CULTURE AND MANAGERIAL PRACTICES IN PRIVATE AND PUBLIC UNIVERSITIES IN GHANA BY SOLOMON KOFI AMOAH (10225918) THIS THESIS IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF MPHIL SOCIOLOGY DEGREE JULY, 2013 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh   DECLARATION I, SOLOMON KOFI AMOAH, DO HEREBY DECLARE THAT EXCEPT FOR REFERENCES TO OTHER WORKS WHICH HAVE BEEN DULY ACKNOWLEDGED, THIS WORK IS THE RESULT OF FIELD WORK CARRIED OUT BY ME UNDER THE SUPERVISION OF DR. KOFI OHENE-KONADU AND DR. STEPHEN AFRANIE IN THE DEPARTMENT OF SOCIOLOGY. I FURTHER DECLARE THAT AS FAR AS I AM AWARE, THIS WORK HAS NOT BEEN PRESENTED IN PART OR IN FULL ANYWHERE FOR A DEGREE OR CERTIFICATE. .……………………..………….. SOLOMON KOFI AMOAH (Student) DATE: ………………………… SUPERVISORS ………………………………….. ………………………………. DR. KOFI OHENE-KONADU DR. STEPHEN AFRANIE Principal Supervisor Supervisor DATE: …………………… DATE: ………………………… University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh   DEDICATION This thesis is dedicated to my lovely mother, Comfort Nyamekye Brabi... Without whose love and support I would not have come this far. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh   ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I am grateful to God Almighty for His mercies and grace to have finished this thesis. He has seen me through thick and thin and I am forever grateful. I also acknowledge the financial support of the Carnegie Corporation of New York through the University of Ghana under the ―Next Generation of Academics in Africa‖ project in completing this thesis. I wish to express my profound gratitude to my supervisors, Dr. Kofi Ohene-Konadu and Dr. Stephen Afranie for their priceless contribution to this work. I am particularly grateful for their time, advice, encouragement and healthy criticisms to ensure that this work comes out refined. I also appreciate the help of Prof. David Lackland Sam (Norway) for broadening my understanding in cross cultural psychological research and existing models. I am thankful to Dr. K. O. Akuoko of the KNUST, Kumasi for granting me access to his work on the Komfo Anokye Teaching Hospital. I am greatly indebted to my dear friend Ama Owusuaa for her support. I could not have finished this thesis without you. I also wish to thank my friend and student Kuukua Love Ocran for her assistance in transcribing my taped interviews. I express my sincere gratitude to all my friends and staff of the Department of Sociology, University of Ghana for all the assistance given me through this work. I am particularly grateful to Rosemary Obeng-Hinneh, Belinda Smith, Dela Dovi and Colette Santah for taking time off to proofread and edit my work. I say a big thank you to my father, siblings and Aunty Lucy for their financial support, love, care and encouragement. I finally want to thank the best group of friends I ever had: Danny, Jacob, Michael, Michael (advisor) and Anakwa (a.k.a. Mr. Nkansah). Thanks for the social and spiritual support. I say God bless you. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh   ABSTRACT The study explored the influence of culture on managerial practices in Universities in Ghana. It specifically sought to (i) identify the cultural variables with implications for managerial practices in the study institutions and establish the nature of relationship that exists between the two; (ii) examine the implications of socio-cultural values for performance management practices; (iii) examine the relationship between socio -cultural values and managers‘ choice of leadership style; and (iv) find out how the possible conflict between different orientations (that of the larger society within which the manager operates, and his/her own goals and personal orientation) is handled by individual managers. The data for the study were collected using qualitative and quantitative approaches. Through a combined approach of survey and in-depth interviews of samples of 134 (out of 144) and 25 personnel respectively, ample data were gathered from private and public universities in Ghana for the study. The study found that the universities‘ management are modelled after Max Weber‘s bureaucracy of a hierarchical culture. They have standardized rules and procedures for carrying out every task. This notwithstanding the societal culture was found to shape the institutions and behaviour of their members. Managerial practices and behaviour in the universities are greatly influenced by elements of the sociocultural environment. Individuals working in these universities engage in constant negotiation, consultation, and sometimes compromise in adhering to formal rational structures while keeping non-rational informal relations running. The study found socio-cultural factors such as familism, ethnicity, respect for the elderly, authority and traditional leadership, religion and superstition, value placed on funerals, fear of the unknown, gender and plea for clemency (dwanetoa) to have implications for management practices and work relations in the universities. It also found a close relationship between choice of leadership style and managerial behaviour of the personnel on one hand and the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh   socio-cultural variables identified in the study on the other. Some of the socio-cultural factors were further found to influence performance management practices in the study organisations. Among the many socio-cultural factors found to influence performance management practices are religious beliefs, the relational orientation, and the persistent plea for clemency (dwanetoa). Although several informal relations were found to influence management practices in the universities, those formed within the collegium and through religious associations or networks were found to be the strongest. The study recommends: (i) an overhaul of the appraisal tools of the two universities. The institutions should consider making the performance management tools scientific enough to relieve the individual manager of the subjective evaluation of personnel they supervise; (ii) an adoption of a socio-cultural approach to problem solving especially in dealing with problems resulting from socio-cultural relations; and (iii) tailoring of HR training programmes and services to suit the sociocultural environment. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh   TABLE OF CONTENTS CONTENT PAGE DECLARATION ................................................................................................................ i DEDICATION ................................................................................................................... ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................... iii ABSTRACT ...................................................................................................................... iv TABLE OF CONTENTS .................................................................................................. vi LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................. x LIST OF FIGURES .......................................................................................................... xi LIST OF ACRONYMS ................................................................................................... xii CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY ..................................................................... 1 1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM .................................................................... 4 1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY .......................................................................... 5 1.3.1 GENERAL OBJECTIVE ...................................................................................... 5 1.3.2 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES ..................................................................................... 5 1.4 RELEVANCE OF THE STUDY .......................................................................... 6 1.5 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ........................................................................ 7 1.5.1 THE SOCIAL SYSTEMS THEORY ................................................................... 8 1.5.1.1 THE BEHAVIOUR SUBSYSTEM ................................................................... 10 1.5.1.2 THE SOCIO-CULTURAL SUBSYSTEM ......................................................... 13 1.6 STUDY ORGANISATIONS .............................................................................. 15 1.6.1 UNIVERSITY OF GHANA ............................................................................... 16 1.6.2 VALLEY VIEW UNIVERSITY ........................................................................ 17 1.7 DEFINITION OF CONCEPTS .......................................................................... 19 1.8 ORGANISATION OF THE THESIS ................................................................. 20 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................. 22 2.2 THE CONCEPT OF CULTURE ........................................................................ 22 2.2.1 THE AFRICAN SOCIO-CULTURAL MILIEU ................................................... 24 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh   2.2.1.1 RELIGION AND RELIGIOSITY ....................................................................... 25 2.2.1.2 THE RELATIONAL ORIENTATION OF AFRICAN SOCIETIES .................. 28 2.2.2 CULTURAL VALUE DIMENSIONS ............................................................... 30 2.2.3 ORGANISATION AND NATIONAL CULTURES ......................................... 33 2.3 EFFECTS OF CULTURE ON MANAGERIAL BEHAVIOUR ....................... 35 2.4 MANAGERIAL PRACTICES IN GHANA...................................................... 42 2.4.1 THE ROLE OF CULTURE IN MANAGEMENT ............................................. 42 2.5 PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT IN ORGANISATIONS .......................... 46 2.5.1 SOCIO-CULTURAL ENVIRONMENT AND PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT ............................................................................................................. 46 2.6 CULTURE AND LEADERSHIP STYLES IN ORGANISATIONS ................. 49 2.7 OBSERVATIONS FROM THE LITERATURE ............................................... 53 2.8 CONCLUSION ................................................................................................... 54 CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODS 3.1 RESEARCH DESIGN ........................................................................................ 55 3.2 TARGET POPULATION ................................................................................... 55 3.2.1 STUDY POPULATION ..................................................................................... 56 3.3 SAMPLING FRAME ......................................................................................... 57 3.4 SAMPLING DESIGN ........................................................................................ 57 3.5 SAMPLE SIZE ................................................................................................... 59 3.6 METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION ............................................................. 60 3.6.1 SECONDARY DATA SOURCES ..................................................................... 60 3.6.2 PRIMARY DATA COLLECTION .................................................................... 60 3.7 DATA HANDLING ........................................................................................... 62 3.8 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS ........................................................................ 62 CHAPTER FOUR: DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION: SOCIO-CULTURAL FACTORS, MANAGERIAL BEHAVIOUR AND PRACTICES 4.1 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................. 