UNIVERSITY OF GHANA COLLEGE OF EDUCATION TEACHERS’ USE OF TEACHING STRATEGIES IN MATHEMATICS AND INTEGRATED SCIENCE IN JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS IN ABLEKUMA SOUTH SUB METROPOLITAN DISTRICT BY EARLINE ASARE BOWELLEH (10010444) THIS THESIS IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF MASTER OF PHILOSOPHY IN EDUCATION DEGREE DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION DECEMBER 2021 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.ghUniversity of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh i DECLARATION I hereby declare that this study is my original work and that references to other people’s work have been duly acknowledged. It has never been presented either in part or completely for another degree in this Institution or elsewhere. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.ghUniversity of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ii DEDICATION This work is dedicated to Rose, Meshack, Meshack (Jnr), Michael and Edward. It is also dedicated to Champagne, my work companion. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.ghUniversity of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS My sincere gratitude and thanks go to the Almighty God for the opportunity, provision, protection, for going ahead of me and granting me favour and all the help I needed to do this study. I also thank my husband Kwasi for his understanding and support throughout the period of this study as I run around to put it together. I also wish to thank and appreciate my father, Mr. Meshack Yaw Asare, my mother Madam Rose Tachie-Menson and my siblings especially Kofi Asare and Kwajo and Kwaku Asare for their immense support, prayers, and encouragement over the period. I am greatly indebted to my principal supervisor Dr. Abraham Okrah and Dr. Joyce Anku for investing so much time, patience, and guidance in shaping my work to its successful completion, I am really grateful. I wish to thank the Metro Directorate of Education, Accra, Circuit Supervisors in Ablekuma South District (Ojoo, Mamprobi, Korle Gonno), the Headteachers, Proprietors and Proprietresses of participating Junior High Schools (JHS) who were so receptive and supportive to open their doors for me to use their educational facilities. Finally, my thanks go to all Mathematics and Integrated Science teachers who participated and shared their rich experiences making this study a success. May God bless you all Richly. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.ghUniversity of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh iv ABSTRACT This study sought to investigate Junior High School teachers’ use of teaching strategies, specifically teaching strategies in teaching Mathematics and Integrated Science in Accra. This case study attempted to explore what teaching strategies teachers use in teaching these core subjects, and whether these strategies are the supposed approved teaching strategies to be used in teaching these subjects, and the outcome of using these strategies as regards the students’ performance in the subjects. The population for the study comprised both male and female Junior High School Mathematics and Integrated Science teachers in the Accra metropolis who had taught these subjects for at least one year. Ten (10) Schools made up of five (5) public and five (5) private were selected by purposive sampling from the Ablekuma South Metropolitan District of Accra, which has about 68 public and private Junior High Schools. Twenty (20) Junior High School teachers in all were sampled for this study, comprising ten (10) Mathematics and ten (10) Integrated Science. Data was collected using semi-structured interviews and observation to get participants’ views on teachers’ use of teaching strategies in Mathematics and Integrated Science. Open coding of teaching strategies into categories and identifying broad themes and ideas was done to help check for frequencies and aid analysis. The study gave empirical evidence on teaching strategies used in teaching Mathematics and Integrated Science in Junior High Schools in Accra and revealed their appropriateness or otherwise in teaching these core subjects as well as how they impact the performance of students in the subjects in the classroom and ultimately at the Basic Education Certificate Examinations (BECE). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.ghUniversity of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh v TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION ............................................................................................................................. i DEDICATION ................................................................................................................................ ii ACKNOWLEDEGMENTS ........................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined. ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................... iv LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................................ xii LIST OF FIGURES ..................................................................................................................... xiii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ...................................................................................................... xiv CHAPTER ONE ............................................................................................................................. 1 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Background to the Study ............................................................................................................. 1 1.2 Statement of the Problem ............................................................................................................ 4 1.3 Purpose of the Study .................................................................................................................... 7 1.4 Objectives of the Study ............................................................................................................... 7 1.5 Research Questions...................................................................................................................... 8 1.6 Significance of the Study ............................................................................................................ 8 1.7 Delimitation of Study .................................................................................................................. 9 1.8 Limitations of the Study ............................................................................................................ 10 1.9 Organisation of the Study ......................................................................................................... 10 1.10 Chapter Summary .................................................................................................................... 11 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.ghUniversity of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh vi CHAPTER TWO .......................................................................................................................... 12 LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................................. 12 2.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 12 2.2 Conceptual Review ............................................................................................................. 12 2.2.1 Teaching Strategies ............................................................................................................... 16 2.2.2 Teacher Centred Strategies .................................................................................................. 17 2.3 Student Centred Strategies ................................................................................................... 18 2.3.1 Problem Based Learning (PBL) ......................................................................................... 20 2.3.2 Demonstration Method ........................................................................................................ 20 2.3.3 Inquiry Based Learning (IBL) ............................................................................................ 21 2.3.4 Project Based Learning (PjBL) ............................................................................................. 22 2.3.5 Cooperative/ Collaborative Learning ................................................................................... 23 2.4 Teacher-Student Interactive or Integrated Method................................................................ 24 2.5 Teaching Strategies and Academic Performance/ Achievement ......................................... 25 2.6 Theoretical Review ............................................................................................................... 31 2.6.1 Constructivism Theory ........................................................................................................ 31 2.7 Empirical Review ................................................................................................................ 33 2.8 Chapter Summary ............................................................................................................... 41 CHAPTER THREE ...................................................................................................................... 