UNIVERSITY OF GHANA 
COLLEGE OF HUMANITIES 

 

SOCIO-ECONOMIC IMPACTS OF SCHOLARSHIP ON STUDENT 

MOBILITY: THE CASE OF KENYAN STUDENTS STUDYING ABROAD 

BY 

LINDA AKOTH JUMA 

(10874102) 

THIS DISSERTATION IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON 

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF MA 

IN MIGRATION STUDIES DEGREE 

CENTRE FOR MIGRATION STUDIES 

JUNE 2022 

 

 

  

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DECLARATION 

I Linda Akoth Juma do hereby declare that, except for references to other people’s work, which I 

have duly acknowledged, this dissertation is my own original research work, and that it has neither 

in part nor in whole been presented elsewhere for another degree. 

 

Sign       Date 20th June 2022 
Linda Akoth Juma (Student) 

   

Sign…………………………………… Date…………………………………….. 
Prof. Mary Setrana Boatema ( Supervisor) 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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mary
18/01/2023



 

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DEDICATION 

I dedicate this study to my brother Enos Omondi, my Mother Rhoda Juma, my fellow scholars 

from different programs  for the support, invaluable encouragements and the Queen Elizabeth 

Commonwealth scholarship for the dedicated support in pursuing my MA studies in Ghana. 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 

Most of all, I give thanks to God for granting me good health and the insights through the journey 

of seeking this work come to a reality. I am most indebted to my supervisor Prof. Mary Boatema 

Setrana for her able supervision, guidance, availability and professional advice to ensure this 

research study came to fruition. 

My special thanks to the Queen Elizabeth commonwealth scholarship scheme who gave me the 

scholarship for my studies and supported me throughout my academic journey. I wish also to 

sincerely appreciate the entire QECS scholar who encouraged me during this journey through 

WhatsApp group. 

I owe heartfelt gratitude to my fellow Kenyan scholars who willingly provided the much needed 

data to complete this research study, and their responsibility in filling in the questionnaire. I wish 

also to sincerely appreciate the family of Kevin Okai who offered me accommodation during my 

studies, for their enormous tolerance, understand and encouragement. 

Lastly, I am profoundly grateful to classmates, friends and very individual who in one way or 

another contributed to the realization of this work. Thanks to you all and may God bless you. 

 

 

 

 

 

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ABSTRACT 

The purpose of this study was to examine the socio-economic impacts of scholarships on student 

mobility, using Kenyan students studying abroad as a case.  The focus is on geographic mobility 

where students leave their home country to study in a foreign country due to scholarship funding. 

In the recent past, there has been an increase in the number of scholarships globally translating to 

an increased number of students moving away from their home countries to gain knowledge from 

foreign countries. Such cases have been predominant, particularly in students moving from 

developing nations like Kenya to developed ones. However, these movements are also present 

from developed to developing, between developing nations, and between developed nations. As a 

result, this study sought to determine the social and economic impacts of scholarships towards this 

increased movement. This is critical as it essentially dislodges the inclination that researchers have 

towards student mobility for degree student social life, city offerings, where academic 

performance, talent, and work experience are considered wholesome contributory factors for 

scholarships and brings focus on opportunities for economic and social development. 

Other specific objectives included exploring the motivation, application processes, and major 

destination countries for student mobility through scholarships, exploring the nature of migration 

preparation processes for student mobility through scholarships, evaluating the economic and 

social impacts of scholarships on student mobility, and evaluating the challenges and possible 

solutions of scholarships on student mobility. To satisfy these objectives, the study had a mix of 

both qualitative and quantitative study designs wherein a survey with 80 participants guided data 

collection with key informant interviews also conducted for data saturation. 

Literature was reviewed to give a general overview of the research subject and to identify material 

that might aid in achieving the study’s goals. The researcher conducted a study of students who 

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had or were studying abroad on scholarships. This was accomplished by online administration of 

questionnaires and interviews with all respondents selected using snowball sampling method. The 

data was then gathered, analyzed, presented, and evaluate to arrive at the study’s conclusions. 

Primarily the study was able to establish that the primary motivating factor for scholarships was 

encouragement by professors which was supported by 34% of the respondents. Apart from this, 

the most significant push factor was limited financial support in the home country supported by 

73.3% of the respondents while the most significant pull factor the was availability of financial aid 

indicated by 96.7% of the respondents. The results show that scholarships indeed have significant 

social and economic impacts. The social impacts included increased social and religious 

interactions which were supported by 86.7% of the respondents, strengthened commitment which 

83.3% of the respondents indicated that they had experienced, global learning and international 

understanding which was experienced by 70% of the respondents, and enhanced professional and 

leadership life. For the economic impacts, the study confirms leverage on tuition fees which was 

indicated by 100% of the respondents, leverage on transportation and accommodation indicated 

by 86.7% of the respondents, increased financial freedom and maturity which was experienced by 

70% of the respondents, while responsibility, increased earnings, and employment potential was 

indicated by 56.7% of the respondents.  

The report thus recommends that there is a need for the Kenyan Government through the Ministry 

of Education to collaborate with thscholarship-providingng institutions to optimize the social and 

economic impacts as they directly or indirectly benefit the nation. 

 

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Table of Contents 
DECLARATION ............................................................................................................................................ i 

DEDICATION ............................................................................................................................................... ii 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................................................ iii 

ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................................. iv 

LIST OF ACRONYMS ................................................................................................................................ xi 

CHAPTER ONE ............................................................................................................................................ 1 

INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................................... 1 

1.1 Background .............................................................................................................................................. 1 

1.2 Problem Statement ................................................................................................................................... 5 

1.3 Objectives of Study .................................................................................................................................. 7 

1.4 Research Questions .................................................................................................................................. 8 

1.5 Definition of Concepts ............................................................................................................................. 8 

1.6 Significance and Justification of Study ................................................................................................. 10 

1.7 Organization of Study ............................................................................................................................ 11 

CHAPTER TWO ......................................................................................................................................... 12 

LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................................................ 12 

2.0 Introduction............................................................................................................................................ 12 

2.1 Conceptualizing Student Mobility ......................................................................................................... 12 

2.2 Mobility  Scholarships ........................................................................................................................... 14 

2.3 Reasons for Scholarships as Tools for Student Mobility ....................................................................... 16 

2.4 Social Impacts of Scholarship on Student Mobility .............................................................................. 18 

2.5 Economic Impacts of Scholarship on Student Mobility ........................................................................ 21 

2.6 Challenges Faced by Students on Scholarship ...................................................................................... 23 

2.7 Solutions to Challenges Faced by Students on Scholarship .................................................................. 24 

2.8 Theoretical Framework .......................................................................................................................... 25 

2.8.1 Push and Pull Theory………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..25 

2.8.2 Human Capital Theory……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..26 

2.8.3 Conceptual Framework……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..27 

2.9 Summary and Conclusion ...................................................................................................................... 28 

STUDY AREA, RESEARCH DESIGN, AND METHODOLOGY ........................................................... 29 

3.0 Introduction............................................................................................................................................ 29 

3.1 Study Area ............................................................................................................................................. 29 

3.2 Research Design .................................................................................................................................... 30 

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3.3 Data Sources .......................................................................................................................................... 31 

3.4 Target Population ................................................................................................................................... 32 

3.5 Sampling and Sample Techniques ......................................................................................................... 32 

3.6 Methods and Instruments of Data Collection ........................................................................................ 33 

3.6.1 Questionnaires…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..33 

3.6.2 Pre-Testing of Questionnaire……………………………………………………………………..34 

3.6.3 Interviews…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………34 

3.7 Data Analysis Procedures ...................................................................................................................... 35 

3.8 Ethical Consideration of Study .............................................................................................................. 35 

3.9 Limitations of Study .............................................................................................................................. 36 

CHAPTER FOUR ....................................................................................................................................... 36 

SCHOLARSHIP APPLICATION PROCESSES OF KENYAN STUDENTS’ STUDYING ABROAD..36 

4.0 Introduction............................................................................................................................................ 36 

4.1 Socio-Demographic Characteristics of the Respondents (Part A) ......................................................... 37 

4.1.1 Age Distribution……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….37 

4.1.2 Gender………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………38 

4.1.3 Education Level…………………………………………………………………………………..38 

4.1.4 Work Status……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..39 

4.1.5 Marital Status……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………40 

4.1.6 Religion…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….41 

4.2 Scholarship and Application Related Issues……………………………………………………………………………………..42 

4.2.1 Country of Study……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….42 

4.2.2 Scholarship Program, Nature of Scholarship Funding, Gender, Marital Status…………………………..43 

4.2.3 Formal Student Status……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….44 

4.2.4 Relationship Between Marital Status, Gender and Formal Student Status ................................ 45 

4.2.5 Year of Scholarship Award……………………………………………………………………………………………………….47 

4.2.6 Reason for Scholarship Choice………………………………………………………………………………………………….48 

4.2.6.1 Country of Preference .............................................................................................................. 48 

4.2.6.2 Language Proficiency was not Mandatory .............................................................................. 49 

