CHALLENGING GENDER STEREOTYPES? A TEXTUAL ANALYSIS OF GENDER ROLES IN GHANAIAN CONTRACEPTIVE ADVERTISEMENTS BY LORDINA KWEGYIR AMPAH 10304812 THIS LONG ESSAY IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF MA COMMUNICATIONS DEGREE. JULY 2016 DECLARATION I declare that, except for references to other people's work which has been duly acknowledged, this long essay is a result of my research conducted at the Department of Communication Studies, University of Ghana, Legon. This work was supervised by Professor Audrey Gadzekpo. ABSTRACT With females and males taking on diverse and non-traditional roles in recent times, scholars are divided as to whether television advertisers are reflecting these new gender roles or not. Guided by gender role theory, this study aimed at identifying the varied roles females and males are portrayed in, when advertising contraceptives on Ghanaian television. Three television contraceptive ads which mirror gendered differences were textually analyzed. Specifically, a model was adapted from the scholars: Goffman (1979), Kang (1997) and Cameron (1998) in the identification of gender roles and representation. The research's findings indicate that, on the surface, contraceptive ads appear to be gender neutral but they largely reiterate patriarchal ideology or male superiority over females. In conclusion, the gendered portrayals in contraceptive ads continue to reinforce gender stereotypes in the Ghanaian society. DEDICATION I dedicate this research to all feminists in Africa, especially Ghana who proudly accept the label- feminists. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This is a joyous moment for me; to be able to express my gratitude to all the people who supported and contributed to making my graduate studies and this project work possible. Firstly, I would like to thank Francis Kobla Kobnah, my best friend; this dream started with you, Francis, it is your support and undying patience that has helped to bring it into fruition. Thank you for listening to all my rantings on the intense nature of the course work, encouraging and fuelling my drive to succeed. I could have never finished this study without all the sacrifices you so promptly made. I hold you in the highest esteem, bestie! I am also grateful for the advice and help of my supervisor, Prof. Audrey Sitsofe Gadzekpo. Prof., thank you for the constructive criticism throughout the research process; I know your attention to detail, feedback, and suggestions for improvement were instrumental to my success. Special thanks are due to Rt. Rev. Prof. Cephas Omenyo, who has been an invaluable mentor and father. I hope I can someday return all the time and assistance you have bestowed upon me since I came into contact with you during my National Service days at the University of Ghana. In addition, I would like to acknowledge the support provided by my siblings, Rosina, Loretta and Keith. You saw the bright side to every challenge I was faced with and encouraged me to persevere. I am indebted to my friends Liz and Kuus as well as all my DCS classmates. It would be hard to imagine graduate school experience without the additional encouragement and, at times, distractions you provided. Table of Contents DECLARATION………………..……………………………………………………………… i ABSTRACT……………………………………………………………………………………. ii DEDICATION………………………………………………………………………………….. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS…………………………………………………………………….. iv CHAPTER ONE………………………………………………………………………………… 1 1.0 Background…………….……………………………………………………………………. 1 1.1 Gender and Contraceptive Responsibility…………………………………………………… 2 1.2 Gender and Contraceptive Knowledge in Africa……………………………………………..3 1.3 Statement of Problem…………………………………………………………………………4 1.4 Research Objective……………………………………………………………………………4 1.5 Research Questions……………………………………………………………………………4 1.6 Significance of Study………………………………………………………………………….5 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND LITERATURE REVIEW……………………………..7 2.0.Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………7 2.1 Gender Role Theory…………………………………………………………………………..7 2.2 Related Studies………………………………………………………………………………..9 2.2.1 Gendered Television Advertisements……………………………………………………….9 2.2.2 Contraceptive Advertising....................................................................................................10 CHAPTER THREE……………………………………………………………………………..15 METHODOLOGY………………………………………………………………………………15 3.0 Introduction………………………………………………………………………………….15 3.1 Research Approach………………………………………………………………………….15 3.2 Research Design……………………………………………………………………………..15 3.3 Study's population and sample.………………………………………………………………16 3.4 Sampling Procedure………………………………………………………………………….16 3.5 Unit of Analysis……………………………………………………………………………..17 3.6 Coding Procedure……………………………………………………………………………17 CHAPTER FOUR……………………………………………………………………………….21 PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS………………………………………..21 4.0 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………..21 4.1 Analysis of Contraceptive Ads………………………………………………………………21 4.2 Lydia Contraceptive ....………………………………………………………………………21 4.2.1 Discussion………………………………………………………………………………..24 4.3 Kiss Condom Advert…………………………………………………………………………25 4.3.1 Discussion………………………………………………………………………………..28 4.4 Life Choices Contraceptive Advert………………………………………………………….30 4.4.1 Discussion………………………………………………………………………………..32 4.5 Addressing the Research Questions………………………………………………………….34 CHAPTER 5……………………………………………………………………………………..38 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS………………………………………………………………………38 Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………38 o 5.1 Research Findings……………………………………………………………………38 o 5.2 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………..39 o 5.3 Limitations…………………………………………………………………………..39 o 5.4 Recommendations……………………………………………………………………40 BIBLIOGRAPHY………………………………………………………………………………..41 CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.0 Background Advertisements as a form of communication are here to stay and a major part of people's lives (Badik, 2012). Adverts are made with the intent to seek viewer attention in order to convince them to make a purchase (Nagi, 2014). However, adverts are not only to sell products but also to "create awareness, construct identities and attitudes" (Kaur et al, 2013; p.p. 61). In today's world where there is intense competition for goods and services, advertising cannot be escaped. It is common to see adverts in public transports, in shopping malls, whilst watching Youtube videos and everywhere. Advertisers also spend huge sums of money on psychological research to understand their targets in order to get the right messages to them (Picklesimer, 2010). According to Menon et al (2015) and Sarkar (2015) almost all products are gendered; baby and household products such as diapers, detergents, cuisine spices are targeted at women whilst automobile and sports adverts are targeted at men. Schroeder & Zwick (2014) posit that gender divisions provide large and profitable segments for marketers and advertisers because consumers can easily relate with that. Besides, these divisions also make it easier to measure impacts of product/ service influence and sales generated from the advertisements (ads). Megel & Helgeson (2010) indicate that advertisers have used stereotypes to convey their message to their target audience since the 1950s. Advertising messages approve unrealistic females and males' expectation of what acceptable and unacceptable behaviors are as well as how females and males should and should not look (Ali & Shahwar, 2011). For example, personality traits perceived as appropriate for females and males are depicted as gentleness, well- mannered, toughness and assertiveness respectively (Kara & Williams, 2012). Women in particular have been the subject of many studies of advertisements. They have been constantly objectified, sexualized and made to play decorative roles in selling products in various forms of media (Mager & Helgeson, 2010; Stith, 2011). For instance, many adverts show thin female models in revealing clothes and lots of makeup (Kara & Williams, 2012) whilst others often portray women in passive roles or positions. The portrayal of slender body types has led to a lot of plump women feeling displeased with their bodies (Perez., 2013). Just like women, men are also subjected to gender stereotypes. Freisleben & Hesse (2015) point out that, depictions that do not portray men as muscular, aggressive and serial womanisers are considered unmanly and evaluated more negatively. These portrayals put pressure on men, and their inability to live up to or fit into these categories have drastic effects on their self-esteem (Freisleben & Hesse 2015). In recent times, the dynamism of modern society has led to changes in gender roles yet, advertisers continue to perpetuate traditional gender stereotypes (Sarkar, 2015; Knoll et al 2011; Picklesimer, 2010). 1.1 Gender and Contraceptive Responsibility In the US, advertising of birth control methods have increased drastically in the traditional media and they have been very effective in reaching their targets - women of reproductive age (Lock, 2015). Inspite of the increased contraceptive publicity, there still exist vast differences between the contraceptive use and methods available to men and women. This phenomenon of gendered 180 division in contraceptive use is widespread in the world and can be attributed to the general societal perspective that supports the view that contraceptive responsibility belongs to women for the sake of their own health (Lock 2015; Medley-Rath & Simonds 2010). On the contrary, family planning advertisements or sex related information in the media focus on giving sex tips and pleasure to men while hardly ever referring to contraception at all (Hall et al, 2014). 