43 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY.................................................................................................. 43 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.ghUniversity of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh vii 3.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 43 3.2 Research Design .................................................................................................................. 44 3.2.1 Case Study ............................................................................................................................. 44 3.3 Study Area............................................................................................................................ 45 3.4 Population ............................................................................................................................ 47 3.5 Sample Size .......................................................................................................................... 47 3.6 Instruments for Data Collection ........................................................................................ 49 3.7 Validity and Reliability of Instrument.............................................................................. 50 3.8 Data Collection Procedure ................................................................................................. 50 3.9 Data Analysis ....................................................................................................................... 51 3.10 Ethical Considerations ........................................................................................................ 54 CHAPTER FOUR ......................................................................................................................... 55 DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSIONS .................................................................................. 55 4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 55 4.2 Findings ....................................................................................................................................... 55 4.2.1 Demographic Characteristics of Participants ...................................................................... 55 4.2.2 Demographic Characteristics of Participants in Mathematics .......................................... 57 4.2.3 Demographic Characteristics of Participants in Integrated Science ................................ 59 4.3 Research Question 1 ................................................................................................................. 61 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.ghUniversity of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh viii 4.3.1 What teaching strategies do Mathematics teachers use in teaching JHS students in Accra? ................................................................................................................................ 61 4.4 Research Question 2 ........................................................................................................... 64 4.4.1 What teaching methods do Mathematics teachers use in teaching JHS students in Accra? ................................................................................................................................ 64 4.5 Research Question 3 ........................................................................................................... 68 4.5.1 What teaching strategies do Integrated Science teachers use in teaching JHS students in Accra? ............................................................................................................ 68 4.6 Research Question 3 ........................................................................................................... 72 4.6.1 What teaching methods do Integrated Science teachers use in teaching JHS students in Accra? .............................................................................................................................. 72 4.7 Research Question 5 ........................................................................................................... 76 4.7.1 What are the supposed appropriate teaching strategies and methods that to be used by teachers to teach Mathematics? ............................................................................. 76 4.7.1.1 Mathematics teachers’ views on the supposed appropriate teaching strategies and methods to be used for teaching Integrated Science in JHS ....................................... 77 4.8 Research Question 6............................................................................................................. 79 4.8.1 What are the supposed appropriate teaching strategies and methods that are used by teachers to teach Integrated Science? ......................................................................... 79 4.8.1.1 Integrated Science teachers’ views on the supposed appropriate teaching strategies and methods to be used for teaching Integrated Science in JHS…………………...79 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.ghUniversity of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ix 4.9 Research Question 7 ........................................................................................................... 82 4.9.1. What are the results of teachers’ use of these teaching methods on the performance of students in Mathematics and Integrated Science in Junior High Schools in Accra? ................................................................................................................................ 82 4.9.1.1 Results of teachers’ use of these supposed appropriate of these teaching methods on the performance of students in Mathematics .................................................................. 83 4.9.1.2 Results of teachers’ use of these supposed appropriate teaching methods on the performance of students in Integrated Science ............................................................... 84 4.10 Challenges and limitations faced by Mathematics and Integrated Science Teachers in teaching their JHS students ............................................................................................. 85 4.10.1 Challenges and limitations faced by Mathematics Teachers in teaching their JHS ` students .............................................................................................................................. 85 4.10.2 Challenges and limitations faced by Integrated Science Teachers in teaching their JHS students ......................................................................................................................... 88 4.11 Discussions ............................................................................................................................... 90 4.11.1Importance of using teaching strategies and their impact on teaching and learning…90 4.11.2 Research Question One ....................................................................................................... 91 What teaching strategies do Mathematics teachers use in teaching JHS students in Accra? . 91 4.11.3 Research Question Two ..................................................................................................... 92 What teaching methods do Mathematics teachers use in teaching JHS students in Accra? .. 92 4.11.5 Research Question Four .................................................................................................... 94 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.ghUniversity of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh x What teaching methods do Integrated Science teachers use in teaching JHS students in Accra? ................................................................................................................................... 94 4.11.6 Research Question Five ...................................................................................................... 95 What are the supposed appropriate teaching methods and approaches that are used by teachers to teach Mathematics in Junior High Schools? ................................................ 95 4.11.7 Research Question Six ........................................................................................................ 96 What are the supposed appropriate teaching methods and approaches that are used by teachers to teach Integrated Science in Junior High Schools? ...................................... 96 4.11.8 Research Question Seven .................................................................................................. 97 What are the results of teachers’ use of these supposed appropriate teaching methods on the performance of students in Mathematics and Integrated Science in Junior High Schools in Accra?...................................................................................................…97 4.11.9 Challenges and limitations faced by Mathematics and Integrated Science Teachers in teaching their JHS students .............................................................................................. 100 4.12 Chapter Summary ............................................................................................................. 101 CHAPTER FIVE ........................................................................................................................ 