UNIVERSITY OF GHANA COLLEGE OF BASIC AND APPLIED SCIENCES FOOD SECURITY AND DIETARY DIVERSITY: A PHENOMENOLOGICAL STUDY OF SMALLHOLDER FARMERS IN RURAL COMMUNITIES, CENTRAL REGION BY NANA AKUA AWOTWE VANDYCK (10558648) THIS THESIS IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON, IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF AN MPHIL HOME SCIENCE DEGREE NOVEMBER 2022 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh I DECLARATION I, Nana Akua Awotwe Vandyck, declare that this dissertation is my original research work conducted at the University of Ghana, Legon, Ghana, under the supervision of Prof. Angelina Opoku Danquah and Prof. Christina A. Nti. No part of this thesis has been presented for another degree elsewhere. References to the work of other researchers are duly acknowledged. 18/12/2022 ………………………………………….. ........................……… Nana Akua Awotwe Vandyck (10558648) Date 18/12/2022 ………………………………………….. ……………………… Prof. Angelina O. Danquah Date 14/12/2022 …………………………………………… ……………………… Prof. Christina A. Nti Date University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh II ABSTRACT Food insecurity, poverty, limited diet quality and diversity are significant global problems. Several households rely on crops and livestock to meet their dietary needs. Smallholder farmers are primary producers of food consumed in rural areas. However, when it comes to food insecurity, they are the most vulnerable group. This study was conducted to investigate the perspectives of smallholder farmers on food security and dietary diversity in rural areas in the Central Region of Ghana. The study employed a qualitative approach using a phenomenological study design. The study location was three (3) rural communities; Atonkwa, Abbina and Kuful, all located within the Elmina township. A total of thirty (30) smallholder household heads were selected through a multi-stage sampling method. Thematic content analysis was used to analyse the data collected. The predetermined themes were organised food availability and access, causes of food insecurity, determinants of dietary diversity and coping strategies. Twelve (12) sub-themes emerged from the interviews conducted. The findings indicated that the perceived causes of food insecurity were based on socioeconomic factors and climate variability, affecting the availability and access to food. The diversity of food consumed within the household was determined by household food production, socio- economic factors, and information access and use. The study concluded that challenges with food availability and accessibility among smallholder farmers affect the food security status and the dietary diversity of the household. Based on the results, it was suggested that to help fix the social and economic problems that lead to food insecurity, the government should implement a comprehensive and multi-faceted approach. This approach should include; strengthening social safety nets, investing in agricultural development and improving rural infrastructure. Keywords: food security, dietary diversity, Central Region, experiences, coping strategies. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh III DEDICATION To my family… two and half decades of caring, helping and love. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh IV ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This dissertation is the result of many days of diligent labour. I am in debt to various advisors, colleagues and friends for their assistance at various phases of the conceptualization and writing processes. I want to thank Professor Angelina Opoku Danquah and Professor Christina A. Nti of the Department of Family and Consumer Sciences at the University of Ghana for their mentorship, insightful recommendations, and invaluable direction. They always kept their doors open. Their contributions are highly valued. I want to express my heartfelt gratitude and acknowledgement to my mother, Dr Efua Vandyck, for her love, persistent encouragement, and constructive criticism while writing my thesis; without her, this thesis would not have been a reality. To my Father, Nana Kwodwo Eduakwa V, for all his love and support. I am pleased to thank Mr Emmanuel Obeng, Ms Rosebud Aidoo and Ms Ohui MaCarthy for their time and support throughout this journey. The members of the communities who participated in the study made this work possible. I truly appreciate their time and effort. To those who contributed in diverse ways towards completing this thesis, although your names are not here, your contributions are very much appreciated. I, however, wish to state that any shortcomings in this work remain solely my responsibility. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh V TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION ............................................................................................................ I ABSTRACT ..................................................................................................................II DEDICATION ............................................................................................................. III ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ......................................................................................... IV TABLE OF CONTENTS .............................................................................................. V LIST OF FIGURES ...................................................................................................... X LIST OF TABLES ....................................................................................................... XI LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ..................................................................................... XII CHAPTER ONE ............................................................................................................ 1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Background Information .............................................................................................. 1 1.2 Statement of the Problem ............................................................................................. 4 1.3 Aim of the study .......................................................................................................... 4 1.4 Research objectives ..................................................................................................... 4 1.5 Research questions ....................................................................................................... 5 1.6 Justification of study .................................................................................................... 5 CHAPTER TWO ........................................................................................................... 7 LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................... 7 2.0 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 7 2.1 The concept of food security ........................................................................................ 7 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh VI 2.2 Dimensions of food security ........................................................................................ 9 2.2.1 Availability ........................................................................................................... 9 2.2.2 Access ................................................................................................................. 10 2.2.3 Utilization ........................................................................................................... 11 2.2.4 Sustainability ....................................................................................................... 11 2.3 Food insecurity .......................................................................................................... 12 2.3.1 Causes of food insecurity ..................................................................................... 12 2.4 Trends in global food security .................................................................................... 14 2.4.1 Trends in Africa .................................................................................................. 15 2.4.2 Trends in Ghana .................................................................................................. 16 2.4.3 Food security situation in Central Region ............................................................ 18 2.5 Smallholder farmers and food insecurity .................................................................... 19 2.6 Determinants of food security .................................................................................... 19 2.6.1 Socioeconomic determinants ............................................................................... 20 2.6.2 Farm Characteristics ............................................................................................ 23 2.7 Household dietary diversity ....................................................................................... 24 2.8 Determinants of dietary diversity ............................................................................... 26 2.9 Food insecurity Coping strategies .............................................................................. 28 2.10 Conceptual Framework ............................................................................................ 29 2.11 Conceptual Framework explained ............................................................................ 31 CHAPTER THREE...................................................................................................... 33 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh VII RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY ......................................................... 33 3.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 33 3.1 Study design. ............................................................................................................. 33 3.2 Study location ............................................................................................................ 33 3.3 Target population ....................................................................................................... 34 3.3.1 Inclusion criteria ..................................................................................................... 34 3.3.2 Exclusion criteria .................................................................................................... 34 3.4 Sample size ................................................................................................................ 35 3.5 Sampling technique ................................................................................................... 35 3.6 Instrument for data collection..................................................................................... 37 3.7 Pre-test ...................................................................................................................... 38 3.8 Ethical consideration .................................................................................................. 38 3.9 Procedure for data collection ...................................................................................... 38 3.10 Data analysis ............................................................................................................ 39 3.11 Limitation of the study ............................................................................................. 39 CHAPTER FOUR ........................................................................................................ 40 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ................................................................................... 