64 4.2 SOCIO- DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF RESPONDENTS ........ 64 4.2.1 SEX OF RESPONDENTS .................................................................................. 65 4.2.2 AGES OF RESPONDENTS ............................................................................... 66 4.2.3 EDUCATIONAL LEVELS AND POSITIONS HELD BY RESPONDENTS . 66 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh   4.2.4 RELIGION OF RESPONDENTS ...................................................................... 68 4.2.5 ETHNIC BACKGROUND OF RESPONDENTS ............................................. 69 4.2.6 MARITAL STATUS AND HOUSEHOLD COMPOSITION ........................... 70 4.3 SOCIO-CULTURAL VARIABLES AND MANAGEMENT PRACTICES .... 71 4.3.1 FAMILISM, ETHNICITY AND INFORMAL RELATIONS ........................... 72 4.3.1.1 FAMILISM .......................................................................................................... 72 4.3.1.2 ETHNICITY ........................................................................................................ 75 4.3.1.3 INFORMAL RELATIONS ................................................................................. 78 4.3.2 FUNERALS AND OTHER CEREMONIES ..................................................... 81 4.3.3 RELIGIOUS AND SUPERSTITIOUS BELIEFS AMONG WORKERS ......... 85 4.3.4 AGE, TRADITION AND AUTHORITY ........................................................... 87 4.3.4.1 CULTURE OF SILENCE AND ESCHEWING UNCERTAINTIES ............... 89 4.3.5 PLEA FOR CLEMENCY (THE CONCEPT OF ‗DWANETOA‘) ................... 93 4.3.6 GENDER CONSIDERATIONS IN THE UNIVERSITIES ............................... 94 4.3.6.1 DOMINEERING ATTITUDES OF FEMALE SUPERIORS ........................... 96 4.4 LEADERSHIP STYLES AND MANAGERIAL APPROACHES .................. 100 4.4.1 SUBORDINATES‘ RESPONSE TO ADMINISTRATIVE DIRECTIVES .... 104 4.4.2 EMPLOYEES INVOLVEMENT IN DECISION MAKING ........................... 107 4.5 RELATIONS AND THE WORK ORGANISATION ..................................... 108 4.5.1 RESPONDENTS‘ CONCERNS ABOUT GREETINGS ................................. 109 4.5.2 UNIVERSITIES AND POWER DISTANCE .................................................. 112 4.6 CONCLUSION ................................................................................................. 114 CHAPTER FIVE: DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION: PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT PRACTICES 5.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................ 115 5.2 PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT IN THE UNIVERSITIES ..................... 115 5.2.1 SOCIO-CULTURAL VALUES AND PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT PRACTICES .................................................................................................................. 116 5.2.1.1 DESIRE TO MAINTAIN GOOD WORK RELATIONS ................................. 117 5.2.1.2 SUBJECTIVE EVALUATION OF PERFORMANCE .................................. 118 5.2.1.3 GENERAL INDISCIPLINE WITHIN THE SYSTEM ..................................... 119 5.2.1.4 LACK OF COURAGE AMONG MANAGERIAL PERSONNEL ................ 120 5.2.2 PLEA FOR CLEMENCY AND PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT ........... 121 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh   5.2.3 RELIGIOSITY AND PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT ............................ 124 5.2.4 RELATIONAL CONTEXT AND PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT ....... 125 5.3 WORKERS ATTITUDE TO TIME ................................................................. 127 5.4 CONCERNS ABOUT PROMOTION PRACTICES ....................................... 129 5.5 DISCRETE AND CONFLICTING ORIENTATIONS .................................... 130 5.6 CONCLUSION ................................................................................................. 133 CHAPTER SIX: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 6.1 SUMMARY ...................................................................................................... 134 6.2 CONCLUSION ................................................................................................. 139 6.3 RECOMMENDATIONS .................................................................................. 139 REFERENCES .............................................................................................................. 141 APPENDIX 1: RESEARCH QUESTIONNAIRE ........................................................ 152 APPENDIX 2: IN-DEPTH INTERVIEW GUIDE ....................................................... 170 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh   LIST OF TABLES TABLE PAGE 1: LENGTH OF SERVICE IN CURRENT MANAGERIAL POSITION……... 68 2: DO YOU AGREE THAT TRADITIONAL CHIEFS AND LEADERS MUST BE ACCORDED DUE RESPECT EVEN IF THEY ARE JUNIOR EMPLOYEES IN THE INSTITUTION? ……………………………………………..…………. 89 3: SELECTED RESPONSES TO THE QUESTION ―DO YOU SHARE THE BELIEF THAT FEMALE SUPERIORS ARE DOMINEERING?‖ ……....... 98 4: SUBORDINATES MUST BE COMPLIANT WITH AND LOYAL TO THE INTEREST OF THEIR SUPERIORS. DO YOU AGREE? ……………........ 105 5: WHICH OF THE FOLLOWING CONDUCT OF SUBORDINATES DO YOU PREFER? ……………………………………………………………….…… 106 6: VIEWS ON PEOPLE WHO DO NOT GREET OTHERS AT WORK………110 7: HOW OFTEN DO SUPERIORS FACE CHALLENGES IN GIVING FAIR APPRAISAL OF SUBORDINATES IN THE INSTITUTION? ……………. 116 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh   LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE PAGE 1: SEX OF RESPONDENTS…………………………………………………. 65 2: AGE DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS…………………………….. 66 3: POSITION OF RESPONDENTS…………………………………………. 67 4: ETHNIC BACKGROUNDS OF RESPONDENTS……………………….. 69 5: DO YOU AGREE THAT IT IS FAIR TO FACILITATE THE OFFICIAL BUREAUCRATIC PROCESSES FOR A RELATION? ……………….... 74 6: DO SOME WORKERS STRIVE TO FORGE CLOSE INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS WITH MANAGERS FROM THEIR ETHNIC GROUPS AND TRIBES?....................................................................................................... 76 7: DO YOU AGREE WITH THE STATEMENT THAT RESPECT FOR AGE MUST BE PRESERVED IN MANAGEMENT? …………………….…... 87 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh   LIST OF ACRONYMS GLOBE: GLOBAL LEADERSHIP AND ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR EFFECTIVENESS H.O.D: HEAD OF DEPARTMENT HR: HUMAN RESOURCE KNUST: KWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY UG: UNIVERSITY OF GHANA VVU: VALLEY VIEW UNIVERSITY University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh   CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY Management practices are often clear in ‗black and white‘ especially in bureaucratic establishments. This notwithstanding, managerial personnel are often said to find themselves in a dilemma when it comes to following the ideal management practices (Akuoko, 2008). This thesis, therefore asks: To what extent are management practices in these bureaucratic institutions culturally contingent? Organisational studies have often focused attention on what managers require to be effective ‗managers‘. It has often been argued that managers‘ ability to understand and manage behaviour in organizations is extremely desirable to any manager for the ultimate success of the organisation. These arguments pay little attention however to understanding the manager‘s own behaviour and how factors such as culture affect his/her effective functioning or otherwise. We more often than not forget the need to understand the managers‘ own behaviour; and the factors that influence their behaviour. This has led to many assumptions about how managers are supposed to behave in the conduct of their duties. As such, the recommendations of general theories of management have been done with little regard for culture and other situational variables. It is important to note that one of the major causes of the challenges faced by management and organisations on the African continent, according to research, is the practice of transferring management practices and organisations which have no relationship with indigenous cultures (Ahiauzu, 1986; Apekey, 2001; Akuoko, 2008). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh   Organisational behaviour has its foundations in the norms, values and beliefs of society. As such, culture‘s role in management cannot be overemphasised. Three variables are commonly used in explaining differences and similarities among management and managerial behaviour. These are economic, cultural, and psychological variables. Those who stress economic variables argue that the stage and pace of industrialization together with the nature of economic system is more important than any other variable in explaining comparative differences and similarities in management among nations. Opposing this view, the "culturologists" argue that cultural variables such as language, religion, custom, tradition and norms are the most significant factors in comparative management. Finally, there are others who claim that motivational factors such as the achievement motive provide the best explanation for variations in international management. Whichever way one looks at it, both cultural and psychological authors (Kuada, 1994; Hofstede, 1996; 2001; Akuoko, 2008) emphasize a certain social dimension of the manager in explaining his/her behaviour. The societies in which we grow up have their own sets of rules about the way we behave and interact with other people. These rules of behaviour are often ―not written down and we are often not even conscious of them‖ (Hope, 2004, p. 46).Individuals who occupy positions in organisations are expected to fulfil certain roles. These roles develop in response to the recurring needs and problems of the organisation and the society by extension. Roles in organisations like roles in society or even in the theatre, ―have distinctive behavioural expectations and requirements attached to them‖ (Marshall, 1965 cited in Nolan & Lenski, 2006, p. 39). Just as a young female may play the role of Anansewa on the stage, so might she ‗play‘ the role of a mother or a wife in her community. Either way, ―people expect her to act in certain ways and not in others‖ simply University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh   because of her role occupation (Nolan & Lenski, 2006, p. 39). In this case, when she meets those role expectations, she is applauded or rewarded. However, when she fails to meet these behavioural expectations, she is criticised or even more. It is worth emphasising that performing roles involve some form of relationship; that is to say, an individual (for example, a manager), plays his role in relation to others (subordinates, superiors or equals). Individuals interact in terms of roles which regulate and organise behaviour (Haralambos, Holborn & Heald, 2004). The behavioural requirements and expectations that are associated with roles are the norms of the group. In every social setting, a status is accompanied by norms that define how an individual in a position or status is expected to behave. These may be quite formal, as in the case of laws forbidding theft and murder, or informal, as in our expectations concerning property maintenance in the society. Norms may involve fundamental moral issues; and may also involve small details of etiquette (Nolan & Lenski, 2006). Norms also vary in scope. While some apply to everyone, as in the case of laws on murder; others apply to only a few, as in the case of rules governing the conduct of members of parliament. Norms are shared rules or guidelines for performing ones role. They regulate and guide behaviour in specific situations. Norms carry rewards and sanctions for behaviour that conform to a norm and punishment for behaviour that violates a norm respectively. Institutions can be said to be organized sets of norms, values, statuses and roles that are centred on the basic needs of society (Haralambos, et al., 2004). The normative ways of behaviour in these role performances is what is given attention in this study. Thus the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh   largely accepted notions and conduct among the people of the Ghanaian society and the employees of the organisations under study is what is given consideration. 