4.2.6.3 Application Process ................................................................................................................. 49 

4.2.7 Criteria for Scholarship Application………………………………………………………………………………………….50 

4.2.7.1 Based on Talent ....................................................................................................................... 50 

4.2.7.2 Country-Specific Target Outlined in Scholarships .................................................................. 51 

4.2.7.3 Past Work Experience .............................................................................................................. 51 

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4.3 Challenges and Solutions in Application ............................................................................................... 52 

4.3.1 Challenges in Application…………………………………………………………………………………………………………52 

4.3.2 Solutions to Challenges ...................................................................................................................... 55 

While Lydia, one of the participants in the in-depth interview also mentioned that; .................................. 56 

4.4 Student Mobility Issues ......................................................................................................................... 57 

4.4.1 Reasons for Studying abroad…………………………………………………………………………………………………….57 

4.5 Motivation for Choosing Scholarship to Study Abroad ........................................................................ 61 

4.5.1 Primary Reason for Scholarship Application Choice…………………………………………………………………61 

4.5.2 Factors Informing Decision to Move Out of Kenya…………………………………………………………………..62 

4.5.3 Factors Informing Decision to Study at Destination Country (Pull Factors)………………………………65 

MIGRATION PROCESSES AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC IMPACTS OF SCHOLARSHIP ON KENYAN 
STUDENTS STUDYING ABROAD.......................................................................................................... 69 

5.0 Introduction............................................................................................................................................ 69 

5.1 Migration Preparatory Processes ........................................................................................................... 69 

5.1.1 Obtaining Travel Documents…………………………………………………………………………………………………….70 

5.1.2 Visa……………………………………………………………………………………………….71 

5.1.3 Accommodation at Destination Country…………………………………………………………………………………...72 

5.2 Obstacles to Studying Abroad ............................................................................................................... 74 

5.2.1 Insufficient Skill in Foreign Language ....................................................................................... 76 

5.2.2 Difficulty in Getting Information in the Host Country ............................................................... 76 

5.2.3 Problems with Accommodation in the Host Country ................................................................. 77 

5.2.4 Separation from Partner, Children, and Friends ......................................................................... 77 

5.2.5 Loss of Social Benefits ............................................................................................................... 77 

5.2.6 Expected Additional Financial Burden at Home ........................................................................ 78 

5.2.7 Difficulty to Work Due to Work Permit in Host Country .......................................................... 78 

5.2.8 Presumed Low Benefit for My Studies at Home ........................................................................ 78 

5.2.9 Problems with Recognition of Results ....................................................................................... 79 

5.2.10 Expectations from Family Back Home ..................................................................................... 79 

5.2.11 Pressure from the Grant Providers on Academic Performance ................................................ 79 

5.2.12 Not Wanting to Leave Host Country ........................................................................................ 80 

5.3 Social  Impacts of Scholarship on Student Mobility ............................................................................. 80 

5.3.1 Strengthened Commitment ......................................................................................................... 80 

5.3.2 Increased Cultural and Religious Interactions ............................................................................ 81 

5.3.3 Global Learning and International Understanding ..................................................................... 82 

5.3.4 Enhanced Leadership and Professional Life ............................................................................... 82 

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5.3.5 Family Attachment ..................................................................................................................... 83 

5.4 Economic Impact of Scholarship on Kenyan Students Studying Abroad…………………………………..….84 

5.4.1 Leverage on Tuition Fees ........................................................................................................... 84 

5.4.2 Leverage on Transportation and Accommodation Costs ............................................................ 84 

5.4.3 Increased Financial Freedom, Maturity, and Responsibility ...................................................... 85 

5.4.4 Increased Earnings ...................................................................................................................... 85 

5.4.5 Effect on Salaries/Wages ............................................................................................................ 86 

5.4.6 Employment Potential ................................................................................................................ 86 

5.5 Result of Return Intentions and Re-migration ....................................................................................... 87 

5.5.1 Intentions of Returning Home ............................................................................................................ 87 

5.5.2 Intentions of Re-migration………………………………………………………………………..88 

5.6 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................................. 89 

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS .............................................................. 90 

6.0 Introduction............................................................................................................................................ 90 

6.1 Summary of Key Findings……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….91 

6.1.1 Motivation for Student Mobility Through Scholarships…………………………………………………………….91 

6.1.2. Social Impacts of Scholarship on Student Mobility……………………………………………..92 

6.1.3 Economic Impacts of Scholarship on Student Mobility……………………………………….....92 

6.1.4 Challenges of Scholarships on Student Mobility……………………………………………………………………….93 

6.1.5 Possible Solution to Scholarship Issues on Student Mobility………………………………….....93 

6.2 Conclusions............................................................................................................................................ 93 

6.3 Recommendations ................................................................................................................................. .96 

6.3.1 Policy issues………………………………………………………………………………………….96 

6.3.2Further Research…………………………………………………………………………. .. ……..97 

REFERENCE LIST ..................................................................................................................................... 98 

APPENDICES ........................................................................................................................................... 111 

Appendix 1: Questionnaire………………………………………………………………………. …….111 

PART A: personal Profile .......................................................................................................................... 112 

PART E: Obstacles to studying abroad ..................................................................................................... 121 

Appendix 2: Interview Guide…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..124 

 

List of Figures 
Figure 2.1. Conceptual Framework…………………………………………………………………………………………… 28 

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Figure 4.1. Education level of Respondents………………………………………………………………………………. 39 

Figure 4.3. The religion of Respondents…………………………………………………………………………………….42 

Figure 4.4. Country of Study under Scholarship………………………………………………………………………… 43 

Figure 4.5. Formal Student Status…………………………………………………………………………………………….. 44 

Figure 4.6. Year of Scholarship Award………………………………………………………………………………………. 48 

Figure 4.7. Proposed solutions to challenges…………………………………………………………………………… 57 

Figure 4.8. Primary Reason for Scholarship Choice…………………………………………………………………. 61 

Figure 5.1. Obtaining Travel Documents Requirements……………………………………………………………. 71 

Figure 5.2. Visa…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..72 

Figure 5.3 Accommodation at Destination Country………………………………………………………………….. 74 

Figure 5.4. Intentions of Returning Home…………………………………………………………………………………. 88 

Figure 5.5. Intentions of Remigration……………………………………………………………………………………… 89 

List of Tables 
Table 3.1. Questionnaire Response Rate……………………………………………………………………………………….33 

Table 4.1. Age Distribution of Respondents……………………………………………………………………………… ….37 

Table 4. 2. Gender Distribution of Respondents……………………………………………………………………….. ….28 

Table 4. 3. Marital Status of Respondents……………………………………………………………………………………..41 

Table 4. 4. Relationship between Formal student status and Gender……………………………………….. ….45 

Table 4. 5. Relationship between Formal student status and Marital status…………………………….. …..47 

Table 4. 6 Reason for Scholarship Choice…………………………………………………………………………………. …..49 

Table 4. 7. Criteria for Scholarship Application ……………………………………………………………………………….51 

Table 4. 8. Challenges in Application ( Frequency distribution)……………………………………………………….52 

Table 4. 9. Reasons for studying in an outside Country……………………………………………………………………60 

Table 4. 10. Push Factors…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………64 

Table 4. 11. Pull Factors…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..28 

Table 5. 1. Obstacles to studying Abroad………………………………………………………………………………………..75 

Table 5. 2. Social Impacts…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………83 

Table 5. 3. Economic Impacts of Scholarship on student mobility…………………………………………………….87 

LIST OF ACRONYMS 

DAAD -Deutscher Akademischer Austauschdienst 

EAC- East African Community 

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HSBC– Hong Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation Limited 

INREF- Interdisciplinary Research and Education Fund 

LIMCs- Low middle-income countries 

NFP-The Netherlands Fellowship Programmes 

NUFFIC- Netherlands University Foundation for International Cooperation 

OECD- Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development 

OKP-Orange Knowledge Program 

QECS- Queen Elizabeth scholarship 

UMIC- Upper middle-income countries 

UNESCO-The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization  

VLIR-UOS- Vlaamse Interuniversitaire Raad (Flemish Interuniversities Council) , Universitaire 

Ontwikkelingssamenwerking (University Development Co-operation). 

WACCBIP- The West African Centre for Cell Biology of Infectious Pathogens 

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CHAPTER ONE 

INTRODUCTION 

1.1 Background  

The world has seen certain advancements in the past decade particularly inspired by the fourth 

industrial revolution, the digital revolution that automates the fusion of technologies. This has seen 

an increase in movements within and outside countries for various reasons making certain areas 

even more accessible to foreigners (Geibel, 2020). Various reasons have been pinned on this high 

migration rate ranging from economic reasons to search for better jobs, shifting lifestyles, and to 

others it is merely to find peace (Campos & Rocha, 2021). Nonetheless, according to Albien & 

Mashatola (2021), over 90% of these movements are inspired by the desire to improve and live 

better lifestyles be it in the form of getting better employment or even pursuing higher standards 

of education. The latter has been a dominant one with a survey by HSBC (The Hongkong and 

Shanghai Banking Corporation Limited) including fifteen countries showing an increase of 7% in 

the past five years (Campos & Rocha, 2021). Parents have also been pivotal to this increase with 

over 42% of them asserting that they prefer their children to study abroad or in other states 

(Cosentino et al., 2019). With such student mobility having significant academic and economic 

implications, various tertiary institutions and governments have collaborated to ensure this 

mobility is optimized. 