40 4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 40 4.2 Demographic characteristics ...................................................................................... 40 4.2.1 Gender of household head ................................................................................... 42 4.2.2 Age of smallholder farmers ................................................................................. 42 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh VIII 4.2.3 Level of education ............................................................................................... 43 4.2.4 Off-farm activities ............................................................................................... 43 4.2.5 Household Size ................................................................................................... 44 4.3 Farm Characteristics .................................................................................................. 44 4.3.1 Land ownership ................................................................................................... 45 4.3.2 Farm type ............................................................................................................ 46 4.3.3 Farm labour ......................................................................................................... 46 4.3.4 Crops cultivated and livestock reared .................................................................. 47 4.4 Pre-determined themes and sub-themes ...................................................................... 47 4.5 Food availability and access ....................................................................................... 48 4.5.1 Household food consumption .............................................................................. 49 4.5.2. Source of food .................................................................................................... 53 4.5.3 Market accessibility ............................................................................................. 55 4.5.4 Perceptions of Dietary Adequacy ......................................................................... 58 4.6 Perceptions and Causes of Food Insecurity ................................................................ 61 4.6.1 Socio-Economic causes ....................................................................................... 61 4.6.2 Climatic Variability ............................................................................................. 64 4.7 Determinants of dietary diversity ............................................................................... 67 4.7.1 Farm Production Diversity................................................................................... 67 4.7.2 Socioeconomic status .......................................................................................... 69 4.7.3 Information Access and Use ................................................................................ 71 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh IX 4.8 Household Coping strategies for food shortage .......................................................... 74 4.8.1 Rationing ............................................................................................................. 75 4.8.2 Dietary changes ................................................................................................... 76 4.8.3 Increasing short-term household availability of funds .......................................... 77 CHAPTER FIVE ......................................................................................................... 79 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS .................................... 79 5.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 79 5.2 Summary ................................................................................................................... 79 5.3 Key findings .............................................................................................................. 80 5.4 Contribution of this study to the knowledge gap......................................................... 81 5.5 Conclusion ................................................................................................................. 82 5.6 Recommendations...................................................................................................... 82 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................ 85 Appendix I ................................................................................................................... 98 Appendix II ................................................................................................................ 101 Appendix III .............................................................................................................. 106 Appendix IV .............................................................................................................. 107 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh X LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. Conceptual framework………………………………………………………….. 29 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh XI LIST OF TABLES Table 1. Number of smallholder households……………………………………………. 35 Table 2. Calculated sample size of each community …………………………………….35 Table 3. Demographic characteristics of Participants…………………………………….40 Table 4. Farm characteristics……………………………………………………………...44 Table 5. Predetermined themes and corresponding sub-themes………………………..…47 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh XII LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS FAO- Food and Agriculture Organization GSS- Ghana Statistical Service GHS- Ghana Health Service HDD- Household Dietary Diversity IRCS- International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies IFAD- International Fund for Agriculture Development LEAP- Livelihood Empowerment Against Poverty LMIC-Lower Middle-Income Countries MoFA- Ministry of Food and Agriculture NHIS- National Health Insurance Scheme UNICEF-United Nations Children’s Fund UN- United Nations WFP-World Food Programme University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1 BACKGROUND INFORMATION The World Food Summit of 1996 defines food security as "all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life." (FAO, 2005). In contrast, food insecurity characterizes the limited availability of nutritious and safe meals and the inability to get food in socially acceptable ways (Saaka, 2016). Availability, access, and utilization of a high-quality diet are essential to promote health, reduce malnutrition and eliminate hunger. A high-quality diet comprises various nutrients concerning; age, sex, disease state, and physical activity of an individual. Unfortunately, such diets are unavailable to many, given that 811 million individuals globally are food insecure and have possibly experienced hunger. Out of these individuals, approximately 282 million are found in Africa (FAO et al., 2021). The regional distribution reveals that around 23.6 million people in Western Africa are severely food insecure (WFP, 2020). Regarding Ghana, 3.6 million individuals are food insecure, and 2.8 million are in rural areas (GSS & GHS, 2020). Significant efforts have been undertaken over the years to reduce the prevalence of food insecurity. However, these attempts are hampered by climate variability, conflict, urbanization, and economic slowdowns, with these problems developing progressively in the shadow of the COVID-19 pandemic and associated containment measures (FAO et al., 2021). Prolonged inadequate intake and lack of a diversified diet result in nutritional deficiencies, which increase an individual’s susceptibility to diseases and may lead to impaired physical and mental human University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2 development (Sibhatu et al., 2015). Women and children are the most at-risk for poor health and economic outcomes. The burden of undernutrition and micronutrient deficiencies in Ghana remains staggering, with 19% of children under five stunted. Regarding anaemia, 66% of children under five and 42% of women are anaemic, respectively (GSS et al., 2014). According to the National Demographic Health Survey, just 13% of children aged 6 to 23 months had minimally acceptable eating behaviours regarding dietary diversity and frequency. Approximately 67% of these infants consumed iron- and vitamin A- rich meals (GSS et al., 2014). The average caloric intake of rural dwellers is 2611 Kcal (Galbete et al., 2017). In southern Ghana, the highest prevalence of stunting and anaemia was in the Central Region, with 8.6% of the children under the age of five (5) stunted and 46.7% of women anaemic, respectively. The majority of malnourished Africans reside in rural areas. , and many are smallholder farmers (Sibhatu et al., 2015). In Ghana, about 75% of rural dwellers engage in smallholder agriculture. Smallholder farmers contribute up to 80 % of the total food production; on the contrary, this contribution does reflect the food sufficiency situation of smallholder households (MoFA, 2019). Poor dietary quality and diversity, malnutrition, and various production obstacles are challenges smallholder households face (Nabuuma et al., 2021a). Literature indicates that food insecurity is more prevalent among rural smallholder farmers compared to other livelihoods, due to limited household resources and socioeconomic factors that significantly impact their food security (Ajani et al., 2006; Alpízar et al., 2020). Studies conducted in Ghana show that smallholder farming households experience the highest rates of food insecurity (Entsiwah, 2018; Namaa, 2017). For example, among 120 smallholder farming households in Ghana's Central Region, 67.9% exhibited inadequate food consumption patterns, including eating less than three different food categories daily, eating only one meal a day and having no food stockpiles (Demi & Kuwornu, 2013). Demi & Kuwornu (2013) stated that during April and University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3 May, when food was scarce, each household member needed an extra 26% of calories to meet their daily caloric demands. A variety of quantitative research on smallholder farmers focused on the determinants that affect food insecurity and dietary diversity (Acheampong et al., 2022; Harris-Fry et al., 2015; Mango et al., 2014; Nabuuma et al., 2021b; Sibhatu et al., 2015). Socioeconomic factors such as gender, level of education, ethnicity, income, nutrition training or knowledge, household size, allocation of income to food, land ownership, size of land, production diversity, and access to markets were determinants (Harris-Fry et al., 2015; Nabuuma et al., 2021b). However, knowledge of food security and dietary diversity can be improved by examining farmers' experiences and perceptions of how these drivers affect food security and dietary diversity through qualitative research (Nabuuma et al., 2021b). An unpublished quantitative preliminary study conducted in 2014 among 285 caregivers and their child pairs in 3 rural communities in Central Region showed that about 92.3% of participants were moderately food insecure, and the remaining 7.7% were classified as severely food insecure. Socioeconomic determinants such as; the caregiver's education level, gender of the household head, and monthly income were notably associated with the study (Vandyck, 2019). Qualitative research is needed to explore the variables that promote and inhibit dietary diversity and food security. Thus, this research investigates the perspectives on food security and dietary diversity and their respective determinants among rural smallholder farming households in the Central Region of Ghana. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4 1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM Having enough food to eat is essential for healthy growth. Several households rely on crops and livestock to meet their needs. Smallholder farmers produce the majority of food consumed in Ghana, yet, they are the most susceptible to food insecurity. Issues such as climate variability, conflict, urbanization and economic slowdowns affect food production resulting in poverty, chronic malnutrition and food insecurity. The most vulnerable to poor health and economic outcomes are women and children. According to quantitative studies, most smallholder households in the Central Region of Ghana had low meal frequency, minimum dietary diversity, and no food stocks. Approximately 8.6% of the children under the age of five (5) are stunted, and 46.7% of women are anaemic, which is the highest prevalence compared to other regions in the southern part of Ghana. The lived experiences and coping strategies of smallholder farmers in response to food insecurity and dietary diversity at the household level can be explored using a qualitative approach; to further enhance data. This study used a qualitative approach to identify the perspectives on food security, determinants of dietary diversity and coping strategies among rural smallholder farming households. 1.3 AIM OF THE STUDY This study investigated the perspectives on food security and the determinants of dietary diversity among rural smallholder farming households using a qualitative approach. 1.4 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES The specific research objectives were to; University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5 1. Explore the challenges smallholder households have with household food availability and access. 2. Find out the causes of food insecurity based on the lived experience of smallholder farmers. 3. Discover the determinants of dietary diversity among smallholder households. 4. Investigate the coping strategies adopted by households on the challenges they faced. 1.5 RESEARCH QUESTIONS 1. What are the barriers to food access and availability for smallholder households? 2. What factors contribute to food insecurity in the study area? 3. What are the determinants of household dietary diversity? 4. What coping techniques do smallholder households employ in the face of adversity? 1.6 JUSTIFICATION OF STUDY 1. The study's qualitative approach will provide a deeper understanding of the lived experiences and perspectives of smallholder farming households in the Central Region, going beyond data enhancement to uncover the underlying causes of food insecurity and dietary diversity challenges. 2. The findings will offer valuable insights for policymakers to develop targeted interventions that address the specific needs and constraints faced by smallholder farmers in the region. By identifying factors influencing food access, agricultural practices, and dietary choices, policymakers can design context-specific solutions. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6 3. The study's focus on women and children, who are most vulnerable to food insecurity and malnutrition, will facilitate the implementation of gender-sensitive and nutrition- focused programs to improve the health and well-being of these groups. 4. The research can serve as a model for similar regions facing food insecurity issues, providing valuable lessons and strategies that can be adapted and applied in other areas with similar agricultural and socio-economic context. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 7 CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.0 INTRODUCTION Food insecurity, dietary diversity, and coping mechanisms are topics covered in this chapter's discussion of the related literature. To better answer the research objectives, this study does a thorough evaluation of the strengths of prior studies and a thorough evaluation of the limitations of these studies. 2.1 THE CONCEPT OF FOOD SECURITY The idea of “food security” is not new, but it has evolved over the years. The concept is often credited to the mid-1970s (Young et al., 2001). The United Nations (UN) established the definition of food security in 1974 as the "availability at all times of adequate world food supply of basic foodstuffs to maintain a steady expansion of food consumption and to offset variations in production and pricing" (Nkegbe et al., 2017). This definition of food security focuses on a country's ability to provide for its existing and projected populations (Abegaz, 2017). Through its development and expansion over time, the notion fully captures the intricacy of food's place in human society. However, the idea of "food entitlement," or the view that food is a human right, prompted a change in perspective on food security at the beginning of the 1980s. Consequently, the concept of stability or assured access to food began to feature prominently in studies. The World Bank defined the term further, ensuring "access by all people at all times to enough food for an active and healthy life" (World Bank, 1986). This shift in perspective reflects the view that the needs of society transcend beyond what can be met by domestic food production and foreign food imports. As a benchmark for future definitions, the term also University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 8 tackles questions of food access, distribution, and consumption in the context of healthy lifestyles. According to the FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization) in 2000, "food security, at the individual, household, national, regional, and global levels is achieved when all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life." This definition comes from the United Nations (UN) World Food Summit, which took place in 1996. Previous definitions were inadequate; thus, the idea expanded to include and represent the numerous, intricate debates surrounding nutrition and human rights (Nkegbe et al., 2017). This working definition helps isolate four distinct aspects of food security; food availability, economic and physical access to food, food use, and food stability through time. However, the multiple facets of food insecurity show how intricate and far-reaching this idea truly is. In Ghana, the MoFA in 2007 operationally defined food security as "high-quality, nutritious food hygienically packaged, aesthetically presented, available in sufficient quantities all year round and located at the correct place at affordable rates (MoFA, 2007)." Including "safe and nutritious" expands the definition of food security beyond simply having access to enough food to having access to the food that is wanted (Pinstrup-Andersen, 2009). There are several different ways to define food security. In the context of this thesis, "food security" at the household level means that all household members have access to enough healthy food throughout the year, either through farm production or through purchases, to maintain an appropriate diet. When discussing food security in the context of Elmina, the most crucial factor to consider is the availability and accessibility of food. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 9 2.2 DIMENSIONS OF FOOD SECURITY In 1996, the World Food Summit identified four facets of food security: availability of nutritionally sufficient food, access to food, stability, and biological utilization of food (Alemseged et al., 2018). Food availability exists when there is always sufficient food for everyone in a country. Food availability refers to its real presence (supply) (Kabubo-Mariara & Kabara, 2018; Kirilenko & Sedjo, 2007). If individuals and families cannot afford healthy food, they will not be able to eat well. Easy access to high-quality food necessitates the financial means to constantly stock up on nourishing foods, thereby addressing the problem of food shortage. In order to attain food security, households and individuals must always have access to sufficient food. Regular income, ready access to markets, and the availability of infrastructure such as railroads and paved roads enhance access to food (Abegaz, 2017; Darfour & Rosentrater, 2016). In addition, the ability to meet one's physiological needs with a healthy diet, clean water, adequate sanitation, and medical care is a measure of food consumption. For food to be deemed sustainable, supply, accessibility, and consumption must always be sufficient (FAO, 2006). Therefore, both the availability and accessibility aspects of food security contribute to stability. Food insecurity can jeopardize the food supply of a nation, a community, or a family when any of the four elements is unstable (FAO, 2008). 2.2.1 AVAILABILITY Food security is determined in part by its availability. Food availability refers to the quantity and quality of food in any given area across a country due to domestic production, industrial processing, and international trade (IRCS, 2006; Swaminathan & Bhavani, 2013). Food availability at the national level is determined by domestic production, commercial food imports, and food aid (Lioba, 2004). Food production, distribution, and trading are all University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 10 components of food availability (Kabubo-Mariara & Kabara, 2018). Crop output, natural disasters, energy prices, domestic prices, arable land, and the currency rate all influence the food supply (Adom, 2015). Food balance sheets are the primary source of information on food availability (FAO, 2014). These documents include information on the daily energy and protein available per person at the national level. 2.2.2 ACCESS There are a multitude of ways for individuals to obtain the available food. Food can be produced at home, stored, purchased, bartered, gifted, borrowed, or received as food aid (IRCS, 2006). Regarding food accessibility, it is implied that all individuals can quickly and reasonably obtain food that fits their dietary needs (Kuwornu et al., 2015). Food accessibility depends on economic, social, and political conditions (Lioba, 2004). In deciding whether a person has access to food, factors such as food prices, food entitlements, and the availability of appropriate resources, such as money, also play a role (Swaminathan & Bhavani, 2013). Markets and shops within walking distance, dependable public transportation, secure pedestrian pathways, train lines, and asphalt roads contribute to increased food accessibility, regardless of economic status (FAO, 2014; Siauw, 2008). Food accessibility comprises affordability, distribution, and individual choice (Kabubo-Mariara & Kabara, 2018). Decreasing salaries, escalating energy costs, depreciating local currencies, and armed conflict disrupt sustainable food availability (Adom, 2015). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 11 2.2.3 UTILIZATION Food utilization refers to an individual’s degree of physical and mental health as a result of their ability to meet their nutritional needs, which includes having access to nutritious foods, safe drinking water, sufficient sanitation, and medical treatment (FAO, 2006). The ability to obtain the necessary nutrients and energy from food is central to this idea. A variety of factors must be in place for adequate food utilization, including a diet with adequate energy and nutritional value, proper childcare practices, safe drinking water, adequate sanitation, knowledge of food storage and processing, general health, and essential nutrition (WFP, 2012). How individuals use food depends on several factors, including the food's quality, how it is prepared and stored, the consumer's level of understanding about nutrition, and the consumer's current state of health (IRCS, 2006; Kabubo-Mariara & Kabara, 2018). Barriers to food utilization include endemic diseases, poor sanitation, and a lack of appropriate nutrition knowledge (IRCS, 2006). 