1.2 Gender and Contraceptive Knowledge in Africa. Traditionally, in Sub-Saharan Africa, gender norms and roles are cherished and to a large extent shapes contraceptive and family planning decisions (Mosha et al 2013). Although majority of sexually active Africans know about the benefits of contraceptives, its utilization is rather low (Bajoga at al, 2015). This is due to husband's opposition, men's concerns about impotence, high financial cost and perceived side effects (Chipeta, 2010; Mosha et al 2013; Ezeonole et al 2015). In addition, most women do not discuss the use of contraceptive with their partners in Africa for fear of being abused or accused of intentions of infidelity (Mashiri, 2013). In Ghana, a report by World Health Organisation (2012) shows that, the prevalence rate of contraceptive use increased from 12.9 percent in the 1980s to about 24 percent in 2010. According to the Ghana Health Service (GHS), this increase in contraceptive usage can be attributed to reproductive health campaigns embarked on by various governments. Adjei et al (2015) and Adongo (2014) indicate that, although the injectable, pills, male condoms and emergency contraceptives are highly advertised and patronized in Ghana, there are still widespread misconceptions associated with their use. Ezeonole et al (2015) argue that changes in gender norms and influence of formal education, has caused an increase in spousal decision to use contraceptives. Subsequently, women whose husbands are against the use of contraceptives are secretly using them (Mosha et al, 2013). Obviously, as gender roles change, contraceptive responsibility is changing (or has changed) but are these changes being reflected in contraceptive ads? This situation therefore deserves scholarly attention. 1.3 Statement of Problem Scholars are still debating on portrayal of gender roles in the advertising industry. Whereas Furnham & Paltzer (2011) are of the view that, there are less stereotypical depiction of females in contemporary adverts, Knoll et al (2010) and Dwivedi (2014) strongly assert that, many more women continue to be portrayed in conventional roles in recent ads. In view of the above, this study seeks to find out whether females and males are stereotypically portrayed in contraceptive adverts on Ghanaian television or not. 1.4 Research Objective The study aims at; i.Identifying the varied roles females and males play in television contraceptive advertisements in Ghana. ii. Analyzing the content of contraceptive adverts to ascertain whether gender stereotypes do exist in contemporary Ghanaian advertising industry. 1.5 Research Questions The study aims to answer the following research questions: 1. How are females and males portrayed in Ghanaian contraceptive advertisements? Роо, 2. Do these advertisements challenge or reinforce gender stereotypes? 3. What type of appeals) is/are employed mostly in advertisement of contraceptives on television? 4. 1.6 Significance of Study This study will contribute to the on-going scholarly debate about stereotypical gender portrayals in the media. Specifically, it will add a renewed Ghanaian perspective by providing empirical evidence which will determine whether or not current societal gender changes are being reflected in Ghanaian advertising. The study is also significant because, not much scholarly attention has been paid to gender roles in Ghanaian contraceptive advertisements. Therefore, it will address the intellectual gap that exists in the area of contraceptives and advertising in Ghana. 1.7 Organization of study The study is structured into five chapters. The first chapter is made up of the background to the study, the statement of the problem, the significance or purpose of the study as well as the research objectives and questions. Chapter two delved into the theoretical framework and literature review associated with the problem addressed in this study whilst the third chapter discussed the methodology employed in the data collection process. In chapter four, the findings from the data collected were analyzed. The final chapter presented the study's original contribution to scholarship. Limitations of the research were outlined in this chapter as well and recommendations were made for future researchers. 1.8 Operational Definitions For the purposes of this research, the following are defined as; a. Contraceptives: birth control methods or devices used to prevent pregnancies. b. Gender roles: roles or behavior socially prescribed for females and males. c. Traditional media: newspapers, magazines, radio and television d. Portrayals which challenge gender stereotypes: These are depictions of gender roles which defy traditional perceptions of gender positions such as female lawyer or a male cook. e. Portrayals which reinforce gender stereotypes: These are depictions of gender roles which conform to or support traditional perceptions of gender positions such as a housewife or a successful businessman. f. Informative appeal: giving detailed information on how a contraceptive works and its effects in order to make users well informed about the contraceptive in question. g. Instructive appeal: providing directives/guidelines on the usage of a contraceptive so users feel they can easily use it without help from a third party. h. Humor appeal: using amusing or funny comments and actions to get people to lighten up their mood. i. Sensual appeal: the use of actions or parts of the human body to connote sexual excitement or readiness. j. Cognitive appeal: using an ideal lifestyle desirable by humans to get people's attention as to how happy or better their lives will be by using the contraceptive in question. CHAPTER TWO THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND LITERATURE REVIEW 2.0 Introduction This chapter discusses the theoretical framework underpinning the research in order to provide a theoretical frame through which the study can be understood. Relevant studies on gender and contraceptive advertising conducted globally are reviewed to set the study in a scholarly context. 2.1 Gender Role Theory This study was guided by the Gender Role theory which is largely based on the works of Margaret Mead and Alice Eagly. The gender role theory assumes that gendered differences are not necessarily based on whether one is born female or male but on what one's society's biases are. Shimanoff (2009) cites Mead's (1935) explanations for gendered differences after Mead investigated gender roles in three cultures. Mead contends that her observations demonstrate how the society primarily influences gender roles. In addition to the above, Eagly (1987) as cited by Shimanoff (2009) maintains it is the society which determines the roles appropriate for both females and males. As a result, Eagly reasoned that the behaviours of females and males are assessed differently based on the society in question's expectations and preferences. She explained that women are mainly thought of as the weaker sex hence, it is expected of them to perform soft roles and tasks such as cleaning. On the other hand, men are expected to be the stronger sex thus, they are expected to do all the daring activities. In Eagly's view, these expectations have resulted in differences in division of labour where males are preferred in high-status positions in the workplace and females assume subordinator roles or are obliged take up unpaid domestic responsibilities. According to Shimanoff (2009, p. 434), gender roles are more likely to influence behavior under the following conditions: ". (a) when other social roles do not override the salience of gender roles; (b)when situations call for behavior associated with gender role stereotypes (e.g., helping repair a car or care for children); ( c) when strangers interact, since what they know about each other is limited; and (d) when an audience is present to observe and reinforce gendered expectations. However, the theory predicts that gendered behavior will change when gender roles change. That is to say that, the more females and males perform the same social roles, the more similar their behavior and attitudes will be (Shimanoff, 2009). Researchers (Vogel et al, 2003; Fisman et al, 2008; Simmonds, 2012) have applied the gender role theory to their works on emotional vulnerability, racial preferences in dating and gender stereotypes. The application of the gender role theory to this study helped to identify gender roles in Ghanaian contraceptive ads as well as shed light on whether these ads challenged or reinforced stereotypical gender portrayals on TV. 2.2 Related Studies There are lots of research works on gender and ads, and gender and contraceptive knowledge but not much on gender roles in contraceptive ads. Hence, the relevant studies discussed here have been borrowed from the strands of literature on gender and television advertising and contraceptive studies. 2.2.1 Gendered Television Advertisements For several years, scholars (Courtney & Lockeretz, 1971; Goffman, 1979; Ferguson et al. (1990); Kilbourne, 1999; Lazar, 2006; Mager & Helgeson, 2011; Tsichla & Zotos, 2013) have critiqued the advertising industry for perpetuating gender stereotypes. Notable among these stereotypical portrayals are women being used in ads that target men or presenting men as more capable in making sound business decisions than women. The research works reviewed below reflect this critique: Matthes et al 2016 studied the stereotypical depiction of men and women in television advertisements. A sample of 1,755 ads from 13 Asian, American and European countries in May 2014 were content analyzed. The researchers focused on the gender of the primary character and voiceover, age, associated product categories, home or work setting and the role of the primary character. At the end of the study, the findings showed that traditional gender role portrayals are exhibited in every country although, some countries showed non-traditional gender role for several variables. Similarly, Prieler & Canteno (2013) analyzed 254 primetime Philippine television ads from 2010 to 2013 for differences in gender representation. Their findings indicated a high prevalence of gender differences and stereotypes in Philippine television ads with more males shown in the workplace whilst women were shown at home. Mohammed (2011) analyzed women's representation in Iranian television advertisements. The semiotic and critical discourse analysis method were used to decode the advertisers intended meaning. The researcher purposively sampling three ads within a six week period in autumn 1997 from the most popular Iranian television station (Channel 3). The outcome of this study proved that ads reinforced traditional gender roles. In another study by Ngari (2013), the interest was in finding out how women are portrayed in Kenyan television advertisements. A total of 117 ads aired on prime time Citizen TV over a month period was content analyzed. The results indicated that women were portrayed stereotypically in television ads in Kenya. Holtzhausen et al (2011) researched into current role portrayals of women in advertising on selected South African television channels. 