Apart from the HSBC survey, there are staggering global statistics evaluating the impact of the 

increased support on student mobility showing significant expansion in the past twenty (20) or so 

years. According to Geibel (2020) in 2019 alone, there were almost 6.1 million students who had 

moved from their countries of residence to pursue tertiary education in other countries. This was 

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more than double the number that had been recorded slightly over twelve years ago. According to 

a survey by Gümüş et al., (2019), this number had increased averagely by 5.5% annually over a 

span of 11 years from 1998 and 2019. Notably, these statistics predominantly include students 

from developing countries who constitute about 67% of all students in the OECD area (OECD 

2014). Of these, about 38% are from upper-middle-income countries (UMICs), 26% are low-

middle-income-income countries (LMICs), and 3% are from low-income countries (LICs) (Hodzi, 

2020). Still, there are counter streams of certain students moving to developing nations from 

developed ones which are mostly inspired by cultural and educational on exchange programs 

(Hodzi, 2020).  

There are also strong neighbour exchanges between neighbouring countries, especially within 

Europe. This has been particularly noted between Austria, Poland, Greece, and Slovakia with other 

countries like Indonesia, Colombia, and Indonesia also showing similar relations with over 55% 

of student mobility in 2019 recording between them (Kang et al., 2019). This affirms Liu & Li’s 

(2016) assertion that most countries are net importers of students standing at about 65% meaning 

that they have fewer students leaving their countries to study abroad compared to those who come 

in to study and reside there. According to López-Duarte et al., (2021), this ratio stood at 1:3 in 

2019 with it exceeding or equaling in New Zealand, United States, United Kingdom, and Australia.  

These numbers are bound to take an upward spiral in the coming years. According to Oleksiyenko 

et al., (2021), this is particularly because of the increase in the number of scholarships awarded to 

students from developing countries to pursue academic excellence in developed ones. Popel (2021) 

believes that these scholarships were essentially designed to encourage student mobility and ensure 

the proper execution of international projects in the context of an internship, an exchange, or a 

campus abroad. Restaino et al., (2020) believe that regardless of the intent, scholarships, 

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particularly for tertiary education, are effective in propelling middle and low-income countries to 

ensure their development matches up to those of already developed ones. Rumberger., (2003) 

disputes this citing certain deficiencies like brain drain which stagnate development in these 

countries as top brilliant students find it difficult to return to their home countries after stints in 

developed countries offering a different perspective and a more advanced way of living with 

quality access to all basic needs. However, this does not stop the over 1.7 million students who get 

fellowships and scholarships annually with a value of over $7.4 billion from pursuing their dreams 

away from their home countries (Campos & Rocha, 2021). 

Therefore, in line with this study, a scholarship is a financial aid awarded to given students owing 

to predetermined criteria but mostly based on academic merit with other factors like gender, race, 

needs, country of origin, and field of study also considered (Cosentino et al., 2019). This has been 

its definition since the first established scholarship by Lady Anne Radcliffe Mowlson at Harvard 

College in 1643 (Geibel, 2020). Certain scholars define it as a loan with the payment to be made 

in terms of value transfer to the country of origin (Rumberger, 2003). Nonetheless, scholarships 

are provided with the primary intent of assisting students to gain access or complete their education 

through financial support. With it, the world has experienced massive economic and social change 

which is why Restaino et al., (2020) believe that the impact of COVID-19 on it poses given global 

repercussions which is why more and more well-wishers should invest in the course and promote 

this transference of students be it on academic merit, achievements, or athletic talent.  

Despite the setback from the pandemic, it is expected that the number of scholarships will rise 

once the world economy regains its stability. This means that the rate of student mobility is also 

likely to double or even triple its current rate. López-Duarte et al., (2021) believe that this could 

be a proper pathway to the achievement of most of the projected vision 2030 economic and social 

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goals. Nonetheless, studies still show disparities in the nature of how these scholarships benefit 

different students including their perceptions of certain life’s aspects. Such differences underline 

the growing debate on whether scholarships achieve their desired goals. Already there are cases of 

students on full scholarships dying in foreign countries from drug abuse and other unnatural death 

causes (Oleksiyenko et al., 2021). Others have gone back to their countries and become leaders 

with others end up being ‘community rejects’ due to their uncouth borrowed behavior. According 

to Rumberger (2003), these are critical aspects that directly affect the nature and success of student 

mobility. This confirms the assertion that migration through education and scholarships provides 

a perfect base for globalization though it takes place at different rates due to the varied impacts of 

student mobility. 

Nonetheless, East Africa, which is where Kenya, the country of focus, is located has a long history 

of student mobility inspired by scholarships both internationally and regionally. These include the 

EAC Scholarship Program, DAAD scholarships, and other scholarship programs offered by the 

MasterCard foundation.  These include the EAC Scholarship Program, DAAD scholarships, and 

other scholarship programs offered by the MasterCard foundation. However, there is very little 

attention on these scholarships and how they contribute to or not to student mobility despite 

massive literature on student mobility in itself (Streitwieser et al., 2012). According to Wells 

(2014), most of these are focused on the influences of this mobility on economic development 

particularly for the home countries without proper focus on the underlying relationships between 

these mobility factors and scholarships. Streitwieser et al.,(2012) also hold a similar view posing 

that this lack of proper research is a major hindrance to the success of these scholarships towards 

the achievement of the mobility goals that they intend.  

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Kenya is one of the East African countries and shares a boundary with Tanzania, Uganda, Ethiopia, 

Somalia, and South Sudan. According to a survey by the East African Community (EAC), it is the 

leading exporter of students to foreign countries both internationally and regionally. In 2019, it 

was the fourth leading country in the number of international students in the US under scholarships 

behind Nigeria, Ghana, and Egypt. These numbers are massive on a global scale showing its 

position about education and its contribution towards the larger student mobility cycle across 

borders. With education within the country also being advanced and recently, revolutionized 

through a change in curriculum, Restaino et al., (2020) believe that the country will produce more 

students that merit scholarships meaning that there will be a great impact on student mobility and 

also on the scholarship beneficiary at a greater scale. With the use of mixed research method  

approaches, this study aims to provide social and economic impacts of scholarships on student 

mobility. The study focuses on geographic student mobility as a result of scholarship awards to 

study outside the country.  

1.2 Problem Statement 

There exists staggering statistics on the volume of students moving in search of academic 

excellence. In 2019, over 700,000 students from African countries traveled abroad for their studies. 

This was up from 440,000 in 2014 showing an annual gradual increase (Restaino et al., 2020). 

This is in line with Popel’s (2021) assertion that the dominant student mobility within the 

Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) is mostly towards developed 

nations. Nevertheless, there are also movements of students from developed nations to developing 

ones often inspired by cultural exchanges. A case in Kenya shows that there are about 1,000 

students from developed nations learning in Kenyan universities (Hodzi, 2020). These movements 

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are also present within developed nations and also the developing nations.  This depicts the whole 

dynamics of student mobility.   

However, a huge amount of these movements is recorded from developing to developed nations 

according to Popel (2021). This number stands at 65% of all the cross-border movements in search 

of academic excellence (Popel, 2021). However, there is limited empirical research on the factors 

promoting this movement such as scholarships, particularly within developing nations (Abimbola 

et al., 2015). Most of the studies done are focused on the impacts that these movements pose on 

economic developments of home and destination countries without a proper analysis of the 

underlying contributor to the movement (Abimbola et al., 2015; Gumus et al., 2019; Campbell & 

Neff, 2020; Niu et al., 2021). Moreover, existing research is more inclined towards student 

mobility for degree student social life, city offerings, where academic performance, talent, and 

work experience are considered wholesome contributory factors for scholarships (Campbell & 

Neff, 2020). Most of these are from researchers in the developed world with researchers in these 

developing countries only focusing on the opportunities offered by these scholarships and how the 

home countries stand to benefit from many students being exported abroad for studies (Niu et al., 

2021). This leaves a significant research gap, particularly in the comprehension of the role of 

scholarships in student mobility and the resultant impact on the beneficiary scholars (Laakso, 

2020). Therefore, to address this issue, it is first critical to understand the drivers of movement by 

students to developed countries for education. These are essential factors in decision-making 

process for most if not all of the students determining the net benefit that both the host and origin 

countries could derive from them (Laakso, 2020). Additionally, it is imperative to evaluate the 

perspectives of the beneficiaries of these scholarships which is a foundation for the determination 

of how the particular scholarships spur economic and social change in the scope of scholarship 

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mobility. In this regard, this study attempts to succinctly fill these gaps by examining the specific 

impacts of scholarships on the mobility of the beneficiary scholars and also analyzing the 

experience of those who have benefitted from these scholarship programs. The country of focus is 

Kenya which is chosen because it is the researcher’s home country and she is aware of the scope 

and nature of scholarships within and outside its borders. Furthermore, the study seeks to add to 

the limited literature on student mobility while analyzing the socio-economic impact of scholarship 

programs on the life of these students and also the motivation factors and the challenges and 

solutions that scholars face in getting these scholarships towards their mobility experiences. 