102 SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS............................................... 102 5.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 102 5.2 Summary of Findings ....................................................................................................... 102 5.3 Conclusion ......................................................................................................................... 106 5.4 Contribution to knowledge .............................................................................................. 107 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.ghUniversity of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh xi 5.5 Recommendations ............................................................................................................. 108 5.6 Implications for Further Studies...................................................................................... 108 REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................... 110 APPENDIX A ............................................................................................................................. 123 APPENDIX B ............................................................................................................................. 124 APPENDIX C ............................................................................................................................. 125 APPENDIX D ............................................................................................................................. 126 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.ghUniversity of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh xii LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Junior High Schools in Ablekuma South………………………………………………43 Table 2: Population and Sample Size……………………………………………………………44 Table 3: Representation of Participants per Subject Area..………………………………. .........51 Table 4: Participants Demographic Characteristics (Mathematics)............................................. 52 Table 5: Participants Demographic Characteristics (Integrated Science).................................... 54 Table 6: Mathematics Teachers’ Use of Teaching Strategies….…………………..................... 61 Table 7: Integrated Science Teachers use of Teaching Strategies ...............................................64 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.ghUniversity of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh xiii LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Conceptual Framework .………………….……………. ......................................... 25 Figure 2: Map of Ablekuma South District…............................................................................42 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.ghUniversity of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh xiv LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS BECE - Basic Education Certificate Examination GES - Ghana Education Service IBL - Inquiry Based Learning JHS - Junior High School PBL - Problem-based Learning PjBL - Project Based Learning WAEC - West African Examination Council TIMSS - Trends in International Mathematics and Science Studies University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.ghUniversity of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background to the Study The importance of education cannot be underestimated in any society of the world as this helps build society, develop individuals and nations at large (Boit, Njok, and Chang’ach, 2012). Teaching and learning enable students acquire skills such as communication, critical thinking and problem-solving (Atuahene, Yusheng, Bentum-Micah, & Owusu-Ansah, 2019). Also, knowledge, values and attitudes are acquired in the process of teaching and learning which bring about changes in students, that is, promotes learning |(Ayeni, 2011; Tebabal & Kahssay, ) and help develop nations. This ideal has led organisations worldwide to push the agenda for Education for All (EFA) to help solve educational challenges worldwide, especially in Africa (Barakat, Bengtsson, Muttarak & Kebede, 2016) as cited in (Atuahene et al., 2019). Ghana for instance has seen a rise in school enrolment as a result and resolves to improve education (Fiaveh & Lamptey, 2011) as cited in (Atuahene et al., 2019) and thus dedicates a big chunk of its budget to the educational sector to ensure that learners acquire the requisite skills, values and abilities that will help them contribute to national development in the future. One result of good education is the academic performance of learners which mostly becomes evident with the extent of good performance in formative and criterion reference tests or assessments. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.ghUniversity of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2 Mathematics and Science are two core subjects that are offered at the basic level of education worldwide and Ghana is no exception. This is because Mathematics and Science are the bases for Technological development which rules the world. Apart from this assertion, the 21st Century demands that learners develop critical thinking, problem solving, creative thinking and lifelong learning which can be developed through the proper teaching and learning of Mathematics and Science (Szabo, Guncaga, Szabo, & Neag, 2020). The two main aims of science education in Ghana are to instill scientific knowledge in people which gives them knowledge in solving problems in a systematic and logical manner either in the workplace or everyday lives, as well as churning out professionals with competences in research and development at higher levels in order to come out with discoveries and inventions that would help solve different societal problems (Ameyaw-Baah, Amoah, Annafo & Darkeh Assem, 2018). Mathematics education in Ghana is aimed at helping students to acquire the necessary skills that will enable them to succeed in their career and daily lives (Serebour, 2013) whiles enabling everyone develop the needed mathematical ideas and competencies to enable them to become relevant in society as they play their part. However, students’ poor achievement in these two core subjects has been a cause for longstanding concern for education researchers. Anamuah-Mensah and Benneh (2006) as cited in (Ameyaw- Baah et al., 2018) link the poor performance of students in science to the lack of indepth grasp of scientific concepts. Anamuah Mensah, Mereku & Ampah (2009) as cited in (Annafo, Agyei Amoah, Ameyaw Baah & Darkeh Assem, 2018) also add that the poor achievement at the basic level in Science and Mathematics leaves much to be desired of the teaching and learning of these subjects in Ghana. This further indicates that students do not understand what is being taught and this could also be linked to the methods being used to teach (Adunola, 2011). This has led the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.ghUniversity of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3 Ministry of Education (MoE) to develop teaching frameworks that require teachers to structure their teaching to promote the development of innovation, communication, critical thinking, creativity, problem solving skills that are related to their everyday lives and also encourage lifelong learning in students (Ameyaw-Baah et al., 2018). The current curricula for Mathematics and Integrated Science highlight the use of learner centred approaches that put the student at the centre of learning. Both subjects’ curricula promote the use of teaching approaches that are based on enquiry, collaboration, co-operative and differentiated learning (MoE, 2020). The enquiry-based approach is a student centred strategy which has gained a lot of attention in the teaching of science and mathematics. It uses methods such as experiments, outdoor learning, projects, group work among others to actively involve students in the teaching and learning process to engage them in activities that require that they explore, research, gather and process relevant information that they interpret and share with their peers (Riordan, Hine & Smith 2019). Using these strategies enables students construct their own knowledge through participation in experiments and observations, relying on problems and questions and the problem-solving skills of students (Pedaste et al., 2015). Collaborative and co-operative methods such as grouping helps students learn from each other concepts that they previously found difficulty understanding (Capar &Tarim, 2015). Differentiated learning gives students a choice to learn in ways that suits their way of learning, as teachers modify lessons to meet students individual strengths, needs and abilities. This way they take charge of their own learning and construct their own meaning to learning (Boelens, Voet & De Wever, 2018). The role of teaching strategies in education cannot be disputed and has constantly raised interest in the field of educational research as regard the impact that these methods or strategies have on student learning and for that matter how it affects their academic achievement (Hightower, University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.ghUniversity of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4 Delgado, Lloyd, Wittenstein, Sellers & Swanson, 2011). This is because teaching at any level of education is aimed at bringing about a change in learners. That is to say, teaching must translate to understanding and learning for students which ultimately translates to good academic performance or achievement and the development of the necessary skills, values and attitudes (Tebabal & Kahssay, 2011). Coupled with this, students must be taught well to help them have a good grasp of mathematical and scientific knowledge, to enable them to develop the 21st Century higher order learning skills, such as critical and logical thinking skills, problem solving skills, creative thinking among others which can be achieved through knowledge and application of concepts in these two core subjects, to help them survive and move the world to greater levels of development (Vintere, 2018). Kimani, Kara and Njasi (2013), have said that, academic performance of students is dependent on the effectiveness of teaching strategies and methods used by teachers. If teachers’ instructional or teaching strategies and methods are ineffective, students will not achieve adequate progress academically and this may lead to poor academic performance of students, as the use of ineffective methods have been linked to poor academic performance of students (Adunola, 2011). 