245 ads were content analyzed to determine how women were portrayed in advertising. The findings revealed that women were mostly portrayed as users of personal care product users or sex objects and less often in sports or technological related ads. Evidence from Mohammed (2014)'s research on the extent to which women are represented as sexual objects in Ghanaian media advertisements indicated that on the average, one out of two adverts featured women as sex objects. The social representation theory underpinned the study which content analyzed 60 newspapers from four major Ghanaian newspapers and four TV stations. Tsegah (2009) examined how women are portrayed in television ads to ascertain whether any changes have occurred as compared to what has been earlier documented by other researchers -Bawah, Diredor. in Ghana. The results from the research showed that while advertisers seem to have made some efforts to vary roles of women with the view of avoiding dominant stereotyping, majority of the television ads studied showed women demonstrating more household products than their male counterparts who are portrayed in more professional and business like roles. The above reviewed literature espouses how for so many years advertisers have strategically carved particular roles or positions for women in the advertising industry. All of these are contemporary research works hence they give credence to the fact that even the 21s century woman is still negatively stereotyped by advertisers. Examining gendered television advertisements was important to this study because it aided in identifying the specific roles females and males played in the most TV ads. 2.2.2 Contraceptive Advertising. In relation to contraceptive advertising worldwide, Sultana (2015) investigated representations of gender, contraception and sexuality in 166 television and print contraceptive ads in Bangladesh from 1971 to 2011. She undertook this study in order to understand their underlying connections with women's lived experiences across different social classes and generations. The study relied on ethnographic observation and she developed a checklist to aid with decoding of the contraceptive ads. The findings showed depictions of social perceptions of 'ideal femininity' and 'ideal masculinity. In the ads, happiness for a woman meant looking beautiful, staying young and in good health to be able to serve properly as a wife and a mother. In contrast, happiness for a man meant, to be financially stable, being successful in a job, having pleasurable sex, and acting wisely and responsibly against HIV/AIDS and STD's. A patriarchal construction is therefore emphasized in these different portrayals (Sultana, 2015). According to Hamzeh (2010), who investigated how the Trojan Condom campaign in the United States coded gender from 2006 to 2010, women were portrayed as passive and beneath men in the decision of sexual intercourse and whether or not protection should be used during the sexual act. This study textually analyzed three magazine ads published for men. The selected ads featured in the Trojan Condom advertising campaign within the specified study period. The campaign ads can therefore be said to have contributed to perpetuating gender stereotypes. Fennell (2011) was interested in finding out about the gendered dynamic of contraceptive decision making in developed societies. The study used in-depth interviews with 30 American heterogeneous couples to show that contraceptive responsibility in long-term relationships in the United States often conforms to a gendered division of labour, with women primarily in charge. A significant minority of men who took part in this study were highly committed to using contraceptives. However, the social framing of contraception as being primarily in women's "sphere," made these men reluctant to discuss contraception with their partners. Bihn-Cross (2008) assessed how advertisements of birth control products in the Glamour and Cosmopolitan women's magazines in the United States create and reflect cultural notions regarding gender roles. Using the textual analysis method, the researcher critically deconstructed the meanings of the four purposively sampled contraceptive ads from 2003 to 2007 in the two magazines using Frith's (1997) deconstruction technique. The findings of the ads studied suggested women ought to take contraceptive responsibility. Although more men are considering getting on birth control methods in America, the women in the ads were portrayed as having the decisive power to either be on the pill or choose men who uses condoms. Subsequently, it can be concluded that the ads studied lays contraceptive responsibility principally on women. Davison (2008) sought to examine how Indian contraception advertising has changed from the 1990's to the early 2000's. The study textually analyzed the contents of condom ads from both the 1990's and 2000's. The researcher argued that advertisements in the 2000's are not as progressive as they might appear since the study's results revealed clearly that men must dominate sex and contraception decision-making, thus reinforcing traditional gender roles. Aside from the informative literature on contraceptive ads which informs this research, there is also an in-depth content analysis of 85 negatively toned UK newspaper articles published in 2010 on sexual health topics to examine how risk and responsibility have been framed in relation to gender (Martin et al, 2014). The articles portrayed a power imbalance in sexual relations between men and women. A number of the articles argued that it was women who needed to take more responsibility for sexual health. Whereas men were frequently portrayed as being more promiscuous and engaging in more risky sexual behavior than women, women and teenage girls in particular were portrayed as lacking skills and confidence to negotiate safer sex. The study concluded that framing men as risk to women, and at the same time presenting women as responsible for controlling sexual encounters, organizing contraception and preventing sexual ill health reinforces gender stereotypes and undermines efforts to promote collective responsibility for sexual health. In sum, the literature review on contraceptive advertising provided evidence that contraceptive advertising is gendered. Whereas men were portrayed as being in charge of sexual relations and therefore demanded to enjoy sex, women were depicted as obsequious individuals who had to satisfy men's sexual fantasies and at the same time take contraceptive precautions. It was also clear from the examined scholarly texts that few men are gradually coming to terms with the fact that they need to take contraceptive responsibility too. Even with that, society's established position which ascribes contraceptive responsibility as feminine makes it difficult for them. In relation to this research, the contraceptive advertising literature examined was helpful since threw light on the whether the gender roles captured in contraceptive ads challenged or in-forced gender stereotypes. CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY 3.0 Introduction This chapter describes the research design used in this study. It explains how the data was collected and the reasons behind the methodological choices. 3.1 Research Approach This study adopted the qualitative research method which is descriptive in nature and involves the gathering and examination of data in terms of meaning, rather than statistics (Punch, 2005; Bryman & Bell, 2011). Moreover, this approach enables researchers to capture rich and complex information relating to human behavior in their environment (Macmillian & Schumacher, 1997). According to Lindlof & Taylor (2002), 'this approach is resourceful for studying sexism, racism and class discrimination in the globally dispersed yet interrelated contexts of patriarchy because the qualitative method is oriented towards a holistic understanding of social action' (p. xi). 3.2 Research Design The qualitative research method approach involves several ways of collecting data, such as in- depth interviews, focus group discussions, textual analysis, field observation and case studies (Wimmer & Dominick, 2011). This research adopted the textual analysis method since it allows for describing, classifying, interpreting or making inferences 'about social norms or behaviour or structures based on ... naturally produced textual data ... relevant to, the particular contexts) of situation to be investigated' (Alexa, 1997; p.4). Textual analysis was appropriate for the 20. P 1458; study because it helped to decode the ads in order to determine the implicit messages being sent about gender roles in contraceptive ads in Ghana. Stern (1996) makes it clear that the textual analysis method follows a three-step process of identification, construction and deconstruction. The first step involves identifying or describing textual elements such as language, character or plots. Next is construction of provisional meaning and the final step is deconstruction of meaning which implies exposing the cultural assumptions that both sustain and undermine it. 3.3 Study's population and sample Polit & Hungler (1999) as cited in Mbokane (2009) defines population as 'aggregate or totality of all objects, subjects or members that conform to a set of specifications' (p.39). Consequently, the study's population consisted of contraceptive ads aired on United Television (UTV) from January 2016 to May 2016. In all, there were six contraceptive ads which were shown on UTV within the study period. Out of these, three ads (Lydia Oral contraceptive, Kiss Condom and Life Choices) were selected for this study. The sample is defined as a portion or subset of a research population selected to participate in a study, representing the research population' (LoBiondo-Wood & Haber (1998, p. 250) cited in Mbokane (2009)). 