1.3 Objectives of the Study 

The general objective of the study is to examine the impacts of scholarship on Kenyan students 

moving outside of Kenya for higher education studies abroad.  

The specific objectives are: 

1. To explore the motivation, application processes and major destination countries for 

student mobility through scholarships. 

2. To evaluate the challenges posed by scholarships and identify possible solutions to student 

mobility. 

3. To explore the nature of migration preparation processes for student mobility through 

scholarships. 

4. To evaluate the social impacts of scholarships on student mobility. 

5. To evaluate the economic impacts of scholarships on student mobility. 

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1.4 Research Questions 

The research questions addressed by this study are: 

1. What are the motivation, application processes and major destination countries for student 

mobility through scholarships? 

2. What are the challenges posed by scholarships and identify possible solutions for student 

mobility? 

3. What is the nature of migration preparation processes for student mobility through 

scholarships? 

4. What are the social impacts of scholarships on student mobility? 

5. What are the economic impacts of scholarships on student mobility? 

1.5 Definition of Concepts 

Student Mobility: Student mobility refers to the practice of students moving from their home 

countries to host countries for studies usually for a limited time often with the expectation that 

they will move back to their home countries and develop them (Rumberger, 2003). Generally, it 

is the term used to refer to all individuals who have crossed their home country’s borders, 

particularly for education. 

Scholarships: A scholarship is a financial aid awarded to students to assist them to access or 

complete their education often offered in full or as provided by the terms of the offering body 

(Streitwieser et al., 2012). The funding is usually sent to the student’s account reducing their tuition 

fees with only their daily stipend sent to their accounts for daily use. In certain cases it is a ,one-

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time check. Nonetheless, it is different from a student loan as it is not to be paid back by the said 

beneficiary.  

Scholarship Mobility: This refers to students moving to other countries to the pursuance of higher 

education usually because of the funding offered by another organization often because of the 

academic merit, work experience, and talent shown by the benefitting students among other criteria 

(Streitwieser et al., 2012). 

Degree Mobility: This is the case of outward student mobility which encompasses students that 

are enrolled to complete full degree courses in institutions that are outside the borders of their 

home countries (Restaino et al., 2020). 

Mobility Rate: This refers to the percentage of all students moving out of their home countries to 

foreign ones, particularly for education (Hodzi, 2020). It is also referred to as the churn rate. 

Foreign Student: These are students who are not citizens of the particular country in which they 

study. These students are a desired income source for the universities which they go to since such 

students pay higher tuition fees. 

International Students: These are students who have received their prior education in another 

country and have moved to different countries that are not their origin countries for studies (López-

Duarte et al., 2021). 

Cross-Border Education: This is operationalized as studying abroad with the intent of gaining 

knowledge and international experience in the global world to gain a competitive advantage in the 

global labor marketplace while also enhancing professional and personal competencies (Geibel, 

2020).  

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1.6 Significance and Justification of the Study 

Student mobility is a concept that has increased with globalization with many Africans getting 

opportunities to advance academically in institutions abroad (Niu et al., 2021). Additionally, most 

of the available literature is focused on the benefits of mobility instead of the driving factors like 

scholarships which this study looks at more in depth (Geibel, 2020; Laakso, 2020). As such, this 

study first explores the given motivational factors that push Kenyan students to study abroad 

through scholarships. The study is devoted to establishing this relationship from the perspective 

of Kenyan students.  

In the recent past, Kenya has been a leading exporter of brilliant minds and yet the country still 

lacks adequate professionals in areas such as the medical sector where it has been forced to import 

professionals from countries like Cuba and yet studies assert that through scholarships most 

Kenyans taken to study abroad have remained to study in these host countries (Laakso, 2020). This 

is a significant factor in the examination of the role of these scholarships in the overall position of 

the students including the underlying economic and social impacts. 

Moreover, many scholarships are available today for Kenyan students. However, the success rate 

is still not as high as expected despite most students having the requisite qualifications to be 

admitted to their courses and institutions of choice (Geibel, 2020). This calls for the need to 

understand some of these challenges and propose credible solutions which are pivotal to the 

understanding and enhancement of student mobility (Abimbola et al., 2015). 

Researchers such as Campbell & Neff (2020) and Niu et al., (2021) have already provided some 

insight into some of the impacts of scholarship programs for non-African students. This study thus 

makes a comparison to them especially because of the underlying difference of such students 

moving from developed to other developed countries and yet Kenyan students moving from 

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developing to the developed world. In this regard, the study will furnish policies and provide policy 

makers with the required evidence to address issues affecting mobility of students and those 

surrounding the underlying scholarship programs. Consequently, it will serve as a perfect reference 

point for students who would like to conduct further research in this area.  

1.7 Organization of the Study 

This dissertation was organized into six chapters. The first chapter presented the introduction 

which encompassed the study’s background. It  includes the problem statement, the objectives of 

the study, the study’s research questions, the scope of the study, and its significance and 

justification.  

Chapter two of the dissertation includes a review of literature related to the study relating to the 

Kenyan situation which was supported by a theoretical framework. 

The third chapter presents the study’s methodology which provides insight into how the study data 

was analyzed and presented including a justification of the type of data chosen for the study,  

sampling and data collection procedure used. 

Chapters four and five provide a presentation of the findings including the analysis and 

explanations of these findings.  

Chapter six looks at a summary, conclusion, and recommendations of the study findings.  

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CHAPTER TWO 

LITERATURE REVIEW 

2.0 Introduction 

This chapter presents a review of all the scholarly literature relevant to the social-economic impacts 

of scholarships on student mobility. It primarily examines the literature on mobility studies drawn 

from multiple literary works comprised of books, journal articles, online data sets, and grey 

literature. Various researchers have studied student mobility over the years, each providing their 

unique theoretical perspectives and points. This help to build on the study’s objectives allowing 

for a narrowed-down view of the outcomes of student mobility when scholarships are considered, 

including the challenges and solutions experienced during the pursuance of the same. Therefore, 

this chapter is keen on looking at Kenyan students abroad, including their behavior, acquisition of 

an identity of the host country, and willingness to pursue their professionalism in foreign nations. 

The chapter ends with a theoretical perspective on the scholarship and student mobility issue.  

2.1 Conceptualizing Student Mobility 

In the recent past, student mobility has become essential globally. Various governments emphasize 

international higher education and the particularly positive impacts on the receiving countries. 

According to Geibel (2020), the global student mobility market has become a massive financial 

enterprise worth over $500 billion annually. According to statistical data released by OECD in 

2012, which were corroborated by figures from the UN, over 4.1 million students enrolled in 

foreign countries for higher education, with the number expected to hit 25 million or more by 2025 

(Gérard & Sanna, 2017). This was after about 6% annually, from 1.3 million to 4.3 million between 

2001 and 2011 (Geibel, 2020).  

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According to UNESCO, in 2004, there were about 2.5 million mobile tertiary education students, 

a number that excluded students learning in foreign institutions for up to a single academic year 

(Gümüş et al., 2019). Hsieh (2020) believes this underpins that student mobility participation has 

more than tripled worldwide, with specific patterns expected to be observed between inbound and 

outbound student mobility. Even the global economic crisis has not had a negative influence on 

this mobility, contrary to what many expected (Geibel, 2020). International student mobility thus 

continues to mirror intra and inter-regional mobility patterns. 

With these statistics in play, Kigotho (2020) believes that the internationalization of higher 

education is likely to globalize regarding certain institutional aspects leading to more strong 

internationalization trends at higher intensities. In this regard, higher education institutions are 

perceived as possessing precipitating factors for national and local economies. Those going 

through such systems are perceived to contribute more to their economies, with notable additions 

to a more knowledge-based economy (Kirloskar & Inamdar, 2021; Wells, 2014).  

Another aspect of student mobility presented by Kirloskar & Inamdar (2021) is the high number 

of students moving from developing to developed countries. They believe that this mainly provides 

vast opportunities for high-skilled immigrants to make their way to better environments for optimal 

development and nurturing of their skills. In line with this argument, the economic theory suggests 

that this generally positively affects the economies of host countries, including aspects of higher 

education policies such as quality of education, tuition fees, and instruction medium, consequently 

promoting the globalization and internationalization of education systems (Li et al., 2021). 

According to Restaino et al., (2020), such policies and the direct and indirect economic advantages 

consequently provide suitable environments encouraging international student mobility. Its effects 

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extend to certain essential global society aspects such as culture, politics, science, industry, 

technology, business, and economy.  