1.2 Statement of the Problem Mathematics and Integrated Science are two core subjects that are taught at the basic level and advanced levels in the Ghanaian education system. Mathematics and Science are a requirement for many jobs in this age of technological advancement and also develops problem solving skills of learners. It is also believed that everyone needs some scientific knowledge to help them make University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.ghUniversity of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5 informed choices in a scientific and technological world, which is why Ghana is in agreement to the “science for all” goal MoE (2010) as cited in (Quansah, Sakyi-Hagan, & Essiam, 2019). The Ghana Education Service reported in 2014 that BECE candidates failed in one or more core subjects and could not be placed in Senior High Schools through the Computerised School Selection and Placement System (CSSPS). These failures were attributed to candidates’ inability to apply scientific knowledge to physical phenomenon and failing at figures in standard form in the mathematics report (WAEC Chief Examiner’s Report, 2015). Also in 2017, BECE candidates totaling 36,849 across the country could not be placed into senior high schools because they failed in one or more core subjects including mathematics and integrated science (Ansah, 2017) as cited in (Nugba, Quansah, Ankomah, Tsey & Ankoma-Sey, 2021). According to the WAEC Chief Examiner’s report of 2018, there was a general decline in the performance of Integrated Science candidates. Also in 2019, it was reported that there was not much improvement in the performance of candidates as the majority of students scored only above average with only a few being outstanding (WAEC Chief Examiner’s Reports, 2018; 2019). For Mathematics on the other hand, though performance was reported to be encouraging for 2017, candidates had difficulties such as finding the total shaded area of a plain figure, finding profit of a given item, and writing equations. 2019 performance was also reported to be slightly better than the previous year, however, candidates could not translate word problems into mathematical statements, and could not also solve basic computations without the use of a calculator (WAEC Chief Examiner’s Reports, 2017; 2019). These all speak to the abysmal performance by candidates in Mathematics and Integrated Science. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.ghUniversity of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6 Students’ difficulty with studying these subjects has prompted various studies into why most students perform poorly at these subjects. This has led to some research into the reasons for this poor performance in these subjects, such as Mathematics Anxiety in Students (Bruce, 2016). Others have also looked at factors such as socio-economic status, teacher quality and performance, availability of teaching resources, motivation, and student attitudes (Enu, Agyman & Nkum, 2015). A study into the performance of students in Integrated Science revealed that inadequate instructional materials and poor proficiency of pupils in the English language affected the teaching and learning of Integrated Science (Quansah et al, 2019). Though the above studies can be cited in relation to the causes of poor performance in these subject areas in Ghana, little if any of these studies have been done looking specifically at teaching strategies used by Junior High School Mathematics and Integrated Science teachers in teaching their students. The gap that has been identified and worth researching therefore is the lack of research that explores teachers’ use of teaching strategies in teaching Mathematics and Integrated Science in Junior High Schools in Accra, which this study seeks to explore. Teaching strategies have been hailed severally by educationists as facilitating the process of knowledge transmission from teachers to students. Their importance cannot be overlooked as their use makes teaching effective (Ayeni, 2011). Teachers knowledge in various teaching strategies and their appropriate use of them, taking into consideration the subjects being taught and the learning outcomes to be achieved can also affect performance of students. Thus, poor performance of students can also be attributed to the inappropriate use of teaching strategies in teaching subjects, mathematics and integrated science being no exception (Adunola, 2011). It is important therefore to investigate teachers use of teaching strategies in these core subjects in Ghana to ascertain whether they are a contributory factor to the poor performance in these two subject areas. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.ghUniversity of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 7 1.3 Purpose of the Study The purpose of this current study was to investigate teaching strategies and approaches being used by teachers in teaching Mathematics and Integrated Science in Junior High Schools (JHS) in Accra and to establish the appropriateness or suitability of these teaching methods in teaching these subjects as well as the challenges they encounter whiles teaching these core subjects. 1.4 Objectives of the Study This study seeks to: 1. find out the teaching strategies that Mathematics teachers use in teaching JHS students in Accra 2. find out the teaching methods that Mathematics teachers use in teaching JHS students in Accra 3. find out the teaching strategies that Integrated Science teachers use in teaching JHS students in Accra 4. find out the teaching methods that Integrated Science teachers use in teaching Junior High School students in Accra 5. find out the supposed appropriate teaching strategies or methods that are used by teachers to teach Mathematics in Junior High Schools 6. find out the supposed appropriate teaching strategies and methods that are used by teachers to teach Integrated Science in Junior High Schools University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.ghUniversity of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 8 7. find out the results of the teachers’ use of these appropriate teaching strategies and methods on the performance of students in Mathematics and Integrated Science in Junior High schools in Accra 1.5 Research Questions 1. What teaching strategies do Mathematics teachers use in teaching JHS students in Accra? 2. What teaching methods do Mathematics teachers use in teaching JHS students in Accra? 3. What teaching strategies do Integrated Science teachers use in teaching JHS students in Accra? 4. What teaching methods do Integrated Science teachers use in teaching JHS students in Accra? 5. What are the supposed appropriate teaching strategies and methods that are used by teachers to teach Mathematics in Junior High Schools? 6. What are the supposed appropriate teaching strategies and methods that are used by teachers to teach Integrated Science in Junior High Schools? 7. What are the results of teachers’ use of these supposed appropriate teaching strategies and methods on the performance of students in Mathematics and Integrated Science in Junior High schools in Accra? 1.6 Significance of the Study This study is significant for three reasons, firstly, since this is a new area of study, findings will add new knowledge to existing ones. Secondly, stakeholders such as teachers, school heads and University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.ghUniversity of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 9 other policy makers will also find the results useful in the implementation of the new knowledge in teaching strategies. The findings of this research would prompt teachers to reflect on their practice, in terms of teaching these core subjects and make them aware of how their teaching methods affect their learners’ performance in these subjects. It would help them revise their selection of teaching methods in terms of suitability or appropriateness for the achievement of better learning outcomes. School heads and other educational administrators can put in place measures to further improve the skills and competencies of teachers who teach these core subjects and help them identify methods and strategies that help in their delivery as well as affect students’ performance in these subjects. Again, since the area of study is new, it will create a new paradigm shift in research towards teaching strategies. 