1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM Bureaucratic institutions are characterised by concepts like fairness, strict adherence to institutional procedures, pursuance of disciplinary measures without fear or favour, and the courting of impersonality of interpersonal relations among others. These ideals notwithstanding, organisations are organised sets of norms (Haralambos, et al., 2004) which do not develop or function in a vacuum. As parts of a unified system (the society), there is often an interplay and in some cases a conflict between bureaucratic values, institutions, procedures and expectations on one hand and traditional and socio-cultural values, norms and practices on the other hand. The interaction between personal goals of managers, their cultural values and beliefs, and organisational goals is also likely to create conflict for the individual managers. The study was aimed at investigating the extent to which managerial practices and conduct are influenced by cultural values, norms and practices of society. It primarily explored culture‘s role in managerial practices in Ghanaian Universities. The study focused on choice of managerial or leadership style, recruitment, selection, and promotion practices, decision making, discipline, performance management/appraisal, control and employee relations and how these practices are influenced by the culture of the ambient society. The culture of the ambient society is measured by values such as religious beliefs, ethnicity and familism, respect for age, status, and other socio-cultural values. Some of the selected cultural values given attention are faith and metaphysical beliefs, University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh   respect for elders and traditional leaders, importance attached to selected socio-cultural practices, gender and sense of obligation to family and ethnic relations. 1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY 1.3.1 GENERAL OBJECTIVE The study sought to explore the influence of culture on managerial practices in Universities in Ghana. 1.3.2 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES The Specific objectives were to: i. Identify the cultural variables which have implication for managerial practices in the study institutions and establish the nature of relationship between the two. ii. Examine the implications of socio-cultural values for performance management practices in the study organisations iii. Examine the relationship between socio -cultural values and managers choice of leadership style iv. Find out how the possible conflict between different orientations (that of the larger society within which the managers operate, and his/her own goals and personal orientation) is handled by individual managers. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh   1.4 RELEVANCE OF THE STUDY Although there exists a considerable body of literature on relationship between culture and organisational behaviour, most of these studies have been conducted elsewhere; that is, in socio-cultural environments other than Ghana. This limits their relevant application to the Ghanaian context. The researcher, therefore, saw the need for studies whose outcomes can help us understand the behaviour of the managerial personnel in Ghana. Also, studies into any form of organisational behaviour can be used to provide some guidelines which managers and workers can use to understand and appreciate the factors that affect their own behaviour in organisations. This helps managers in particular to make appropriate decisions about how to motivate themselves and how to relate with other members of the organisation that they manage. Culture as evident in the works of Hofstede (1980), Kuada (1994), Aluko (2003), Apekey (2001), Akuoko (2008) and many others, has significant influence on a number of aspects of organisational life and behaviour. For this reason, a study into how culture influences managerial practices is envisaged to contribute to the understanding of managers‘ behaviour in organisations. The study would help the managers to be aware of how much their conducts are rooted in their cultural orientation. The understanding of managers‘ behaviour and its possible modifications is also expected to affect staff turnover, morale and goodwill, all of which have a long term effect on organisational efficiency and productivity. Human behaviour is largely determined by culture; and whenever these behavioural patterns create problems to be dealt with, their solutions must also be culturally determined as the behaviour itself (House et al., 2004; Schwartz, 1994). Therefore the solutions provided in one society or group may be regarded as unacceptable by members of other University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh   groups or society. This makes managers‘ knowledge of the cultural stings of their behaviour indispensable to problem solving in organisations and organisational success in general. The study is expected to particularly fill some gaps in the Ghanaian literature and also make contributions to academic knowledge in general. Results from this study would serve as a standpoint which would point to further research areas in organisational behaviour in Ghana. 1.5 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK An important section of cross-cultural research has identified varied sets of cultural values which are used in describing cultures. A number of frameworks have resulted from this identification and outline a number of cultural dimensions that try to explain a significant portion of the country-to-country differences in culture and behaviour patterns. They include Hofstede‘s culture dimensions (Hofstede, 1980; 1991; 2001), Schwartz‘s seminal work on human values (Schwartz, 1994; Schwartz & Ros, 1995; Schwartz, 1999), Inglehart‘s World Values Survey (Inglehart, 1997) and GLOBE‘s cultural dimensions (House et al., 2004). Despite reference to some of these existing frameworks, the current study dwells on the systems argument, and specifically on the social systems theory. This section introduces the theory and explains how it is employed in this study and its discussions. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh   1.5.1 THE SOCIAL SYSTEMS THEORY A system is any set of mutually interdependent elements and as such every system is composed of subsystems (several parts) and is itself a subsystem of a larger system. All the parts of the system function for the survival of the whole. Changes in one part of the system are likely to cause changes in other parts. A system‘s boundaries are defined by the relative number of interactions among a set of people. Similar to the above description, the social system is a concept that consists mainly of two interconnected and interdependent elements –behaviour and attitudes. The main directly observable aspect of the social system is the behaviour of members of the system. This is of great importance to this work. The behaviour is made up of interactions and activities. The behaviour categorised Activities is a type of behaviour very relevant to this current discussion. These include all that people do while they are with the group or organisation. They range from planning, organising, directing and or controlling among others. The other constituent of the system would form the attitudes category. These may include perceptions, feelings or values (Cohen, Fink, Gadon, & Willits, 1995). When all the three aspects of the attitude mentioned here (i.e. perception, feelings and values) are combined, its outcome is seen in the unique way in which the individuals of a particular society or group perceive a given situation and or how they react to others. Practically, social systems and personalities are shaped by culture whiles culture (shared ideas) has to be rooted in individuals and social relationships (social systems). In analysing the system, therefore, the study organisations and the members within them are treated as systems and subsystems of a larger system (Cohen et al., 1995), which is the social structure of the society. From the systems perspective, social life is seen as University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh   constituting units, so in considering these units as a system, one may ask what conditions keep the system together and make it survive in the face of turbulent environment (environmental influences). How the parts of the system serve the requirements of the whole (Coser, 2010), is very important to the current analysis. The argument is that two main conditions must be met for every system‘s survival. The system must first relate effectively with its environment, and also maintain its own internal integrity (Coser, 2010, p. 570). Organisations are generally open systems and for that matter take in inputs, transform them into outputs, and exchange those outputs with the environment for new inputs for its survival. They also seek to maintain equilibrium by resisting changes in their environment while adjusting to others (Cohen et al., 1995). Unless one erroneously thinks of organisations as ‗physical structures‘, the above description is the same for the organisation‘s members. Following from this, as an individual lives in a society, he or she engages in an interaction resulting in exchanges with the society (which is the environment). As the interaction goes on, the individual attempts to reach equilibrium by resisting those changes that he/she feels are inimical to his/her orderly survival; and in the same fashion, adjust to some environmental factors( in this case culture). This is what ensues when organisational members and for that matter managers are faced with conflicting demands from different orientations. The central concern of this thesis is the extent to which specific managerial attributes and behaviour (or managerial practices) are culturally dependent. Culture in this study is measured in terms of the attitudes, beliefs, values and norms which are generally shared in the nation (Ghana). The study‘s focus is on how these cultural markers influence the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh   conduct of the managerial personnel under study and managerial practices in their respective organisations. 1.5.1.1 THE BEHAVIOUR SUBSYSTEM Managerial practices in organisations owe their successes to behavioural patterns of organisational members. Behaviour is also a factor of one‘s personality which is why these are given primary attention in this study. It is important to note that the individual personality itself is a system on its own, and can thus be analysed in isolation and in relation to the larger system. The personality as a system can be said to be structured around four basic subunits or subsystems ―plus a derived subsystem that exerts a unifying force on the others‖ (Cohen et al., 1995, p. 195). The four basic subsystems are personal goals, competencies, beliefs and values; and the unifying force referred to is the self- concept. On the account of personal goals, Cohen et al. (1995) have argued that if one is to know a person‘s goals, he or she could explain some important aspects of that person‘s behaviour in an organisation. Conversely, one can also in some cases infer a person‘s goal(s) from the outside by merely observing that person‘s behaviour in an organisational setting. Cohen et al. (1995) define goals as ―those objects or events in the future that we strive for in order to meet our basic needs (1995, p. 193). Another basic aspect of the personal system is competencies. They include ―the areas of knowledge, ability and skill that increase an individual‘s effectiveness in dealing with the world‖ (Cohen et al., 1995, p. 195). Although human beings have varied natural capacities, they are not born with competencies. These are learnt through education and socialisation. Unlike goals, competencies are difficult to alter; one has to go through anew, the system of learning. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh   The third of the components of the personal system is Beliefs. Beliefs ―are ideas people have about the world and how it operates‖ (Cohen et al., 1995, p. 196). A manager like every other person brings beliefs into every situation and seeks to confirm those beliefs (Walberg, 1970; Kuada, 1994; Hope, 2004; Akuoko, 2008; Aktas, Çiçek & Kıyak, 2011; Darley & Blankson, 2008). These may range from the beliefs everyone has about people, human nature itself (Darley & Blankson, 2008); what life is about; what the organisational terrain is like; what, for example professors are like, what employees are like, and so on and so forth. As has been argued in Cohen et al. (1995), sometimes people‘s beliefs do not find support in certain situations, and this leads to surprise– some of which are pleasant while others are not. It is further argued that if the disconfirmation is very strong, the individual sometimes become defensive, disparaging or resistant. This is because people would like to have events support their beliefs; this according to Cohen et al. (1995) makes them feel ―right and also helps them in the maintenance of a stable fix‖ on the world (1995, p. 196, emphasis added). Beliefs are also important because somehow organisational members often have a way of making things be (even bad things) just as they believe them to be. Managers like all other persons in organisations are sometimes caught up in a set of beliefs some of which are dysfunctional but very self-confirming. This was expounded on in the works of Douglas McGregor in the early 1960s which he called ―theory X, Y‖ and its assumptions. In this line of argument, managers often than not confirm their beliefs and assumptions by treating their subordinates in ways that bring out the very behaviours they (managers) expect based on their initial assumptions. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh   Last in the personal system is what is labelled values. Values in this study are the core of people‘s beliefs which form the very foundation of a person‘s character (Schwartz, 1994; Hofstede, 1980; 1996; 2001). According to Cohen et al. (1995), while some of one‘s values may be altered over the course of his or her lifetime, they tend to remain fairly deeply entrenched in his or her personality. Values are things that one sees as ―really important in life and basic to one as an individual‖ (Cohen et al., 1995, p. 197-198) and a member of a group (Schwartz, 1994; Akuoko, 2008; Hope, 2004; Hofstede, 1980; 1996; 2001). In early socialisation an individual develops a sense of right and wrong, good and bad; these are values which sometimes change through other environmental changes, education and social change. As one would find in the works of Hofstede (1980; 2001), Schwartz (1994) and many other cross cultural researchers, values have been largely relied on to put countries and national cultures into categories. Although not without flaws, these studies broaden our understanding of organisational behaviour across cultures. The derived subsystem that exerts the unifying force on the components above is the self- concept which is basically the way an individual sees himself or herself (Aktas et al., 2011; Walberg, 1970). The self-concept is a reflection of one‘s own unique way of organising his goals, competencies, beliefs and values. The interrelatedness of these components of the personal system is in the fact that competencies are normally developed for the purpose of meeting goals, which in turn must fit within some beliefs and values. People‘s self- concept usually influences their behaviour. This in part explains why one is able to infer a person‘s behaviour from his or her self-concept. Cohen et al. (1995) have a basic proposition which states that all other things being equal, the behaviour most likely to occur in a given situation is that which the individual expects to best maintain and enhance University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh   his or her self-concept. This forms the basis for inferring managers‘ behaviour from their self-concept in this thesis. Many self-systems combine to form an organisation. Members of an organisation may bring their different ‗selfs‘ to the group. Thus, when one talks about managing people in organizations as is the case in this study, what has to be studied and managed is the influence of culture and its impact on the individual. 1.5.1.2 THE SOCIO-CULTURAL SUBSYSTEM Here, a close relationship between culture and social structure; and between an organisation‘s culture and that of the ambient society is posited. The relationship between culture and social, political and religious practices is well recognised among social scientists. Culture according to Nukunya (2013) influences ―productivity, work ethics and other aspects of the economy‖ (2013, p. 3). Culture in the current exercise is treated as a system of norms and of values, as well as organized knowledge and beliefs that is shared by a people who interact in a collectivity as in the case of a community or a group. Culture provides a functional or an instrumental apparatus that enables men to satisfy their basic needs. Culture helps to maintain the established interactions among people making up the social structure. In other words, culture provides the framework for interaction (Apekey, 2001, p. 14) which enables organisational members with different motivations, cognition, and diverse orientations to live a social life in a community. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh   The cultural system is an integral part of the social system; it is integrated in the social system in a complex relationship, mutually supportive in normal circumstances. The elements of culture develop over a long period of time; and their development is shaped by the historical circumstances, past experiences and by processes of adaptation by which the people adapt to their environment. There is a close relationship between the culture of a people and their environment. Culture is therefore dynamic, it changes over time. But whatever the changes may be, the basic tenets, and the core values of a people‘s culture may remain intact to a very large extent. Thus, managers largely maintain the basic tenets of their culture even within bureaucratic establishments. The contention therefore lies in how the bureaucratic subsystem and the socio-cultural subsystem are able to cooperate and interrelate for the effective functioning of the organisation and the society by extension. From systems point of view, Apekey (2001) and Nukunya (2003) both argue that new values assimilated by a people cannot completely replace their indigenous values. They only help modify existing values, thereby, enabling cultural change. The culture of a people is an embodiment of their traditions, values, norms, beliefs and organized knowledge. Throughout the history of Ghanaians, these cultural elements have remained relevant in shaping and influencing their attitudes and behaviour (Apekey, 2001; Nukunya, 2003; Assimeng, 1981) as a people in society. The general argument is that there exist a complex relationship between a system and its parts. The social structure and the prevailing cultural system on the one hand have a relationship with the bureaucratic subsystem and the behaviour of workers (organisational members) on the other. The thesis from the above point of view is that since organisations are open systems, not only would members carry these cultural elements with them to the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh   work organisation; they are actually expected to do so. Based on the systems thinking, the study dwells on the primary assumption that Universities are part of the larger social system or structure of society. Thus, despite their bureaucratic cultures, Universities and their members would be shaped by the socio-cultural environment within which they operate. 1.6 STUDY ORGANISATIONS Two Universities (Private and Public) were sampled for this research. They are University of Ghana (UG) and the Valley View University (VVU). Although these universities have other campuses, the main campuses were used for the study. This section of the thesis provides a brief overview of the two universities. The discussion includes the history and structure of the institutions, as well as their orientation, programmes of study and authority relations. The two Universities traditionally happen to have the same structure with a Chancellor/President who is a ceremonial head of the University. The Institutions are headed by Executive Heads, in this case, Vice-Chancellors who see to the general administration of the Universities. These Universities modelled after the structure of traditional British Universities have Pro Vice-Chancellor(s), Provosts, Registrars, Directors, Deans and Heads of departments (academic and non –academic). The departments (academic and non –academic) are headed by Professors or other persons appointed to direct or supervise it. They include Masters/Wardens of a Hall of Residence and the Head of any organization, institute or center in the University. The above similarities notwithstanding, the two institutions present some insightful contrasts for the present study. While the VVU is privately owned, UG is under public University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh   ownership. Moreover, University of Ghana is an institution not controlled by a religious body and as such, not concerned with religious matters, at least at the institutional level. Valley View University on the other hand, is a religious or mission school. This presupposes an institutional relation to a belief in religion, its teaching and or practice. 1.6.1 UNIVERSITY OF GHANA The University of Ghana was founded in 1948 as the ‗University College of the Gold Coast‘ on the recommendation of the Asquith Commission, on Higher Education in the then British colonies (Agbodeka, 1998). The University lies 13 kilometres of Accra. It is located at Legon, North –east of Accra, which is the national capital of Ghana. The university lies between an altitude of 300 and 400 feet. The university Avenue from its main gate extends to Commonwealth Hall on the Legon Hill. The University has three main campuses, namely Legon, Korle Bu and Accra City. The Legon Campus is where most of the University‘s teaching and research are carried out. It also houses the central administration of the University. In addition to the five traditional halls of residence namely Legon, Volta, Commonwealth, Akuafo and Mensah Sarbah, there are other hostels namely the Valco Trust Hostel, Jubilee, the International Student‘s Hostel, the Ghana Hostels Limited, Hillah Limann, Alex Kwarpong, Elizabeth Sey, Jean Nelson and a host of private hostels. On the Legon Campus, there is one college of Agriculture, 11 Faculties, 4 Schools, 5 Institutes, 64 Departments, 8 Centres, and 3 Agricultural research stations. The University of Ghana provides 78 undergraduate and 25 graduate programmes in various fields in the Arts, Social science, Business, Physical and Biological sciences, Medicine, Dentistry, Allied Health Sciences, Agriculture, Engineering University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh   sciences and Law. Special programmes are offered in Performing Arts, African Studies and International Affairs. The University‘s College of Health Sciences has its administration located at the Korle – Bu Teaching Hospital, which is about three kilometres west of the centre of the city of Accra, and about 18 kilometres from the main University Campus (Agbodeka, 1998). The Korle- Bu Campus, headed by a Provost, houses the College of Health Sciences which is made up of the Medical School, Dental School, the School of Public Health, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research, the School of Allied Health Sciences and the School of Nursing. There is also the Accra city campus of the University. The Accra City Campus is the new name for the restructured External Degree Center of the University of Ghana which operated as the Accra Workers College. It is situated in the heart of Accra. 