Rumberger (2021) posits an argument that students undertaking international education exhibit 

more maturity than those undertaking local education. Selya et al., (2016) assert this view, which 

holds that such a phenomenon is expected, particularly regarding the level of interactions and age 

groupings. Rumberger (2003) maintains that such maturity results from a newfound recognition 

relating to the transference of norms and cultural values between the various students on an 

international scale. However, this does not exhibit the particular correlations between the students 

and the drivers or even how they get to underpin and establish themselves in the international 

market (Tamrat, 2018).  

According to Shkoder et al., (2020), it is essential to view the concept of student mobility as not 

only benefitting the destination country. It is a pivotal instrument in the overall development of 

the student migrant, including the influence on the society and economy of the sending and 

receiving nations (Stavem, 2014). Thus, it enhances understanding of fields like language, the 

labor market, finance, and science.  

2.2 Mobility  Scholarships 

Mobility scholarships have particularly accelerated students’ high rates and transference. These 

are international scholarships offered by certain scholarship providers to students based on a given 

criterion. According to Craddock (2017), such scholarships exhibit clear intentions as they are 

designed to cater to identifiable groups who have a given predetermined purpose by established 

organizations. A historical analysis of the Rhodes scholarship by Fitzpatrick & Jones (2016) 

demonstrates an underlying necessity for given longitudinal assessments related to conflicts and 

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continuity in line with the management of given prestigious scholarship awards. Other scholars 

have also called for tracing and tracking mobility scholarships in line with the shared pathways 

and outcomes of the recipients as knowledge of their situation and condition remains unsatisfactory 

and insufficient (European Commission, 2022). Nevertheless, Murray & Gray 2021) believe that 

an understanding of the scope and relevance that these scholarships serve concerning specific 

mechanisms to achieve – sometimes contentious – roles in varied historical contents is pivotal as 

they vary from regional collaboration, cultivating imperial loyalty, developing national technical 

capacities, to social development. 

According to Novotný et al., (2020), most state commissions with the mandate of offering 

scholarships depict a somewhat odd form of social organization when it comes to the award of 

these scholarships. He finds that the individuals appointed to lead these initiatives are often buoyed 

by given issues considered essential. This allows for the emergence of the social construction, 

historical genesis, and staging of public concerns, particularly in selecting beneficiaries of these 

scholarships (HRC, 2022). This is particularly true for public service scholarship programs like in 

the case of Singapore scholarships. 

Perraton (2010) believes that most of these mobility scholarships are designed to recruit the 

brightest members of society. This is often the most fundamental criterion for students who get 

these awards from developing countries. Stierl (2020) also believes that the most elite members of 

society often flaw this process through corrupt dealings, often through corrupt transactions that 

limit the authenticity of the process to the most deserving. This is entrenched in most selection 

processes, constantly exposing unprecedented social and economic determinants. Tournès & 

Scott-Smith (2017), postulate that this, to some extent, is a blessing in disguise as it limits the 

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exportation of the most incredible talent ensuring talent retention to ensure the development of the 

local higher education systems in these nations, which is still subject to a lot of criticisms. 

Research by Perraton (2010) shows that place-based scholarships are likely to have the effect of 

reduced movements which ultimately affect student mobility. This study also asserts that high-

income residents are likely to get access to these scholarships in most cases. A correlation exists 

between migration within and outside areas targeted with these scholarships. The study establishes 

that in most cases, the less fortunate families are pushed out of these areas by those who are 

seemingly aware of such programs, consequently affecting the ability to benefit as intended. 

Fitzpatrick & Jones (2016) suggests that such movement patterns by high-income families are 

likely because of their ability to control where, when, and whether to move due to financial stability 

influencing their overall decision-making.   

2.3 Reasons for Scholarships as Tools for Student Mobility 

According to Stierl (2020), pursuing higher education in most countries is often expensive. This 

is often because of the combination of living expenses, tuition fees, student loans, and housing. 

Such high costs often scare off most students and parents who view it as a hindrance to the pursuit 

of the degree of their choice. Craddock (2017) holds that scholarships allow all eligible students 

to get an opportunity to move across the globe to pursue a degree of choice at their preferred 

institution. 

Novotný et al., (2020) believe that scholarships serve as perfect student mobility tools because 

they ease access to education. For instance, in 2020, the tuition fees in U.S. universities for private 

colleges stood at $41,411, while for public colleges, it was at $11,171. Their argument is reinforced 

by Fitzpatrick & Jones’s (2016) investigation of two students who held that without the 

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scholarships they received, they wouldn’t have gotten access to the Ivy League university that they 

were at. As such, these scholarships reduce dropout risks, help students consider more selective 

programs, and expose them to more extensive academic experiences, primarily through their 

foreign interactions. In essence, this is the primary preceding to student mobility promotion. 

A study by Tournès & Scott-Smith (2017) show that scholarships are perfect student mobility tools 

because of the extensive support they offer both financially and through mentorship programs. 

This promotes the advancement of expert advice, which also helps students effectively and 

efficiently expand their network (European Commision, 2022). Such networks are gained from 

other international students, the online community, and even the alumni community, posing 

significant future benefits. 

Stierl (2020) also believes that scholarships expose most students through their mobility to 

multiple colleges. More often than not, those who get scholarships to pursue degree programs in 

universities abroad also get opportunities to pursue their master’s and Ph.D. programs in other 

colleges in other countries (HRC, 2022). Such chances are critical to enhancing student mobility 

within multiple borders, making higher education and even the labor market more diverse. 

However, Murray & Gray (2021) believe that such diversity is limited to those who also get work 

opportunities and internships. Some of their diversity makes them feared, especially when they 

travel back to their countries of origin, mainly because of the competition they offer. According to 

Novotný et al., (2020), these are some of the shortcomings that limit the success of these financial 

grants as tools for student mobility. However, they ultimately change the outlook and perspective 

of an individual regardless of whether society comes to accept them or limits opportunities for 

them due to their relatively high qualification levels.  

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2.4 Social Impacts of Scholarship on Student Mobility  

According to Baine et al., (2014), social aspects are often the commonalities shared among 

individuals within a given culture. They are the factors that directly affect the lifestyle that one 

lives, including religion, norms, language, family size, education level, population density, and 

population structure. Chemsripong (2019) classifies them as the multiple bonds that an individual 

forms with others such as strangers, friends, community members, and family, which is often 

measured based on the quality and duration of the social interactions they regularly share 

personally or online.  

Ohndorf (1989) utilizes the new economics of labour migration theory in his study on student 

mobility to elaborate on some of these aspects. The approach highlights that migration decisions 

are often made within confined social units such as households or families. Türk (2019) believes 

that such is so because the benefits drawn from such movements are usually based on the net 

benefits that the individuals moving have in making the migration decision. The theory also holds 

that migration is more of a collective strategy often driven by the economic viability as viewed by 

the domestic unit. According to Van Bouwel & Veugelers (2013), it best explains the relationship 

between production and market constraints which are believed to lessen, particularly in households 

within developing countries. 

However, according to Wells (2014), the situation is different for the scholarship aspects. This is 

mainly because some beneficiaries move for their post-graduate studies at an age responsible for 

their own decisions. Rumberger (2021) agrees with this, saying that since most scholarships are 

offered on an individual basis, a decision on whether to move or not is often based on the 

perceptions of the beneficiary, who often views the opportunity independently of all others that 

might be available to him including the family and friends that they might be leaving behind. 

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Nevertheless, this does not mean that the family unit is entirely excluded from this process. Laakso 

(2020) holds that they must be involved since social background, including education and 

occupation, is often considered, and member of the family unit must constantly verify such 

information. As Hodzi (2020) argued, education is a critical driver and determinant of the 

motivation that one gets to decide to move to another country for their education. It is often the 

most crucial aspect in awarding these scholarships, as only the brightest and most talented students 

are often considered to pursue these awards. 

A study by Kigotho (2020) on six developing nations establishes that the rate and level of 

unemployment is also critical determinant. Popel (2021) holds that it is a variable containing a 

potential-negative factor to an extent. The issue is both a severe social and economic factor. Studies 

show that it is a critical premise in this decision process because, more often than not, it results in 

lowered GDP growth and even economic performance, and this serves as a factor that lures most 

students to seek scholarships and make migration decisions with the hope of getting employed 

afterward or even getting opportunities in the host countries after studies (Türk, 2019; Van Bouwel 

& Veugelers, 2013). Moreover, for some, the scholarships act as employment as they can raise 

their income levels through monthly stipends and multiple allowances, enabling them to cater for 

themselves and their families sufficiently. 

Türk (2019) believes that rationality is also a critical aspect socially to individuals who seek and 

benefit from these scholarships, especially when evaluating the concept of student mobility. A 

study by Campos & Rocha (2020) establishes that about 60% of those who get these scholarships 

are often risk-takers who do not consider themselves worthy of the awards. They are often pushed 

to move by changing their situation and solving multiple problems. According to Geibel (2020), 

some students move essentially because of the scholarship award even though certain unforeseen 

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circumstances might exist that they experience in their mobility process, such as stress threshold. 

