DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY UNIVERSITY OF GHANA THE NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL AND PSYCHOSOCIAL PREDICTORS OF JUVENILE DELINQUENCY: COMPARING DETAINED DELINQUENTS AND MATCHED CONTROL GROUP BY SARAH MAAME AMA TURKSON (10371638) THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON, IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF MASTER OF PHILOSOPHY DEGREE IN CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY. NOVEMBER 2020 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh i DECLARATION I hereby declare that, with the exception of references, which are duly acknowledged, this thesis is the result of a research conducted by Sarah Turkson under supervision and has not been presented in any form by anyone for any academic award in this university or any other. 29/06/22 Sarah Maame Ama Turkson Date (Student) This thesis was submitted for examination with approval of Date: 20/07/22 Dr. Adote Anum (Principal Supervisor) Date: 06/07/2022 Dr. Margaret Amankwah-Poku (Co-Supervisor) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ii DEDICATION I thank God Almighty for His immeasurable grace and favour upon my life throughout this challenging but interesting task of writing up this thesis. To my late mum, Mrs. Veronica Mena Otuaa Turkson (May your soul find eternal rest) I am grateful for your prayers and support throughout my life and most especially during my master’s degree. You were always my biggest cheerleader. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I am forever grateful to God for His favour, grace, and mercies. A heartfelt gratitude to my supervisors Dr. Anum and Dr. Amankwah-Poku, words are not enough to express my appreciation for your invaluable support and feedback throughout the preparation and completion of this thesis. I thank my family for their prayers, encouragement, and support throughout this thesis. To my brother Benjamin Asaaga, I say a special thank you for your support during the initial stages of my work. To my research assistant Prince Anankani, I deeply appreciate your immense support during data collection. To Mawuli Ziorkli and Kenneth Owusu Ansah, I say thank you for your support. May the Most Gracious Lord remember you in your time of need. God bless you all. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh iv ABSTRACT The causes of juvenile delinquency are varied. Research has focused largely on psychosocial factors although there is growing evidence that brain factors are equally implicated. Identifying the causes of delinquency is very important as it helps with rehabilitation of youth who are caught in the world of crime or at risk of becoming delinquent. In the present study, the objectives were to investigate broadly, psychological and social predictors of delinquency. Specifically, the objectives were to examine the extent to which selected neurocognitive abilities and psychosocial characteristics can predict delinquency. A battery of neuropsychological tests was used to collect data from 84 detained delinquents and 31 matched controls between the ages of 14 and 18 years. Using the logistic regression analysis, results indicated that poor verbal ability was a robust neuropsychological predictor of juvenile detention. In addition, low socioeconomic status more than doubled the likelihood of juvenile detention. Somatic complaints and rule breaking behavior were emotional/behavioral problems that almost doubled the likelihood of juvenile detention. Inadequate parental supervision; low parental education and childhood abuse/trauma may account for the findings. Recommendations include, extensive neuropsychological evaluations need to be included in the legal decision-making process at the juvenile courts. Prison officers should be trained on the care and management of children with neuropsychological deficits. Teachers should be trained to identify children who are at risk for delinquency, so that early interventions can be made. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh v TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION ...................................................................................................................... I DEDICATION ......................................................................................................................... II ACKNOWLEDGEMENT .................................................................................................... III ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................... IV INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................... 1 Background of the study .......................................................................................................... 1 Psychosocial risk factors of juvenile delinquency ................................................................. 2 Brain Function and delinquency ............................................................................................ 4 Problem statement ................................................................................................................. 10 Aim and Objectives of the study ........................................................................................... 11 Significance of the study ........................................................................................................ 12 LITERATURE REVIEW ...................................................................................................... 13 Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 13 Theoretical framework .......................................................................................................... 13 Luria’s theory of brain functioning (Luria, 1974) .............................................................. 13 General theory of crime (Gottfredson & Hirschi, 1990) .................................................... 15 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh vi General Strain theory (Agnew, 1992; Agnew, 2018) ........................................................... 16 Review of related studies ....................................................................................................... 18 Neurocognitive factors and delinquency .............................................................................. 18 Family Factors and delinquency ........................................................................................... 26 Emotional and Behavior problems and delinquency .......................................................... 32 Rationale of the study ............................................................................................................ 34 Hypotheses .............................................................................................................................. 35 Operational Definitions ......................................................................................................... 36 METHODOLOGY ................................................................................................................. 37 Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 37 Research design ...................................................................................................................... 37 Target population and Sample .............................................................................................. 38 Sampling size and Sampling technique ................................................................................ 38 Inclusion criteria .................................................................................................................... 39 Demographic Characteristics ................................................................................................ 40 Data collection measures ....................................................................................................... 41 Neuropsychological Tests ...................................................................................................... 41 Emotional and Behavior Measures ...................................................................................... 46 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh vii Procedure for data collection ................................................................................................ 47 Data analysis ........................................................................................................................... 49 Ethical considerations ............................................................................................................ 49 RESULTS ............................................................................................................................... 51 Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 51 Preliminary data analysis ...................................................................................................... 51 Means, Standard Deviation, Range, Skewness and Kurtosis of measures ....................... 52 Summary of bivariate correlations between tests of all neuropsychological function domains ................................................................................................................................... 55 Summary of bivariate correlations between emotional and behavior problems of the Youth Self-Report scale ......................................................................................................... 56 Hypothesis Testing ................................................................................................................. 60 Summary of Logistic regression for neuropsychological measures and juvenile detention .................................................................................................................................................. 62 Summary of Logistic regression for family factors and juvenile detention ...................... 64 detention .................................................................................................................................. 66 Summary of results ................................................................................................................ 67 DISCUSSION ......................................................................................................................... 68 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh viii Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 68 Neurocognitive function as predictors of juvenile detention ............................................. 68 Family factors as predictors of juvenile detention .............................................................. 71 Strength of the present study ................................................................................................ 76 Limitations of the present study ........................................................................................... 76 Recommendations .................................................................................................................. 77 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................... 79 REFERENCES ....................................................................................................................... 80 APPENDIX 1 .......................................................................................................................... 88 APPENDIX 3 .......................................................................................................................... 