3.4 Sampling Procedure In order to identify which ads to include in the sample, the purposive sampling technique was used to draw out contraceptive ads which reflected gendered differences by expressing even the most subtle distinction between females and males when they interrelated. That is to say, since the study sought to investigate gender roles in contraceptive ads, gendered relations was a good basis for comparison. UT was the selected medium because it was ranked the most watched television channel in Ghana in the last quarter of 2015 in a survey conducted by GeoPoll, the largest media measurement organization in Africa. UTV can therefore be said to be every advertiser's. television channel choice in reaching target audiences in Ghana hence, a media organization suitable for the purposes of this study. Also, the current nature of the adverts is reflected within the study period that is January to May 2016. The sampled ads were mostly shown during prime time; specifically, between 8:00pm to 9:00pm when telenovelas are shown. 3.5 Unit of Analysis The unit of analysis consisted of shots of gendered depictions which highlighted physical body size and weight, roles or duties performed by females and males as well as position of females and males when they were interacting. In addition, how both females and males use their hands, and their general demeanor were also interpreted as well as the voice-overs in the ads. 3.6 Coding Procedure The model adopted for analyzing visual images in this study was adapted from the models of Goffman (1979), Kang (1997) and Cameron (1998). Goffman (1979), Kang (1997) and E GENT Simply 'Afros Cameron (1998) are widely respected scholars in the gender & advertising / gender & language fields. A brief description of each of these models is provided below: o Erving Goffman coded familiar rituals, most simple gestures or the forms of address mostly taken for granted as sources of how media texts perpetuated gender stereotypes. This was after he had developed five categories to understand the social relations behind his sources. The five categories are: relative size, feminine touch, function ranking, licensed withdrawal and ritualization of subordination. o In addition to Goffman's categories, Kang introduced the body display and independence (self-assertiveness) categories in an analysis of print portrayal of gender stereotypes. o Cameron developed a broad criteria for analyzing gender stereotypes. She selected some of Goffman's categories and blended them with that of other scholars as well as categories she created on her own. However, the researcher selected only the authoritative voice category from Cameron (1998) to add to the other selected categories. Subsequently, the framework used in the study captures 7 categories namely: relative size, feminine touch, function ranking, ritualization of subordination, body display, independence and self-assertiveness and authoritative voice. It is based on this model that the selected contraceptive ads in this research will be analyzed through. Below is the outline of the categorization. 1. Relative size. One way in which social weight or importance (power, authority, rank, office, and fame) is clearly indicated in social situations is through relative size. Males are to be pictured as larger or taller than females, therefore making them more important. 2. Feminine touch. Women are depicted using their hands or fingers to trace the outline of an object or cradle or caress it. On the other hand, men are shown to firmly grasp objects to show their tough nature. 3. Function Ranking. Function ranking in advertisements is the determination of when an actor takes the executive role. The executive role can be displayed by position of actors, occupation, giving service to another, teaching, leading, height, and dictate the activity. The submissive actor would be the reverse of the executive role and would be displayed by receiving, following, and watching the activity. 4.Ritualization of Subordination. A classic stereotype of deference is that of lowering oneself physically in some form or other of prostration. Correspondingly holding the body erect and the head high is stereotypically a mark of shamelessness, superiority, and disdain. Other examples of subordination include lying down on floors or beds, sitting, lower elevation, bashful knee bending, kneeling, bowing, leaning, engaging in canting postures, displaying childlike and flirtatious poses. 5. Body Display. Female models show a high degree of nudity which is a classic form of stereotyping. Nudity is defined as unclothed models, including models wearing transparent apparel and lingerie, models clothed in towels only or body revealing clothes. 6. Independence and self-assertiveness. The focal point here is the more subtle representation of an advertisement that provides important clues to gender relations. Models display assertiveness when they display confidence, knowledge and competence. 7. Authoritative voice. Studies show that women's voices are rarely used as authoritative voices in advertisements. This category will be used to determine the role voices play in perpetuating gender stereotypes in contraceptive ads. In order to decode the gendered images and messages, the selected television advertisements, were analyzed through the above seven framing categories. CHAPTER FOUR PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS 4.0 Introduction This chapter analyses the content of the selected ads in order to illustrate the varied ways both genders are represented in Ghanaian contraceptive advertisements. The selected adverts were analysed using the seven categories outlined in chapter three. 4.1 Analysis of Contraceptive Ads The description of Lydia Contraceptive, Kiss Condom, Life Choices ads together with the findings after analysing them through the categories discussed here. This was done in relation to the research objectives and the questions. 4.2 Lydia Contraceptive This 49-second ad is about a young man who goes to a modern pharmacy store to purchase oral contraceptives for his girlfriend. The entire ad is shot in the pharmacy store. The ad opens with a young man in his early 20's looking around suspiciously as he rings a bell and enters a pharmacy store. The female pharmacist looks up as soon as the bell rings and smiles at the young man. She responds to his greeting politely and he asks for Lydia. She seeks clarity as to whether he wants the post pill or the oral contraceptive. He prefers the oral contraceptive because that is what Ohemaa (his girlfriend) wants. At this point, he mimics Ohemaa saying she is not safe so she will not engage in any sexual act with him. The other female pharmacist stocking the shelves looks up and gives him a wry expression. The pharmacist picks a box of Lydia Contraceptive pill and gives it to the young man. She explains the dosage and his face lights up when he hears her say there will be no pregnancy if Ohemaa follows the dosage directions. As he turns to leave, he stops and returns to ask for scented candles and vibrators. On hearing this, the pharmacist looks at him from the corner of her eyes and gives him a pleasantly surprised look. The ad ends with a female voice over talking about how by using Lydia Contraceptive pills, one can have all the pleasure without worrying about unwanted pregnancies. Relative size: The young man is taller than the female pharmacist though she is slightly bigger and older than him. Therefore, it is unjustified to conclude that she defers to him or that his superior height reinforces his total superiority over her. Ritualised subordination: Both characters are standing throughout the ad. There is no display of the pharmacist in a lower position as she interacts with the young man. Subsequently, Goffman's (1979) ritualized subordination is not displayed in this ad. So, this ad does not support the idea that women are inferior to men or vice versa. Function ranking: The female pharmacist happens to be the one who performs the executive function in this ad. She is rendering a service to the client hence; she dictates the activity by explaining how the oral contraceptive works. The young man on the other hand is the submissive actor by being at the receiving end. Feminine touch: There is no evidence of the feminine touch in this ad. The pharmacist picks a box of Lydia oral contraceptive and hands it over to the young man. She is not seen caressing or using her fingers to trace the outline of the box. Body display: In terms of nudity, all actors in this ad are fully covered. The pharmacist is in a long sleeve shirt and a lab coat. The other pharmacist is in a similar coat and the young man is wearing a tee shirt and a pair of trousers with a cap. There was no indecent exposure of body parts. Independence and self-assertiveness: From the theoretical position of this category, scholars explain that if a character asserts him/herself, that character can be said to be confident. Females are stereotypically portrayed as unassertive. But in this ad, the female pharmacist exudes confidence. She displays assertiveness and knowledge in executing her occupational duties and welcomes the young man with a smile which calms him. The male character on the other hand is not so confident initially. He looks around suspiciously as he enters the pharmacy and hesitates a little before moving towards the counter. It is almost as if he is looking around to make sure he does not meet or see any familiar face in the store. This attitude he displayed could be as a result of the stigma the Ghanaian society attaches to pre-marital sex. It could also be because he is shy and does not want his friends or people he is familiar with, see him buying contraceptives for his girlfriend. But he demonstrated his assertiveness and confidence by coming back to the pharmacist to ask for the scented candles and vibrators. Again this could mean, the pharmacist did a good job by allaying his fears. He also put on a frown after asking the pharmacist if the store had stock of Lydia. Probably, he was expecting to be chastised for coming to buy a contraceptive when he is not married; again because of the unacceptability of pre-marital sex in the Ghanaian society. But the pharmacist response in seeking clarity as to which of the Lydia contraceptives he wanted, made him calm enough to mimic his girlfriend. Authoritative voice: The female pharmacist who served as the expert in the ad together with the female voice over reinforces female expertise. Today, it is very common to have female pharmacists attend to people in a pharmaceutical store or find men buying contraceptives for their girlfriends and wives. Thus, the ad reflects a modern reality. 