder farmers from having access to markets, which is crucial for ensuring that farming provides a sustainable source of income. Among these difficulties include strained relationships between different parties, marked by a high degree of mistrust, and low faith in smallholders' ability to satisfy market demands for output volumes and quality (Chipfupa & Wale, 2018). Physical distance to the market is difficult for young farmers who must travel a great distance to get to the market, particularly if they lack access to transportation (Zamxaka, 2015). Given the significance of rural youth for the agricultural sector's future, leveraging their market access is essential to raising incomes, and productivity, and lowering future rates of hunger and poverty. However, the youth in developing nations encounter some obstacles in their quest for market access that surpass those encountered by smallholder farmers (FAO, 2012). FAO (2012) reports that most youth do not have the skills and knowledge necessary for marketing; in addition, they do not have corporate skills and do not know as much about prices as most other smallholder farmers do. Education and Training Accessible Youth's negative attitudes towards agriculture can be ascribed to several causes, the most prominent being education (Nxumalo & Oladele, 2013). Most young people still struggle to find information on farming and the farming business, according to Afande University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 40 et al. (2015). Many people do not think of agriculture as something that goes beyond basic production, therefore they are not aware of the opportunities the sector presents (FAO, 2014). According to Afolami et al. (2012), young people in rural areas have challenges related to both inadequate access to education and the quality of education received. Afolami et al. (2012) stated that, even though it should have been taught in elementary schools, the agricultural syllabus vanished from the majority of African schools. It is critical to emphasize that improved agricultural education and training must be provided and that all relevant information must be made available in all significant institutions, including libraries, schools, and municipal offices (FAO, 2014). Availability of Savings and Credit (Loans) For many years, scholars in Africa have examined the issue of smallholder farmers' limited access to credit and finance (Brooks et al., 2012). Most young people have difficulty getting financial aid for commitments to agriculture (Gichimu & Njeru, 2014). When they do not provide suitable collateral security, banks and other financial institutions frequently view them as not being creditworthy enough to grant them credit, loans, or other forms of financial assistance (Afande et al., 2015). According to Juma (2017), being able to afford financial resources enables one to pay farm laborers, rent land, and buy agricultural inputs. In a similar vein, Ahaibwe et al. (2013) contended that having access to credit, loans, and adequate savings increases the probability that a person will be able to obtain useful resources for agricultural promotion as well as productive inputs. However, due to their inability to repay loans, young people, especially those who reside in rural areas, are reluctant to take out loans (FAO, 2010). When it comes to obtaining loans, young people with creditworthy business ventures University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 41 occasionally have an advantage over those without startups or established businesses (McNulty & Nagarajan, 2005). Another crucial source of income for young people is savings since they enable them to accumulate assets, assist during difficult times, and purchase agricultural supplies (McNulty & Nagarajan, 2005). Extension and Support Service Access Access to extension and support services is one of the agriculture sector's most important interventions, among other things (Khapayi & Celliers, 2015). Important market information, useful land usage, and agricultural input information are all included in extension and support services (Ahaibwe et al., 2013). In addition to improving young people's agricultural knowledge and expertise, providing these services and support is essential for other important reasons such as rural development, food security commercialization, poverty reduction, and the creation of income for aspiring farmers (Ntshangase, 2016). 2.13 Methods Employed in Related Studies Empirical research on youth participation in agriculture and agribusiness has predominantly utilized structured questionnaires and interviews for data collection. Studies such as Danso-Abbeam et al. (2016), Adewole et al. (2020), and Mibey (2016) relied on these methods, employing sampling techniques like simple random sampling and purposive sampling. While simple random sampling, as used by Njeru (2017), ensures equal representation, purposive sampling, as employed by Chipfupa (2017), allows targeted selection but may introduce selection bias. Stratified random sampling, used by Chipfupa (2017) and Zamxaka (2015), adds depth by dividing the population University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 42 into strata, such as age groups or income levels, ensuring that diverse perceptions are captured. Recognizing these advantages, the current study adopts