92 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ix LIST OF TABLES Table 1. Demographic characteristics of sample………………………………....41 Table 2. Means, Standard deviations, Minimum, Maximum, Skewness and Kurtosis…………………………………………………………………………...51 Table 3. Bivariate correlations between neuropsychological measures…………………………………………………………………………..54 Table 4. Bivariate correlation between emotional/behavior problems………………………………………………………………………......55 Table 5. Chi Tests for associations between demographic variables and DV…………………………………………………………………………………56 Table 6. Logistic regression of neuropsychological predictors and juvenile detention…………………………………………………………………………..61 Table 7. Logistic regression of family factors and juvenile detention……………………………………………………………………….….63 Table 8. Logistic regression between emotional/behavior problems and juvenile detention…………………………………………………………………...……...65 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh x LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS MCST- Modified Wisconsin Card Sorting Test TMT- Trail Making Test CVLT-Californian Verbal Learning Test REY- Rey Osterrieth Complex Figure Drawing Test KNT- Kilifi Naming Test RPM-Raven’s Standard Progressive Matrices PC- Pair Cancellation DS- Digit span WD- Withdrawn/Depressed AD- Anxious/Depressed SC- Somatic Complaints TP- Thought Problems AP- Attention Problems SP-Social problems (Relational problem) RRB-Rule Breaking Behavior A-Aggression SCC-Senior Correctional Centre SES-Socioeconomic status University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION Background of the study Generally, juvenile delinquency refers to illegal acts, whether criminal or status offences, committed by children under the age of 18 (Shoemaker, 2010; Duruji & Onyekachi, 2015). Therefore, behaviors by an individual under the age of 18 years that violates a criminal law or status law is a delinquent act. Delinquent acts include statutory offenses such as running away from home, malingering, truancy and criminal offenses such as manslaughter, murder, theft, assault and the like (Duruji & Onyekachi, 2015). In Ghana, truancy and running away from home are not legally considered as delinquent acts (Boakye, 2013). However, delinquent acts in Ghana generally range from illegal drug possession, fraud, assault, theft and armed robbery, rape, manslaughter, murder, gang violence and others. Under the Juvenile Justice Act 2003 (Act 653), a juvenile delinquent in Ghana, is defined as an individual under the age of 18 years who offends. Juvenile delinquency remains a global concern despite its apparent decline since the 1980s (Badiora, 2015; Junger-Tas et al., 2010). Recent statistics by Justice department in the United States, reported that approximately 2,400 juvenile arrests per 100,000 persons were made in 2018 (Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, 2019). In Ghana, there seems to be a paucity of crime statistics. Notwithstanding, in 2015, an annual report by the Ghana Prison Service showed an average of 125 daily lockup (Ghana Prison Service, 2015). Juvenile delinquency unchecked is a major source of concern because of the consequences on the individual and the nation. For the individual, consistent delinquency can lead to a gradual moral degeneration, especially when delinquency persists into adulthood. In addition, persistent engagement in delinquent acts increases the likelihood of detention, which University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2 leads to school dropouts, social rejection, reduced academic and employment opportunities (Osei, 2013). For the nation, juvenile delinquency puts an enormous drain on human resources, in the sense that qualified labor essential for national development greatly reduces as more youth are incarcerated. Moreover, it costs government more in terms of incarceration and rehabilitation, in the sense that as more youth are incarcerated/detained more resources will be needed to rehabilitate juvenile offenders (Osei, 2013). Again, research shows that incarceration during adolescence has a negative effect on physical and mental health outcomes later in life (Barnert et al., 2017). Hence, it is crucial for lawmakers, and other stakeholders to understand the factors that lead to and maintain delinquency in order to implement early interventions, which target at-risk populations and provide psychological, educational, and other intervention regimens to reduce incarcerations and delinquency all together. Psychosocial risk factors of juvenile delinquency The exact cause of juvenile delinquency is widely debated. However, decades of research on delinquency suggests that a myriad of psychosocial factors increases the risk of juvenile delinquency. Psychosocial risk factors of delinquency refer to the social and psychological factors that increase the chance of individuals engaging in delinquency. This present study focuses on well-established psychosocial factors such as family structure, family size, socioeconomic status, emotional and behavior problems. Social factors such as bad neighborhoods, abuse, negative peer association have been strongly associated with delinquency (Abrah, 2019; McGloin & Thomas, 2019; Wrigley-Asante et al., 2016). Family factors such as poverty, parental absence, single parenting, negative peer influence, hostile family relationship, parenting styles and negative community features are directly associated with delinquency (Badiora, 2015; Balogun & Chukwumezie, 2010; Coleman, 2014; Duruji & Onyekachi, 2015; Elechi & Uriah, 2018; Ntim & Manu, 2019; Rekker et al., 2017; Shong et al., 2019). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3 Researchers in Ghana have found similar findings. For instance, some studies have shown that socioeconomic status (unemployment in the family, illiteracy, and poverty) are significant predictors of delinquency (Boakye 2012; Bosiakoh & Andoh, 2010). This suggests that juveniles from poor backgrounds commit crimes such as armed robbery and theft in order to provide for themselves and their families. Thus, for such individual delinquency is a means of survival. Other researchers suggest that single-parent families and poor supervision could negatively influence child development, in the sense that there may be inadequate parental control of children by one parent, which can lead to poor levels of self-control, increasing the vulnerability of children to delinquency and crime compared to children from families with both parents with better supervision (Barnie et al., 2017; Boakye, 2012; Boakye, 2013; Bosiakoh & Andoh, 2010; Darkwa & Abass, 2016; Ntim & Manu, 2019). Furthermore, poor academic performance and negative peer association associated with a disinterest in school activities leads to school dropouts, which increases the likelihood of delinquent behavior and related activities (Gyansah et al., 2015). On the other hand, juvenile delinquency is strongly linked to behavior and emotional problems such as anti-social behavior (Connolly et al., 2016), Conduct Disorders/Oppositional Defiant Disorder, impulsivity, low intelligence (Murray & Farrington, 2010) and negative emotionality (Baglivio et al., 2017) and Depression/anxiety (Jolliffe et al., 2019). These studies imply that individual characteristics increase the vulnerability to disregard social norms and engage in criminal behavior. However, the view that social factors or psychological factors are solely responsible for delinquency may be inadequate. Advances in biological criminology, neuroimmunology, and neuropsychological research suggest that there may be some biological underpinnings associated with juvenile delinquency. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4 Brain Function and delinquency The normal functioning of the brain has direct effects on behavioral, cognitive, and emotional outcomes of both adults and children (Semrud-Clikeman & Ellison, 2009). Abnormal functioning of the frontal lobes, temporal lobes, in particular, the amygdala, hippocampus, and the anterior cingulate cortex, are implicated in the development of criminal behavior (Ling et al., 2019). The frontal lobe is a part of the cerebral cortex located near the front of the head. Generally, this brain structure is responsible for motor coordination, expressive language, higher-order functions such as sustaining attention, abstract reasoning, goal formulation, planning, inhibiting inappropriate behaviors and adaptive shifting to alternate behaviors (Ling et al., 2019). The frontal lobes also have rich connections with several other brain structures and so damage to the frontal lobes or those connections can compromise important functions such as executive functions and other aspects of cognition such as learning, memory, and attention as well as behavioral competencies mediated by the frontal lobes (Lengenfelder et al., 2015). Brain-imaging research has shown that a reduced frontal lobe functioning is the most consistent correlate of abnormal brain function and criminal behaviors (Glenn & Raine, 2014). Further imaging studies has revealed that the largest reductions of grey matter in the frontal lobes of criminal individuals occurs in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and orbitofrontal cortex, as well as the anterior cingulate cortex (Glenn & Raine, 2014; Young & Raine, 2009). The dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, a sub-structure of the pre-frontal cortex, is associated with self-regulatory processes such as attention, cognitive flexibility, inhibition and perhaps antisocial characteristics such as impulsiveness (Glenn & Raine, 2014). Individuals with abnormal functioning of this brain structure are more likely to persist in wrong behaviors even when they are punished for such behaviors. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5 The orbitofrontal cortex, another sub-structure of the pre-frontal cortex, plays a role in the processing of emotions, decision-making and learning from punishments and rewards (Blair, 2004; Glenn & Raine, 2014). Thus, individuals with damage to this brain structure will have difficulties processing emotions and may be unable to determine the social and situational appropriateness of behavior. The anterior cingulate cortex, is involved in controlling attention to a particular task, decision-making, error processing, conflict monitoring, and avoidance learning (Glenn & Raine, 2014; Stevens et al., 2011). This means that a normal functioning anterior cingulate cortex enables people recognize and correct mistakes and appropriately respond to conflicting situations, particularly because of those connections to both the limbic system and the prefrontal cortex (Adjorlolo & Egbenya, 2016; Stevens et al., 2011). Thus, damage to this area of the brain could result in disinhibition, aggression, poor decision-making and impaired emotional processing (Glenn & Raine, 2014; Stevens et al., 2011). Neuropsychological functions and delinquency. Neuropsychological functions usually refer to a broad range of cognitive, emotional and behavioral processes associated with abnormal brain functions (DeLisi & Vaughn, 2011; Jackson & Beaver, 2016). Juvenile delinquents are especially prone to brain injury because of their risk of exposure to violence or violent situations. According to Fabian (2010), impaired neuropsychological functions such as executive functions, verbal and language abilities, attention, memory, decision-making, inhibition of inappropriate behaviors, academic achievement, intelligence, and self-control, increases the risk of criminal behavior such as juvenile offending and incarceration. This current study focuses on neurocognitive function domains such as, executive functions, attention, memory, and verbal ability predictive of juvenile delinquency, by comparing juveniles in detention with regular school going children. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6 Executive functions are a group of higher-order cognitive processes that involve planning and organization, cognitive flexibility, response inhibition, working memory, attention, self-regulation and purposive goal-oriented behaviors (Delgado-Mejía & Etchepareborda, 2013; Shoemaker et al., 2013). Executive functions develop slowly from infancy through adolescence into adulthood (Henry & Bettenay, 2010; Kramers-Olen, 2015; Thornberry et al., 2013) and they are important for success in everyday life in general; physical and mental health; success in school; social and psychological growth and well-being (Rabinovici et al., 2015). Executive functions are one of the most consistent neuropsychological functions impaired among juvenile delinquents. Juveniles with impaired executive functions will most likely have poor cognitive, and behavioral control, which manifests as breaking rules, aggression, poor decision-making, and delinquency (Monahan et al, 2015). Research has found that deficits in executive functions are significantly associated with general delinquency (Baglivio et al., 2015; Burton et al., 2016; Muscatello et al., 2014; Seruca & Silva, 2016; Wallinius et al., 2019; Zou et al., 2013). In addition, these researchers suggest that juvenile delinquents show the greatest executive function impairments in inhibition, planning, cognitive flexibility, and working memory compared to normal controls. Inhibition is the ability to ignore impulses or inappropriate behavior. Cognitive flexibility, or set shifting has to do with the ability to modify attention and behavior in response to changing situations (Rabinovici et al, 2015). Working memory is the ability to remember information relevant to successful completion of a particular task (Sukyirun, 2016). Planning has to do with the use of efficient strategies to accomplish a goal. Thus, impaired executive functions in these areas explains why juvenile delinquents are unable to recognize future consequences in decision-making, unable to control undesirable emotions and behavior and unable to correctly process social cues. In addition, differences in impaired University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 7 executive functions have been found among offender groups (Adjorlolo & Egbenya, 2016; Seruca & Silva, 2016; Zou et al., 2013). Another neuropsychological function impaired among juvenile delinquents is attention. Attention includes the capacity to selectively attend to specific information, to alternate attention among two or more stimuli and to sustain attention for a particular period (Semrud- Clikeman & Ellison, 2009). Generally, impaired attention indicates low self-control (Hoffmann, 2018) and lower levels of self-control has been linked to antisocial outcomes including juvenile delinquency. In children, impaired attention is linked to poor academic performance, poor social interactions and other behavioral problems (Ling-Teo & Jiar-Yeo, 2017). Impairments in one or more areas of attention have been found among juvenile delinquents (Hoffman, 2018). Juvenile delinquents have a higher occurrence of attention hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) compared to the general population (Borrani et al., 2019). This suggests that juvenile delinquents evince a diminished attention capacity. Moreover, researchers report that children with ADHD show more aggression (Falk et al., 2017) which indicates a possible link between impaired attention and behavior problems. Sustained attention involves maintaining focus and correctly responding to a task for a prolonged period even in the presence of distracting stimuli. It is reported that individuals with poor sustained attention have more behavior problems and attachment than individuals without sustained attention deficits (Borrani, 2011; Low & Webster, 2016). Specifically, among juvenile delinquents, sustained attention was found to be a moderating variable between verbal intelligence, academic achievement and delinquency (Steinmayr et al, 2010; Borrani, 2011; Hoffman, 2018). This suggests that lower levels of sustained attention affect success in school to a certain degree, which in turn leads to poor academic achievement, making juveniles susceptible to deviance and criminal behavior. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 8 Attention and memory generally go hand in hand, in that one cannot demonstrate a good memory without paying attention to information. Memory is one of the most basic cognitive processes and generally it refers to the capacity to encode, store and retrieve information for later use (Borrani et al., 2019). There are various forms of memory, including but not limited to working memory, verbal memory, visual memory, short-term memory and long-term memory. Working memory refers to the capacity to recall relevant information for a particular task (Borrani et al., 2019). Impaired working memory is linked to antisocial behavior, sexual violence and general delinquency. Research reports that juvenile delinquents, especially violent juvenile delinquents and sexual violent delinquents have impaired working memory, manifested by their consistently poor performance on memory tasks (Burton et al., 2016; Sukyirun, 2016; Yoder et al., 2019). Verbal memory involves recall for verbally presented stimulus. Visual spatial memory refers to the capacity to recall shapes and figures and their location. Short-term memory is the capacity to retain a limited amount of information for a short period, usually from a few seconds to a few days (Crowder & Carbone, 2011; Vallar, 2017). On the contrary, long-term memory involves the capacity to hold information indefinitely. Indeed, deficits in memory have been linked to general delinquency and specific types of offending such as sexual offending (Burton et al., 2016; Yonder et al., 2019). Individuals, who begin antisocial behavior early during childhood, have deficits in verbal learning and memory (Johnson et al., 2015). Moreover, research has found that short-term verbal memory impairments are linked to language difficulties and poor academic performance (Baird et al., 2010; Swanson et al., 2012). In addition, research has found that working memory impairments affect decision-making and increases the risk of offending among juvenile delinquents (Fields, 2017; Syngelaki et al., 2009). Thus, memory impairments can affect learning, visuospatial functions and compromise success in school, increasing the risk of school dropouts and juvenile delinquency. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 9 Another neuropsychological function consistently impaired among juvenile delinquents is verbal ability. Verbal skills allow people to express themselves and internally regulate emotions. Verbal ability refers to both receptive and expressive language skills. Receptive verbal ability refers to the ability to exhibit an understanding of a spoken or written word without necessarily describing the word (Lansing et al., 2014). Expressive verbal skills refer to the ability to express thoughts in a grammatically correct way. Expressive ability is associated with the frontal lobe functioning (Broca’s area) and receptive ability is associated with the temporal lobe functioning (Wernicke’s area). Damage to these brain structures or connecting subcortical structures may lead to impaired verbal ability in one or both areas of language. Verbal fluency refers to the ability to produce more verbal and visual information within a specified period (Rabinovici et al., 2015). When verbal ability is impaired, people tend to act out in disruptive ways because they are unable to express their wants, needs and frustrations (Thompson, 2016). In addition, verbal deficits affect receptive listening and reading, problem solving, expressive speech, writing and verbal memory (Johnson et al., 2015; Moffitt et al., 2002). Unsurprisingly, impaired verbal ability is linked to conduct disorders, aggression, and juvenile delinquency (Bellair et al., 2016; Tung & Chhabra, 2011; Lansing et al., 2014; Paterson et al, 2013). In sum, the influence of abnormal brain functioning in the development and maintenance of delinquency cannot be overemphasized. Juvenile delinquents have multiple cognitive, behavioral, and emotional problems that manifests as poor decision-making and rule- breaking behavior (Luna, 2012). The above evidence shows that a combination of several brain functioning factors and psychosocial factors leads to juvenile delinquency and detention. Hence, the need to examine both neuropsychological and psychosocial factors associated with juvenile delinquency. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 10 Problem statement Research has shown that incarceration, while punitive, may lead to a host of mental and physical health problems, reduces academic and employment opportunities for adolescents (Barnert et al., 2017; Van Hout & Mhlanga-Gunda, 2019). In view of this, there is an increased need to plan interventions that targets at-risk populations to intervene early before the crimes are committed. Research from other countries has shown that impaired neuropsychological functions increase the susceptibility of juvenile offending and incarceration (Bellair et al., 2016b; J. B. Borrani, 2011; Fields, 2017; Jackson & Beaver, 2016; Jacob et al., 2019; Zou et al., 2013). Yet, majority of research on delinquency in Ghana have focused on either social/familial and economic factors that are associated with delinquency and these studies argue that rehabilitation efforts should focus solely on alleviating social/familial and economic factors related to delinquency and crime (Boakye, 2012; Boakye, 2013; Bosiakoh & Andoh, 2010; Darkwa & Abass, 2016; Ntim & Manu, 2019; Wrigley-Asante et al., 2016). To the best of my knowledge, one study examined the relationship between poor academic performance and juvenile delinquency (Gyansah et al., 2015). However, this association was examined from a social perspective not a cognitive perspective. Again, most neuropsychological research in Ghana is plagued with a focus on adult populations (Adjorlolo, 2018; Quansah & Karikari, 2016; Sarfo, 2016; Sarfo & Mate-Kole, 2014; Yorke et al., 2020). Research has shown that children and adolescents differ from adults in cognitive functions and behavioral competencies (Arain et al., 2013; Kramers-Olen, 2015;). Thus, it is necessary to assess the neuropsychological functions of children separate from adults. On the other hand, most of the studies on neuropsychological functions and juvenile incarceration are from the west. Western countries are more of individualistic cultures, which differ from the collectivist culture here in Ghana. It is likely that the neuropsychological profiles of juvenile delinquents in individualistic cultures may differ from juveniles in University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 11 collectivist cultures. Hence, needs-based interventions targeting at risk populations should be based on studies that are relevant to our culture. In addition, understanding the neuropsychological functioning of juvenile delinquents could provide insightful information for rehabilitation purposes to reduce the likelihood of incarceration (detention) and recidivism. Impaired neuropsychological functions including but not limited to executive functions are linked to high rates of recidivism among the youth (Baglivio et al, 2017). Therefore, it is necessary for the rehabilitation protocols to consider the development of delinquency from not only a social or economic perspective but also from a neuropsychological perspective. Aim and Objectives of the study The main aim of this study is to identify the extent to which neuropsychological functioning domains (executive functions, memory, attention and verbal ability), family factors (single parenting, socio-economic status) and emotional/behavior problems predicts the likelihood of being in juvenile detention by comparing adolescents in detention with a control group, adolescents of the same age group in school. Comparing delinquent adolescents with non- delinquent adolescents gives a better understanding of neuropsychological functioning related with delinquency, in order to plan appropriate interventions in adolescents at risk in the general population. Specific objectives: • To identify specific impaired neuropsychological functions that increases the likelihood of juvenile detention or not • To examine family factors that predict likelihood of children being in juvenile detention or the control group University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 12 • To examine the emotional/behavior problems that predicts the likelihood of juvenile detention or the control group. Significance of the study Currently, neuropsychology is still an emerging field in Ghana and to the best of my knowledge, most neuropsychological studies in Ghana focus on adult clinical populations. As such, there is no data on the neuropsychological profiles of juvenile offenders in the country. Thus, it is expected that findings from this present study will add to the literature on juvenile offending in Accra and provide a better understanding of effects of brain function on delinquency for stakeholders such as the Ghana Police Service, the Ghana Prisons Service and the Judicial System. In addition, findings from this study will inform needs-based interventions on juvenile delinquency, whereby, intervention are tailored to suit the psychological, emotional, educational, social, and mental needs of juvenile offenders in Ghana. Again, findings will serve as a basis for future research in the area of neuropsychology and delinquency in Ghana. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 13 CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW Introduction This chapter begins with a focus on the theoretical framework for this present study. Also included in this chapter are the review of related studies on specific domains of neuropsychological functioning and psychosocial correlates of juvenile delinquency. In addition, operational definitions of terms used in this present study, the hypothesis to be tested and the rationale for the study are presented in this chapter. Theoretical framework In this present study, I discuss various theories that suggest that abnormal brain functioning and psychosocial factors lead to delinquency. Each of these theories has their strengths and limitations in explaining the aetiology of delinquency. Among the theories presented are Luria’s theory of brain functioning, the General theory of Crime, and the General Strain Theory. Luria’s theory of brain functioning (Luria, 1974) This theory of brain functioning also known as the working brain model is one of the most cited theories of brain functioning and it states that the human brain is made up of three basic functional units that are interconnected and whose functioning is integral for all mental activity (Luria, 1974). According to Luria (1974), each of these brain structures is ordered; meaning that it consists of three layers of cortical zones namely, primary, secondary, and tertiary zones. The primary zones receive and send impulses from sensory organs, the secondary zones process sensory impulses, relays programmed impulses to efferent pathways, University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 14 and the tertiary zones, which are usually the last to develop, are involved in integrating impulses from many cortical and subcortical structures for complex mental activity. The first functional unit in Luria’s theory is made up of areas of the brainstem such as the thalamus and the reticular activation system below the cerebral cortex. These structures function by regulating cortical tone, waking and mental states. This means that they help to keep the cerebral cortex active and alert (Luria, 1974, Zaytseva et al, 2015). In addition, the reticular activation system functions by helping the nervous system appropriately respond and adapt to environmental changes. Thus, a disruption in this functional unit will result in an inability to appropriately interact with the environment and poor alertness of the cerebral cortex. The second functional unit comprises the occipital, temporal and parietal lobes. These structures function by obtaining, processing, and storing sensory information. Damage to this functional unit can lead to a diminished capacity of the nervous system to orient the first functional unit or a break in the transmission of information to the third functional unit. The third functional unit is made up of the frontal lobes and it is responsible for regulating, selecting, planning, implementation, and directing behavior and conscious mental activity. In addition, this functional unit is involved in problem solving, executive functions, sustaining attention, insight and awareness According to Luria (1974), this functional unit also has projections to the first and second functional units. In addition, the prefrontal cortex within the frontal lobes has rich connections with other cortical structures, such that the prefrontal cortex regulates impulses from these areas. This means that a person’s ability to accomplish a particular task depends on an interaction of all functional units. Relating this theory to this present study, the frontal lobes are responsible for executive functions and other cognitive functions that enable individuals to carefully think before acting, to adapt to novel or changing situations, resist unwanted impulses, self-regulate and monitor, University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 15 to concentrate, to regulate emotions and thought processes (Bechara et al., 2000; Diamond, 2013; Fernandez et al, 2014). Hence, disruptions to areas of the frontal lobes could result in a range of impaired cognitive functions such as executive functions, attention. In addition, disruptions to projections that connect the frontal lobes to parts of the temporal lobes such as the amygdala, hippocampus can result in impaired memory and perhaps verbal ability. Juvenile offenders are susceptible to damage to the frontal lobes because of their increased risk of exposure to violence and violent situations (Farrer & Hedges, 2011). Impaired executive functions among juvenile delinquents manifest as poor emotional and behavioral control, perseveration/ a diminished capacity to learn from punishments, poor decision-making and rule-breaking behavior. This means that structural or functional deficits in the frontal lobes and subcortical structures could result in significant problems in behavior, difficulties in mood regulation and impaired thought processes (Stuss & Levine, 2002), and thus increasing the vulnerability of adolescents to delinquency and other criminal behaviors. This present study indirectly tests the theory of brain functioning by using cognitive test batteries that are sensitive to abnormal frontal-temporal lobe functions. However, neuropsychological functions due not exist in a vacuum, and so this theory may not be adequate in explaining how family and psychological factors account for juvenile delinquency. Therefore, the General theory of crime and the Strain theory are two theories that help to explain delinquency from a psychosocial perspective. General theory of crime (Gottfredson & Hirschi, 1990) This theory is an expansion of Hirschi’s (1969) social control theory and is based on the claim that poor socialization efforts, especially by parents can lead to low self-control as manifested by antisocial and delinquent behavior. At the core of this theory is self-control, in the sense that individuals who exhibit low self-control are at risk of engaging in delinquent University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 16 outcomes. According to Gottfredson and Hirschi (1990), low self-control is a direct consequence of poor supervision or inadequate discipline of children by parents. In addition, they state that parent must monitor their wards, recognize deviant behaviors as they occur and take measures to punish such behaviors. These socialization efforts are of utmost importance for child development as they influence the child’s ability to delay gratification and so lead to high levels of self-control (Alshammari, 2017). Hence, individuals with high levels of self- control are more likely to engage in prosocial behaviors and avoid antisocial and analogous behaviors. This theory places much importance on the family as socialization agents of children. The family is usually the first point of contact people have with the outside world. Therefore, it is not surprising that the family dynamics exerts much influence on the emotional and behavioral development of children. Relating this theory to this present study, juvenile delinquents are individuals who mostly come from single-parent homes, mostly due to divorce/separation, where there may be inadequate supervision and monitoring of children. In addition, a large family size could lead to poor monitoring and supervision, as parents or guardians have to joggle between providing for the family and taking care of a large family size. This present study does not directly test for self-control, which is the core of the general theory of crime theory. However, the theory can still be used to ascertain whether the family factors as measured by single-parent families and large family size can be used as an indication of poor socialization efforts that leads to delinquency and behavior problems. General Strain theory (Agnew, 1992; Agnew, 2018) The General Strain Theory states that strains increase the likelihood of antisocial outcomes and delinquency. This theory is based on the premise that there is a disconnection between socially desirable goals and the opportunities/resources needed to attain those goals, University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 17 creating a “strain”. Strains and stressors, which occur as result of negative relationships with significant others, negative life events, can trigger negative emotions, such as aggression, frustration and this makes juveniles males react through crime and delinquency when there are no appropriate ways of coping with the strains or stressors. Thus, when appropriate coping mechanisms failed, an individual will be more likely to adopt inappropriate coping strategies. Agnew (2018) argues that delinquency might be seen as a solution when a depressive individual views delinquency and crime as a means of survival and a way of reducing emotional pressures. This theory explains how a “lack” can trigger symptoms of internalizing acts such as depression and anxiety and externalizing acts such as aggression and rule-breaking behavior in juveniles. In the sense that, adolescents from poor backgrounds (low socioeconomic status) usually experience some kind of “strain” which increases their susceptibility to delinquent and aggressive acts such as assault, armed robbery and stealing as a way of coping with the strain from a lack of opportunities or resources. Again, this “lack” could trigger symptoms of depression, anxiety and frustration, increasing the susceptibility to engage in delinquency as a way to cope with the negative emotions experienced. Hence, this theory explains from a psychosocial perspective, how negative emotions and behavior problems increases the risk of offending and detention. Although there is empirical evidence in support of the General Strain Theory, it has been criticized for not taking into account variations in self-control, which directly influences delinquency (Hay, 2003; Walker, 2018). Nevertheless, this theory gives insight into how “strains” usually experienced by juveniles from poor families, increase the risk of emotional and behavior problems. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 18 Review of related studies There is extant literature on the neuropsychological functioning and psychosocial correlates of juvenile delinquency. Four domains of neuropsychological functioning: executive functions, attention, memory, and verbal ability are discussed below and these related cognitive functions have been associated with juvenile delinquency. In addition, this present study examines family factors such as family structure, family size and emotional/behavior problems as associative psychosocial factors of delinquency. Neurocognitive factors and delinquency Executive functions and Delinquency Impaired neurocognitive functions have been found among juvenile delinquents in detention compared to the general population. Research shows that executive functions are one of the most important neuropsychological functions impaired among juvenile delinquents (Adjorlolo & Egbenya, 2016; Burton et al., 2016; Meijiers et al., 2017; Morais et al., 2016; Muscatello et al., 2014; Oglive te al., 2011; Seruca & Silva, 2016; Sukyirun et al., 2016; Wallinius et al., 2019; Yonder et al., 2019; Zou et al., 2013). Impaired executive functions have been shown to differ among offender groups (Burton et al., 2016; Morias et al., 2016). Using behavior rating scales such as the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF) and the Behavior Assessment Scale for Children Self Report (BASC-SR), Burton et al (2016) examined the relationship between executive functions, and delinquency among 196 detained adolescents. Results indicated that juvenile sexual offenders had low IQs and majority evinced severe impairments in executive functioning, particularly in areas of inhibition, working memory, cognitive flexibility and planning than non-sexual offenders. On the other hand, Morrais et (2016) used cognitive measures of executive functioning among 127 sexual and non-sexual offenders and found no difference on executive functions as University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 19 measured using the Sorting test, the trail making test and the verbal fluency test of the Delis- Kaplan Executive Functioning System (DKEFS) and the Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence (WASI). However, both groups evinced significant deficits on executive functions, implying that though impaired executive functions may related to delinquency, executive functions were not characteristic of sexual offenders as previously thought. Nevertheless, both studies illustrate that impaired executive functions are linked to not just general delinquency and crime but sexual crimes. Other studies further examined executive functions and intelligence in the context of negative life experiences such as trauma, domestic violence and victimization (Sukyirun, 2016; Yoder et al., 2016; Zou et al., 2013). Zou et al (2013) studied executive functioning and childhood trauma among juvenile offenders in China. Data was collected from 214 juvenile male offenders and 107 healthy controls using the Spatial Working Memory Test from the Cambridge Automated Neuropsychological Test Battery (CANTAB) and a Chinese version of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAISR). Results showed that detained juvenile delinquents had significantly lower intelligence quotients (IQ) and higher levels of abuse than their normal controls. Moreover, among juvenile offenders, the violent group showed more deficits in executive functioning: set shifting, working memory and planning than non-violent offenders and the control group. Similarly, Sukyirun (2016) from a biosocial perspective, investigated the association between executive functions and domestic violence. As well as how that relationship influenced self-control and antisocial behaviors among juvenile delinquents of Thailand. The sample used in this study was 294 adolescents between 14-19 years. The Self-Control assessment, Stroop Color Word test, digit span of the WAIS-IV and the 64-Wisconsin Card Sorting test are among the neuropsychological tests used. Results indicate that low inhibited individuals were at an increased vulnerability to antisocial behavior and deviance. In addition, domestic violence University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 20 significantly predicted low self-control, and antisocial behavior, implying that children exposed to violence, are more likely to experience low self-control, making them susceptible to delinquency and deviant behavior. Furthermore, Yoder et al (2019) examined the mediatory effect of executive functions in victimization, antisocial traits and delinquency among 70 sexual offenders and 130 non-sexual offenders. The measures used include the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Functions-short forms (BRIEF-SR) and a Metacognition index. They found out that a direct relationship exists between sexual violence and working memory. Further, trauma experience inversely related to sexual violence. Implying that childhood trauma is more likely to lead to sexual acting out behavior (sexual violence). These studies (Sukyirun, 2016; Yoder et al., 2016; Zou et al., 2013) shed more light on our understanding of how the environment or social context of individuals plays a role in juvenile delinquency and also on how negative life experiences relates with cognitive impairments, which increases the susceptibility of “at-risk” juveniles to delinquency and analogous behaviors. Additionally, executive functions have also been linked to psychiatric disorders and behavior problems among delinquent populations (Muscatello et al., 2014; Yoder et al., 2016). In Italy, Muscatello et al (2014) explored the executive functions in addition to psychiatric disorders of incarcerated adolescent offenders. The samples used were 147 male offenders and a matched control of 150 males. Data was collected by using the Stroop Color-Word Task, the Verbal Fluency Task, Raven’s Standard Progressive Matrices, the Paired-Association test, and the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test. Their results indicated that adolescent offenders had high levels of anxiety, performed poorly on the Stroop task, Verbal fluency task, the Wisconsin Card Sorting task and had lower global intellectual functioning than normal controls. This finding implies that impairments in executive functions coupled with indicators of mental dysfunction University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 21 may be a causal factor to the persistence of antisocial behaviors evinced by adolescent delinquents. In addition, impaired executive functions are linked to behavior problems that manifests as antisocial traits (Oglive et al, 2011; Wallinius et al., 2019), suggesting that individuals with poor executive functions may be unable to recognize the impact of their behavior on others, and this manifests as deviance. Specifically, executive functions such as inhibition and uneven intelligence quotient (IQ) profiles have been significantly associated with a high incidence of aggression among violent offenders and younger ages at onset of crime in general (Wallinius et al., 2019). Other studies have found specific deficits in executive functions, in areas of planning and inhibition (Seruca & Silva, 2016; Meijers et al., 2017). Elucidating neuropsychological antecedents of criminal behavior, Seruca and Silva (2016), considered impaired executive functions among 42 offenders and 28 non-offenders. Data was obtained using the Digit span subtest of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scales-3rd edition (WAIS-III), the Trail Making Test, part B, Porteus Mazes and the Stroop Color and Word Test. Results revealed that offenders performed worse on cognitive flexibility measures than non-offenders. In addition, violent offenders performed worse on planning measures. Further analysis suggests that among a subgroup of violent offenders, a significant correlation was found among anger, cognitive flexibility and interference resistance in the offender groups. Similarly, Meijers et al (2017) investigated whether executive functions differentiated between violent and non-violent offenders. Using 130 male remand prisoners, the CANTAB neuropsychological battery was administered to assess executive functions in planning, cognitive flexibility, working memory and inhibition. It was found out that violent offenders evinced worse performance on measures of inhibition. However, no other difference was found between violent and non-violent groups. Further analysis revealed that deficits in planning were University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 22 significantly related to an increased risk of reoffending. Thus, disinhibition and poor planning are specific executive functions that make adolescents in particular more susceptible to delinquency and crime. Another study in the Netherlands established the association between executive functions, social information processing and antisocial outcomes (Van Nieuwenhuijzen et al., 2017). Ninety-four participants between the ages of 12 and 20 years were used as the sample for this study. Data was obtained using the GoNoGo task, Flanker task, Visual Spatial Sequencing task of the Amsterdam Neuropsychological test battery. Results indicated that impaired inhibition was significantly associated with increased aggression. In addition, participants who performed poorly on attention and inhibition tasks viewed aggressive responses favorably. This suggests that poor inhibition among adolescents increases aggressive tendencies that most likely lead to rule breaking behavior and criminal behaviors. Attention, Memory, Verbal ability and Delinquency Attention and memory are cognitive processes that rarely take place in isolation and they have been found to be strongly associated with juvenile delinquency. Iselin and DeCoster (2012) studied the unique associations among age, delinquency and cognitive control. They sought to ascertain whether cognitive control processing generalizes to younger adolescent offenders. The sample used includes 43 adolescent offenders, 33 control adolescents and 40 youth male offenders. The Stroop task was used to measure cognitive control in areas of attention, memory, and response inhibition. The Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test was used as a measure of intelligence. Iselin and colleague found that older participants performed better than did the younger participants on task that demanded context-processing skills. In addition, adolescent offenders and adolescent controls had impairments in selective attention when it University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 23 comes to filtering irrelevant in that formation as well as memory deficits even when controlling for the effect of age. Longitudinal studies on sustained attention, verbal ability, and memory have revealed nuanced relationships between these cognitive functions and behavior problems such as rule- breaking behavior and crime (Bellair et al., 2016; Low & Webster, 2016; Petersen et al., 2015). For instance, Low and Webster (2016) examined attention as a mediator between parent-child relationships and behavior problems. A Continuous Performance Test was used to assess sustained attention, the Stroop task was used to assess inhibition, the Tower of Hanoi test was used to measure planning and the Child Behavior Checklist which equivalent to the Youth Self Report scale (YSR) was used to assess behavior problems. Results indicated that there was a relationship between poor attachment and social problems and this relationship was mediated by sustained attention. In addition, the relationship between poor attachment and other forms of behavior problems such as thought problems, rule-breaking behavior and attention problems were mediated by planning. There is evidence that show that deficits in language and verbal abilities are associated with delinquency, in the sense that adolescents with impaired in reading and writing, expressive and receptive skills are more likely to engage in delinquency. Mannien et al (2013) conducted a study to evaluate whether low verbal ability predicted later violence among adolescents with serious conduct problems. Fifty-three adolescents between the ages of 15 to 18 years staying in a reform school were sampled for the study. The Youth Self Report Scale (YSR) and the Child Behavior Checklist were used to assess psychiatric symptoms associated with delinquency. The Wechsler Memory Scale-Revised, Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale Revised (WAIS-R) were used as a measure of verbal ability. After