4.2.1 Discussion In the above ad, females are portrayed in non-traditional roles. The female pharmacists are a representation of women occupying positions primarily held by men. The one who interacted with the client is portrayed as a professional who is as competent as a man in a similar career field. This finding is also similar to what was reported in Tsegah (2009)'s study; that gradually the diverse roles Ghanaian women play are being reflected in ads. For example, women are not always portrayed as homebound. They are depicted as competent in professions which were previously thought of as reserved for men such as engineering or pharmacology. Conversely, the young man plays the subordinate role while collaborating face to face with the female pharmacist. He is at the receiving end. This is quite unusual as men are found to play the domineering role when interacting with females in ads. Again, the pharmacist who communicated with the young man showed competence in executing her professional duties. She is used as a model to challenge the idea that women are not as ignorant as often portrayed. The ad reflects reality where women are sometimes more knowledgeable than men as in the case of the pharmacist and the young man in terms of the appeals employed, the instructive appeal is used in the Lydia Oral Contraceptive ad. The dosage instructions are prescribed for the young man to direct Ohemaa when she is taking it. The information appeal was also put into play here. Information on the consequences of either following or not following the instructions as directed by the pharmacist is outlined. A sense of humor is infused into the ad as well; the young man mimicking his girlfriend and the expression on the pharmacist's face when he came back to ask for scented candles and vibrators are amusing. 4.3 Kiss Condom Advert The ad essentially promotes the idea of how people can enjoy better sex when they patronise Kiss Condom. The setting in this ad is that of a traditional compound house where most household activities take place right on the compound. The ad revolves around four couples who are tenants in the compound house. In the first scene, there are clothes on a drying line, under which a woman sits washing. She is wearing a top with the front buttons opened thereby showing cleavage and a pair of shorts exposing her thighs. She keeps caressing the attire in her hand and wonders where the man pounding fufu across the compound gets so much energy from. She keeps looking at him and though he does not look in her direction, she blows a kiss. Another woman is preparing food on a coal pot. She has a packet of salt in one hand and the wooden spoon she is using to stir her food in the other hand. She licks her lips in a sensually enticing manner whilst feasting her eyes on the body of the man who is pounding fufu. Because she is not paying attention, she accidentally pours the entire sachet of salt into her food. Next, a plump woman is seen making up her face in front of her door. She moves her body as if she is dancing as she plays with her make - up brush. Though she is holding a hand mirror, it is obvious that, like the other two women she is looking intently at the man's body. The camera gives a close up of the man's sweaty and muscular body as he pounds fufu. The lady turning the fufu is wearing a low-cut dress which is short, thus exposing the upper part of her breasts and thighs. She is the wife of man pounding the fufu. The man and his wife are seen flirting with each other. When the man leaves his wife after pounding the fufu, the other women run to the woman who is dishing out her fufu to find out where her husband finds so much strength from. This woman then brings out a packet of condom and tells her friends to get Kiss Condom' for their husbands. She tells them how smooth and sweet scented 'Kiss Condom' is, thereby making the whole act very enjoyable. The other women with their husbands are seen happily pounding fufu after the Kiss Condom testimony. With the exception of the plump woman who is doing the pounding, the other women were doing the usual turning of the fufu. The woman who introduced her friends to the Kiss Condom and her husband are on the balcony observing how happy the other couples are. Then a female voice over talks about the qualities of kiss condom after which the ad ends. Relative size: All the men in the ad were taller and bigger than their wives. Although, it is difficult to tell the height of the plump woman's husband since he is sitting, he is smaller in size as compared to her. Based on the number of men standing, Goffman's (1979) definition of relative size applies. This ad reinforces male superiority over female. Ritualized subordination: Again, with the exception of the plump woman, all the women are virtually sitting throughout the ad whilst their husbands stand. By this posture, the women are objectified. Parts of their bodies are singled out to be viewed predominantly as physical objects of each other's sexual desire. Independence /assertiveness: This first man who was seen pounding fufu was assertive in his fufu pounding skills and proudly showed off his muscular body. This debunks the notion that it is only women who take pride in their physical appearances. The woman who introduced the other women to Kiss Condom was also knowledgeable about the product and therefore sounded confident. She typifies the sexually empowered woman who knows what she wants and confidently expresses it. Authoritative voice: The female voice over at the end of the ad challenges the stereotypical masculine authority in the ad. Voice-overs are associated with expertise and authority so using a feminine voice provides the assurance that females are capable of being experts even in fields men have assumed dominance like contraceptive decision making. This ad alludes pounding of fufu to the sexual act. The energy exerted in pounding fufu is likened to the energy used during sex. This explains why the Kiss Condom testimony emphasizes how smooth and enjoyable the 'fufu pounding act becomes when Kiss is used. 4.3.1 Discussion The women in the Kiss Condom are not only depicted as home makers but they are sexually objectified. These women were cooking, washing and applying make up to look more beautiful. Their facial expressions, postures and exposure of their breasts and thighs are suggestive of sexual readiness. They are portrayed as being valuable for possessing these body parts but not for their intelligence or personality. The men in this ad are predominately portrayed as superior to woman by virtue of body size / weight, their upright standing positions and the executive roles they played. Men's bodies are sexually objectified too; their muscular bodies are portrayed as objects of women's sexual desire. The depiction of the women cooking, washing and making up conform to stereotypical gender portrayals in ads. In addition, female models showing varied degrees of nudity is very common in ads. It is one of the ways women are stereotyped. They are portrayed as being important only for their physique but never for their intelligence. On the other hand, by being portrayed as standing throughout the ad (even when she was with her husband), the plump woman is used as symbol to show how women are equally powerful and capable of exercising power and supremacy even in their interactions or engagement with men. The fact that women are shown lusting after the man and confidently advertising the condom contradict the usual portrayal of women in subordinate, unassertive and passive positions. Sexually objectifying men is rare, but this ad shows that, it is not always men who lust after women's bodies; sometimes it is the other way round. This depiction also challenges the norm. Therefore, the Kiss Condom ad can also be said to conform to and at the same time challenge traditional gender stereotypes. It is clear from this ad that, Ghanaian contraceptive ads are in transition when it comes to depiction of gender roles. Though they appear to be gender aware, they are largely stereotypical in nature. This corresponds to findings in Cheng & Leung (2014)'s study; that is irrespective of the limited gender balance representations portrayed in ads, there are still depictions of gender inequality. A sensual appeal was employed in the Kiss Condom ad; the shots of women's thighs, breasts, a man's muscular body, blowing of kisses, seductive and flirtatious facial and body expressions all connotes erotic imagery. Also, the cognitive appeal was used to paint a vivid picture of how a happy sexual life can be achieved by using Kiss Condom. This was captured in the last scene where the newly introduced couples were happily pounding fufu together whilst the woman who introduced the other couples to Kiss Condom looked on smiling with her husband. 