1.7 Delimitation of Study The study was delimited to teaching strategies used by teachers of Mathematics and Integrated Science in Junior High Schools in the Accra metropolis which has a high population of Junior High schools. However, due to the vast nature of Accra geographically, limited time at the disposal of the researcher in doing this study, it was delimited to the Ablekuma South Sub Metropolitan District, drawing teachers from both private and public Junior High schools in the district. There are about sixty-eight (68) Junior High Schools in Ablekuma South District of Accra where the study was carried out, out of which ten schools were selected for the study. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.ghUniversity of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 10 Twenty (20) teachers in all were selected from these Junior High schools in the district that teach Mathematics and Integrated Science. This number represents ten (10) JHS teachers each for both Mathematics and Integrated Science teachers in the district. This was to enable the researcher collect in-depth information on the topic under investigation from the sample, that was representative of the population. The study sought to explore teaching strategies used by JHS teachers in both public and private Junior High schools in the selected area in teaching their students in these subjects and to ascertain the appropriateness of these methods, and challenges faced whiles teaching these subjects. 1.8 Limitations of the Study Due to the limited time at the disposal of the researcher, observation of participants’ teaching could not be done over a long period of time. All twenty teachers’ classes were observed only once. 1.9 Organisation of the Study The study is made up of five chapters. Chapter One comprises the introduction; background to the study, statement of the problem, purpose of the study, objectives of the study, research questions, significance of the study, delimitations of the study and organisation of the study. Chapter Two is the section on literature review; it reviewed literature related to the topic being researched and comprises an overview, conceptual, theoretical, and empirical review of literature. Chapter Three looked at the research methodology. It includes the research design, study area, University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.ghUniversity of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 11 population, sample size, instruments for data collection, data collection procedure and data analysis. Chapter Four focuses on the discussion of the results of the study. Chapter Five provides the summary of key findings, conclusions, and recommendations. 1.10 Chapter Summary This chapter deals with the general overview of the study and explains why it is necessary to establish teachers’ use of teaching strategies in Mathematics and Integrated Science in Accra. The research questions and the existing gap has been stated. The results of this study will provide answers to questions related to the study. The next chapter reviews various literature on the subject under study. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.ghUniversity of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 12 CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Introduction This chapter reviews relevant studies on teaching strategies in general, their impact on academic performance in general and as pertains to Mathematics and Science. It also covers conceptual, theoretical, and empirical reviews which the study is premised on. 2.2 Conceptual Review The concept of teaching has been defined severally by many educationists and educational researchers over the years. Amidon (1967) as cited in (Rajagopalan, 2019; pg. 6) defines it as “an interactive process, primarily involving classroom talk which takes place between teacher and learner and occurs during certain definable activities.” It has also been described as “a scientific process composed of content, communication, and feedback, with teaching strategy having a positive effect on student learning” (Davis et al., 1962; Gagne et al., 1974 and Gage, 1978) as cited in (Rajagopalan, 2019; pg. 6). Students’ academic performance is linked with teachers’ use of appropriate teaching strategies in the learning environment. Using teaching strategies that suit subjects and lessons to be taught is an effective way of transmitting knowledge. Thus, teachers’ use of appropriate strategies is a good intervention to promoting understanding of concepts that are being taught and eventually translates to good academic performance. Davis and Glaser (1962) theorize a four-stage structure of teaching as cited in (Rajagopalan, 2020) as shown below : University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.ghUniversity of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 13 Step 1: Planning of Teaching This involves analysing the content to be taught, identifying and writing the learning outcomes to be achieved. Step 2: Organisation of Teaching This stage specifies the teaching strategies for achieving the teaching objectives stated. Step3: Identification of suitable teaching-learning strategies. This involves teachers recognizing teaching and learning strategies that would promote effective transmission of content. Step 4: Managing teaching-learning Teaching and learning must be managed to emphasise on assessing learning objectives in terms of student achievement and this serves as feedback for teacher and students. From the above, it can be said that teaching strategies play a very vital role in the teaching and learning process in the classroom or any learning environment. It is necessary therefore that teachers in Mathematics and Integrated Science know and use the appropriate teaching approaches that enable them to transmit or communicate lesson content in a way that is effective; that is to say leading to students’ good academic achievements. Since my study was based on Teachers’ use of Teaching Strategies in Mathematics and Integrated Science, my conceptual framework below is derived from the Davis et al., 1962; Gagne et al., 1974 and Gage, 1978 model as cited in (Rajagopalan, 2020) which opines that teaching strategy has a positive effect on student learning. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.ghUniversity of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 14 Figure 1: Conceptual Framework Source: Researcher’s own construct Expected Outcomes: *Students’ grasp and understanding of concepts taught *Students’ good academic achievement Teaching of Mathematics and Integrated Science Use of Appropriate Teaching Strategies Use of Inappropriate Teaching Strategies Expected Outcomes: *Students’ lack of understanding of concepts taught *Students’ poor academic achievement University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.ghUniversity of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 15 As captured in Figure 1 above, Teachers’ use of appropriate teaching strategies in teaching Mathematics and Integrated Science result in positive teaching outcomes. Students understand Mathematical and Scientific concepts that they are taught and it ultimately translates in good academic achievement not only in class, but also in standardised tests. On the other hand, when teachers use inappropriate teaching strategies in teaching these subjects, students find it difficult grasping concepts taught and this translates into poor academic performance in the subjects. In summary, teacher’s must make it a point to use teaching strategies which are appropriate for teaching their subject areas to enable students understand concepts taught in order to perform well in tests and examination. The above conceptual framework explains how using appropriate and inappropriate teaching strategies impact academic performance of students in Mathematics and Integrated Science. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.ghUniversity of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 16 2.2.1 Teaching Strategies Teachers follow certain procedures and actions in the delivery of lessons with the aim of achieving particular learning outcomes. These procedures are known generally as teaching strategies. Other terms are used interchangeably to describe these procedures or actions such as teaching or instructional strategies. (Ibrahim, Musa & Idris, 2016) as cited in (Hassan & Ibrahim, 2018). Teaching strategies are a combination of teaching methods, which are a set of orderly procedures or techniques that follow a systematic way and focus to achieving learning outcomes. They have also been described as the process by which a segment of instruction, stage or a whole course is transmitted, or a sequence of teaching and learning modes or styles to promote attainment of a particular type of objective (Fajamidagba et al, 2012). Teaching strategies are grouped into three (3) main categories; teacher-centred, student centred and teacher-student interactive methods and are suited for different learning environments, resulting in different learning outcomes (Ganyaufpu, 2013; Morrison, Morrison & Kalman, 2019). Educationists further classify teaching strategies into active learning, group-based learning, assessment-based learning and enquiry-based learning (IBL) (Illeris, 2018). These approaches are based on learning theories such as behaviourism, cognitivism and constructivism. Teacher centred theories have their roots in the behaviourism and cognitive theories, whereas the student centred and teacher student interactive methods have their bases in the constructivism learning theory (Tomie, 2010). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.ghUniversity of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 17 2.2.2 Teacher Centred Strategies In this type of teaching, the teacher is an instructor, transmitting knowledge to students without engaging them with the subject matter. The teacher is seen as the one with command over what is being taught, whereas students are regarded as not having knowledge in the subject matter and have to be passive receivers of the knowledge being transmitted by teachers (van de Kuilen, Altinyelken, Voogt & Nzabalirwa, 2019). It is more theoretical than practical and involves memorisation and rote learning (Teo & Wang, 2000). Teacher centered methods are associated with inadequate stimulation of students, innovation and intellectual thinking, memorisation and cramming of facts and poor retention of knowledge (Tella, 2010). It does not apply much practical activity that stimulates learners to learn real life problems based on applied knowledge. The idea with this kind of method is to maximise the use of time and effort. This results in a lack of interest and understanding of students. Because this teaching strategy is solely about knowledge transmission, students’ questions are expected to be answered by the teacher alone, instead of allowing students to express their views on questions and lessons taught (Di Biase, 2019). This does not allow students to develop creativity, critical thinking, communication and problem- solving skills as is required to navigate this modern world and the future. Teaching and learning are based strictly on a determined curriculum; thus, success is achieved when the set curriculum is completed by the teacher. Assessments and examinations are based on this same curriculum. This strategy is advantageous where there are large class sizes and limited resources and it is difficult to meet the learning needs of each individual student (Starkey, 2019). It is also the most preferrable strategy because it encourages the use of shorter time periods for class activities. The teacher only has to prepare a single learning material to teach all students, and present lessons or University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.ghUniversity of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 18 subjects in a logical manner such that the teacher is focused on what is to be taught for the day or period, what has already been planned according to the textbook or curriculum specifications. The downside in using this strategy is its failure to promote a change in attitude of students, that is to say promoting effective student learning, which is a fundamental part of teaching, because the teacher is the only source of information. Students could also be motivated to actively source for knowledge on the subject matter being taught so they are not only passive receivers of information. There is also the lack of creativity and innovation, as well as a lack of opportunity to explore knowledge as a result of the rigid manner in which this strategy operates or is used (Di Biase, 2019). Thus, Zakaria and Daud (2010) suggest that teaching should not only be about giving out rules, definitions and procedures to memorise, but must actively engage students to be participants in order to gain their interest and understanding. 2.3 Student Centred Strategies All over the world student centred strategies have received a lot of recognition and support as a lot of studies show that there is a higher learner performance with this strategy compared to the traditional teacher centred strategies (Li, Flowerdew, & Cargill, 2018; Day, Gu & Sammons, 2016). Learner centered methods sees the teacher as more of a facilitator and engages students in the teaching and learning process (Olayinka, 2016). These strategies place the responsibility of learning on the student, the teacher only facilitates the process. The idea here is to help students develop skills that help them take charge of their own learning, that is, learn how to learn (Sakata, 2019). This strategy is constructivist based and interactive in nature, thus, promoting collaboration University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.ghUniversity of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 19 or collaborative learning and building on previous knowledge. Here, questions are planned so as to encourage small group work. This leads to developing creativity, critical thinking and active participation of students in the process. This approach involves discussions, intellectual discourses which promotes retention, problem solving and increased performance (Dufresne, Gerace, Leonard, Mestre & Wenk, 2010; Chika, 2012) and categorized into broad methods such as inquiry based, problem based, project based, demonstration among others (Sakata, 2019). These methods make students goal oriented, making it very effective in improving students’ achievement. Learner-Centred methods have many advantages such as giving the individual learner a chance to participate, think critically and learn to communicate in the process. These learner-centred methods are useful when teaching complex academic content|(McKnight, O’Malley, Ruzic, Horsley, Franey & Bassett, 2016) and also accommodates varied student learning styles whiles promoting active involvement of all students. Students are free to ask questions, lead discussions and define problems. These all go a long way to help students relate real life experiences with what they learn in the classroom. This way, they are able to share their experiences through their small group discussions, while practicalising what they have learnt in class which develops their critical thinking and communication skills and further arouses the curiosity and interest of students as well as developing analytical and research skills (Starkey, 2019). According to Starkey (2019) because students actively engage in discussions, the classroom environment becomes disorganised and so the facilitator has the task of managing all these activities simultaneously as the students work on various stages of the same activity. There is also the possibility of students missing out on important facts and knowledge in the process because the strategy does not make room for teachers to deliver one standard lesson for all students at a go. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.ghUniversity of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 20 Also, for those students who have a preference to studying or working by themselves, this strategy is inappropriate since it relies heavily on collaboration and group activity. 2.3.1 Problem Based Learning (PBL) Problem based learning centers on the student and it is commonly used in teaching Mathematics. It actively involves learners and stimulates learning and problem-solving skills. It is a teaching approach in which real life problems are used as the main basis for developing problem solving and self organisation skills (Kauchak & Egen, 2012). This method encourages students to share knowledge, develop ideas, search for information and develop arguments in support of solutions found (Sawyer, 2014). It begins with a problem; the teacher asks a question then organises the students to conduct research. The teacher guides them to do independent or group investigations and then facilitates discussions on findings. Students who are taught with PBL method are in charge of their own learning (Major et al., 2000). With this method unlike the lecture method, students are not passive receivers of knowledge, but are free to explore and solve problems. It shifts the process from teaching to learning, through facing problems to be solved and gaining new knowledge that way instead of being bored. 2.3.2 Demonstration Method Adekoya and Olatoye (2010) describe the demonstration method as working well with small and big groups alike, involving all the senses of the learner helping learners experience certain concepts for the first time, hence the need to encourage the demonstration method. It is one that is known University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.ghUniversity of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 21 to challenge students to “learn how to learn” as they work co-operatively in groups (Duch, 2002). Demonstration is advantageous in that, it motivates students to learn, time and material saving and also teaching one how to avoid accidents. The downside with this method is it does not give learners the chance to explore on their own, also does not cover a large scope (Ameh & Dantami, 2012). 