1.6.2 VALLEY VIEW UNIVERSITY Valley View University, the first private institution in Ghana to be granted national accreditation is located near Oyibi, Mile 19 on the Accra –Dodowa Road. It is a mission or Christian University. The University was established in 1979 by the West African Union Mission of Seventh-day Adventists (now Ghana Union Conference). In 1997 it was absorbed into the Adventist University system operated by the Africa-Indian Ocean Division (WAD) of Seventh-day Adventist with headquarters in Abidjan, Cote d'Ivoire. The Ghana Union Conference of Seventh-day Adventists (organized in 2000) serves as the local manager of the University. The University was initially called the Adventist University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh   Missionary College and was located at Bekwai-Ashanti. It was transferred to Adentan near Accra in the year 1983 where it operated until it relocated to its present site near Oyibi (Mile 19 on the Accra-Dodowa Road) in 1989 and was renamed Valley View College. The Adventist Accrediting Association (AAA) has, since 1983, been evaluating and reviewing the accreditation status of the institution. In 1995, the university was affiliated to Griggs University in Silver Springs, Maryland, USA. This allowed the university to offer four year bachelor‘s degrees in Theology and Religious Studies. The National Accreditation Board of Ghana granted it national accreditation in 1997 thus allowing the university to award its own degrees. The Valley View University serves students from all over the world. It admits qualified students regardless of their religious background, provided such students accept the Christian principles and lifestyle which forms the basis for the university's operations. The University has physical facilities to support a conducive environment for scholarship. The facilities include classrooms, lecture theatres, computer labs, internet cafes, auditoriums, residential hostels, libraries, health clinic, cafeteria, faculty homes, conference halls, and residential facilities for faculty. In the philosophy of this university, academic excellence without moral/spiritual excellence is tantamount to parochial training that does not position a person to be of service to God and humanity for which moral/spiritual development is emphasised as much as the university uplifts academic excellence. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh   The University through years of transformation now follows strictly the traditional English model. VVU runs programmes such as Business Administration, Theology/Religion, Computer Science, Education, Information Technology, Nursing, Development Studies, Biomedical Equipment Technology interspersed with general courses including English, Mathematics, Statistics and Communication Studies. The University currently has one Institute and four Schools. They are the Institute of Computer Science, School of Business Studies, School of Graduate Studies, School of Development Studies, Education, Health Sciences, and School of Theology and Missions. There are thirteen Departments and a Centre for Adult and Distance learning. 1.7 DEFINITION OF CONCEPTS  Culture: culture in this study refers to the beliefs, values and attitudes that are shared by members of a given group or community which sets them apart as a collective body from others (Pasa, Kabasakal & Bodur, 2001; Hofstede, 1980). They may include patterns of thought and social behaviour of a people.  Manager: management is a process of planning, organising, leading and controlling an organisation‘s human, financial, material and other resources to increase its effectiveness. A manager in this sense is a person who supervises one or more subordinates towards the above end in an organisation. Managers function in roles; and these roles as seen in the definition above include planning, organising, leading and controlling. A manager in this study is one who steers a functional unit of the organisation towards meeting its objectives. This is one who maintains control over University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh http://ics.vvu.edu.gh/ http://ics.vvu.edu.gh/ http://sbs.vvu.edu.gh/ http://vvu.edu.gh/index.php/school-of-graduate-studies#.UGP-5pjA_jI http://seds.vvu.edu.gh/ http://seds.vvu.edu.gh/ http://stm.vvu.edu.gh/   the way the unit (or the institution) does things, and at the same time leads, inspires and directs the people under him/her.  Public universities are the universities that are funded predominantly by public funds from the government.  Private universities are the universities that are not operated or mainly funded by the government. 1.8 ORGANISATION OF THE THESIS The thesis is organised into five chapters. The first chapter presents the background and rationale of the study. It defines the problem and justifies the need for the study. The chapter contains the objectives of the study. It also contains the theoretical perspective of the study. This section attempts to put the study in perspective; it presents a framework within which the study is conducted and its findings discussed. Profiles of the study area are also presented in this chapter including a clear description of the study organisations. Some key concepts used in the study are defined here, and the chapter closes with an outline of how the essay is organised. Chapter two presents a review of related literature. The literature review points out the relevant arguments, findings and also indicates gaps in the reviewed works if any. The third chapter dwells on the research methods used to conduct the study. It is made up of the major approaches and instruments used to solicit for data. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh   Chapter four and five contain the data analysis, presentation and discussion of the findings. Here, the analysed data emerging from the fieldwork are presented with a thorough discussion of the study results. The sixth and final chapter summarises the major findings and reach natural conclusions. This chapter also includes some recommendations based on the findings. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh   CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 INTRODUCTION One of the fundamental questions that dominate organisational study today is the extent to which managerial behavior and practices are culturally contingent. Many researches have been conducted in an effort to find answers to this fundamental concern. Some of these researches have shown that one of the major causes of the challenges faced by management and organizations on the African continent is the practice of transferring management practices and organizations which have no relationship with the indigenous cultures (Apekey, 2001; Ahiauzu, 1986; Akuoko, 2008). The chapter reviews works on culture, organizations and management. It is made up of studies conducted in Ghana, Africa and other parts of the world. The literature review points out the relevant arguments, findings and gaps in these works. 2.2 THE CONCEPT OF CULTURE Any mention of culture brings to mind Sociology and Social anthropology. Culture is fundamentally divided into two broad spectrums in the fields of Anthropology and Sociology. The two major aspects of culture are material and non-material cultures. Material culture is overt and explicit (Aluko, 2003), such as products of an industry, technology, art, and every visible or concrete acquisition of man in society. They include artifacts such as bridges, pots, farm implements, houses, cooking utensils, and handicrafts. These are directly observable as the cultural products of a society. The non-material aspects of culture consist of the knowledge, philosophy, morals, languages, motivation, attitudes, values, and norms shared and transmitted in a society. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh   The non-material culture includes work values, shared fundamental traits, ideology and other behavioral traits exhibited in the society and at work. These are sometimes referred to as the covert or implicit aspects of culture and are acquired by members of a society. They are not visible or tangible but they are manifested through the psychological states and behaviour of a people (Aluko, 2003, Kottak, 2008, p.41 – 43). As specified earlier, the focus of this study is on the non–material aspects of culture. Here, culture is treated as the independent variable and the concept that determines other behaviour traits exhibited at work. The economy, politics, technology, organizational structure and context are all taken as intervening-variables. Information about different cultures can be evaluated both objectively and subjectively. The material aspect of culture and other intervening variables like economic data, geographic information (such as urbanization), socio-demographics, and information on the legal and political system in a society could be assessed objectively (Aluko, 2003; Kottak, 2008). The non-material aspects of culture consist of the knowledge, philosophy, morals, languages, motivation, attitudes, values, and norms shared and transmitted in a society (Aluko, 2003, p. 165). These are the subjective aspects of culture which are also better studied through subjective criteria. Among these subjective characteristics, values have received the greatest level of attention in cross-cultural research. Cultural values are considered to be the core of a culture (Markus & Kitayama 1991). To Markus and Kitayama, cultural values determine the perception, the predispositions and the behaviour of the members of a society. Indeed, values can be one of the most powerful explanations of, and influence on, peoples‘ behaviour. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh   2.2.1 THE AFRICAN SOCIO-CULTURAL MILIEU It must be emphasized here that this section does not seek to suggest that Africa has a culture that could be conveniently labeled as African Culture. As has been rightly pointed out by earlier researchers, to propose a monolithic culture for Africa may be inaccurate (Darley & Blankson, 2008). This is because of the strong national differences that exist on the continent. This important recognition notwithstanding, there are some cultural dimensions common to the sub-region (Grzeda & Assogbavi, 1999). The commonalities as observed by Darley and Blankson, (2008, p. 381) include: a hierarchical social structure, the importance of kinship, the primacy of the group, time orientation (Safavi & Tweddell, 1990), the driving norms of human interdependence, virtue of symbiosis and reciprocity (Mangaliso, 2001), the belief in ancestry and existence of a supreme being, and the value attached to the extended family (Mwamwenda, 1999). An argument for cultural relatedness across the African sub –region has been strongly made by Mbiti (1990), Gyekye (1995, 1997) and Ahiauzu (1986). To Ahiauzu (1986), African culture differs from other cultures in the way Africans construct meanings, negotiate social contexts and make sense of their environment (Darley & Blankson, 2008, p. 380). Hence, a discussion of an African Cultural environment could be permissible. People, according to Thomas (2002), ―are inherently good, evil, or a mixture of good and evil‖ (Thomas, 2002, p. 48). Omenyo (2002) also posits that the African concept of the universe is a ring of both benevolent and malicious spirits that influence human life towards good and evil (Darley & Blankson, 2008). Contrary to Thomas‘ (2002) view of human nature, Mbiti (1990) notes that in the African context, man is not inherently ―good‖ University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh   or ―evil‖, but he/she acts in ways that are ―good‖ when his actions conform to the customs and regulations of his/her community, or ―bad‖ (evil) when his/her actions do not conform to the societal expectations based on the customs and expectations of society. Mbiti (1990, p. 209) elaborates further that the essence of African morality is that it is more ―societal‖ than ―spiritual‖; and that it is a morality of ―conduct‖ rather than a morality of ―being.