simple random sampling and purposive sampling to capture an equal representation of the youth across different stages of the cassava value chain. To measure youth perceptions, Kimaro et al. (2015) applied a five-point Likert scale, ranging from "Strongly Disagree" to "Strongly Agree." This approach has been widely used to capture attitudinal data but often oversimplifies complex views by confining responses to predefined categories. Henning et al. (2022) took perception analysis a step further by using principal component analysis (PCA) to identify underlying perception dimensions and link them to agribusiness aspirations through a probit model. This provided richer insights into the relationship between perceptions and youth engagement in agriculture. The current study builds on this by developing a perception index that synthesizes Likert-scale responses into a continuous variable. This allows for more nuanced statistical analysis and provides deeper insights into how perceptions influence youth decisions within the cassava value chain. Statistical models play a pivotal role in these studies. While multiple linear regression models were used by Adesina and Favour (2016) and Zamxaka (2015) to evaluate continuous outcomes, their application to binary outcomes is limited, as they can produce probabilities outside the acceptable range (0–1) and fail to address heteroscedasticity. Binary logistic regression (logit models), favored in studies like Mbah et al. (2016) and Cheteani (2016), is better suited for binary outcomes such as youth participation in agribusiness. Probit models, used by Henning et al. (2022), offer slightly more flexibility in estimating marginal effects but are computationally more University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 43 complex. The current study employs a logit regression model due to its mathematical simplicity and suitability for binary outcomes, such as whether youth choose to engage in cassava agribusiness. By incorporating the perception index and controlling for socioeconomic, demographic, and structural factors, the study bridges the gap between perception-based and decision-based analyses. Comprehensive frameworks for understanding youth participation in agriculture are also highlighted in prior studies. For instance, Henning et al. (2022) incorporated human, social, physical, financial, and natural capital to examine agribusiness involvement but focused on aspirations rather than specific agricultural activities. Similarly, Cheteani (2016) and Yakubu et al. (2019) analyzed decision-making in agribusiness but did not link perceptions to structural factors like access to credit or training. The current study combines these approaches by integrating multidimensional factors with the decision-focused framework of logit regression. Additionally, by zeroing in on the cassava value chain, the study addresses the need for specificity in analyzing youth participation at various stages, including production, processing, and marketing. In conclusion, the current study enhances previous methodologies by constructing a perception index and focusing on the cassava value chain. The use of logit regression ensures a robust analysis of binary outcomes, linking perceptions to structural and economic determinants. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 44 CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY 3.1 Introduction This section of the study presents the theoretical and conceptual framework that guides this investigation. The sources of the data, the various methods used to collect the data, the study areas, and the empirical models used in the investigation are all covered in this section. In addition to presenting the necessary hypothesis tests and methods of analyzing each objective, this chapter includes methods for measuring the variables of interest that are part of the empirical models. 3.2 Conceptual Framework This study's conceptual framework integrates Push-Pull Theory, Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA), and Human Capital Theory (HCT) to examine youth engagement in the cassava value chain. The framework analyzes how youth characteristics, value chain opportunities, and motivational factors (poverty, market opportunities) interact with socio-cultural influences (attitudes, norms) and human capital investments (education, training). This integration enables the identification of key factors influencing youth participation, exploration of relationships between motivational, socio-cultural, and human capital factors, and informed policy decisions supporting youth-led cassava enterprises, ultimately enhancing food security and economic empowerment. The components listed below, as shown in Figure 3.1 on page 44, provide the basis of the conceptual framework for this investigation. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 45 Conceptual Framework Figure 3.1 Conceptual Framework Source: Author’s construct This conceptual framework provides a basis for understanding the flow of the factors influencing youth’s participation in the cassava value chain. Push-Pull Theory, Theory of Reasoned Action, and Human Capital Theory were considered in constructing the conceptual framework. This theory proposes that an individual's behavior is determined by their intention to perform the behavior, which