2.2.4 SUSTAINABILITY Food security has three physical components that are all influenced by sustainability, a temporal aspect of food security (Lioba, 2004). For food to be considered sustainable, it must always be available, easily accessible, and safe to consume. The three conditions of food availability, accessibility, and use must be met continuously for sustainability to be realized (Abegaz, 2017; Darfour & Rosentrater, 2016). For households to be considered food secure, they must have constant access to food and not be at risk of becoming food insecure due to factors like extreme weather, energy shortages, socioeconomic turmoil, or poorly functioning global markets (Darfour & Rosentrater, 2016; IRCS, 2006). Having measures in place to University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 12 ensure a steady supply of food and ready access to food throughout the year is crucial to maintaining stability (Kuwornu et al., 2015). 2.3 FOOD INSECURITY A person or household is at risk of food insecurity if they are missing in one or more of the FAO's identified dimensions of food security. McKay et al. 2019 contend that the term "food insecurity" encompasses more than the absence of food; it also includes situations in which people's expectations regarding their future access to food influence them to alter their current eating habits. Although a person may be eating enough to sustain life, they may worry about access to the next meal. Depending on the period in question, most publications devoted to studying food insecurity proposed a temporal dimension into two categories: chronic and transient (Jones et al., 2013). Chronic food insecurity makes it difficult for a household to obtain enough nutritious food to meet its nutritional demands. As a result, it affects households that consistently cannot afford to buy food or pay their other expenditures. Transitory food insecurity is the absence of adequate food resources for a brief period. An intermediate category occurs over cyclical periods, such as poor crop seasons (Gundersen & Ziliak, 2015; Jones et al., 2013). 2.3.1 CAUSES OF FOOD INSECURITY According to studies, food insecurity is too nuanced and multifaceted to be explained by a single factor (Nkegbe et al., 2017; Young et al., 2001). Due to this, several explanations regarding the causes of food insecurity have been established. Historical environment and societal norms have significantly impacted food security and related aspects. The reasons for University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 13 an inadequate or bountiful food supply are debatable, as they appear to fluctuate through time and vary according to geographical location. Other opinions have emerged from this argument; the following crucial issues will still be examined in this literature study: increasing population, a changing climate, and other socioeconomic factors. In response to this premise, two contradictory theories, the Malthusian and Boseruprian, have evolved, with distinct predictions regarding the influence of population growth on food security. As Malthus warned in 1798, population growth will inevitably outpace productive resources (Weil & Wilde, 2010). According to Malthusian theory, there are more mouths to feed as the population rises at a geometric rate, but the food supply can only expand at an arithmetic rate. Consequently, food production may decline, leading to famine or household- level malnutrition if population growth is not reduced. To explain this phenomenon, Malthus hypothesised that a fast-rising population was responsible for food scarcity and famine. Those who argued that Malthus's theory ignored the potential of agricultural technology to boost productivity contested his theory (Ahmad & Ali, 2016; Tomiyama et al., 2020). In 1965, Esther Boserup presented an alternative argument, contending that a growing population would increase the number of individuals available to work in agricultural and food production. The hypothesis asserted that population growth increases productivity, contrary to the Malthusian viewpoint. Increasing populations in a specific area can strain the area's resources, forcing imaginative problem-solvers to emerge. Increased agricultural output is directly attributable to the consequences of population growth on farm size, which leads to widespread land fragmentation and the development of small farms (Tomiyama et al., 2020). Since most of Africa's agriculture relies on rainwater, it may be badly harmed by global warming. According to the research, documented changes in the atmospheric component of the global climate could have detrimental effects on food production. Droughts and floods are both University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 14 events that can be caused by climate change (Jones et al., 2013). The erosion of topsoil induced by the formation of impermeable caps during floods reduces agricultural yield, particularly in small-scale agriculture. Agricultural land may be lost to desertification and other forms of land degradation due to climate change. As the global population is projected to reach 9.2 billion by 2050, these trends may have catastrophic consequences for addressing future food demands (Evans, 2009). However, it is anticipated that agricultural output in less developed nations will decline by 10 to 20 per cent (Gallop, 2022). According to Lukwa et al. (2020), pervasive poverty is one of the primary socioeconomic drivers of food insecurity in most developing nations. Uneven distribution of resources, low earnings, and significant unemployment are the causes of poverty. The poor lack access to essential resources such as food, sanitation, shelter, and medical care (Govender et al., 2017). 2.4 TRENDS IN GLOBAL FOOD SECURITY A staggering 828 million people were hungry in 2021, despite predictions that the world would recover more swiftly from the COVID-19 pandemic and food insecurity. By the end of 2020, 150 million more people worldwide were suffering from hunger compared to the end of 2019. (before the COVID-19 pandemic) (FAO et al., 2021). Acute food insecurity affects 11.7% of the world's population, a rise over the previous year. The number of those unable to buy healthy food has increased by 112 million, reaching over 3.1 billion individuals (FAO et al., 2022). In addition, the findings reveal persistent regional disparities, with Africa suffering the brunt of the crisis. In 2021, one-fifth of the African population, or 20.2%, was at risk of starvation, compared to 9.1 per cent in Asia, 8.6 per cent in Latin America and the Caribbean, 5.9 per cent in Oceania, and less than 2.5 per cent in North America and Europe. Since 2015, undernutrition University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 15 rates have remained relatively steady, but they spiked from 8.4 per cent in 2019 to 9.2 per cent in 2020 and then increased gradually to 10.4 per cent in 2021 across the majority of Africa, Asia, Latin America and the Caribbean (FAO et al., 2022). From a different angle, food insecurity is an issue that has gained prominence all over the world; however, despite increased coverage in international media and increased aid efforts by numerous organizations, the situation for many households around the world remains dire, with people facing hunger and famine daily (Zhu et al., 2022). Domestic food price inflation remains high over the world, which may be a contributing factor to the rising global food security trends. According to the World Bank, high inflation was present in nearly all low-income and middle- income nations between July and October 2022; this included 83.3% of low-income countries, 90.7 % of lower-middle-income countries, and 95 % of upper-middle-income countries (FAO et al., 2022). As a result of export interruptions from Russia and Ukraine and continued increases in energy prices, the cost of staple foods like grains and vegetable oils has risen to all-time highs. Inflation and rising interest rates threatened the rising labour cost and resources utilized in commodity production, storage, and transportation. Unfavourable weather patterns have also hampered farming, significantly limiting food supplies (Panghal et al., 2022). 2.4.1 TRENDS IN AFRICA Africa's most fundamental challenges continue to be tied to food and nutrition security when viewed as a whole. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2022) reports that the number of undernourished Africans has been rising due to a lack of economic and physical access to food for decades. In several Sub-Saharan nations, the increasing number of people living below the poverty line harms the population's ability to receive adequate food for a healthy existence. Several African nations, such as Somalia, the Democratic Republic of University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 16 the Congo, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Ethiopia, Nigeria, and Sudan, have experienced the devastating effects of household food insecurity, similar to the situation in less developed nations. The World Food Programme (WFP) classifies Cameroon as a food-insecure nation, and current research indicates that domestic food consumption has decreased since the 1980s; This has increased the child mortality rate and the proportion of underweight children in the country (19%) (WFP, 2022a). Egypt supplies fifty per cent of the country's wheat requirements. Despite the country's average food production, it must import wheat, leaving it subject to rising food prices. The nation is the world's largest importer of this fruit or vegetable (Amin & Madrid, 2015). In addition, the country's population is growing at a rate of 2 per cent yearly. Additionally, the parched Saharan terrain significantly limits agricultural production (Fikire & Zegeye, 2022). Ethiopia suffers from severe household food insecurity. Approximately 20.4% of Ethiopia's total population of 76.9 million are deemed food insecure, while 4.5% reside in areas in danger of drought (WFP, 2022b). Food insecurity is compounded by the rapid population increase in the country (Hirvonen et al., 2017). 2.4.2 TRENDS IN GHANA In 2013, despite the catastrophic food shortage across Africa, Ghana was one of four countries (together with Malawi, Angola, and Rwanda) that claimed to have met the MDG1 objective. Food and Agriculture Organization and others reported this in 2015. The success of Ghana's food production programmes, such as FASDEP (Food and Agriculture Sector Development Program), is likely due to the country's unified effort (MoFA, 2007). The country's ongoing democracy and implementation of sustainable food production and livelihood measures have led to moderate economic growth, high purchasing power, and a decline in the proportion of undernourished people (Rapsomanikis, 2015). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 17 The 2017 Ghana Zero Hunger Strategic Review Report reviewed the nation's efforts to eradicate hunger and food insecurity from 2014 to 2016. Specifically, the review period mentioned in the report demonstrates that substantial progress was made in the country (Cooke et al., 2016; Steiner-Asiedu et al., 2017). The authors assert that Ghana is the first African nation to meet MDG1, which required halving poverty and hunger and reducing the number of malnourished people from approximately 7 million in the 1990s to less than 1 million in 2017. 