‖ This is what has been termed ―dynamic ethics‖ rather than ―static ethics‖, because ―it defines what a person does rather than what he does not because of what he is‖ (Darley & Blankson, 2008, p. 375).Following from the literature on African cultural values, character is an important building block of the African personality. Doing ―good‖ or what is right (Roundy, 2009) is an essential ingredient of the African personality. To the African, character makes a man‘s life a joy simply because it is pleasing to God. It is character according to Sofola (1973) that distinguishes the man from the animal and good character must be the dominant feature of a person‘s life (Darley & Blankson, 2008, p. 375). 2.2.1.1 RELIGION AND RELIGIOSITY Religion is an essential part of the entire culture and permeates every aspect of the life of the African. Nukunya defines religion as ―beliefs and practices associated with the supernatural‖ (Nukunya, 2003, p.55). These beliefs and practices accompany a person from conception to long after his physical death. In the African context, there is no separation between religion and philosophy, religion and society, and religion and art (Darley & Blankson, 2008). It is within the religious framework that the entire culture of the African resides (Mbiti, 1990). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh   Irrespective of where we are, religion‘s role in organisations and organizational behaviour cannot be overemphasized (Darley & Blankson, 2008; Nukunya, 2013). It is important to note that religion and by extension spirituality in human society is manifest and persuasive (Hutson, 2000; King, 2007; Roundy, 2009). As such, ethical attitudes of people (Nukunya, 2013), moral reasoning and behavior have variously been found to be influenced and sometimes determined by religion (Weaver & Agle, 2002; Roundy, 2009; Liu, 2010; Vasconcelos, 2009). King (2008), according to Roundy (2009, p. 311) defines religiosity as ―the strength of one‘s connection to, or conviction for their religion‖. Evidence available suggests that the hitherto distinct line between religious belief and work (Gunther, 2001) seems to be blurring. Morgan (2005) in Roundy (2009) found that the traditional wall separating faith from work seems to be crumbling at an accelerated rate and that religion no longer seems to be ―a hat that can be removed and forgotten as soon as an employee enters the doorway of an office or factory‖ (Roundy, 2009, p. 311). As would be seen in later discussions, religious beliefs could affect and guide managerial decision making and behaviour. Research has shown that an individual‘s religious faith and orientation has implications for personal attitudes and organizational behaviour (Liu, 2010; Vasconcelos, 2009). There have been varied researches into religiosity and religious involvement on one hand and organizational commitment and behaviour on the other (Roundy, 2009; Hilty & Morgan, 1985; Roberts & Davidson, 1984; Wilson & Janoski, 1995, Park & Smith, 2000). Weaver and Agle (2002) have indicated that religions roles expectations and identity have the potential to influence ethical behaviour or individual work values. In line with Weaver and Agle‘s argument, Aydemir and Eğilmez (2010) explored the relationship between University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh   religiosity and business ethics in Turkey. Two dimensions of religiosity (intrinsic and extrinsic) were studied by Aydemir and Eğilmez in which they surveyed 510 managers from 6 different organizations. The study found among other things that intrinsic religiosity is partly and positively related with ethical attitudes and extrinsic religiosity is partly and negatively related to the ethical attitudes (Aydemir & Eğilmez, 2010, p. 71). This is to say that ―intrinsically motivated people are more prone to behave ethically than extrinsically motivated people are‖ (Aydemir & Eğilmez, 2010, p. 71). In another study, Khanifar, Jandaghi, and Shojaie (2010) found a significant relationship between spirituality at the workplace and professional commitment. McGhee and Grant (2008) also explained a link between an individual‘s spirituality and ethical behaviour of a worker. They argue that spirituality results in an internalization of regulative ideals which tend to guide individual behaviour. In this current discussion, the relational implication of religion, religiosity and religious involvement is what is of utmost relevance. Like other organizations, religious congregations are argued to be networks of social relations (Wilson & Janoski, 1995; Becker & Dhingra, 2001). Researchers according to Roundy (2009) have found that as ones religiosity increases, his or her religious involvement in the social life of the ‗church‘ also heightens, thereby increasing the degree of his/her integration into the religious community. Religious involvement has been found to create ―devout‖ church community members with widened social ties. This as would be seen in this study has implications for work and organizations as a whole. Although religiosity and religious involvement have been found to place a responsibility on people (workers) to do good works (McGee & Grant, 2008; Roundy, 2009), it is important to note that the same has negative implications University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh   for work and the civic organization (Uslaner,2002). Religious involvement is for example said to place time constraints on employees. 2.2.1.2 THE RELATIONAL ORIENTATION OF AFRICAN SOCIETIES Relational orientation refers to the modality of man‘s relationship to other men (Darley & Blankson, 2008). Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck (1961) identified three divisions of relational orientations: the individualistic, the collateral and the lineal. When the individualistic principle is dominant, individual goals have primacy over the goals of the group. When the collateral principle is dominant, a primacy of the goals and welfare of the laterally extended group prevails. When the lineal principle is dominant, group goals have primacy and continuity of the group through time and ordered positional succession within the group are both crucial (Kluckhohn & Strodtbeck, 1961, p. 19). The African social structure is collateral because the greatest concern is for one‘s group, extended family and/or clan (Dia, 1991). The relation orientation of the African is demonstrated in the respect for elders and the sense of community shared among many Africans (Sofola, 1973; Onwubiko, 1991). Respect for elders is an important guiding principle for behaviour in Africa (Gyekye, 2003; Nukunya, 2003; Darley & Blankson, 2008). There is a premium placed on the inherent worth of man, even at the decline of his bravery in old age. The elderly are seen as the true repositories of wisdom and knowledge, examples for the youth to emulate (Moemeka, 1996), forbearers or gate-keepers of society and treated with deference, respect and dignity. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh   Africans also gravitate toward people since a man is what he is because he lives in the company of others (Anyanwa, 1983; Mphahlele, 1962). This view ―gives expression to the whole idea of communal responsibility and interdependence; a concept which is the basis of the whole structure of the African‘s cultural life‖ (Mphahlele, 1962, p. 112). This view has been extended and presented in detail by Otite (1978, p. 10) as quoted in (Darley and Blankson, 2008, p. 377) in the context of reciprocal relationships: The African society is a system of mutually benefiting reciprocities. Society, to the African, exists for the good of all its members in a system of role reinforcements. This involves myriad reciprocal relationships... The interplay between the moral element and the principle of reciprocal relationships is critical in distinguishing what is African. This could be explained in part by the fact that in African societies, morality and for that matter culture is not separated from the daily normal and civic life of the people. As would be discovered later, the strict dichotomous ―church on Sunday, and work on Monday‖ relationship existing elsewhere does not dominate among Africans. The individual‘s social and religious ties develop through active involvement which defines the relevance of his/her existence and reinforce his/her role performances in society. Similarly, time within the African culture is also socialized. Socialized time is ―the use of time that does not sacrifice social duties and human relations on ‗the altar‘ of clock-time punctuality (Hope, 2004; Darley & Blankson, 2008).Time in the African context is ―programmed into socio-cultural norms of human behavior and inter-personal relationships‖ (Onwubiko, 1991, p. 25-27). Time use in Africa reinforces the relational orientation of African cultures. Socialized time here emphasizes interdependence and a shared heritage. Thus, time is most important when one can share it on family and social University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh   relations. Using time in social contexts takes precedence over the use of time in other contexts. 2.2.2 CULTURAL VALUE DIMENSIONS Work-related values and behaviour among matched samples of IBM employees at its subsidiaries around the world were examined. Based on 117,000 questionnaires from 88,000 respondents in 20 languages reflecting 66 countries (Hofstede, 2001), Hofstede drew four important dimensions useful in characterizing countries: Power Distance, societal desire for hierarchy or egalitarianism; individualism, society‘s preference for a group or individual orientation; masculinity vs. femininity, a sex-role dimension; and uncertainty avoidance, a culture‘s tolerance for uncertainty. Later research resulted in the addition of a fifth dimension, long-term orientation (Hofstede & Bond, 1988); the cultural perspective on a long-term vs. a short-term basis. Each of these dimensions is measured on an index scale. Scores indicated relative differences between countries and a combination of the five scores for each country explain why people and organizations in various countries differ. Recently, Hofstede‘s (1980) work has come under some serious scrutiny and criticism. The description of countries on a mere four or five dimension is seen as insufficient, with several important dimensions missing. Hofstede himself admitted that ―it may be that there exist other dimensions related to equally fundamental problems of mankind which were not found... because the relevant questions simply were not asked‖ (Hofstede, 1980, p. 313). He has further been criticized regarding measurement of his dimensions, equivalence of the meaning of his values in each of the cultures as well as the age of his data, which was primarily collected between 1968 and 1972. Because Hofstede measured University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh   work-related behaviours and values among employees in large multinational organizations, a transfer of his results to other groups or other areas and the usage of his results to discriminate national cultures in general, may be speculative. Hofstede stated that ―the values questions found to discriminate between countries had originally been chosen for IBM´s internal purposes‖, and that ―they were never intended to form a complete and universal instrument for measuring national cultures‖ (Hofstede, 2001, p. 493). Despite the numerous criticisms, Hofstede‘s typology of cultural values has been applied extensively in cross-cultural research for a considerable number of years. This is probably due to its contribution to understanding cultures, the large pool of country scores for a variety of cultures, as well as the lack of alternative frameworks at the time. Shalom Schwartz provides another important typology of cultural values (Schwartz, 1992, 1994, 1999; Schwartz & Ros, 1995; Schwartz & Bardi, 1997; Smith & Schwartz, 1997). Relying on a broad theoretical basis, Schwartz outlined a set of cultural dimensions to describe human variety. He conducted a survey of individual values recognized across cultures (Schwartz, 1992) as a starting point for the development of a framework of cultural values on a societal level. Schwartz (1994) reported survey data from 38 nations representing 41 cultural groups. Schwartz in his study identified three basic societal issues which form the basis of his cultural values classification. They include: the relationship between the individual and the group; assuring responsible social behavior; and the role of humans in the natural and social world. Cultural adaptations to resolve each of these issues constitutes Schwartz‘s framework consisting of seven national cultural domains as mentioned earlier. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh   The seven dimensions are: Conservatism which signifies a cultural emphasis on maintenance of the status quo, propriety, and restraint of actions or inclinations that might disrupt the solidarity of the group or traditional order; Intellectual autonomy, a cultural emphasis on the right of individuals to independently pursue their own ideas and intellectual directions; Affective Autonomy (a cultural emphasis on the right of individuals to independently pursue affectively positive experience);Hierarchy (a cultural emphasis on the legitimacy of an unequal distribution of power, roles and resources);Egalitarian Commitment or Egalitarianism(a cultural emphasis on transcendence of selfish interests in favour of voluntary commitment to promoting the welfare of others); Mastery(a cultural emphasis on seeking to actively master and change the world); and Harmony(which is a cultural emphasis on accepting the world as it is rather than attempting to change or exploit it). In his study, 35,000 respondents from 122 samples in 49 nations rated the importance of 45 single values as ―guiding principles in my life.‖ Subjects in his study were primarily teachers and students. Based on this data, Schwartz hypothesized a structure for the above seven dimensions and arranged countries in a two dimensional space based on their cultural value priorities, presenting groupings of culturally related nations. Distances between countries represent the degree of similarity or dissimilarity between them on the value dimensions. Schwartz suggests the existence of broad cultural groupings of nations, which though related to geographical proximity, are also based on shared histories, religion, level of development, cultural contact, as well as other factors (such as Western European nations, English- speaking nations, etc.). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh   Compared with Hofstede‘s work, Schwartz‘s typology of cultural values has been less widely applied. One reason may be the lack of a single comprehensive publication summarizing Schwartz‘s dimensions for all the multitude of countries examined. Instead, Schwartz‘s findings are scattered across a number of journals, each focusing on a segment of the total number of cultures explored. Another reason perhaps more important may be that Hofstede‘s (1980) previously published work had already been widely accepted before Schwartz‘s. However, due to its strong theoretical foundation (Steenkamp, 2001), Schwartz‘s typology could prove very useful to cultural researchers interested in opening their scope of attention. It is worth emphasizing here and again that none of these cultural dimensions proposed adequately deals with culture. As Tayeb (2001) contends and as could be observed in the above constructs, ―many authors of cross cultural studies have a tendency to focus on a few dimensions and ignore various aspects of cultures which might have equally significant bearings on people‘s values, attitudes and behaviours‖ (2001, p. 95). National cultures are complex constructs and any attempt to simplify it is considered a risky venture (Tayeb, 2001). 2.2.3 ORGANISATION AND NATIONAL CULTURES Organizational and national cultures are complementary concepts; however, organizational cultures are entirely different from national cultures. Organizational cultures set organizations apart while leaving the national environments constant. Organizational culture has been defined by Hofstede as ―…the collective programming of the mind that distinguishes the members of one organization from another‖ (2001, p. 391). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh   Jaques (1951) in ―the changing culture of a factory‖ puts the concept in a very remarkable way worth noting: The culture of the factory is its customary and traditional way of thinking and of doing things, which is shared to a greater or lesser degree by all its members, and which new members must learn, and at least partially accept… culture is part of the second nature of those who have been with the firm for some time (Jaques, 1951, p. 251 cited in Hofstede, 2001). This is to suggest that organizations have their own special cultures and subcultures which in most cases may be different and even antagonistic to the culture of the society within which the organizations operate. Just as nations are not organizations, so are their cultures different. Thus, among national cultures, comprising similar people, the 1980 IBM studies by Hofstede (1980) found some differences in values in spite of similarities in practices among the employees in similar jobs but in different national subsidiaries of the company. Sometimes when people talk about the growing similarities in organization and national cultures and in some cases their sameness, they mistaken superficial manifestations of culture and its influence for all that a culture is about. For this reason ―the deeper, underlying level of values, which moreover determines the meaning to people of the practices‖ are often overlooked (Hofstede, 2001, p. 393). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh   2.3 EFFECTS OF CULTURE ON MANAGERIAL BEHAVIOUR House et al. (2004, p. 178) suggests that ―what is expected of leaders, what leaders may and may not do‖, and even the sort of influence and status bestowed on leaders vary considerably as a result of the cultural forces in the environments in which these leaders function (Kuada, 1994; Aluko, 2003). It is increasingly being recognised that due to increased globalisation of industrial organisations in recent years and the increased interdependence of communities all over the world, there is a greater need for a better understanding of the cultural influences on the conduct of organizational members. What elements have implications for behaviour? In line with this question, Hans Gullesrup proposed a model for analysing cultural elements and how they impact behaviour (Kuada, 1994). The framework has what is termed the horizontal and vertical elements of culture. The horizontal elements of culture as specified in Gullesrup‘s model for cultural analysis (which include modes of production, socialization, reproduction, upbringing/education, governance, religious ceremonies, customs/rituals, values, and others) serve as a basic frame within which an individual forms his opinion about other people and how he ultimately behaves towards these people. The vertical dimension of culture on the other hand ―reveal the deeper values of the society from which fundamental norms and guidelines are derived‖ (Kuada, 1994, p. 52). These elements being talked about here form an interlocking framework of reality that determines or defines the individual‘s domain of behaviour. The argument here is that views on authority and its relations have their roots in the social structural pattern within which the individual is brought up. As has been argued by Assimeng (1981), ascribed status characteristics such as age command some respect on their own and young members of some societies are practically expected to submit unquestionably to the commands and demands of the elderly in society ( Assimeng,1981). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh   Education is a great vehicle to knowledge acquisition or enculturation. It is an influential factor in shaping the personality of individuals and even how they relate with other people. The education process is what provides one with one‘s perception of his environment and the opportunities that it presents. Here, one can talk of formal education in much the same way. One important aspect of formal education is the country or society in which one receives the education. Following the arguments of Kuada (1994), since modern management principles and knowledge originates from a western culture; it would be fair to presuppose that an individual manager‘s degree of exposure to that culture would therefore raise his propensity to adopt such knowledge. The above notwithstanding, research elsewhere has suggested that the underlying values, norms, customs and traditions of a culture and their implications for behaviour can only be fully grasped through an extensive process of enculturation and socialisation with members of the host society (Furnham & Bochner, 1990). This therefore means that an individual in a foreign country would require a considerable number of years and influence to unlearn the values earlier on acquired through socialization and enculturation in order to fully imbibe the culture of the host country. Inferring from this argument would mean that an individual could learn and imbibe the ideals of a foreign culture but such an individual would require a considerable number of years of contact in order to do this. Also important is what researchers have termed industry culture (Tosi, 2009; Hofstede, 1996). This is one factor that influences the behaviour of managers. Here, on account of their business, industries interact directly or indirectly. Through the available avenues of interaction, members of such industries reaffirm the rules of behaviour that are accepted (Tosi, 2009) and they are provided with opportunities to also modify these behaviours University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh   according to the exigencies of the time. In a case like this, educational institutions and for that matter tertiary institutions would have accepted rules of behaviour which their members are expected to hold on to. Organisational culture as has been discussed in the previous section is also very influential on the functioning‘s of managerial personnel (Hofstede, 1980, 1991, 2001; Aluko, 2003). Organisations have their own codes, rules, norms, customs and traditions that members are expected to uphold towards the realization of organisational goals. Culture develops as an outcome of human social interaction, especially when such a people share a common geographical area. It follows naturally that as members continually meet and interact in an organisation, they exchange and assimilate forms of behaviour, customs and beliefs (Kuada, 1994). As the discourse prove, organisations all over the world mold the individual‘s perception over time, and provide him with the accepted rules of behaviour required to interact well with other members towards the attainment of certain objectives. The structure of an organisation has also been found to be greatly affected by its environment (George& Jones, 2002). Within mechanistic structures there exists a design that allows managers and employees to function and behave in predictable ways. These forms often happen in stable environments. Organic structures on the other hand as presented in the works of Burns and Stalker (1961) indicates an organisational structure that is designed so that individuals and functions