This is a critical function of social and personal possibilities that most of these students perceive 

on the move. 

Religion is also posited by Gerard & Sanna (2017) to be an issue of critical consideration. This is 

mainly to scholarships offered by religious bodies, including the destination country’s perception 

of specific religious backgrounds. Some students are often buoyed by the desire to get their 

education in nations known to have a rich history in a given religion that they subscribe to. It thus 

acts as a factor that draws such individuals to the given country while pushing others away from 

it (Türk, 2019). Similarly, the element also determines the levels of scrutiny that potential 

beneficiaries go through before receiving their award. This scrutiny arises because of some of the 

stereotypes developed over the years and assigned to certain religious groups. Hsieh (2020) holds 

that the factor may act as both a negative and positive determinant depending on the situation of 

the given individual religiously. 

Additionally, there are instances when the student migrant has to weigh the benefits and 

shortcomings of making such a move on a social scale. In this regard, such a beneficiary must 

evaluate alternatives and assess the situation after making a complete evaluation of the value of 

the livelihood and education of their country of origin (Chemsripong, 2019). This is often driven 

by research on past academic performances of various institutions within the country, including 

their social status and position after completing their education. Stavem (2014) holds that this may 

or may not push them to permanent relocation depending on what they establish. However, this 

only arises once a student knows the value of the place they decide to move to. 

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Nonetheless, mobility through scholarships may not be as stressful compared to those who sponsor 

their movements personally since these awards, in most cases, are managed in coordination with 

certain government agencies, ensuring that the beneficiaries get the best out of the host countries. 

Craddock (2017) believes that this, to some extent, limits the rationality of student mobility 

through scholarships. However, the influence is majorly projected to arise from the various peers 

who may have moved successfully in the past. In this regard, sure students may feel compelled to 

undertake such scholarships because their competitors or those known previously launched such 

scholarships.  

Language is also listed as a critical factor by Van Bouwel & Veugelers (2013) in this decision 

process. For instance, studies show that most Kenyans moving to France often have established 

interests in the language already. As such, their movement is usually determined by their desire to 

improve their knowledge of this language (Beine et al., 2014). This is also true for scholars moving 

to China, Japan, and even Germany. Nonetheless, academic reasons remain to be the primary 

reason for their movement. However, improving their knowledge of the given foreign language is 

also a social component of significant impact, according to Ohndorf (1989). 

2.5 Economic Impacts of Scholarship on Student Mobility 

The economic aspects of migration flows are often underpinned by various elements of an 

economy. According to Agasisti & Dal Bianco (2007), such factors positively impact net 

productivity, labor participation, incomes and wages, national skills base, and employment. The 

consequence of such factors includes technology transfer, enhanced competition, and the 

development of multinational supply chains. Nonetheless, when it comes to the scholarship aspects 

and its economic determinants, the classical migration theory best posits the correlation between 

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them (Žičkutė & Kumpikaitė-Valiūnienė, 2015). The theory holds that migration is a factor that 

establishes certain massive regional-economic equilibrium. This is because migrants, in most 

cases, move to high-income areas from low-income ones, a factor that scholarships predominantly 

promote.  

Baláž et al., (2014) believe that economic factors make it necessary for student migrants to 

consider the costs and benefits associated with their movements before deciding to move or not. 

The assumption here often is that there are already given prospects of higher absolute income 

levels, which predominantly act as motivation to these individuals, mainly based on acquired 

information related to the labor markets of the host country (Žičkutė & Kumpikaitė-Valiūnienė, 

2015). The associated costs include the cost of transportation and the cost of living in their desired 

destination country primarily. They must also consider the associated opportunity costs of picking 

foreign education over locally available higher education. According to Beine et al., (2014), this 

is more often than not the most ignored economic cost, yet it is essential. 

Nonetheless, some of the associated benefits include higher income levels with the potential of a 

more diverse and advanced labor market with more employment potential (Van Bouwel & 

Veugelers, 2013). A study conducted in Europe on the Erasmus program established that 

employment opportunities and wage differences were essential drivers of scholarship mobility 

(Mihi-Ramirez & Kumpikaite, 2014). This also included the expectation of higher income levels. 

Therefore, the choice is thus driven or constrained by geographical distances, cost variables, 

finances, and living conditions and structures between the host and home country for such students 

on the move through scholarships. 

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Chemsripong (2019) believes that income per capita also plays here. For instance, in 2019, the per 

capita income in the U.S. was $66,060, while in Kenya, it stood at $1,513.44. Such a significant 

difference draws many students to study in the U.S. instead of Kenya based on the per capita 

income; the host country offers more potential for success. Czaika et al., (2021) believe that this 

contributes immensely to the choice in moving to foreign states where most students feel their 

success is guaranteed.  

According to Haug (2008), realizing these economic factors has made most OECD countries 

develop migration strategies that attract and retain the top students internationally. This is because 

such movement is often on the student’s assessment of their present condition. Moreover, 

scholarships promise to provide students with extra income. Simpson (2017) believes that 

economic development and innovation include the skill and talents of beneficiary scholars. Türk 

(2019) argues that a critical financial aspect of the decision process of scholarships is also impacted 

by the national budget and intensification of national economies, which puts such migrants at the 

center of the host country’s resource system. The interplay of these push and pull economic factors 

is critical to students’ migration through the scholarships they qualify for. 

2.6 Challenges Faced by Students on Scholarship  

According to Bishop-Clark & Dietz-Uhler (2012), the challenges various students face also affect 

their achievement of these awards, directly affecting the nature and scope of student mobility. The 

primary issue noted is the vast amount of scholarships available. Estimates show about 1.7 million 

private scholarships are given to students annually (Mngomezulu & Maposa, 2017). Professional 

associations, charitable groups, government agencies, nonprofit organizations, and individual 

offers among others. Myles (2018) established that most students often struggle with seeking out 

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and applying for the right scholarships. Usually, a wrong decision leads to failure, making most 

students lose out on such opportunities. 

However, Scanlon (2017) believes that this wide availability makes the scholarships even more 

competitive and ensures that they promote student mobility to a grander scale and the most 

deserving. Nevertheless, Seifert et al., (2017) believe that there is still massive biasness to 

accessing these scholarships. The varied eligibility requirements are cited as the prominent 

inhibition to this making them discriminatory as they are now only accessible to a limited number 

of students (Smesny et al., 2007). The biasness is more pronounced in developing countries where 

the local leaders are allowed to vet and consider the most deserving members and those who should 

not get these scholarship awards. Veletsianos & Kimmons (2012) believe such levels of corruption 

are a strain on the desires of student mobility with those who should be accorded such opportunities 

left behind. 

2.7 Solutions to Challenges Faced by Students on Scholarship  

According to Myles (2018), there is a need to make the available scholarships as transparent and 

equal as possible. This means that the eligibility criteria should be widened to include more 

requirements that allow more students to be credible. This also ensures that more social and 

economic impacts are included in these mobility scholarships. However, Scanlon (2017) believes 

that such criteria only make the scholarships more complicated and more difficult for individuals 

awarding the scholarships to be more strained and frustrated.  

On the other hand, Seifert et al., (2017) urge scholarship committees to propel these awards 

through lotteries. He argues that these programs are highly likely to be non-discriminatory and 

unbiased as it is more of a gamble through these. However, according to Mngomezulu & Maposa 

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(2017), this does very little to curb the corruption that might still be heavily present in the award 

of scholarships. In this regard, there is a proposition that scholarships should be handled 

exclusively by the destination country agents who may have no knowledge or relations to the 

applicants with a limited chance of them being compromised (Veletsianos & Kimmons, 2012).  

2.8 Theoretical Framework 

Pessimists’ view on migration is traversed significantly by optimists in various scenarios. Thus, 

they are considered more in understanding the migrants’ well-being, including students, their 

families, dependents, and their host and origin countries (Hughes et al., 2019). Overwhelming 

evidence from the literature on mobility scholarships and migration studies underpin the fact that 

massive remittances have been made in line with the development in migrants’ origin countries 

and the consequential impact on host countries. Nonetheless, this phenomenon is not specific to a 

single theory given its multifaceted aspects; it makes it a more dynamic concept. According to 

Hughes et al., (2019), no single robust approach can be used to explain the complexities around 

student mobility. Thus, there is a need to explore multiple empirical and theoretical perspectives 

to comprehend this scholarship mobility. 

2.8.1 Push and Pull Theory 
The push and pull theory elaborates on the concept of migration to foreign countries regarding the 

pull factors presented by the host country and the push factors presented by the country of origin. 

Studies have shown that multiple factors that influence both the pull and push elements can be 

economical and non-economic (de Haas, 2021; Mohamed & Abdul-Talib, 2020). In this context, 

the theory explains what makes students from developing nations move to developed ones for 

education through scholarships. Primary reasons that attract students include more advanced 

education systems, better living conditions, and a promise of more promising and well-paying 

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employment opportunities. In contrast, the push factors include limited financial support, lack of 

social and educational advancement, lack of facilities, and poor management (Mohamed & Abdul-

Talib, 2020). Other factors related to poverty, cultural ties, political forces, age, and historical 

colonial ties encourage scholarships to promote this mobility for academic reasons.  