2.3.3 Inquiry Based Learning (IBL) Inquiry Based learning (IBL) is one student centred method that has gained a lot of attention especially in science education. Here, students are engaged through research so as to construct knowledge (Keselman, 2003) as cited in (Pedaste, Mäeots, Siiman, De Jong, Van Riesen, Kamp, & Tsourlidaki, 2015). It is a process by which students develop new information through experiments or observations (Pedaste, Mäeots, Leijen & Sarapuu, 2012). This approach relies on problems or questions and the problem-solving skills of students. The learner discovers new knowledge through active participation in classroom activities, thus, learners learn by doing. IBL helps develop critical thinking and self-reflection or metacognition skills where the student acquire the ability to do independent inquiry and takes responsibility for their learning (Justice et al.,2007; Kahn & O’Rourke, 2004) as cited in (Pedaste et al, 2015). IBL is grouped into structured inquiry which the teacher poses a problem and gives the format for solving the problem. There is also the guided inquiry in which the teacher stimulates inquiry by asking questions for which students are left to explore the questions on their own to find solutions on their own. Open inquiry allows students to pose their own questions and do their own inquiry (Staver & Bay, 1987) as cited in (Spronken-Smith & Walker, 2010). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.ghUniversity of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 22 2.3.4 Project Based Learning (PjBL) Project Based Learning is a method of teaching and learning in which learning is centred on projects. These are projects and tasks which are based on challenging problems and requires that students design products, solve problems, make decisions and engage in investigative activities. Engaging in these activities encourages students to work independently over long periods of time to come out with a product or presentation (Dado & Bademer, 2017) as cited in (Chen & Yang, 2019). PjBL can be used in teaching many subjects; however, it has been found to be more useful in teaching Science (Rogers, Cross, Gresalfi, Trauth-Nave & Buck, 2011) and Mathematics (Han, Caprano, & Caprano, 2015; Holmes & Hwang, 2016) as cited in (Chen &Yang, 2019). This approach helps students construct new knowledge (Oguz-Unver & Arabacioglu, 2014). Lenz, Wells and Kingston (2015, p. 68) opine that the underlying principle of PjBL is that “learning is more engaged when triggered by a student’s “I need to know” than by a teacher’s “because you should know.” What makes PjBL different from other teaching strategies is the involvement of projects and can be described as an “act of creation over time” (Lenz et al., 2015, p.67) which gives students practical experiences as they work with ideas from the curriculum, engage in group and peer discussions and presentations on their projects (Johnson, Renzulli, Bunch, & Piano, 2013). PjBL encourages students to learn while finishing the projects they embark on (Bender 2012) as cited in (Chen &Yang, 2019) as well as develop interest in curriculum content (Holmes, 2011). Also, students learn to be creative and think critically, whiles developing metacognitive skills (Chen &Yang, 2019). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.ghUniversity of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 23 Though this method has many positive attributes, concerns have been raised about the long hours involved in using this strategy, though it covers only few aspects of the curriculum content (Miller, 2018). To help make PjBL more effective, it has been suggested that teachers introduce the use of technology in their classrooms, such as internet friendly devices, computer-based simulations and other technological support. This gives further support to students with their project works, when doing their investigations and searching for needed information, while making communication and collaboration with their peers easier (Hung, Hwang & Huang, 2012; Krajcik & Czerniak, 2014). The introduction of technology in PjBL can lead to a new process of teaching and learning. 2.3.5 Cooperative/ Collaborative Learning This is a constructivist learning approach that involves students agreeing for a mutual purpose (Gelici & Bilgin, 2011; Capar & Tarim, 2015). This method has been used at all levels of education and comes with many advantages. For example, it helps develop the cognitive abilities of students, challenges them to learn and ultimately improves their classroom performance. With this method, the student is able to achieve their learning goals through group work. According to Gülec and Macan (2014), and Capar and Tarim (2015) students coming together to learn this way makes them more responsible for their learning whiles developing emotionally by building positive relationships because of the teamwork that they build as a result of this collaboration or cooperation with other students within the team. These group interactions help students build good social as well as learning skills which help them to contribute to their groups as well as the class, because each member of the group contributes to the common learning purpose University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.ghUniversity of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 24 of the group, involving each learner actively in the process, whiles learning from their peers’ things that they had difficulty understanding earlier. Apart from all the advantages that have been highlighted above, some disadvantages exist such as some students or inability to work collaboratively with other students, as some may want to take over and act superior. Also, the noise that emanates as a result of group interactions could be problematic for other groups and even teachers. Again, the issue of assessment of students in a group can be tricky as it could be difficult measuring individual contribution of students in a group. 2.4 Teacher-Student Interactive or Integrated Method This approach is a blend of teacher-centred and Student-centred methods that is based on the inquiry method (Chick & Hassel, 2009). It is designed to make students active by engaging them with activities that require that they explore, research, gather and process relevant information that they interpret and share their findings with other students. By so doing, students construct their own understanding or knowledge based on their previous knowledge, thereby gaining new knowledge in the process (Riordan, Hine & Smith, 2019). This approach helps teachers to stimulate students’ interest, help develop their higher order learning skills such as analytical, research and critical thinking skills and enables them to generalise and transfer what they have learnt and also analyse, synthesise and apply what they learn (Ganyaufpu, 2013). Using this teaching strategy goes further to make students find relevant information about what they learn, unlike being subjected to a teacher being the sole transmitter of information. By adopting this strategy teachers can use a combination of approaches such as lecture and demonstrations and use audiovisual and PowerPoint presentations and even group discussions to achieve learning University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.ghUniversity of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 25 outcomes. The strategy captures many learning styles and allows for the use of real-life situations to involve all students in the teaching and learning process, as well as creating positive collaborative learning environments (Day et al., 2016) as cited in (Akrofi Baafi, 2020). This goes a long way to promote deeper content grasp and understanding. According to Riordan et al. (2019), using this strategy means combining different kinds of information resulting in high cognitive load that could be too much for students to bear. This could also mean that students would have to plan their cognitive resources such that they are able to utilise all information or knowledge gathered in the process of learning (Drinkwater, Gannaway, Sheppard, Davis, Wegener, Bowen, & Corney, 2014). Students with low levels of knowledge about concepts are likely to be overwhelmed if they are given the same tasks with those with higher levels of prior knowledge on the given task. An integrated learning environment could also lead to differentiated learning because not all students in this environment would be able to store and retrieve information promptly (Riordan et al., 2019). 