can behave flexibly and respond quickly to their frequently changing and unusual environment (Burns & Stalker, 1961, p. 103 – 108; George & Jones, 2002, p. 552). George and Jones report that organic structures develop cultures that vary considerably from those of mechanistic structures. To a very large extent it would be prudent to agree with George and Jones (2002) because in University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh   mechanistic structures one finds a development of instrumental values which stresses the need to be cautious, obey superior authority and most often the importance of respecting traditions and staying inside one‘s role. As we would find later in subsequent sections of the literature, these values are similar to what Hofstede (1980, 1996, 2001) would term as characterizing high uncertainty avoidance cultures. In organic structures however, individuals are given more freedom, cooperation between functions is encouraged, and values like being creative, taking risks, challenging established traditions and views are cherished. As can be seen in the above arguments, choice of leadership style by managerial personnel is likely to vary between and among managers of the two structures. Clearly an organisation‘s structure, norms, values and beliefs influence greatly the behaviour of its managerial personnel in the conduct of their duties. Advancing this view, managers, according to Kuada (1994), find solace in the ―predictabilities of routinized behaviour‖ that organisational cultures offer them (Kuada, 1994, p. 55). Here, the shared values, beliefs, norms of behaviour are communicated to new managers as well as workers by the old ones. Senior managers in these cases always argue for consistencies out of the stock of established procedures. These structural influences notwithstanding, a manager‘s personal goals as was noted in the theoretical framework have implications for his behaviour. This argument is highly advanced by theorists like McGregor, Maslow, McClelland, and Herzberg among others. These scholars point to some awareness of the influence of individual human needs on the behaviour of managers and other members of organisation. Following these scholars, Kuada (1994) has argued that ―cultural factors do provide a framework within which University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh   personal goals are set; but the nature of these goals and the degree of emphasis an individual places on each of them is a personal choice‖ (1994, p. 61). He cites that some managers place priority on short term financial gains, and therefore disregard career growth opportunities). It is further argued that an organisation owes its existence to the ability or capacity to offer members inducements which far exceed the contributions the organisation expects of them. It is worth noting that there are cross cultural differences in managers ability and willingness or otherwise to pursue their personal goals. These differences have been found to owe to two factors; the first of which is the existence, degree and severity of preventive sanctions accepted within a given society against going away from organisational goals. The second is the position, power and authority of a manager to override the sanctions preventing such behaviours. The first factor can be said to be the very cultural factors being given attention in the current study; the values, and norms enshrined in a particular social setting. For example, in a society that approves of the use of organisations‘ resources and position in the pursuit of personal goals, formal sanctions may exist but such behaviours (as using organisations‘ resources and position in the pursuit of personal goals) would not only exist but persist. This argument as supported by Kuada (1994) goes to give credence to the view that culture, either macro or organisational greatly impacts the behaviour of managers in the performance of their functions. Clearly, the societies in which we grow up have their own sets of rules about the way we behave and interact with other people. These rules of behaviour are often ―not written down and we are often not even conscious of them‖ (Hope, 2004, p. 46). Christine Hope led a team of researchers to conduct a fieldwork in St. Lucia. The findings of the fieldwork University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh   supported their contention that national cultures have the potential of creating barriers to the successful transfer of approaches developed in other cultures (Hope, 2004). The study found among other things that high uncertainty avoidance, and leanings towards high power distance appeared to hinder the effective adoption of team working, empowerment and communication in St. Lucia. According to Hope, ―there was a reluctance to accept added responsibility and risk involved with empowerment‖ (Hope, 2004, p. 49). Also, relationships were found to dominate time in the study organisations. Although there was no evidence of ―parallel tasking (as opposed to sequential), it was more important that one stops and talk to someone‖ he/she passed in the street who came from his/her village, ―than to arrive on time for a pre-arranged appointment‖ (Hope, 2004, p 50). Being on time was not a priority which according to Hope (2004) could affect schedules and time keeping of employees. Similarly, Child and Kieser (1979) studied some German and UK firms and found that factors such as firm size and others affect the structure of firms; but the relationship found between these factors and managers‘ role was found to be less consistent in their measurement. The data rather suggested that cultural factors had the greatest of bearing on individual conduct and interpersonal relationships. Research in Ghana report that most Ghanaians still remain firmly attached to their traditional cultural roots despite contacts with western culture, and this is found to be much pronounced in urban communities (Akuoko, 2008; Apekey, 2001; Kuada, 1994, p. 105). Assimeng (1981) describes the average Ghanaian personality as being characterised by conformity and blatant eschewing of individual speculations, passive agreements, lack of self –reliance owing to the pervading influence of the extended family system, fetish University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh   worship of authority and charismatic leaders, and hatred for criticism. Owing to the above characteristics, it has been argued that many Ghanaians will hesitate to change the status quo or situations that they find unfavourable provided their potential action for such a change involve some substantial risk to themselves, families and relatives. As has been argued by Bidney (1974) and Kuada (1994), the individual personality of a manager also plays an important role in the attitude formation of the manager. Different people with their individual cognitive styles and emotional flexibility perceive and react to a given environment stimulus in several different ways. This, according to Kuada (1994), is what informs the individual‘s creativity. What this appears to advance is that despite the undeniably strong impact of macro and organisational culture, an individual‘s particularities, personality and experience prior to coming into an organisation or company remains important filters that appoint, modify and interpret the cultural lesson taught him or her in the larger society. It is however worth noting that even this personality referred to by Kuada (1994) has two primary sources; one, culturally transmitted knowledge and perceptions and second, an individual‘s own cognitive capacity. Thus an individual may have a personality that informs his attitude; this personality would partly have been developed through cultural transmission. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh   2.4 MANAGERIAL PRACTICES IN GHANA Debrah (2001), Kuada (1994) and Akuoko (2008), among others, have provided an overview of prevalent Managerial practices found in Ghanaian organisations which may be said to include training, staffing, performance appraisal and reward. Debrah (2001), for example, points out that differences and variations exist in these human resource management practices as found in public organisations and those of privately owned organisations. He argues, however, that human resource management in Ghana is more bureaucratic and administrative in its nature as compared to other countries. It has also been found that the level of objectivity associated with human resource management practices in the West is largely tainted by certain Ghanaian traditions and socio cultural factors (Debrah, 2001; Akuoko, 2008). For instance, it has been argued that the Ghanaian belief that ‗management knows best‘ creates authoritative managers and threatens employee involvement in decision-making thus rendering the practice nonexistent (Akuoko, 2008), whilst nepotism and favouritism rather than competence taints recruitment and selection practices as well as promotions. 2.4.1 THE ROLE OF CULTURE IN MANAGEMENT In a literature search, the volume of research conducted on Human Resource Management in Ghana is far less compared to other African countries. This notwithstanding, some studies have been done on the role of culture in management practices in the country. These studies include those of Kuada (1994), Apekey (2001) and Kuada (2008) among others. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh   In a study of managerial behaviour in Ghana and Kenya, Kuada provided empirical evidence which threw some light on the reality of the sociocultural environment of Ghanaian and Kenyan managers and how this influences their role perceptions and behavioral patterns. The underlying thesis of Kuada‘s study is that ―if we accept the premise that management is concerned with getting things done through people, then it is the primary responsibility of managers to understand the realities of their subordinates in order to encourage an effective task performance‖ (Kuada, 1994, p. 222). The evidence as presented in this study by Kuada (1994) indicate that Ghanaian and Kenyan managers are influenced to a great extent by the cultural values and rules of behaviour found in their societies. Notable among these values and rules of behaviour are age and the culturally defined relationships between elderly and younger people of the society, status arrangements and power differences defined by social class attributes like positions, wealth and educational levels. Others include familism, clanism and ethnicity and their practical manifestations in collective obligations as well as the disproportionate family burden on a few favorably placed family members; and metaphysical considerations, particularly ideas and philosophies of organized religions and traditional belief systems. In his contribution, Apekey (2001) investigated the system of management in work organizations in Ghana, its relationship to the traditional Ghanaian culture and the management preference of the Ghanaian worker. Apekey‘s study made some inroads. He found among others that the system of management that exists in work organizations in Ghana is a fusion of paternalistic and collaborative principle of management but adopts more paternalistic personnel policies. That is to say that the system of management in University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh   Ghana is more paternalistic than collaborative (Apekey, 2001). Ghanaian managers according to him regard rule –making as their exclusive prerogative; they (managers) believe in strict supervision and expect subordinates to be compliant with and loyal to the interests of their supervisors. However, these managers were found to be generous and indulgent to their subordinates and believe that the employees‘ obligations to their families must be given due consideration in decisions that affect them. Based on the data gathered from his study, Apekey concluded that behavior and interpersonal relationships in work organizations are to a large extent influe