According to Van Hear et al., (2017), these movements are instigated mainly by the prospects 

these students will achieve in their destination countries. This is why there are still thousands of 

applicants despite the lengthy and strenuous scholarship application and award process because of 

the current push and pull factors (de Haas, 2021). In essence, education is a pivotal migration 

factor. Most individuals in developing nations crave the professional advancement of their 

knowledge and skills at the highest possible levels presented by developed nations (Van Hear et 

al., 2017). Students are attracted by the neighboring countries or institutions less attractive and 

such cause students to seek opportunities elsewhere ( Sehoole, 2011). Other factors also mentioned 

by Kritz (2013) and Kondakci (2011) include low standards in higher education teaching, few high 

quality universities with a high ranking, good climate conditions on in the host country, and 

consideration of peace and stability. These factors also propel host countries to make conditions 

more lucrative for these migrants. Their economy and overall development experiences growth 

from student mobility through scholarships in the long run.   In Kenya, the cost of education 

coupled with the lack of training for staff responsible for student affairs and lack of support from 

senior leadership, while education leaders are also hesitant to empower workers in student services,  

are some of the factors pushing students away,  (Yakaboski & Birnbaum, 2013) 

2.8.2 Human Capital Theory 
The human capital theory posits that productive capacity can be enhanced through practical skills 

and education training. It is considered the theoretical framework behind the wholesome adoption, 

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investment, and development of education and surrounding policies. This regard makes education 

central to the discussion on a population’s productive capacity (Kori & Clark, 2015). Its 

proponents thus consider education as a more valuable tool and even grander than physical capital. 

Hung & Ramsden (2021) argue that investing in this particular capital will eventually lead to more 

significant economic outcomes even though the credibility and validity are particularly challenging 

to prove and is sometimes contradictory. Critiques argue that these alone make the theory heavily 

flawed, simplistic, and confounds labor with capital (Marginson, 2017; Tan, 2014).  

Nevertheless, in this context, this theory justifies the existence of scholarships. According to Aliu 

& Aigbavboa (2019), these are in themselves investments in human capital, often allowing 

students from less fortunate backgrounds and those from developing countries to pursue education 

at a more advanced and competitive level. The theory asserts that despite the rising economic crises 

and even with the COVID-19 pandemic, the number of scholarships is still increasing (Hung & 

Ramsden, 2021). This also helps explain why certain social and economic factors exist, including 

the challenges as more and more people move to acquire education from the best institutions in 

the world away from their countries, consequently leading to student mobility.       

It further helps to highlight the different scholarship programs available to scholars including the 

varied criteria used for selection and the particular benefits that arise from them particularly for 

the beneficiaries in the host country (Aliu & Aigbayboa, 2019).  

2.8.3 Conceptual Framework 
The conceptual Figure 2.1 employed in this study is based represents the given social and economic 

impacts under investigation in the context of student mobility. However, the scholarship aspect is 

based on the human capital theory describing its essence and why most people invest in it, 

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promoting student mobility. The framework also shows how each factor essentially leads to 

student mobility. These are key in determining scholarships’ specific social and economic impacts 

on student mobility in countries like Kenya. It depicts a schematic view of the study suggesting 

that certain social and economic factors lead to student mobility. It also represents the challenges 

and solutions that affect such movements.  

Figure 2.1 Conceptual Framework 
Source: Author’s Construct (2022) 

2.9 Summary and Conclusion 

The literature reviewed above provides proper insight into the social and economic impacts of 

scholarships on student mobility including the related challenges and solutions. These are 

influences that have long been ignored with focus primarily on the impacts on the host and origin 

countries rather than on the individual beneficiaries. Most of the movements recorded are also 

from the developing to the developed nations which arguably provides more reason for the 

identified social and economic factors such as religion, income levels, education quality, family 

units, age, and even employment opportunities. Generally, such movements are considered to be 

more beneficial to the host country which is why the review establishes that most government 

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agencies ensure they create the best environment and conditions for such students for their growth 

and development in areas like science, politics, culture, and technology.  

However, the attainment of these migration opportunities is not as easy as there are certain 

identified challenges such as biasness to access scholarship and multiple eligibility criteria for 

scholarships. Solutions to these issues that have been proposed include the utilization of lotteries 

in the award and ensuring control by foreign agencies to avoid corrupt leaders getting control. 

In understanding the study’s theoretical perspective, the push and pull theory and the human capital 

theory were used. This was imperative as it provides an understanding of what pushes and pulls 

students and also provides insight into the massive investment in higher education through 

scholarships. 

CHAPTER 3 

STUDY AREA, RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 

3.0 Introduction 
This chapter explains the various methods used to generate data in this study. It discusses the 

research design, target population, sample and sampling technique, methods and instruments of 

data, data collection procedures, data analysis, ethical considerations and limitations of the study. 

3.1 Study Area 
The study was conducted in Kenya, a country in East Africa. It is located on the Equator and along 

the Indian Ocean. It shares a border with five countries; Tanzania to the south, Uganda to the West, 

Sudan to the northwest, Ethiopia to the north, and Somalia to the east, Weidman, J. C. (1995). It 

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covers a geographical size of 569,140 square kilometers according to World Bank data 

(2020).  According to the census report (2019), Kenya has a total population of 47.5 million. About 

535, 348 Kenyan were living abroad as of 2020 according to Statista (2022). Among the emigrants, 

the World Bank collection of indicators (2022) estimated that about 15,732 students had crossed 

to other nationals for tertiary education by 2018. And in 2019/2020 alone, 3710 students were 

estimated to be studying in abroad, US, (Business insider Africa, 2021). Most of the student’s 

destination country includes United states of America, Australia, United Kingdom, Canada, South 

Africa, Malaysia, Turkey, Germany, India, Saudi Arabia, Finland, Hungary, Mauritius, Japan, 

Rwanda, France, Korea Rep., Russian Federation, Ukraine, Botswana, Italy, Sweden, Netherlands 

among other countries (UNESCO 2020). The majority of these students are under post graduate, 

through scholarships. Some of the reasons for student migration highlighted in (Daly & Barker, 

2005; Gore, 2005; Lewin, 2009) includes, desire to travel or learn another language. In sum, the 

inability of the national universities to accommodate qualified candidates seeking admission has 

resulted in many students seeking study opportunities abroad (Lelei & Weidman, 2012). 

3.2 Research Design 
Research design is defined as the arrangement of procedures for the collection and analysis of data 

Thus it is regarded as a conceptual structure within which research is conducted (Orodho, A. J, 

2008). According to Gray (2009), a research design the plan for the collection, measurement and 

analysis of data. It typically describes the purpose of the study and the kind of questions being 

addressed, the techniques to be used for collecting data, approaches to selecting samples and how 

data are going to be analyzed (Gray, 2009). 

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The study used a mixed method research approach for broad and depth of understanding and 

corroboration (Johnson et a., 2017). Both qualitative and quantitative data collection techniques 

were used. The study was based on a sequential method, first a quantitative survey with  80  

respondents, and based on the responses,  the researcher went back and did in-depth interviews 

with 10 of the respondents. 

A survey design was used for this study. According to Lovell and Lawson, (1970) survey design 

is the process of gathering facts or obtaining pertinent and precise information concerning the 

current status of phenomenon. This process helps to draw possible conclusions from the facts 

discovered. It also helps in generalization of results when data are collected from several individual 

cases, (Lovell and Lawson, 1970). Therefore survey design was found to be appropriate for this 

study since it is a relatively inexpensive and efficient way of gathering information about the 

population or a sample of it. In addition, in-depth interview was also considered to triangulate the 

information received from the survey. 

3.3 Data Sources 
This research was based on two data collection methods, primary and secondary data. Firstly, 

Secondary data were obtained through desk review of journals, articles, books and news items. 

Secondly, primary data were collected from students relevant to the study. That students were 

under scholarship between 2015-2021. These respondents were selected because they have been 

or are still under scholarship since 2015.  

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3.4 Target Population 
The target population of this study consisted of 80 scholarship beneficiaries from Kenya. The 

number is chosen due to limited time to involve more but a gender distribution was considered. 

Period between 2015 and 2021 is taken into consideration. These students are either in developed 

countries or among other developing countries. This is because, currently, not only do students 

travel to developed countries, but there are other developing countries which are destinations for 

Kenyan students, including, Ghana, South Africa, Nigeria, India, Pakistan, Malaysia , among other 

countries. 

 3.5 Sampling and Sample Techniques 
This study deployed a non-probability sampling technique, a snowball sampling technique. 