4.4 Life Choices Contraceptive Advert The ad seeks to inform viewers of the various contraceptives available for females and males to choose from in accordance with their needs or desires. In the opening of the ad, a couple (a man and his wife/girlfriend) look into each other's face seeming quite surprised by the deep male voice which welcomes them to Life Choices and asks them to select their modern contraceptive choice from the touch screen device in-front of them. The man points to an icon for the woman to select or sometimes, they both touch the screen to select a contraceptive. Upon each selection, a superimposition of the contraceptive pops up. The voiceover mentions the name of the contraceptive and describes its use and effectiveness. The couple then engage in inaudible discussions before they select the next icon. In all, the pill, injectable, condom, implants, IUD and sterilization are described. The couple are happy they have all these contraceptives to choose from and hug to show their happiness. The male voiceover asks viewers to discuss with partners about choosing contraceptives to prevent unwanted pregnancies and visit a health centre to learn more about the contraceptive method that best suits them. Relative size: The man is taller than his partner though they both are relatively of the same size. Consequently, the man is superior to the woman. Ritualized subordination: The couple in the ad are both shown in the upright and standing position throughout the ad. So, it cannot be concluded that one is subordinate to the other. Function ranking: Interestingly, in terms of the major function, it is observed that the man points to all the ads that are solely for women's use before the woman touches those icons on the touch screen device. So, the man points to the pill, the injectable, implants and IUD before the woman touches these icons. He however touches the icons of the contraceptives that are used by both males and females with his spouse. Even with that, it is noticeable that, he touches the icons slightly earlier than the woman. From this, it seems he is teaching the woman the contraceptive to choose or that he is more knowledgeable than her. He plays the executive role whilst the woman follows his lead. Feminine touch: The woman is not seen caressing any object. However, she touches the icons pointed by her husband/boyfriend gently. Hence, the idea conveyed is the delicate nature of the feminine touch. Unlike the woman, the gentleman points to the icons very confidently and firmly. This trait can be said to show his ability to be in control of his surroundings. Body nudity: The couple are decently dressed in African prints fabrics. There is no unnecessary body exposure. This can be interpreted to mean that both the man and woman are valued for their personality and not parts of their bodies. Independence and self-assertiveness: The man shows his independence and assertiveness by taking the lead in pointing to the icons for the woman to touch. He further points to the other icons before the woman does. Certainly, the woman by following the man's lead has demonstrated her dependence on him. Therefore, confirming the stereotypical notion that women are dependent on men. Authoritative voice: The masculine voiceover affirms the absence of female authority in the entire ad. Since voiceovers provide expertise information, by using male voiceover, this ad delegates expertise and authority to males. At a first glance, this ad appears to be a gender aware ad as both the man and the woman make contraceptive choices. But a closer look showed it is heavy laden with negative stereotypes. 4.4.1 Discussion The woman in the Life Choices ad is portrayed as partner with her spouse, though her partnership is strongly tied to following her husband's lead. Therefore, she does not have much say in the decision-making process. The man on the other is depicted as a confident leader. He exhibits his superiority by pointing to the female contraceptives for his spouse to touch as well as by touching the contraceptives for females and men before his spouse does. In terms of power relations, there are weak representations of women as either equal to or superior to men as reflected in the above ad. Men are always portrayed as physically and emotionally strong or mature, independent, knowledgeable and playing the primary role. On the other hand, women are depicted as subordinates, dependent and happy whilst playing supportive roles. Prior studies (Ferguson, 1983; Whinship, 1987; Pringle, 1992; Many 2000; Berberick, 2010) in gender and advertising have all come to similar conclusions. Hence, in a more indirect and sophisticated way, the unrealistic and negative gender portrayals are being repackaged and presented in television ads to consolidate the entrenched patriarchal authority. Furthermore, the portrayal of the couple in the Life Choices ad, exchanging ideas on the various contraceptives represent the couple as a team working together to achieve the same goal. This image challenges gender stereotypes. Often men are cast as the authoritative fieures so they are sen controlling or making all the decisions which affect both men and women. Some sense of gender equality is therefore displayed in the ad. Yet, judging by the leadership act exhibited by the man in pointing to and selecting contraceptives for/before the woman, it is suggestive of the stereotypical nature of the ad. so, it is not far-fetched to conclude that this Life Choices ad challenges and reinforces stereotypical gender portrayals at the same time. In the above ad, the informative appeal was employed. The names, uses and effectiveness of the contraceptive superimpositions that popped up were provided by a male voice-over thereby equipping the couple in the ad and viewers with contraceptive knowledge. In sum, linking the findings from the sampled contraceptive ads to the gender role theory, it can be concluded that, in Ghana, it was previously considered ideal for females to take on domestic and dependency roles whilst males fulfilled dominance and independence roles. However, gendered behavior is beginning to change because gender roles are changing. That is to say that more females and males are performing the same similar roles consequently, their behavior and attitudes are becoming similar just as the theory predicted. This explains why it is common now to see women in predominately male professions/ exhibiting previously thought of masculine traits. An example is the portrayal of the assertive female pharmacist in the Lydia Contraceptive ad and a woman advertising the use of condoms along with women lusting after a man's body in the Kiss Condom ad. 4.5 Addressing the Research Questions This study posed three research questions. RQ1. How are females and males portrayed in Ghanaian contraceptive advertisements? The females in the sampled ads are depicted as career women, homemakers and subodinates to men. in the Lydia Contraceptive ad, the females are career women who are portrayed as intelligent and confident pharmacists. But in the Kiss Condom ad, the women are performing household duties: cooking and washing. Again, in the last ad, the woman is seen happily following the man's lead in selecting contraceptive ads, even the ones primarily feminine. To a large extent, the men in the selected ads are portrayed as confident, energetic, and superior. They exhibit these by performing the executive roles. With the exception of the young man in the Lydia Contraceptive ad and the husband of the plump woman in the Kiss Condom ad who perform the secondary roles although they interact with women, the other men demonstrate the use of the products or are portrayed in dominant positions. RQ2. Do these advertisements challenge or reinforce gender stereotypes? Some elements of the selected Ghanaian contraceptive advertisements challenge and at the same time reinforce gender stereotypes by portraying females in non-traditional roles and positions. To illustrate, women boldly advertise the use of condoms or excel in careers dominated by males such as pharmacology. Additionally, men's bodies together with female bodies are sexually objectified. The muscular bodies of men are portrayed as objects of women's sexual desire hence, challenging stereotypical representation; since it is women who are often sexually objectified. The stereotypical portrayals such as male superiority over female and women attending to household chores or taking particular interest in looking beautiful were also depicted in the selected ads. RO3. What type of appeal(s) is/are employed mostly in advertisement of contraceptives on television? The informative appeal was found to be primarily employed in contraceptive ads although sometimes, the sensual, instructive, cognitive and humor appeals are also adopted. By consistently using the informative appeal, Ghanaian contraceptive advertisers choose to educate sexually active individuals on all they need to know about a contraceptive i.e. when to take or use it, how to take or use it and possible side effects. This approach equips consumer with all the details of the contraceptive in question. Combining the informative appeal with either one or all of the other appeals (sensual, instructive, cognitive and humor appeals) make the ad attractive and create a strong desire in the mind of the consumers to purchase the contraceptive. Moving on, there were some common themes that run through the three ads. After subjecting the ads to a textual analysis based on discussed framework, two themes of partnership and choice emerged. These themes are discussed below. Partnership: From the first ad, it is obvious the young man is aware contraceptive decision- making is between partners that is why he takes the responsibility to buy Ohema's preferred contraceptive so that both of them will be happy. In the Kiss Condom ad, the women are also portrayed as having a say in not only the Contraceptive choice their partners.use but also influencing their use. In that ad, it is one woman who introduced her partner and her friends to Kiss Condom. All the couples were happy after using it irrespective of which of them (either the man or the woman used it on the offer. the Life Choices ad portrayed a couple who are engaged in an egalitarian discussion based on the information they received on the effectiveness of various modern contraceptives. Again, sense of partnership between couples in making contraceptive decisions is illustrated. fence, the decision to start using contraceptives is not solely left to the woman. These ads paint the picture of how happy couples are with their sexual lives if both participate in taking a decision to choose and use contraceptives. Implying that, contraceptive decision making is the equal responsibility of females and males and both parties must take an active part in the decision-making process. Choices: The theme of choice also runs through the ads. The young man in the Lydia Oral Contraceptives is presented with two contraceptive choices: the oral and the post pill. The Kiss Condom ad also alludes to choose by depicting how either males or females can find condoms for their use. So that irrespective of one's gender, one can still use Kiss Condoms. The last ad offered the couple a variety of contraceptives for them to choose the most suitable. There were contraceptives for both males and females to choose from in order to prevent unwanted pregnancies or contraction of STI's. Nonetheless, these selected ads, seem to pay much attention to female contraceptives. Lydia contraceptive is primarily for women's use so both the oral or the emergency pills are to be taken by women. Indirectly, the men are left out and the responsibility falls on the women to protect them. Similarly, the Life Choices ad presents the woman with four different choices as against nothing for men, not even vasectomy which is solely for men. It goes on to showcase two other contraceptives for both male and female use. Thus, the ads cleverly lay contraceptive responsibility on the women. CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 5.0 Introduction This last chapter discusses the original contribution of this study to scholarship and finally outlines recommendations and limitations to the research. 