2017 saw the publication of the findings Steiner-Asiedu et al. (2017). Despite these increases, Nkegbe et al. (2017) discovered that food insecurity persisted at the household level and among vulnerable groups across the nation. The World Food Programme (WFP) has undertaken comprehensive food security and vulnerability analysis and determined that of the 3.6 million food insecure individuals in the country, 1.6 million (5.2%) are severely food insecure, and 2 million (6.5%) are moderately food insecure (WFP, 2020). There may also be a rising gap between the sexes, the north and south, rural and urban locations, and urban and rural populations. The Ghanaian government has neglected the country's northern and southern regions for decades, resulting in an increasing development gap between them (Songsore, 2011). Although food production and physical food availability have been the focus of food security programmes for decades, it is evident from the preceding examination of Ghana's food security status that additional factors contribute to food security. Both permanent and temporary food insecurity are feasible circumstances. Researchers have emphasised the need to understand food insecurity's history, experiences, and effects on people's health and nutrition. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 18 2.4.3 FOOD SECURITY SITUATION IN CENTRAL REGION The northern regions of Ghana, specifically the Upper East and Upper West regions, have been subjected to significant levels of climatic variability over the past three decades, resulting in the occurrence of floods, droughts, bushfires, high winds, and rain storms, according to the World Food Programme's (WFP) comprehensive food security and vulnerability analysis. Examples include the 1970s and 1980s Great Sahelian Drought and the 2007 and 2008 floods (Rademacher-Schulz et al., 2014). Although pervasive throughout Ghana, food insecurity is concentrated in the Guinea Savannah and Deciduous Forest regions. According to the report, 18.1% of the population resides in the Upper East, 17.1% in the Northern, and 13.3% in the Ashanti. Upper East has the country's most significant percentage of food insecurity, at 49%. Although the highest prevalence of food insecurity was observed in the three northern regions of Ghana, almost 1.5 million individuals in other regions of Ghana are highly vulnerable to food insecurity. In 2010, urbanization in Ghana's central region reached 42.4%, making it the country's fourth most urbanized and fifth poorest area (GSS, 2013). Since more and more people rely on less productive farms in the region, this poses a current hazard to regional food security. Demi and Kuwornu (2013) report that smallholder families in the region's core area are, on average, calorie-deficient and food-insecure. Researchers discovered that 60% of agricultural households were food insecure in a sample of 120 households interviewed; this means that over 60 per cent of households could not feed their members with the suggested minimum number of calories for optimal health. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 19 2.5 SMALLHOLDER FARMERS AND FOOD INSECURITY Due to the country's dependence on rain-fed agriculture, farmers in southern Ghana often only grow crops during the two rainy seasons. Smallholders or small-scale farmers are frequently used to describe farmers with small parcels of land (Manda et al., 2020). Farmers face climate change, low pricing, poor road infrastructure, lack of access to financing, inadequate markets, post-harvest losses, inadequate education and expertise, unsustainable agricultural techniques, rural-to-urban migration, ineffective policies, and a lack of technological advancement. These conditions have limited farmers' incentive to invest and improve output, which has impeded the expansion of the agricultural industry (MoFA, 2019). Many rural households, particularly those headed by farmers, experience food insecurity and hunger despite raising crops and even selling these products in markets. According to Acheampong et al. (2022), ineffective traditional postharvest management causes crop loss. Consequently, agricultural households in Ghana experience severe food insecurity ranging from three to seven months. As these losses mount, food prices rise, making it harder for families to afford to eat. In addition, some studies indicate that food insecurity and malnutrition are persistent and growing issues in rural communities (Demi & Kuwornu, 2013; Nkegbe et al., 2017). For instance, Armah et al. (2019) discovered that 94 per cent of 210 farming households in the Bibiani Ahwiaso rural farming community in Ghana's Western region faced the risk of food insecurity. 2.6 DETERMINANTS OF FOOD SECURITY The food security status of households is predominantly influenced by their socioeconomic characteristics. Poverty is identified as the leading cause of food insecurity, and vice versa; University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 20 food insecurity is the leading cause of poverty. Consequently, food insecurity and poverty share the same negative category; anything that affects a household's income may affect its food security status (El Bilali et al., 2019). In their analyses of poverty and food insecurity, Abegaz (2017) and Awoke et al. (2022a) investigated the socioeconomic behaviours of households. The level of education, gender, age of the household head, and household size was among the variables analyzed (Drammeh et al., 2019; Feleke et al., 2005; Sarkar et al., 2021). Their studies on smallholder households, food crop production and income from non-farm activities were evaluated (Acheampong et al., 2022; Mohammed et al., 2021). There are farm features that impact the food security status of smallholder farmers, according to the research; land ownership, type of labour available, type and proportion of crops cultivated, scale and size of a farm system, household expenditures, mechanization, capital intensity, and the number of ties to larger economic systems influence the food security status of the household (Makate et al., 2016). 2.6.1 SOCIOECONOMIC DETERMINANTS The availability of labour for food production in the household is affected by the age of the household heads (Guo et al., 2015). In a 2006 study, Tang & MacLeod found that a family's ability to diversify its income depends on the breadwinner's age; younger breadwinners could boost food production by growing farm areas. Instead, Gebissa & Geremew (2022) found that older household heads were more likely to have a reliable food source than their younger counterparts. Families own most land; thus, younger household heads would only have access to a portion of the property that has already been divided up; this means that older household heads tend to have more options when it comes to land quality and size for agricultural purposes University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 21 (Agidew & Singh, 2018). Therefore, age may help or hurt their ability to secure adequate nutrition. The gender of the household head influences the economic well-being of a family. Considering that the head of the family is responsible for resource consumption and distribution inside the household and how households are networked for resource exchange with other families (Muchenje & Mushunje, 2013). Even though men predominate in the head of the household, there are several exceptions where women assume this position. According to Demi & Kuwornu (2013), many wives in the central region stay at home to raise children while their men take on the role of the breadwinner. Other studies by Deschênes et al. (2020), Doss & Meinzen-Dick (2015), stated that women are disadvantaged when accessing economic resources and opportunities in society; this assumes that men have higher levels of achievement and success in the workplace than women do. In addition, the dependency ratio is higher in female-headed households than in male-headed ones, which has been established in studies (Maxwell, 1996). Maxwell et al. (2000) affirms this by stating that women are more likely to have to juggle multiple responsibilities at once, such as caring for children and working, which limits the efficiency with which female-headed households can divide their time and effort between farming and other revenue streams (off-farm). Gender may have a role in determining whether a person can maintain good nutrition (Poczta-Wajda et al., 2020). Primary education lays the groundwork for learning and comprehension; educated heads of households are in a better position to absorb and use the information necessary to improve their families' food security, nutritional status, and overall well-being (Hashmiu et al., 2022). In addition to pursuing great employment possibilities, educated heads of households can also seek to diversify their income streams through entrepreneurship. An educated head of household also has more options for earning money, pooling resources, and acquiring information about different diets to improve food and nutrition security (Hoddinott & University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 22 Yohannes, 2000). Concerning smallholder farmers, a recent study found that education can have two distinct effects on the labour market: the worker effect and the allocative effect. The worker effect and the allocative impact illustrate how education can make farmers more productive with the resources they already have, while the allocative impact describes how education can improve farmers' capacity to use and distribute resources more effectively (Ferreira, 2015). The dependency ratio compares the number of people living in a household to the number of individuals working to support that household. According to Sisha (2020), feeding the family becomes a greater burden on the working family members as the dependency ratio rises. Therefore, when resources are few, a bigger portion of the household budget must be allocated to consumption rather than production when there are more unemployed individuals. A household is a group of individuals who live in the same house or complex and make and consume their meals from a shared pot (Sharma, 2013). According to studies, the amount of food consumed in a home is directly related to the number of people living there, hence the number of people in a household has a significant impact on their food security (Govender et al., 2017; Namaa, 2017; Powell et al., 2017). Since there is insufficient food to go around, households with numerous members and a high dependency ratio are frequently malnourished (Abdullah et al., 2019; Olayemi, 2012). The notion of "income" for smallholder farmers includes earnings from farming, livestock, and other assets and non-agricultural endeavours (Beveridge et al., 2019). Therefore, household heads who pursue employment in fields other than agriculture have a greater chance of enhancing their family's financial security. When food production is low, it is crucial to have additional sources of revenue to provide a steady diet (Frelat et al., 2016; Herrera et al., 2021; Wijk et al., 2018). Additionally, when families have more discretionary income owing to the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 23 additional job outside the home, they may be able to afford a wider variety of grocery store meals (Fikire & Zegeye, 2022). 