Snowball sampling is a convenience sampling method, (Naderifar et al., 2017). In this technique, 

the existing respondents recruit or give referral to other respondents.  Thus, it is referred to as the 

“chain method”, (Polit-O’Hara and Beck 2006).  The study first identified 30  respondents through 

referral on social media  (Linkedin and Twitter), the respondents then shared the link  with their 

scholarship social media pages  mostly whatsapp groups until additional of 50 were reached. After 

this, based on the responses from the survey, the researcher did 10 in-depth interview with the 

same respondents. The selection of the 10 was based on sex, age different scholarship mobilities 

and availability of the respondent  

This approach of selection was the most appropriate technique because there was no clear list of 

the number of beneficiaries to help in doing the selection. However, the technique had limitations 

including, lack of homogeneity where some referrals were students who studied abroad but not 

under scholarship which called for another chain of referral.  

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3.6 Methods and Instruments of Data Collection 
The study employed the following method and instrument of data collection; 

3.6.1 Questionnaires 
Questionnaires are research tools through which people are asked to respond to the same set of 

questions in a predetermined order (Gray, 2009). Questionnaires were administered to both 

students who are currently studying under scholarship and the previous beneficiaries who have 

already graduated that is (2015-2021 cohort). Both open and closed ended questions were used. 

The open-ended questions gave the respondents the opportunity to freely express their views and 

bring up issues that were not captured in the options provided.  The closed ended questions, on the 

other hand, allowed respondents to choose from the available options provided to them.. The 

researcher administered questionnaires digitally through google forms. This was because it was 

not possible to get respondents physically. The questionnaire had sections, this was arranged in an 

orderly manner including; personal profile, scholarship program, student mobility, obstacles for 

studying abroad, motivation for choosing the scholarship and to study abroad and the final section 

on social economic impacts of scholarship on student mobility. 

Table 3.1 Questionnaire Response Rate 

Respondent Type of Delivery Delivered 

Questionnaires 

Filled 

Questionnaires 

Response 

Rate (%) 

Scholars Online (Google 

Forms) 

80 80 100% 

Source: (Field Study, 2022) 

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The questionnaire survey was conducted in 2022 between the 24th of January and the 23rd of April. 

Due to barriers to physical delivery due to the researcher and the respondents being in different 

countries, the questionnaires were sent through an online link using Google forms. This allowed 

for an accessible collection of data and broad reach. Out of the target population, 80 questionnaires 

were filled, representing a 100% response rate. According to Mugenda and Mugenda (1999), a 

50% response rate is adequate for analysis and reporting while 60% is good, and 70% and above 

is considered an excellent response rate in questionnaire administration. 

3.6.2 Pre-Testing of Questionnaire 
Prior to collecting the main data from the students, questionnaires were pre-tested with two 

Kenyans students who have studied abroad under scholarship in the year, 2017 and 2018 

respectively. One female and one male from the two periods. This number was chosen since, the 

researcher assumed that the respondents were literate . Therefore, this process helped to identify 

contradictions and ambiguities in the questionnaire. Afterwards, contradictions and ambiguities 

that were identified in the questionnaire from the pre-test were duly addressed before the actual 

questionnaires were administered to the students online. 

3.6.3 Interviews 
Since it was not easy to meet a number of the respondents face to face, an online interview was 

done through skype, zoom meeting and Microsoft Team call depending on the conveniency of the 

respondents. The interviews were administered in in-depth forms. The interview sessions were 

recorded with the permission of the respondents. The interviews took between one hour and one 

hour and half minutes. The interview was administered in English since all the participants were 

well conversant with the language. In depth interviews were done in order to triangulate 

information gotten from the questionnaire, furthermore, it was also beneficial to seek more 

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explanations from the closed ended questions in the questionnaire. Examples of questions asked 

included, what are the benefits that you acquired from your scholarship? What were the migratory 

preparatory processes needed for obtaining travel documents, visa applications, accommodation 

among others? What are the challenges you experienced as a scholarship beneficiary during the 

migration process? 

3.7 Data Analysis Procedures 
The data obtained from the survey was analyzed using both qualitative and quantitative data 

analysis techniques. Quantitatively closed ended questions was coded, counted, categorized into 

tables and processed to provide frequency tables, pie charts, graphs and percentages using 

Microsoft Excel . This helped in easy interpretation of the findings. Qualitative data gathered from 

open ended questions were analyzed using thematic analysis. First, transcription was done from 

the recorded interviews, then codes were created which were combined into themes. . Excel was 

used to generate cross tabulation of some of the variables including marital status against 

motivation for studying abroad, scholarship program and number of students who have studied 

abroad from each program. Challenges and solutions posed by scholarship on student mobility 

were analyzed in a descriptive manner. 

3.8 Ethical Consideration of the Study 
The data collection process was guided by the ethical standards of the research. First and foremost, 

the researcher made it clear to the respondents the purpose of the study. A sample of the 

introduction is attached in the appendix. In situations where collection of data requires the 

respondent to be recorded down, permission was sought from the respondent. In addition, the 

respondents were assured that any sensitive information gathered will not be used against them. 

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During the analysis and presentation of findings,  anonymity of the participants was considered. 

This was achieved by preparing and conducting the study without asking a participant’s name. For 

the in-depth interviews, participants were informed that their names will not be used and therefore 

pseudonyms were given. This was done to ensure comfortability of the participants in answering 

the questions.  

3.9 Limitation of the Study 
The following limitations were identified. First, gaining access to secondary data on student 

mobility from Kenya under scholarship was difficult as few studies have been done on student 

mobility scholarship programs. Second, getting the respondents took too long than anticipated. 

 

CHAPTER FOUR 

SCHOLARSHIP APPLICATION PROCESSES OF KENYAN STUDENTS’ STUDYING 
ABROAD 

4.0 Introduction 

This chapter presents the analyzed data collected from the field survey, which set out to determine 

the social-economic impacts of scholarship on student mobility relative to other studies on the 

same issue. The data is presented using pie charts, bar charts, and frequency tables, facilitating the 

ease of meaningful deductions to be established in the framework set out in the study’s research 

methodology.  

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4.1 Socio-Demographic Characteristics of the Respondents (Part A) 

The socio-demographic variables investigated include age, sex, level of education, work status, 

marital status, and religion. 

4.1.1 Age Distribution 

Concerning the age composition of the participants, those between 30 and 34 years were the most 

constituting 28.75%%, (Table 4.1)). This was followed by those between 25 and 29, with 25%, 

followed by those between 40 and 44 who were 18.75%. Those between 35 and 39 constituted 

16.25%, while those above 45 years constituted 10% and those between 20-24 constituted only 

1.25%. Nonetheless, these statistics are consistent with statistics reported by other studies that most 

Kenyans who move abroad are young. However, it is surprising that the age range between 20 and 

24 has the fewest people. This confirms Aliyyah et al., (2019) assertion that during this age, most 

people struggle to understand and get scholarships to study abroad as most of them still lack the 

know-how to go about their applications. 

Table 4.1 Age Distribution of Respondents 
Age Frequency Percentage (%) 

20-24 1 1.25 

25-29 20 25 

30-34 23 28.75 

35-39 13 16.25 

40-44 15 18.75 

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Above 45 8 10 

Total 80 100 

Source: (Field Study, 2022) 

4.1.2 Gender 

From the 80 respondents, females constituted the highest percentage of students whose mobility 

had been motivated by scholarships from Kenya. They made up 53.75%  while males constituted 

46.25%, (Table 4.2). This shows that more female respondents were in this study than males. This 

shows the increased efforts towards women empowerment particularly through avenues like 

education wherein the disparity between women and men in education is slowly being bridged 

compared to the 60% disparity that existed 20 years ago (Aliyyah et al., 2019).  

 
Table 4.2 Gender Distribution of Respondents 
Gender Frequency Percentage (%) 

Male 37 46.25 

Female 43 53.75 

Total 80 100 

Source: (Field Study, 2022) 

4.1.3 Education Level  

Regarding the respondents’ level of education 66.25%, were at Masters Level with 28.75% at PhD, 

3.75% professional, and 1.25% at undergraduate, (Figure 4.1). This data coincides with the 

findings on age, where most of the respondents in the study were between 30 and 34 years, which 

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is the approximate age for most master’s students. Furthermore, the findings also collaborate with 

findings from other previous studies that most Kenyans prefer pursuing their undergraduate studies 

in their home country before seeking scholarships for Masters and PhD programs (Abbott, et al., 

2016).  However, this is subject to the opportunities encountered. Nonetheless, it is also likely that 

if the same respondents are questioned in the coming years, they will be at the PhD level and still 

have taken or taken their programs abroad. This is in line with Beaulieu et al., (2018) projection 

that more often than not, once one is propelled to pursue their studies in foreign countries, they 

continually seek it to the very end, ensuring that they get back to their home countries at the highest 

education level possible. However, it contradicts Gore’s fundings that most scholarships require 

scholars to return back to their home countries for development upon completion of their studies 

abroad. 

 
Figure 4.1 Education Level of Respondents 
Source: (Field Study, 2022) 

4.1.4 Work Status 

From the data collected, 43.75% were full-time employees, 31.25% were unemployed, 13.75% 

were part-time employees while 11.25% were self-employed, (Figure 4.2).