5.1 Research Findings Advertising as a form of media is an important source of information however research has proven that advertisements display stereotypical roles. As a result, ads end up constructing audiences view about appropriate and inappropriate gender roles. Whereas males are often presented in ads for automobiles, industrial companies and alcoholic beverages, females are shown in ads for food, beauty and cleaning products. Contrarily, there has been significant gender role change and in modern societies females are and males are transgressing their roles. Today many females are in male dominated positions in the workforce and more males continue to turn out as fine chefs. This study sought to identify the ways in which females and males are portrayed in television contraceptive advertisements in Ghana. The contents of the advertisements were analysed to exemplify the different ways both genders are represented in Ghanaian contraceptive ads. The findings of this study can be summed up as follows: o Ghanaian contraceptive advertisements both challenge and reinforce gender stereotypes by portraying females in traditional and non-traditional roles. o There were weak representations of women as either equal to or superior to men. o The informative appeal was found to be primarily employed although sometimes the instructive and humor appeals are also adopted. o Two themes run through the three adverts namely; partnership and choice. o The negative and the unrealistic gender portrays in the media are being repackaged and represented in Ghanaian TV contraceptive ads to consolidate entrenched patriarchal authority. 5.2 Conclusion From the findings of this research, it can be concluded that stereotypical gender portrayals still exist in Ghanaian ads. The few scenes in the ads which seemed to challenge stereotyping are not substantive enough to rule gender stereotypes out of Ghanaian contraceptive ads. 5.3 Limitations The study's main limitation is the fact that the findings cannot be used as basis for generalization. Due to disadvantages of qualitative studies such as small sample size, data reliability and inability of the data to be tested statically, its findings cannot be extended to a wider population. Another limitation was the inadequate literature on gender roles in contraceptive advertisements. Particularly in Africa, not much has been done in this area of studies. This made it difficult to critically review some of the published scholarly works on the topic at hand and possibly compare it with the situation in Ghana. 5.4 Recommendations It is recommended that future researchers explore how gender roles in contraceptive ads are portrayed in other forms of media particularly digital media which seem to have caught the attention of advertisers. This will help illustrate how the situation plays out in a more current medium. Further studies can also be conducted using a mixed method in order to present more concrete findings on gender roles in Ghanaian contraceptive ads. Finally, it is suggested that researchers interested in gender roles in Africa turn their attention from soap operas and domestic products adverts to sports ads, technological ads and the likes which remain under-researched. BIBLIOGRAPHY Abdul-Rahman, L., Marrone, G., & Johansson, A (201 1). Trends in contraceptive use among female adolescents in Ghana. African Journal of Reproductive Health, 15(2), 45-55. Achakpa-Ikyo, P. N. & Anweh, G. (2016). Sex stereotyping in advertising and effects on the self-esteem of Nigerian women. Journal of Media and Communication Studies, 8(1)1-1. Addo, K. (2006). Images of Women in Ghanaian Television Advertising: A Textual Analysis of GTV Ads (Unpublished master's dissertation). University of Ghana, Accra, Ghana. Adjei, K. K. L., Narh, A.L., Abdulai, C.T., Newton, M. A., Owusu-Agyei, S., & Adjei, S. (2015). A comparative study on the availability of modern contraceptives in public and private health facilities in a peri-urban community in Ghana. Reproductive Health, 12(68), 1-8 Adongo, P. B.,Tabong, P. T-N.,Azongo, T.B., Philips, J. N.,Sheff, M. C., Stone, A. E.,& Tapsoba, P. (2014). A comparative qualitative study of misconceptions associated with contraceptive use in southern and northern Ghana. Frontiers in PublicHealth,2, 1-7 Agha, S. &Meekers, D. (2010). Impact of an advertising campaign on condom use in urban Pakistan. Studies in Family Planning, 41(4), 277-290. Ali, S. & Shahwar, D. (2011). Men, women and TV Ads: The representation of men and women in the advertisements of Pakistani electronic media. Journal of Media and Communication Studies, 3(4), 151-159. Alipour, K., Sadeghi, O., Bokani A. N., Zarga, K. & Esmailzade, S. (2015). The impact of media on society in terms of security and ideology. Indian Journal of Fundamental and Applied Life Sciences, 5(1), 271-275 Alexa, M. (1997). Computer-assisted text analysis methodology in the social sciences. Zuma- Arbeitsbericht. 97/07, Mannheim:Zuma Appiah-Agyekum,N.N., & Kayi, E. A. (2011). Men, women and TV Ads: The representation of men and women in the advertisements of Pakistani electronic media. Journal of Media and Communication Studies, 3(4), 151-159. Anaman, K.A. & Okai, J. O.A. (2016). Extent of awareness of birth control Methods and their use by woman in a peri-urban area in Ghana. Modern Economy, 7, 39-57 Asadollahi, A. &Tanha, N. (2011). The Role of Advertising and Its Effects on Children. Interdisciplinary Journal of Research Studies in Business, 1(2) Bacik, R., Fedorko, R.,Simová S. (2012). Advertising as a tool of marketing communication and its consequent impact on consumers. Polish Journal of Management Studies,5, 315-323. pajoga. U. A, Atasane. K. L. & Okigbo, C.C. (2015). Media Influence on Sexual Adivity and Contraceptive Use: A Cross Sectional Survey among Young Women in Urban Nigeria. African Journal of Reproductive Health, 19 (3),101-110 Barnett, B. (2013, June 25-30). Valuable and vulnerable: Framing of trafficking for sexual exploitation in magazines. Paper presented at IAMCR 2013 Conference: Crises, "Creative Destruction' and the Global Power and Communication Orders, Dublin. Ireland. International Association of Media and Communication Research, Bihn-Coss, G. F., (2008, November 20). Controlling Nature: Contraception, menstrual suppression, and fertility in women's magazine advertisements'. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the NCA 94th Annual Convention, TBA, San Diego, CA Boamah, E. A., (2012). Sexual Behaviours and Contraceptive use among Adolescents in Kintampo, Ghana. (Unpublished master's thesis). Vrije Universiteit. Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands Bryman, A. & Bell, E. (2011). Business Research Methods, 3rd Edition. Oxford University Press Bush, B. & Furnham, A. (2013). Gender Jenga: The Role of Advertising in Gender Stereotypes within Educational and Non- Educational Games, Young Consumers, 14(3), 216-229 Cameron, D. (1998). The Feminist Critique of Language. London: Routledge Chan, K. & Cheng, Y. (2012). Portrayal of females in magazine advertisements in Hong Kong. Journal of Asian Pacific Communication, 22(1), 78-96. Cheng, K. & Leung, V. (2014). Reinforcing Gender Stereotypes: A Critical Discourse Analysis of Health-Related PSAs in Hong Kong. American International Journal of Social Science, 3(3), 36-48 Chipeta, E. K., Chimwaza, W., &Kalilani-Phiri L. (2010). Contraceptive Knowledge, Beliefs and Attitudes in Rural Malawi: Misinformation, Misbeliefs and Misperceptions. Malawi Medical Journal, 22(2), 38-41. Courtney, A.E & Lockeretz, S.W. (1971). A woman's place: An Analysis of the roles portrayed by women in magazine advertisements. Journal of Marketing Research, 13(1), 168-72. Davison, M. L. (2008). Conception advertising in contemporary India, gender, consumer and power. (Unpublished master's thesis). Cornwell University, New York, United States. Debasish, S. S. (2012). Role of television advertising in attitude formation and purchase intention - A study in Indian Telecom Sector, Elixir Marketing Management, 11073-11077. Dwivedi, R. R. (2014). Women in Indian advertisement: A feminist observation, International Journal of Education and Psychological Research, 3(1), 50-53. Eagly, A. H. (1987). Sex-differences in social behaviours: A social-role interpretation. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Cited in Shimanoff, S.B. (2009).Gender Role Theory. In Littlejohn, S. W& Foss, K. A. (Ed). Encyclopaedia of Communication Theory (433-436), California: Sage Publications Ezeanoluc, B.E., Iwelunmor, J. Asaolu,l, Obiefune,M.C., Ezeanolue,C.O., Osuji, A., Ogidi, A.G., Hunt, A.T., Patel, D., Yang W. & Ehiri, J.E. (2015). Impact of male partner's awareness and support for contraceptives on female intent to use contraceptives in southeast Nigeria. BMC Public Health 15(879), 1-6. Ferguson, J.H., Kreshel, P.J., & Tinkham, S.F. (1990). In the pages of Ms: Sex role portrayals of women in advertising. Journal of Advertising, 19, 40-51. Fennell, J. F. (2011). Men Bring Condoms, Women Take Pill: Men's and Women's Roles in Contraceptive Decision Making. Gender & Society, 25(4), 496-521. Fisman R., Iyengar, S.S., Kamenica, E. & Simonson I. (2008). Racial Preferences in Dating Review of Economic Studies. 