2.6.2 FARM CHARACTERISTICS Jayne et al. (2016) discovered that expanding a farm's land enhanced household income and food security. Hectares are a standard unit of measurement for the size of farms. The term refers to the amount of land available to a family for agricultural uses, such as cultivating food and rearing livestock. Households with larger farms are expected to increase output and improve food security. Therefore, persons with a larger farm or arable land are more likely to have food security than those with a smaller amount. Households, particularly those in rural areas, heavily rely on their land ownership patterns for economic security and quality of life (FAO, 2017). Farmers obtain land through various mechanisms, including purchase, inheritance, rental, and squatting. In some cases, working the property, saving money, and then purchasing it from the owners is possible (Durand-Lasserve & Payne, 2012). Land can also be leased or rented for temporary possession by individuals or organisations. Numerous rural areas use sharecropping, a kind of land renting in which the tenant farms a plot of land in exchange for a portion of the harvest or the crop's earnings (Mukhamedova & Pomfret, 2019). Therefore, it extends onto the leased property. In addition, the land is generally passed down through the family. The inheritance regulations can be dependent on familial ties. Land can be inherited matrilineally or patrilineally, depending on the practices of the society; this is especially true in Sub-Saharan Africa (Takane, 2008). Squatting on land is sometimes done informally and without authorization. Squatting is a risky method of gaining access to land when the legal owner is absent (Chileshe, 2005). Whether or not sub-Saharan Africa's poor rural farmers may legally own their land substantially impacts University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 24 how much they are willing to invest there (Muraoka et al., 2018). The inability of the rural poor, particularly farmers, to own land is detrimental to dietary diversity and food security (Ochieng et al., 2017). Various farms can be viewed as distinct spatial units, each with a unique classification. Compound systems are primarily concerned with the residences of individual farm families (Mgbada et al., 2014). The surrounding area is set up using the Bush farming system. Due to the distance, households cannot walk to these farms. Instead, they must rely on other modes of transportation. Therefore, wealthy families travel to their bush properties on bicycles or motorcycles. Additionally, they are required to deliver gathered items from farms to rural homes. Riverine systems are the communities that reside beside rivers and cultivate their bank (Awen-naam, 2019). The successful operation of agricultural systems requires human labour. Maintaining enough access throughout the growing season is essential for farm families' survival (Alpízar et al., 2020). Three distinct forms of labour were accessible for usage in agricultural settings in the research area. The most prevalent forms of household labour are one's labour (provided by members of the household) and community labour (supplied by a group of families that have agreed to support each other on a rotating basis). 2.7 HOUSEHOLD DIETARY DIVERSITY Dietary diversity refers to the variety of meals consumed by family members during a specific period, generally a day or a week (Ruel, 2003). Household dietary diversity is determined by monitoring the influence it has on an individual or family’s nutritional status. Nutritional diversity is an indicator of nutritional quality and a measure of a family's capacity to afford a University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 25 wide variety of healthy foods . Nutrient needs are more likely to be met when there is a greater variety of foods (Mekuria et al., 2017). Even if a high degree of household nutritional variety is suggestive of enhanced access to a varied diet, it is extremely difficult to determine whether or not everyone in a household has the same amount of economic access to a diversified diet. Dietary diversity is associated with dietary protein, calorie consumption, and household wealth. Individual dietary diversity indices can substitute for food quality and nutrient adequacy measurements for infants aged 6 to 23 months (Choudhury et al., 2019). A diversified diet is necessary to ensure that every household member receives sufficient nutrition. Using the aforementioned food categories, surrogate household-level dietary diversity indicators were built. Both the HDDS (household dietary diversity score) and the FCS (food consumption score) measure dietary diversity in households according to an international criterion (Vellema et al., 2016; Validation of the World Food Programme’s Food Consumption Score and Alternative Indicators of Household Food Security, 2009). A food intake score is determined using a weighting mechanism based on dietary diversity and frequency (how frequently the meal is consumed per week) (Verger et al., 2021). Arimond et al. (2010) stated that an increase in the variety of foods consumed in a family may suggest a rise in caloric intake; therefore, individuals who consume a diverse array of meals are more likely to obtain all the necessary. It is not easy to get diverse foods into the homes of people in underdeveloped nations. Limited finances and the inability to easily obtain nutritious and varied meals are responsible for their reliance on starchy staples and comparatively low intake of fruits, vegetables, and animal products (Mekuria et al., 2017). The problem of numerous nutrient deficiencies may be related to the lack of diversification typically observed in underdeveloped nations where diets consist primarily of starchy staples, with few or no animal products, and may be heavy in fats and sugars (Carletto et al., 2013); This may be University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 26 troublesome for the young children in the households, who require a diet rich in energy and a variety of critical nutrients for quick mental and physical growth (Arimond & Ruel, 2004). 2.8 DETERMINANTS OF DIETARY DIVERSITY Numerous factors influence dietary diversity at the household level in the family. Household dietary diversity (HDD) must be examined to adequately comprehend food availability and access determinants. Regarding household composition, the range of crops grown on farms is one of the most influential elements. The term "farm production diversity" refers to the diverse array of plant and animal species grown and raised on the farm (Huluka & Wondimagegnhu, 2019). For many of the world's poor and malnourished who work as smallholder farmers in developing countries, crop diversification is an excellent way to enhance the range of foods available to them. According to a quantitative study conducted by Sibhatu et al. (2015) in four developing countries, farm production diversity is positively associated with food diversification. Among these nations are Indonesia, Kenya, Ethiopia, and Malawi. A similar conclusion was noted by Ayenew et al. (2018), Hefferon et al. (2021), Khandoker et al. (2022) and Wondimagegnhu et al. (2019). However, increasing production diversity was not beneficial for agricultural communities that already produce a wide range of goods (Sibhatu et al., 2015). The positive association decreased after planting, indicating that the reported effects are time-dependent (Ayenew et al., 2018). The availability of fresh vegetables and other foods at local markets also influences the variety of foods consumed at home. Increased market accessibility affects household food selection, consumer spending, and nutritional security (Nandi et al., 2021). Market access can improve University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 27 the quality of life for smallholder farmers by raising their income, reducing their transaction costs, and reducing their impact on poverty and food insecurity (Nandi et al., 2021). In two Eastern African countries, researchers discovered that those who lived closer to marketplaces consumed a wider range of foods than those who lived further away (Usman & Haile, 2022). A study in Ethiopia revealed similar results, with people living far from marketplaces spending less on food (Poole et al., 2019) (Usman & Callo-Concha, 2021). According to Milner et al. (2022), the impact of market access on dietary diversity is contingent on agricultural characteristics. Increased market access has led to more nutritional diversity on isolated farms specialising in animal husbandry or specialised farming (Milner et al., 2022). Media exposure and nutritional knowledge significantly influence family and individual food preferences (Jalata & Asefa, 2022), substantially impacting how food is utilised in households and how well health promotion programmes are comprehended (Harris-Fry et al., 2015). Dietary diversity among women and children is positively and significantly connected with parental nutrition education and understanding (Murendo et al., 2018). A study in Bangladesh indicated that women's exposure to the media and education levels increased dietary diversity (Harris-Fry et al., 2015). What people eat at home is determined by the gender, income, and level of education of the breadwinner. HDD is far more prevalent in households headed by women (Ochieng et al., 2017). Studies by Bandyopadhyay et al. (2021), Kairiza et al. (2021) and Larson et al. (2019) revealed similar results, indicating the significance of women's empowerment in supporting better dietary and nutritional outcomes. Financially independent and credit-eligible women tend to prepare more diversified meals for their families (Larson et al., 2019). The household head's education level was similarly connected with greater dietary diversity (Bandyopadhyay et al., 2021). According to research, increased commercialisation of agriculture results in a more diverse diets; dietary variety increases in low-income households, not high-income ones University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 28 (Chegere et al., 2022; Murendo et al., 2018). There is a positive relationship between dietary diversity and household income, especially non-farm income, with the exact effect depending on how the money is spent (Usman & Haile, 2022). According to participants in qualitative research conducted in Uganda, most of their harvest was sold, with the money going toward debt repayment rather than feeding their families (Nabuuma et al., 2021b). 2.9 FOOD INSECURITY COPING STRATEGIES The persistent fear that there will not be enough food to go around has been one of the most pervasive problems throughout human history. Nonetheless, bringing people to a place where they no longer have to worry about where their next meal will come from is a growing issue in the developing world and a key step in the fight against hunger and poverty. Several compensatory coping strategies/mechanisms can mitigate the impacts of household food insecurity (Coates et al., 2006; Quisumbing, 2013). Coping mechanisms are implemented to restore household food security, although not to the same degree as before. To cope with a decline in food availability, households adopt several coping strategies, which are "defined as a set of activities carried out by a household in reaction to external shocks that contribute to lower food availability" (Burchi & De Muro, 2016). The intensity of a crisis and the available resources impact how individuals choose to respond. It has been recorded that when families face food insecurity, they may resort to various coping techniques, such as selling or exchanging goods, eating cheaper meals, borrowing food or money, purchasing food on credit, or enlisting the aid of family and friends. When food is not in short supply, household members may resort to rationing strategies such as reducing serving sizes, altering food consumption priorities to prioritise the needs of younger family members, eating fewer meals per day, or even going a whole day without food (Hendriks, 2009; Maxwell et al., 2000). Once food University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 29 availability is once again guaranteed, these restrictions can be eliminated. According to Gundersen & Ziliak (2015) , for households to adopt the appropriate strategy to address food insecurity, they must consider the underlying cause to achieve desired results. 