comparing the results to a control group from the general population, the findings showed that the adolescents in the reform school performed generally lower on the WAIS-R vocabulary. Further analyses University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 24 indicated that low verbal ability and poor attention skills were strong predictors of violent crimes particularly among male adolescents with severe conduct problems. Lansing et al (2014) studied the cognitive and school functioning of juvenile detainees. They assessed the cognitive functioning of 1,829 recently detained adolescents, ages 10-18 years, in the United States. They examined verbal ability, mathematics skills and general intelligence as academic functioning of juvenile detainees using the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-Revised (PPVT-R), the Wide Range Achievement Test-3 (WRAT-3) and the Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test (KBIT) respectively. Their findings indicated that adolescent detainees showed impairments in overall cognitive functioning in areas of receptive vocabulary, oral reading, arithmetic computation skills and general intelligence. Their results showed that male detainees performed poorly on all measures of language and academic achievement. Lansing and colleagues also found that, more than one-third of male detainees showed deficits in both expressive and receptive verbal skills. However, greater deficits were on receptive verbal domains than in the expressive domains. In addition, they performed poorly on measures on arithmetic skills. This study suggests an undeniable link between verbal ability and academic performance. Another study focused on the comparison of general and verbal intelligence and academic achievement among criminal juveniles and non-criminal juveniles (Moshkani et al., 2017). Moshkani and colleagues collected data from 71 male delinquents and 71 controls in a rehabilitation center and public school respectively. The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for children (WISC) was used as a measure of general intelligence and verbal intelligence. They also used a demographic questionnaire to collect data on academic achievement, specifically the average of the last academic year in addition to subscales on the WISC. They found that controls performed better on measures of general intelligence than criminal juveniles. In addition, delinquents had lower years of education, lower verbal intelligence and poor academic University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 25 performance compared to controls. Thus, low verbal ability, poor academic performance and low educational years more likely leads to delinquency and subsequent arrest. In Longitudinal studies investigating verbal ability and the development of behavior problems and crime, Petersen et al (2015) found that language ability was negatively associated with externalizing problems even when controlling for age, SES and academic performance. This means that poor language ability in early childhood increased the likelihood of behavior problems and delinquent outcomes later in life. Likewise, Bellair et al (2016a) used Moffitt’s developmental taxonomy to ascertain whether verbal ability differentiated between offending groups, specifically adolescent-limited, life-course persistent, late bloomers and non-offenders. Results on key measures of development revealed that low verbal ability significantly increased the odds of becoming a life-course persistent offender compared to the adolescent-limited group. In addition, low verbal ability more than doubled the odds of life-persistent offending. Familial factors such as low family financial status and high peer substance use also increased the possibility of life-course persistent offending relative to adolescent-limited offending. Thus, poor verbal ability is one of the strong indicators for juvenile delinquency and criminal behaviors in adulthood. Snow and Powell (2011) assessed expressive language competencies among young offenders in incarceration. They also focused on offending severity, mental health and other risk factors that have not been studied previously. A sample of 100 young offenders with an average age of 19.03 (age range 17-20years) was used in the study. The Test of Language Competence-Expanded edition, the Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals, the Depression/Anxiety Scale (DASS) and the Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test were some of the measures used in the study. Results indicated that those who committed violent crimes had more language deficits. Those with language deficits also had poor scores on the matric subsets University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 26 of the Kaufman Intelligence Test. Again, there were no differences between offenders with language deficits and offenders without language deficits on the DASS. Academic performance and delinquency Research has shown that a link exists between academic performance and behavior problems. Tan et al (2018) investigated the link between schooling and delinquency between two groups of incarcerated youth. The sample included 333 male sexual offenders and 171 non- sexual offenders with a mean age of 16.7 years and 16.5 years respectively. Findings indicated that juvenile male sexual offenders reported higher levels of delinquency than the non-sexual offenders did. Furthermore, sexual offenders had significantly worse academic performance than the non-sexual group. Additionally, the sexual offenders also had greater communicative difficulties compared to the non-sexual offenders. Other studies have found similar results indicating that lower levels of intelligence quotients (IQ) influences academic achievement, which in turn, proliferates the risk of juvenile delinquency and incarceration (Hoffmann et al., 2013; Tan et al., 2018). Hence, in this present study, general fluid intelligence, academic performance as well as age were examined as control variables. Family Factors and delinquency Family Structure, Family size, Socioeconomic status and Delinquency Research on the causes or risk factors of delinquency have shown that familial factors are robust predictors of behavior, emotional problems, and juvenile offending. In Sub-Saharan Africa, research have found that parenting and parenting styles, family structure (Boakye, 2012; Boakye, 2013; Balogun & Chukumezie, 2010), cultural/ethnic beliefs, mass media (Osagie- Obazee & Eduwen, 2016), unstable family backgrounds with inadequate supervision (Duruji & Onyekachi, 2015) were significantly linked to juvenile delinquency and incarceration. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 27 Boakye (2013) investigated the correlates and predictors of official and self-reported juvenile delinquency among 264 male juvenile offenders aged 12-18 years using a set of questionnaires. The results indicated that among the various offenses in Ghana, drug offense (40%), serious property crimes (38.3%), and violent offense (35.7%) were among the common crimes committed by the youth. Logistic regression analysis showed that among individual factors, academic difficulties and low religiosity more than doubled the odds of official delinquency and self-reported delinquency. In addition, family factors such as harsh discipline, single-parent families, parent arrest/deviance significantly predicted the likelihood of official and self-reported juvenile delinquency. However, family size (although increased the risk of juvenile delinquency) did not significantly increase the odds of offending. In a qualitative study, Boakye (2012) explored the lived experiences of juvenile offenders in Ghana. He recruited 6 young offenders who were incarcerated at the Borstal home (now the Senior Correctional Centre). A semi-structured interview guide was used to collect data from respondents. Findings revealed that the young offenders reported having delinquent peer associations and substance-use prior to arrest. Among the family characteristics, single parent homes with little or no supervision and discipline lead to delinquency. Poverty in the family also resulted in school dropouts increasing the chances of stealing and robbery as a means of survival. Suggesting that for most children caught up in a life of crime, delinquency was a means to an end- being able to escape unfortunate family conditions. Thus, juvenile delinquency can be viewed as a complex phenomenon that requires a holistic solution. Longitudinal studies examining long-term influence of social and environmental factors deepen our understanding of delinquent behavior. Parental and family factors such as single parenting, poor parental supervision (Boccio & Beaver, 2019) and poor parental supervision and low socioeconomic status (Rekker et al., 2017) have been shown to be strong predictors of delinquency and crime in children. Boccio and Beaver (2019) investigated family factors as University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 28 antecedents of delinquency and found that family structure in adolescence was associated with later delinquency. In that, children who grew up with both parents were less likely to be involved in delinquent acts during adolescence and adulthood and vice versa. In addition, experiencing parental divorce during adolescence was statistically correlated with changes in whether or not children get involved in delinquent acts and crime. This implies that stressful events in the family make an individual susceptible to engaging in deviant and criminal behaviors. A similar longitudinal study on family factors associated with delinquency, focused on an interplay of parental supervision and socioeconomic status (Rekker et al., 2017). Regression analyses revealed that between adolescents, there was no significant association among parental monitoring and control and delinquency independent of socioeconomic status. However, within adolescents, parental control was positively associated with delinquency but this relationship was dependent on low socioeconomic status. This finding implies that parent from low socioeconomic backgrounds may be using less effective monitoring which rather increases delinquency. Similarly, Nisar et al (2015) explored the influence of family, peer, and economic factors on the development of delinquency among adolescents. Results indicated that majority of adolescents were from nuclear families with single parents. Further analyses revealed that adolescents are at an increased risk of delinquent outcomes when there little or no structure in the family. In addition, it found that most of these adolescents were from poor economic backgrounds and most of them admitted spending most of their time associating with delinquent peers. These results support the assertion that low economic and poor economic background is one of the basic reasons why adolescents engage in delinquency, which is further heightened as they begin to associate with delinquent peers. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 29 Another qualitative study in India explored the major psychosocial factors that increase the likelihood of juvenile delinquency and the measures taken by the government to rehabilitate delinquents (Achakanalli & Kumbhar, 2018). Using secondary data, results showed that 50% of juvenile delinquents come from single-parent families, suggesting that family background was crucial in the development of delinquency. Again, poor academic performance, bad neighborhoods, deviant peer relations, in addition to mental disorders, antisocial personality and low self-esteem were found to be associated with delinquent acts such as rape, theft, murder and robbery amongst others in the state of Maharashtra, India. On the contrary, Coleman (2014) examined juvenile delinquency from a family- oriented approach. Using secondary data, Coleman (2014) reviewed several media reports and academic research and found that, while dysfunction in the family such as a bad divorce negatively affects parent-child relationships, single-parent families are not a direct predictor of delinquency. Thus, single-parent homes become significant in the development of antisocial and deviant behavior in the presence of other factors such as poor attachment, lack of discipline. In a very recent study, Kroese et al (2020) investigated how growing up in single-parent families increases future crime involvement. This study differed from other studies in the sense that, different aspects of single parent i.e., single parent by death, divorce etc. was included in analysis. Using a systematic review of 48 studies on single-parenting and delinquency, results showed majority of studies reported that growing up in single-parent families significantly increases the risk of juvenile offending. Further analysis indicates that, adolescents from single parent families by divorce evinced higher levels of delinquency than did adolescents from single-parent families by death. Singh and Kiran (2014) examined the relationship between family structure and juvenile delinquency. A review of previous studies on the subject matter suggested that among University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 30 the most common correlates of juvenile delinquency, family factors (single-parent families) was the strongest predictor of delinquency. Singh and Kiran (2014) found that single-parenting affects the mental, emotional and psychological functioning of children, especially when working parent do not have sufficient time for their children. This increases the vulnerability of children to deviant and criminal behaviors. Other correlates of juvenile delinquency included family low socioeconomic status, psychological issues such as depression, aggression, frustration, as well as negative peer influence, and substance use. Similarly, Schroeder et al (2010) conducted a study on family transitions and juvenile offending. However, the study differed from other studies on single-parenting and delinquency in the sense that, Schroeder et al (2010) assessed the effect of changes in family structure on delinquency through mediating processes of family times and parent-child relationships. A longitudinal research design, a series of survey questionnaires were used to obtain data from over 1,073 respondents in 4 waves. Control variables included age, race, as these factors have been found to contribute to juvenile offending. Multiple regression produced mixed findings suggesting that a transition from two-parent families to single-parent families was not significantly associated with family time or changes in family time, parent attachment, and delinquency. However, further analysis indicated that a transition from single-parent families to a two-parent (stepparent) family significantly increased criminal behavior. Again, single parent homes through divorce or separation did not correlate with increased offending. Lastly, while single-parent homes can increase the risk of children becoming delinquent, an increase in family time and parental attachment served as a protective factor by decreasing the impact of family transitions on children. Shong et al (2019) conducted a qualitative study on socioeconomic status and behavior development and delinquency. Six young offenders between the ages of 13 and 17 years were recruited for the study. Results showed that children from low socioeconomic backgrounds University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 31 experienced negative emotions, which in turn triggered delinquent behavior as a coping mechanism. Again, children from low socioeconomic status experience school failure and consequently had to dropout from school to reduce family financial burden. Further, frustration with family low socioeconomic status and school failure increased delinquent peer associations. Studies in Nigeria on family factors and delinquency have showed mixed results. One study by Balogun and Chukumezie (2010) investigated the influence of family environment, parenting styles and self-esteem on delinquent outcomes. They collected data from 210 participants (mean age 13.7years) in remand homes in Lagos. Results indicated that family relationship and parenting style predicted juvenile delinquency. In addition, high self-esteem levels were significantly associated with less delinquency. Further, two dimensions of parenting predicted juvenile delinquency: responsiveness and demandingness but not autonomy granting. On the other hand, Osagie-Obazee and Eduwen (2016) conducted a study on the influence of family factors on delinquent outcomes. They collected data from 200 adolescents in secondary schools in Edo. Major findings showed that parenting styles, family structure, and socioeconomic status did not significantly account for delinquent outcomes. However, mass media, cultural/ethnic beliefs were found to be responsible for delinquent outcomes. Likewise, Duruji and Onyekachi (2015) assessed the relationship between family instability and juvenile delinquency in Owerri, against a backdrop of increasing family instability. Five hundred and ten participants in secondary school were recruited for the study. A questionnaire and interview guide were used in data collection. Results showed that children from unstable homes with inadequate supervision reported higher levels of predicted juvenile delinquency than those from stable families did. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 32 Emotional and Behavior problems and delinquency Emotional and behavior problems are well-established factors associated with juvenile delinquency and incarceration. Research has found that emotional problems such as anxiety and depression (Anderson et al., 2012; Jolliffe, et al, 2019), low self-esteem and suicide ideation (Chung et al., 2020) to be significantly associated with delinquent outcomes. Others have found that depression and aggression (Mestre et al., 2017), internalizing and externalizing behaviors (Lee-Oh et al., 2018), and mental health problems (Vahl et al., 2016) are important antecedents to juvenile delinquency and incarceration. For instance, Jolliffe et al (2019) investigated the relationship between anxiety and depression levels and delinquent acts such as theft and violence. Five hundred and three boys ages 11 to 16 years were recruited for this study. Using a series of questionnaires, result indicated that children with high levels of depression and anxiety also reported high levels of delinquent behaviors, particularly theft and violence. Furthermore, Anderson et al (2012) examined the long-term consequences of adolescent depression as a predictor of criminal behavior. Anderson et al (2012) used data from a national longitudinal study and found that adolescent depression increased the probability of property crime (4.7%), violent crime (2.0%), drug-related crimes (1.3%), and nondrug-related crimes (4.5%). However, when controlling for school performance, socioeconomic status, parenting style, and home environment, the influence of depression diminished but remained significant for only property offenses and nondrug-related crimes. In addition, even after controlling for school, family and parenting factors, the relationship between adolescent depression and the propensity to commit property and non-drug related crimes in adulthood remained significant. Thus, emotional problems such as depression and anxiety make children more susceptible to a life of crime particularly property offences such as theft, burglary, shoplifting amongst others. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 33 Recently, Chung et al (2020) examined the relationship between ADHD, suicide ideation, depression, anxiety, self-esteem, substance use and juvenile delinquency in Korea. Data was collected from 149 juvenile delinquents and 102 controls using a series of questionnaires. Findings revealed that juvenile delinquents had significantly more attention problems, suicide ideation, depression and anxiety and lower lever levels of self-esteem than controls did even when age and gender was controlled for. In addition, logistic regression showed that juveniles with attention and hyperactivity disorder were significantly up to 1.05 times more likely to commit crimes and those with higher levels of self-esteem were 0.93 times less likely to offend. Other studies suggest the environment can significantly affect mental health outcomes, triggering internalizing and externalizing behaviors among adolescents. Lee-Oh et al (2018) in a systematic review of child health outcomes associated with childhood adversity found that childhood adverse conditions such as trauma, abuse amongst others affects the development of a healthy brain and several other physiological functions that manifests as somatic complaints, asthma, recurrent infections requiring hospitalization, and sleep disturbances among children. Among young offenders, Mestre et al (2017) examined the influence of depression and aggressive behavior among juvenile offenders and non-offenders. They collected data from 220 detained juvenile offenders and 220 non-offenders in public schools between the ages of 15 and 18 years. Results indicated that anger predicted depression and aggressive behavior and delinquency among juveniles through emotional regulation. Thus, when children are unable to effectively regulate their emotions, it triggers maladaptive coping such as depressive and aggressive behaviors that more likely leads to delinquency and subsequent arrest. Vahl et al (2016) investigated the unique relationship between emotional abuse and mental health problems among detained juvenile delinquents. They used 341 detained adolescents as the sample in their study. Data was collected using the Youth Self Report Scale University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 34 and the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire. Multiple linear regression analysis revealed that emotional abuse was significantly related to internalizing and externalizing mental health outcomes even after the effect of other types of maltreatment were controlled. This study supports the claim that mental health and abuse predispose adolescents to delinquency and crime. Rationale of the study From the above, it is evident that much attention has been directed towards examining impaired neuropsychological functions associated with delinquency. However, there is a focus on single cognitive domains of juvenile delinquents in western countries and other parts of the world (Bellair, et al., 2016; Lansing et al., 2014; Zou et al., 2013). This present study builds on existing research by assessing multiple neuropsychological domains, which reveals nuanced group differences on specific domains of neuropsychological functions among detained juvenile delinquents and matched controls. In the studies reviewed, most studies used few measures in their assessment. According to Rabinovici et al (2015) using converging evidence from more than one test that measure separate but related functions in the same cognitive domain, gives a stronger evidence of brain functions compared to using single tests. Other studies that have used multiple tests that assess similar but separate functions within the same cognitive domain support the claim by Rabinovici (Lansing et al., 2014; Low & Webster, 2016; Mannien et al., 2013). Again, a number of studies reviewed used behavioral (self-reported) measures to assess cognitive domains including but not limited to executive functions (Burton et al., 2016; Yonder et al., 2019). Using only self-reported measures of neuropsychological functions may be less objective compared to using performance-based tests or both. This present study uses a battery University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 35 of neuropsychological tests to assess cognitive domains of executive functions, attention, memory, verbal ability, and academic performance. Moreover, majority of delinquent studies in Ghana focus on social and economic correlates of juvenile delinquency (Boakye, 2012; Boakye, 2013; Bosiakoh & Andoh, 2010; Darkwa & Abass, 2016). This present study fills in the gaps in the literature by assessing neuropsychological factors in addition to well-established psychosocial predictors of juvenile delinquency among juveniles in detention and a control group. Lastly, we assert that having an understanding of which neuropsychological functioning specifically correlates with delinquency will provide insightful information for the Ghana Prison Service on needs-based intervention that targets at-risk populations to reduce the likelihood of incarceration and recidivism in Ghana. Thus, neuropsychological and mental health factors could be included in the already existing reformation programs for juvenile offenders at the Senior Correctional Centre. Hypotheses The main research question in this study is to what extent does neuropsychological functions (executive function, memory, attention and verbal ability domains), family factors (such as socioeconomic status, family structure and family size) and emotional/behavior problems predict the likelihood of juvenile detention? Age, academic performance and general intelligence will be controlled in each hypothesis. Hypotheses include: 1. Poor neuropsychological functioning (executive functions, memory, attention, and verbal ability) would increase the likelihood of being in juvenile detention. 