75(1), 117-13 Freisleben, C.E. & Hesse, N. (2015). Men and their perception of gender stereotypes used in print media (Unpublished master's thesis. Lund University, Lund, Sweden. Furnham, A. & Paltzer, S. (2011). The portrayal of men and women in British television advertisements: A review of 7 studies published over a 12 year period. Mass Communication and Journalism, 1, 1-6. Glascock, J. (2001). Gender Roles on Prime-time network TV: Demographics and Behaviours. Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media, 19, 656-669 Goffman, E. (1979). Gender advertisements. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press Gracheva, K. (2014). Pregnant with Change: Contraceptive responsibility in contemporary America. Retrieved from www. finalpaa2015.princeton.edu>uploads Hall, P.C., West, J. H., Magnusson, B., Cox A. (2014). Promotion of sexual health and sexual responsibility in women's health and men's magazines. Sexuality and Culture, 18, 1025-1037 Hameed, A. (2014). Impact of television advertisement on children's buying behaviour. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 4(2) 246-261 Hamzeh, D. (2010). A textual analysis of Trojan Condoms: depiction of gender roles. Special paper presented to Bridgewater State College, Bridgewater, USA Happer, C., & Philo G. (2013). The role of the media in the construction of public belief and social change. Journal of Social and Political Psychology, 1(1) 322-336. 43 doi:10.5964/jspp.vli1.96. Harper, S. (2013). The Masculinity Masquerade: the Portrayal of Men in Modern Advertising. (Unpublished master's thesis) University of North Texas, Texas, United States. Holladay, J.N., (2010) Portrayals of Power: A Content Analysis of Gender Dominance in Magazine Advertisement. (Unpublished master's thesis). Western Kentucky University, Kentucky, United States. Holtzhausen, T., &Jordaan, E.J,(2011). The portrayal of women in South African television commercials. North Southern African Business Review, 15(3), 167-183 Jones, R. K., Biddlecom, A. E., Hebert, L.& Mellor R. (2011). Teens Reflect on their Sources of Contraceptive Information. Journal of Adolescent Research, 26(4) 423-446 Kamalipour, D. (2013). Female and Male Yogis in Media: An Analysis of gender stereotypes in Yoga Advertising (Unpublished masters thesis). Southern Illinois University Edwardsville, Illinois, USA Kang, M-E. (1997). The portrayal of women's images in magazine advertisements: Goffman's gender analysis revisited. Sex Roles, 37,979-990 Kara, C. L .N & Williams, R. B. (2012). What do adolescent girls learn about gender roles from advertising images? Young Consumers, 13(4), 357- 366 Kaur, K., Arumugam, N., &Yunus N. M. (2013). Beauty Product Advertisements: A Critical Discourse Analysis. Asian Social Science, 9(3), 61-71 Kilbourne, J. (1999). Deadly Persuasion. Why women and girls must fight the addictive power of advertising. New York, NY: The Free Press. Knoll, S., Eisend, M. &Steinhagen, J. (2010), Gender Roles In Advertising: A Comparison of Gender Stereotyping On Public And Private TV Channels In Germany, International Journal of Advertising, 1, 285-295 Lazar, M. (2006). Discover the power of femininity! Analysing global power femininity in local advertising. Feminist Media Studies, 6, 505-517. Lindlof, T. R. & Taylor B.C. (2002). Qualitative Communication Research Methods. (2nd edition). Thousand Oaks, California 91320, 56. LoBiondo-Wood, G., & Haber, J. (1998). Nursing research: Methods, critical appraisal, and utilization. St. Louis: Mosby, 250.Cited in Mbokane, A. (2009). The utilization contraceptives by women who requested termination of pregnancy services in Gert Sibidane District (Mpumalanga). (Unpublished Master's thesis). University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa. Lock, N.R. (2015). Framing and Normalizing Hormonal Contraception in Men's and Women's Magazines: An Ecofeminist Analysis. (Unpublished master's thesis) University of Oregon, Eugene, United States. McArthur, L. Z. &Resko, B. G. (1975). The portrayal of men and women in American TV Advertisements. Journal of Social Pyschology, 97, 209-220. Mager, J. & Helgeson, J. G. (2011). Fifty years of advertising images: Some changing perspectives on role portrayals along with enduring consistencies. Sex Roles, 64, 238-252. Martin, S. P., McDaid, L. M. & Hilton, S. (2014). Double-standards in reporting of risk and responsibility for sexual health: a qualitative content analysis of negatively toned UK newsprint articles. BMC Public Health, 14, 792. Mashiri, L. (2013). Conceptualisation of gender based violence in Zimbabwe. Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 14(3), 94-103 Mayne I., (2000). The inescapable images: gender and advertising, Equal Opportunities International, 19(2/3/4)56 - 61 McKee, A. (2003). Textual Analysis. A Beginner's Guide. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications. Mead,M. (1935). Sex and temperament in three primitive societies. New York: HarperCollins. Cited in Shimanoff, S.B. (2009).Gender Role Theory. In Littlejohn S. W& Foss. K. A. (Ed). Encyclopaedia of Communication Theory (433-436), California: Sage Publications Medley-Rath, S. R., & Simonds. W. (2010). Consuming contraceptive control: Gendered distinctions in web-based contraceptive advertising. Culture, Health & Society, 12(7), 783-795. Melaku, Y. A., Berhane, Y., Kinsman, J., Reda, H. L. (2014). Sexual and reproductive female health communication and awareness of contraceptive methods among secondary school students, Northern Ethiopia: a cross-sectional study. BMC Public Health, 14, 252. doi: 10.1186/1471-2458-14-252 Menon,P., Punkambekar, S., Bhatia, S. (2015). Gender stereotyping in advertising and its consequences & effects on its audience. Samvad, 9, 59-64 Mickson, M.& Tendero, M. (2015). A critical evaluation of the portrayal of Zimbabwean women in advertisements and its Impact on Shona Culture. International Journal of Innovation and Research in Educational Sciences, 2(6), 439- 444 Mohammed M. (2014). Sexual representation of women in media advertisements in Ghana (Master's thesis). Retrieved from doi: 10.13140/2.1.4725.0568 Mosha, I., Ruben, R. &Deodatus, K. (2013). Family planning decisions, perceptions and gender dynamics among couples in Mwaza, Tanzania: A qualitative study. BMC Public Health, 13(523), 1-13 Paek, H-Y. & Vilela A. M. (2011)., Examination Of Gender-Role Portrayals In Television Advertising across Seven Countries. Sex Roles, 64, 192-207 Perez N.P., (2013). Roles of Women in Advertising: The Objectification of Women and the Shift to an Empowering Ad Frame (Unpublished master's thesis). University of Texas, Texas, United States. Picklesimer, S., (2010). Gender role stereotypes in advertising: a test of the match-up hypothesis on advertising effectiveness (Unpublished Master's thesis). University of Louisville, Kentucky, United States Pierler, M., & Centeno, D. (2013). Gender Representation in Philippine television advertisements. Sex Roles, 69, 5-6 Polit, D.F. & Hungler, B.P. (1999) Nursing Research: Principles and Methods (6th Ed.) Philadelphia, Lippincott, 39. Cited in Mbokane, A. (2009). The utilization of contraceptives by women who requested termination of pregnancy services in Gert Sibidane District (Mpumalanga). (Unpublished Master's thesis). University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa. Prot, S., Anderson, C. A., Gentile, D. A., Warburton, W., Salem, M., Groves, C. L., & Brown, S. C. (2015). Media as Agents of Socialization. In J.E. Grusec and P. D. Hastings (Eds.), Handbook of Socialization (second edition) (pp. 276-300). New York, NY: Guilford Press Rogers, T. L. (2011). Advertising risk: a comparative content analysis of contraceptive advertisements targeting black and white women. (Unpublished master's thesis). University of Central Florida, Florida, United States. Salem, B. B. (2016). The impact of online advertising on Tunisian consumers' purchase intention. Journal of Marketing Research & Case Studies, 2016 (2016), 1-13, doi: 10.5171/2016. Sarkar, S. (2015). Gender Stereotyping in Product Promotion: a Dominant Tool of Advertising in Indian Media. International Journal of Media, Journalism and Mass Communications, 1(2),1-12 Sheehan, M., (2013). The effects of advertising and the media's portrayal of the 'thin ideal' on college women's self-image. (Unpublished Bachelor's thesis) Providence College, Rhode Island, United States. Stern, B. (1996). Textual Anaysis in Advertising Research: Construction and Reconstruction of Meanings, Journal of Advertising, 25(3), 61-73 Stith, D. L. (2011). Homemaker to Seductress: A Content Analysis of Gender Stereotypes in Online Embedded Advertisements (Master's thesis). Retrieved http://cornerstone.lib.mnsu.edu/etds Sultana, U.B.F.(2015).Gender, Sexuality and Contraceptive Advertisements in Bangladesh: Representation and Lived Experience across Social Classes and Generations (Unpublished doctoral thesis). University of Sussex, London, UK Tsegah, M. (2009). The portrayal of women in television advertisements: A study of Ghana Television from January to December 2007 (Unpublished master's thesis) University of Ghana. Accra, Ghana Tsichla, E., & and Zotos, Y.C. (2013, June 4-6). Female and male stereotypes in print Cypriot advertisements: Measuring, comparing and exploring the association of gender with visual and verbal presentation styles, 42nd Annual Conference of the European Marketing Academy, Istanbul, Turkey. Vogel D. L., Wester S. R., Heesacker M., Madon S. (2003). Confirming gender role stereotypes: a social role perspective. Sex Role. 48(11/12), 519 -528 Wimmer, R. & Dominick, R. (2011). Mass Media Research: An introduction, (9' edition). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Wolksa M., (2011). Gender stereotypes in mass media case study: Analysis of gender stereotyping phenomenon in television commercials. Retrieved from http:// Krytyka.Org/Gender- Stereotypes-In-Mass-Media-Case-Study-Analysis-Of- Gender- Stereotyping-Phenomenon-In-Tv Commercials.