2.10 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK According to Green (2014), a conceptual framework is a visual representation of the key concepts explored, including the concepts, major factors, variables, and their relationships. The conceptual framework (Figure 1) for the study was derived from the FIVIMS Framework of Food Security by FAO (2000) and the Comprehensive Food Security and Vulnerability Analysis Guidelines by WFP (2009), which were informed by the World Food Summit's (1996) definition of food security. Figure 1 illustrates the numerous facets of food security and the interdependent components. The framework focuses on all demographic subgroups, emphasising the food economy's involvement. The framework emphasises food and agriculture-based methods to boost household access and consumption of a diverse diet. . University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 30 Figure 1. Conceptual Framework: Showing Factors that Increase Vulnerability to Food Insecurity Figure 1. Conceptual Framework adopted from (FAO, 2000; WFP, 2009) Socioeconomic, political, institutional, cultural and natural environments National level Population Education Macro-economy Policy environment Natural resource endowment Agricultural sector Market conditions Subnational level Household characteristics Livelihood systems Social institutions Cultural attitudes Food economy Household Livelihood Strategies, Assets & Activities Food production Incomes Markets Social entitlements (trends and levels) Purchasing power Market integration Access to markets market infrastructure Child care Feeding practices Dietary Diversity Nutritional knowledge Food preparation Eating habits Intra-household food distribution Household food access (trends and levels) Production Imports (net) Utilization (food, non- food) Stocks Energy intake Nutrient intake University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 31 2.11 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK EXPLAINED The initial stage in analysing food security is to examine the households' susceptibility and response to shocks, their livelihood assets, the local agroecological, political, and institutional context, and the resulting livelihood strategies of the people. Vulnerability is an evaluation of the susceptibility of communities and households to possible shocks. In the end, the vulnerability of a family or group is determined by their ability to withstand the effects of hazards such as droughts, floods, crop blight or infestation, economic fluctuations, and conflict. Over time, shocks impact the macro environment, household assets and strategies, and individuals' food security. Assets, methods of support, and coping mechanisms contribute to a household's resilience in tragedy. When environmental, social, political, institutional, cultural, and economic contexts are perturbed by shocks and hazards, the susceptibility of a nation or community to food insecurity increases. Moreover, hazards can alter the demography, socioeconomics, and household composition. Modifications to these variables may influence many aspects of food safety. A sufficient food supply is the foundation of food security. In the context of smallholder farmers, physical food supplies from home production, farm inputs, food crop and livestock output, agricultural production diversity, and production methods (traditional or modern) all play a role in influencing food availability (Hagos et al., 2014). Agroecological, political, and institutional factors have an impact on these variables. The availability of essential resources, such as purchasing power, market integration and access to the market through market infrastructure, and income-generating activities, all contribute to ensuring that people have consistent and enough access to food (Atanga & Tankpa, 2021; Becher et al., 2021). The third aspect is sustainability, which ensures that all household members have enough access to food resources, whether produced at home or obtained from outside sources. Weather, pricing, University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 32 human-caused disasters, and political and economic factors can all negatively impact food production, earnings, and markets and, therefore, on stability (Charlton, 2016). Finally, it is essential to ensure that everyone in the household receives the proper nourishment by making the most of the food they purchase (Becher et al., 2021). Adequate food usage relies on care behaviours such as child care, feeding practises, eating habits, the right use of food, understanding and application of nutrition, and access to health and sanitation services (FAO, 2000). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 33 CHAPTER THREE RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 3.0 INTRODUCTION This chapter describes the study design, study area, target population, sample size, sampling procedure, data collection instruments and procedure, pre-test, data analysis and presentation, and ethical considerations of the study. 3.1 STUDY DESIGN. This study employed a qualitative approach using a transcendental phenomenological study design. Transcendental phenomenology study helped the researcher explore and discover an individual’s consciousness and lived experiences objectively (Neubauer et al., 2019). This study design was appropriate in exploring the perceptions, experiences and coping strategies of the smallholder farmer households concerning food security and dietary diversity. Furthermore, transcendental phenomenology constantly checks the researcher's influence on the participant in order not to affect the study's objective; this is done by ensuring that the biases and preconceptions of the researcher are neutralized (Lopez & Willis, 2004). 3.2 STUDY LOCATION The research was conducted in three (3) rural communities, namely, Atonkwa, Kuful and Abbina, all within the Elmina township in the Central Region of Ghana. The three neighboring communities were located 4 kilometers away from the center of the town. The majority of the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 34 populace engages in farming. Most household heads engaged in agriculture activities such as crop farming, livestock rearing and fish farming. Elmina is a town in the Central Region, East of Cape Coast and bounded on the South by the Atlantic Ocean (GSS, 2013). 3.3 TARGET POPULATION The target population consists of all entities for which data was utilized to conclude the study (Asiamah et al., 2017). The target population were household heads involved in smallholder agricultural activities within the study area. 3.3.1 INCLUSION CRITERIA The selection criteria for study participants include the following: 1. Willingness to participate 2. Farmers should be involved in crop farming, livestock rearing or fish farming. 3. The participant should be a resident of the selected community for at least three (3) years. 3.3.2 EXCLUSION CRITERIA The study excluded the following; 1. Participants unwilling to participate 2. Farmers involved in cash crop farming 3. Residents residing in the selected community for less than three (3) years University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 35 3.4 SAMPLE SIZE A total of 30 participants were used for the study. For qualitative studies, sample size guidelines suggest a range of 20 to 30 participants (Vasileiou et al., 2018). Sandelowski (1995) stated that sample sizes which are large enough bring forth a new and rich understanding of the subject areas under study, however small enough for deep details of the subjects. Moreover, thematic saturation can sometimes be achieved after completing 20 interviews (Patton, 2002). 3.5 SAMPLING TECHNIQUE The sampling technique was a multi-stage sampling method. First level sampling Based on the population's characteristics and the study's objective, three communities, namely, Atonkwa, Kuful, and Abbina, were selected using the purposive sampling method. Second level sampling The proportionate-stratified sampling technique was used in selecting 30 smallholder households from the three communities. The three (3) communities form three (3) strata, and each stratum has a different number of smallholder households. A preliminary study shows the total number of smallholder households in each community obtained in Table 1. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 36 Table 1. Number of smallholder households Community Population size Atonkwa Kuful Abbina 54 51 20 Total 125 The decision to apply the proportionate random sampling is based on the need to ensure that smallholder households from the three (3) communities are adequately represented to generalise the findings for this research to cover smallholder households (Creswell, 2009). The following formula was used to obtain the number of households selected from each community, and the results are shown in Table 2. ୒୭.୭୤ ୱ୫ୟ୪୪୦୭୪ୢୣ୰ ୦୭୳ୱୣ୦୭୪ୢୱ ୧୬ ୣୟୡ୦ ୡ୭୫୫୳୬୧୲୷ ୘୭୲ୟ୪ ୒୭.୭୤ ୱ୫ୟ୪୪୦୭୪ୢୣ୰ ୦୭୳ୱୣ୦୭୪ୢୱ ୧୬ ୲୦ୣ ୲୦୰ୣୣ (ଷ)ୡ୭୫୫୳୬୧୲୧ୣୱ 𝑥 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 = 𝑁𝑜. 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑤𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑦 Table 2. Calculated sample size of each community Community Population size Sample size Atonkwa Kuful Abbina 54 51 20 13 12 5 Total 125 30 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 37 Third level sampling A snowball sampling method was utilised to choose the thirty (30) participants. Snowballing, also known as chain-referral sampling, enables recruiting more participants from existing participants and their acquaintances (Creswell, 2009). Utilization of this sampling procedure required the researcher to initially contact a few potential participants willing to participate in the study. The rationale for using the snowball sampling technique was to allow the researcher to establish smallholder farmers within the study area who would use their social network to refer the researcher to other farmers with the same characteristics that fit the research objective. 3.6 INSTRUMENT FOR DATA COLLECTION A semi-structured interview guide (Appendix II) was developed and used to collect qualitative data from the smallholder farmers based on the study's objective. A semi-structured interview guide is a list of premeditated questions which help researchers explore a particular topic by asking interviewees questions for in-depth responses. The interview guide had sections on; Section 1: Demographics Section 2: Household food availability and access Section 3: Determinants of dietary diversity Section 4: Coping strategies against food insecurity Adapted from (Awen-naam, 2019; Namaa, 2017; Tour, 2016) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 38 3.7 PRE-TEST The interview guide was a pre-test with five (5) heads of smallholder households in Ampeni, a community with comparable characteristics to those selected for the study. The preliminary test assisted the researcher in validating the clarity of the questions. In addition, the pre-test assisted in the practice and improvement of interview skills before data collection. 3.8 ETHICAL CONSIDERATION Ethical approval was sought from the College of Basic and Applied Sciences Review Board's Ethics and Protocol Review Committee (Appendix III). Before deciding to participate, participants were provided with appropriate information about the study's objectives; this allowed them to make an informed decision regarding their participation. The study's consent form maintained the participants' privacy by requiring them to input a number code in place of their names. Before the interviews were conducted, all participants signed a waiver indicating that they understood the purpose of the study. At no point were participants penalised for withdrawing from the research. 3.9 PROCEDURE FOR DATA COLLECTION After obtaining ethical approval, the Department of Family and Consumer Sciences addressed an introduction letter (Appendix IV) to the chiefs of the three (3) communities requesting permission to conduct the study. After permission was granted, community leaders helped select a few potential candidates. The initial participant was identified, and the interview time and location were arranged. Before the scheduled interview, participants were told about the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 39 study's objective, the benefits, the confidentiality guarantee, and their ability to withdraw from the study at any time. Those who agreed to participate were required to complete consent forms (Appendix I). A face-to-face interview was conducted at the residence of each participant. Interviews were conducted in Fante and lasted thirty (30) to sixty (60) minutes. With participant agreement, interviews were taped with an audio recorder. 