2. Family factors (socioeconomic status, family structure, family size) would significantly increase the likelihood of juvenile detention. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 36 3. Emotional and behavior problems would predict the likelihood of juvenile detention Operational Definitions Executive functions- Cognitive Flexibility (set-shifting) and Inhibition Attention- Sustained auditory attention and visual attention Memory- verbal memory and visual/spatial memory Verbal ability- verbal Fluency and word knowledge. Family structure- Single parent families, Both parent families and others Single-parent families-living with either one of parents (i.e. biological mother, biological father) whether by death or separation/divorce Both Parent families- living with both mother and father (i.e. biological parents or step parents). Socioeconomic status- Highest level of parental education, Parental employment, Ownership of TV set and Car. Emotional/behavior problems- internalizing (depression, anxiety, somatic complaints) and externalizing behaviors (rule breaking behavior and aggression) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 37 CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY Introduction This chapter entails all the methodological issues entailed in this study of the neuropsychological functioning and psychosocial correlates of juvenile offending: comparing detained delinquents and a matched control. Much of the focus of this chapter is on the research design used for the current study, detailed description of the target population, sample (inclusion and exclusion criteria) and sample size. Also discussed in this chapter are the measures used for data collection, the procedures involved during data collection, as well as ethical considerations and issues that arose during data collection. Research design This research is a quantitative study based on the quasi-experimental design. According to Abraham and MacDonald (2011), the quasi-experimental design is a unique research method that is similar to the experimental design but different in the sense that there are no random selections, in some studies no control group and in some studies no active manipulation of the independent variables. In this present study, there was no active manipulation of independent variables, and inferences were made on the population of interest without randomly assigning participants to either the children in detention group or the matched control group. Further, quasi-experimental designs offer the advantage of testing out comparisons between similar groups of people and in this present study, both control and detained delinquent groups were matched on age, gender and socio-economic status. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 38 Target population and Sample The targeted population of the study was juvenile delinquent males who are between the ages of 14 and 18, who reside in detention centers in Accra and adolescent males of the same age groups who attend public schools within the vicinity in the Greater-Accra Region of Ghana. According to the Ghana Statistical Service (2013) report, juveniles between the ages of 10 and 19 make up approximately 22.4% of the total population in Ghana, with approximately 19.3% in Greater-Accra region. The Senior Correctional Centre was purposively chosen as the site for data collection and the Kanda Cluster of schools was conveniently chosen as the site for this present study. These choices were based on the fact that, the Senior Correctional Centre is currently the only operational facility where juvenile male delinquents are detained. The Senior Correctional Centre is a detention center under the Ghana Prison Service for juvenile and young adult offenders in Ghana, under the Juvenile Justice Act 2003. Thus, juvenile offenders from all 16 regions of Ghana are detained at the Senior Correctional Centre. The Kanda cluster of schools is a government institution under the Ayawaso-East district. There are four different schools on site: the Kanda Estate 1, Kanda Estate 2, Ring Road and the AMA basic 1 school. The school is located in the environs of the Senior Correctional Centre, which is approximately 4.2 kilometers away from the Senior Correctional Centre. Hence, for proximity and convenience, the ideal site for data collection. Sampling size and Sampling technique The sample tested in this study was 115 male participants based on a limited number of male delinquents at the Senior Correctional Centre and a matched control at the Kanda Cluster of Schools. Approximately 245 male delinquents resided at the Senior Correctional Centre at the time of this study and these participants need to be selected based on different age cohorts University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 39 (14-18 years). In light of this, participants were recruited based on a crude sample size estimation by Roscoe (1975) that suggests that a sample size of at least 10 different participants per variable. However, during data collection at the Senior Correctional Centre more of the detainees were above the age group of interest to this study. Therefore, only 84 male participants (ages 14 to 18 years) who were readily available and willing participated in this study. In addition, due to the Covid-19 protocols and shutdown of public schools at the time of data collection, participants became a hard-to-reach population. Hence, only 31 participants from the Kanda Estate 1 and the Ring Road Schools participated in this study. The purposive sampling technique was used to select participants for this study because the adolescent delinquents and controls were matched on certain variables such as age (14-18 years), gender, and socioeconomic-status. This reduces testing bias, as juveniles in detention are compared with a control group of similar characteristics such as age, gender and socio-economic status on various cognitive and psychological tests. Inclusion criteria Delinquents were included in this present study if they a) were between the ages of 14 to 18 b) were residing at the Senior Correctional Centre for four months during data collections c) had a basic proficiency in English and could communicate in Twi or Ga, two common languages in Ghana. This is because some of the tests and questionnaires used were translated into the two most common local dialects, Twi and Ga. For controls, participants were included if they a) were between the ages of 14- and 18-years b) had a basic proficiency in English, Twi or Ga. Participants were excluded from this study if they had been diagnosed with a psychiatric condition or had any obvious intellectual disability. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 40 Demographic Characteristics Table 1 shows distribution of participants across all demographic variables examined in the study. Concerning educational level, it can be observed that close to one-half of participants in the control (48.4%) were in JHS 2 and those in the detention group (46.4%) were in primary. Again, slightly more than half of the children in the detention group (54.8%) had a history of substance use. Moreover, majority of children in the detention group (60.7%) had been sentenced within a year. It was further noted that among the children in detention, majority (61.9%) had committed non-violent crimes. More so, participants in both control and detention groups had below average general fluid intelligence. Finally, majority of the participants in the detention group (63.1%) were above 16 years compared to the control group (41.9%). Table 1 Summary of demographic characteristics of children in detention and matched control Variable Category Control Group Detention Group Frequency % Frequency % Educational Level At most Primary 3 9.7 40 47.6 JHS 1 9 29 11 13.1 JHS 2 15 48.4 24 28.6 JHS 3 4 12.9 9 10.7 Family Structure Single Parent 11 35.5 46 54.8 Both Parents 12 38.7 19 22.6 Other 8 25.8 19 22.6 History of Substance Use Yes 0 44 52.4 No 31 40 47.6 History of discipline Yes 15 51.6 36 42.9 No 15 48.4 48 57.1 Duration in detention 1-12 months - - 51 60.7 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 41 13-24 months - - 24 28.6 25-36 months - - 3 3.6 Type of Crime Violent - - 32 38.1 Non-Violent - - 52 61.9 General Fluid Below 50th percentile 50th -60th percentile Above 60th percentile 24 4 3 77.4 12.9 9.7 78 3 3 92.9 3.6 3.6 Age Group 14 years 15 years 16 years 17 years 18 years 9 8 9 3 2 29.0 25.8 29.0 9.7 6.5 5 14 20 22 23 6.0 16.7 23.8 26.2 27.4 Data collection measures The data collection measures in this study include a battery of neuropsychological test, and questionnaires. A questionnaire was used to obtain data on demographic variables such as age, level of education, duration of prison sentence, type of crime and substance-use and important family factors such as family structure, socioeconomic status and family size. The battery of neuropsychological tests was used to assess specific cognitive domains such as executive functions, attention, memory, verbal ability, and academic achievement. Another questionnaire was used to assess emotional/behavior problems. Neuropsychological Tests Executive Function a. Trail Making Test A and B (Partington & Leiter, 1949): The Trail Making Test (TMT) is a timed test of abstract reasoning, hand-eye coordination, and executive function two parts, A and B. In Part A, the participant is required to draw lines to connect consecutively encircled numbers on a worksheet, without lifting the pencil off the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 42 worksheet. Timing begins as soon as the instruction to start is given and stopped once the trail is completed or when maximum time is reached (150seconds). In Part B, the participant alternates between encircled numbers and letters in order as quickly and accurately as possible without lifting the pencil from the paper. The participant is timed as soon as the instruction to start is given and stopped once the trail is completed or when maximum time is reached (300sec). If the participant makes an error during the trial making (A and B), they are to quickly correct the error and this affects the length of time it takes to complete the trail. Hence, the TMT is scored by the length of time it takes to complete the trail with longer times of completion usually indicative of deficits in executive functioning. It usually takes approximately 5 to 10 minutes to administer the test. The TMT has been standardized on adoles