3.10 DATA ANALYSIS Thematic content analysis was used to analyse data. Thematic content analysis is a descriptive presentation of qualitative data which involves transcribed data to classify themes that sum up all the views collected (Vaismoradi et al., 2013). Recorded audio from the interview was transcribed verbatim to ensure that data was not lost. The transcripts were read through multiple times to get familiar with the data. Tables were used to summarize data and display figures where similar appropriate codes identified were categorized and re-categorized using content analysis as the study progressed. Sub-groups were named and grouped under predetermined themes from the research objective. The predetermined themes were: food availability and access, causes of food security, determinants of dietary diversity and coping strategies. Twelve (12) sub-themes emerged from the interviews conducted. Information derived was supported with quotes to illustrate themes and meanings from the transcripts. 3.11 LIMITATION OF THE STUDY Due to the intrinsic characteristics of qualitative research, such as sample size and sampling procedures, the generalizability of the study's findings is limited. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 40 CHAPTER FOUR RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 4.1 INTRODUCTION The findings, interpretation of findings, and discussion of data collected from thirty (30) participants are presented in this chapter. The study sought to investigate community perspectives on food security, dietary diversity and their determinants among rural smallholder farming households. The findings were discussed following these key sub-headings; demographic characteristics, farm characteristics and major themes and sub-themes that emerged from the in-depth interviews to answer the following research questions: a) What are the challenges smallholder households face with household food availability and access? b) What are the causes of food insecurity in the study area? c) What are the determinants of household dietary diversity? d) What coping strategies do smallholder households adopt in dealing with challenges? 4.2 DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS Generally, concerns with food insecurity and coping mechanisms are impacted directly or indirectly by the socio-demographic characteristics of participants. Presented are the demographic features of the individuals under the following sub-headings; age, gender, educational background, marital status, number of children, and household size. Table 3. presents the demographic characteristics of 30 smallholder farmers who were interviewed. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 41 Table 3: Demographic characteristics of participants Demographic Characteristics Frequency (N=30) Gender Female Male 19 11 Age 30-39 40-49 50-59 60-69 70-79 7 11 6 4 2 Level of Education No formal Education Primary School Junior High School Senior High School Vocational 5 2 13 8 2 Off-farm activities Fulltime Farmers Trader Fishmonger Electrician Mason Other Occupations* 13 8 4 2 1 2 Size of household 2-4 5-7 8-10 >10 5 13 10 2 *Other occupations include businessmen and security officers University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 42 4.2.1 GENDER OF HOUSEHOLD HEAD Smallholder household heads investigated were predominantly female, as seen in Table 3. A family's economic well-being is influenced by the gender of the household head, considering that the head of the family is responsible for resource consumption and distribution inside the household. Household heads are also responsible for how households are networked for resource exchange with other families. According to studies by Deschênes et al., 2020 and Doss & Meinzen-Dick, 2015, women are disadvantaged when accessing economic resources and opportunities in society; this implies that while the head of the family must secure the home's economic viability regardless of gender, the instruments available to do so are not gender-neutral. According to studies by Kuwornu et al. (2015) and Maxwell et al. (2000), Gender also influences the likelihood of food insecurity, where households headed by women are more likely to experience food insecurity compared to households headed by men Since food insecurity is attributed to an individual’s role to provide for the household, including their ability to obtain food. Moreover, females have a greater dependency ratio, which restricts their ability to allocate labour to farming and other income-generating activities due to fewer years of education, and households headed by women have lower incomes than those led by men. 4.2.2 AGE OF SMALLHOLDER FARMERS The smallholder household heads studied were between the ages of 30 and 73 years, with an average age of 47.6 years. The age distribution of the participants suggests that the agricultural population in the research area are ageing. Older farmers may be less productive compared to younger workers. Tang & MacLeod (2006) stated that ageing agricultural labour might diminish the physical strength of the labour force and, as a result, limit the food production output and capacity. In addition, an ageing agricultural workforce poses significant challenges University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 43 for future production and adaptation to a new market and environmental conditions, primarily because older farmers may be less likely to implement new, transformative production techniques needed to increase food production (Liu et al., 2021). 4.2.3 LEVEL OF EDUCATION Education is one means by which agricultural production can be boosted. In Table 3, four household heads had completed elementary education, thirteen had completed junior high school, and eight had completed senior high school. Two heads of farmer households had a vocational education, while five had no formal education. According to the literature, formal education of the household's head improves food security. Since basic education lays the groundwork for learning and comprehension, educated household heads can better comprehend and apply vital knowledge for increased production (Hashmiu et al., 2022). More than half of the participants can read and have completed junior high school as a result, it is expected that they should be more productive with the resources they already have and possess the capacity to use and distribute resources more effectively. 4.2.4 OFF-FARM ACTIVITIES Sales of agricultural products were not the only source of cash revenue for farming households, and their income was generated from sources other than farming (Table 3). Only thirteen (13) out of the thirty (30) participants were active farmers, while the remaining seventeen (17) were involved in non-farming occupations such as; trading, fishmongering, masonry, and electrical work. When chances for non-farming work become available, many smallholders take advantage of them to supplement their farm income.; this is consistent with findings from other University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 44 studies, which stated that revenue from sources other than farming is crucial for maintaining a steady diet, especially during times of poor food output (Beveridge et al., 2019; Fikire & Zegeye, 2022; Frelat et al., 2016; Herrera et al., 2021). Perhaps when families have more disposable income due to jobs outside the home, they may afford to buy a wider variety of meals at the market. 4.2.5 HOUSEHOLD SIZE The maximum and minimum household sizes (Table 3) were 2 and 13, respectively. The average household size was 6.80; this average differs from the GSS et al. (2014) figure of 3.8 for rural areas. This disparity may be because the sample size of this study was smaller than that of the demographic health survey. According to studies (Abdullah et al., 2019; Govender et al., 2017; Namaa, 2017; Olayemi, 2012; Powell et al., 2017), family size or the number of people in a household has a substantial impact on food security since household size influences food consumption; the higher the family size, the less food is available for each member of the household. 4.3 FARM CHARACTERISTICS The characteristics of farms have a significant bearing on the level of food security enjoyed by smallholder households. This section provides information regarding land ownership, the type of farm, the labour available on the farm, the activities that take place off the farm, and the type of crop and livestock available. The features of the farms owned by the 30 smallholder farmers who were questioned are outlined in Table 4. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 45 Table 4: Farm Characteristics Farm Characteristics Frequency Land ownership Rent-free 13 Ownership Rent 13 4 Farm type Compound farm Bush farming Riverine farming 23 6 1 Farm Labour Own labour Communal labour Hired labour 25 3 2 Crops Cultivated Cassava 29 Maize 22 Okro 14 Pepper 11 Tomatoes Garden Eggs 10 9 Plantain 7 Pineapple 2 Watermelon Cabbage 1 1 Livestock Reared Hen Goat 12 8 Duck 1 4.3.1 LAND OWNERSHIP Land ownership structures significantly determine how households, particularly those in rural areas, secure their economic viability and quality of life. In Table 4, there were three ways to access land: ownership (via inheritance or purchase), renting (including sharecropping), and not paying rent. The vast majority (17 participants) of those who lived in the study area did not University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 46 own the land they occupied; thus, they could not use it for free. They either paid the rent with money or shared the harvested crops with the landowner. The ability of poor rural farmers in sub-Saharan Africa to own their land has been shown to be crucial since it influences the extent to which they are willing to invest in that land. Dietary diversity and food security may negatively affect these farmers who cannot own land. 4.3.2 FARM TYPE There are many distinct kinds of farms, all of which are spatial units and categorised uniquely. Most participants (23) operated compound farms that were located around their homes (Table 4); this is a result of the proximity to inhabited areas and the lack of finances to obtain motorcycles and bicycles to transport food. Six (6) participants possessed bush farms, which are often located at a greater distance from their homes and need alternative forms of travel rather than walking to these farms. One (1) of the participants ran a farm along the banks of rivers, sometimes known as riverine farms. Compared to other regions of Ghana, the research area does not have nearly as established an agricultural irrigation industry as the Ministry of Food and Agriculture noted. 4.3.3 FARM LABOUR Labour is necessary to ensure the smooth operation of agricultural systems. The ability of farm households to maintain sufficient access throughout the growing season is essential to their continued existence. In the study area, three different types of labour were utilized for farm work. These included one's labour (25), which members of the household provided. Communal labour (3) was given by a group of the households that opted to help each other on a rotational University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 47 basis, and hired labour (2) were utilised mostly by households with adequate financial means. In the region under investigation, own labour was the most often reported type of labour. 4.3.4 CROPS CULTIVATED AND LIVESTOCK REARED All farm households in the study area cultivated