2.5 Teaching Strategies and Academic Performance/ Achievement Academic performance or achievement of students is the main aim of every teaching and learning process and features prominently in education (Rono, 2013). It is used as a yardstick or measure of how successful or otherwise educational institutions are and also, an assessment of knowledge gained through an educational programme using marks by a teacher, academic goals set by teachers and students, and are expected to be met at a specific time and measured through continuous assessment and standardised examination results (Narad & Abdullah, 2016). It is the basis for acquiring knowledge and learning important skills, values and attitudes needed by students to contribute to the development of their nations and also navigate in the 21st century and beyond (Malik & Signh, 2016; Farooq, Chaudry, Shafiq & Behanu, 2011). Students or learners University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.ghUniversity of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 26 are expected to grasp concepts being taught so they are able to perform well in subjects and examinations, especially in standardised ones. The above expectations notwithstanding, standards of performance have been falling over the years and has been attributed to many factors such as parent, school, teacher, age and gender. For instance, in Ghana, BECE performance has been falling since 2008. Performance at the BECE dropped from 62.16% in 2008 to 50.21% in 2009, decreasing again from 49.12% in 2010 to 46.93% in 2011 (WAEC, 2012). Again, the WAEC Chief Examiner’s report of 2015 revealed that candidates failed in one or more core subjects such as Mathematics, Integrated Science and English Language and could not be placed into Senior High Schools via the Computerised School Selection and Placement System (CSSPS). The Trends in International Mathematics and Science Studies (TIMSS) report of 2013 recorded a poor performance for Ghanaian science students who ranked 46th on the international front in science. According to the report, 13% of students achieved the low benchmark, with another 3% reaching the intermediate benchmark. This means that 80% of the students did not achieve the low international benchmark let alone any of them reaching the high or advanced level benchmark. This result only goes to show that most Ghanaian science students do not have a firm grip on scientific concepts because of poor knowledge of basic facts (TIMSS, 2013) as cited in (Ameyaw- Baah, 2018). Again, an analysis of an earlier TIMSS report in Mathematics by Anamuah-Mensah and Mereku (2005) showed that Ghanaian JHS 2 students performed abysmally. Also, an assessment of Ghanaian students at the TIMSS showed a mean score of 276 compared to the international average mean score of 467 (Anamuah-Mensah, Mereku & Asabere-Ameyaw, 2005) thus, out of 46 participating countries Ghana ranked 45th. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.ghUniversity of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 27 Similar results were reported in 2007 and 2011 as the scale scores of 130 and 430 in 2007 were below the average score of 500 and 800 (Anamuah-Mensah, Mereku & Ghartey-Ampiah, 2008). In view of the above poor achievement in the subject, educationists have recommended that students must be made to understand the importance of Mathematics to Ghana’s educational system (Chief Examiner’s Report, 2011). Academic achievement in Mathematics and Science remains an important issue worldwide as they are crucial to the development of 21st Century skills needed to navigate the fast-growing world and provide solutions to the real-life problems facing the world today. Without a good foundation and grasp of scientific and mathematical concepts right from the basic level, achieving the above would be next to impossible, yet Science and Mathematics achievement seem to be falling in recent years. This has led to calls for a look at the way these core subjects are taught right from the basic level. It has come to the fore that students in these subjects lack a strong foundation and understanding of scientific and mathematical concepts for many decades and has been attributed to the fact that the subjects are not taught in a way that helps students practicalise concepts taught, that is, they are not taught in a way that helps them relate what they have been taught to real life experiences thus making it abstract and difficult to understand and apply them as expected or when need be in examinations (Anamuah-Mensah & Benneh, 2006) as cited in Ameyaw-Baah et al., 2018). In view of the above, many advocates have proposed the use of constructivist approaches to teaching these subjects to promote understanding of concepts taught and development of higher order learning skills and other skills which would go a long way to enhancing or positively enhancing student attitudes towards learning the subjects and ultimately performance. These approaches are known to equip learners with the ability to acquire and apply new knowledge which University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.ghUniversity of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 28 they construct in the process of learning to real life situations (Daluba, 2013). It further helps them to explore, analyse, communicate and ask questions in the process, thus, developing their skills and abilities in Mathematics (Turnuklu & Yesidere, 2007) as cited in (Assuala, Yakubu, Asiedu- Addo & Arthur, 2016). Using Constructivist methods in teaching Mathematics for instance changes the process of teaching and learning the subject from the teaching of concepts and formulae that seem abstract to using innovative ways of linking Mathematics to real life situations and problem solving (Vintere, 2018). This approach also helps students develop personal mathematical ideas as well as finding their own means of solving problems through encounters with these problems either individually or with their peers (Clements & Battista, 2009). Additionally, Mathematics must be made to allow opportunities for active engagement of students in lessons through problem posing and solving in the classroom (Fredua-Kwarteng, 2005) as cited in (Mereku, 2010). The classroom must be organised into a learning community with the main aim of solving problems. These problems when asked are not directed only at the teacher but the whole community including the teacher, who discuss these problems together and are also allowed to ask questions and express their views and ideas whether right or wrong without any inhibitions. This way students solve problems as a community through their academic discourses and learn from each other in the process. This leads to better understanding of concepts, development of higher order competences and good performance in the subject (Mereku, 2010). To help develop scientific skills of students it is suggested that teaching the subject must be more activity inclined. Also, the adoption and inculcation of solving real-life problems in the teaching and learning of Science in the classroom must be considered as this this will go a long way to boost the interest of students in the subject, aid understanding of concepts as students are engaged in University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.ghUniversity of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 29 hands-on experimentations, thus solving problems, being creative and constructing their own meanings which translates into good academic performance (Poon, Tan & Tan, 2009) as cited in (Ameyaw-Baah et., al, 2018). Teachers are now shifting from teacher centred methods to learner centred methods of instruction to enable students explore and discover facts in science and find solutions to mathematical problems by themselves (Hassan & Ibrahim, 2018). In Ghana for instance, there have been many suggestions by educationists to take another look at how Science is taught right from the basic level as a way of improving students’ Science and Mathematics achievements (Danso, 2010) as cited in (Ameyaw-Baah et al., 2018). The Ministry of Education in Ghana has developed a new format for the teaching of science with the inquiry approach as the main basis for instruction in the subject. This is in an effort to improve the teaching and learning of science especially at the basic level and developing the interest of students in learning science as a source of knowledge, as well as developing skills such as critical thinking, problem solving, research and analytical skills among others and even lifelong learning (Ameyaw-Baah et al., 2018). According to Abdullah, Tarmizi and Abu (2010), Problem Based Learning (PBL) has been found to have a positive effect on students’ mathematics performance as it helps students understand and explain mathematical concepts better. The method is said to get students better engaged in teaching and learning activities that lead to higher performance scores, and better teamwork. Zakaria, Chin and Daud (2012) also discovered that co-operative learning had better effect on academic achievement in Mathematics. Here, the main aim of students is to put their abilities together with the main aim of solving problems that had been posed to them. Also, with this University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.ghUniversity of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 30 method, students are able to learn from each other, transfer knowledge to each other by sharing what they know with each other at the peer level which makes understanding of concepts easier to achieve, this then translates in academic achievement not only at the group level but individually. Action learning, a teaching method in which students work on solving real life problems and reflecting on their solutions with the supervision of a more knowledgeable person has been recorded as another effective way of teaching Mathematics. This method can be applied at all levels of education and uses a hands-on or practical approach instead of resorting to the use of traditional methods like lecture and rote learning, thereby motivating students to learn the subject. Using this approach helps students find different ways of solving problems while learning particular problem-solving strategies which they previously had to grapple with (Vintere, 2018). Inquiry Based Learning (IBL) has also been found to be highly effective than traditional methods on learning performance of students (Vlassi & Karaliota, 2012) . Inquiry Based Learning when used in teaching science students engages students in various activities that stimulate their cognitive processes and enables them gather relevant information, solve problems in a logical manner based on facts they have learnt by themselves through their inquiry. Their research and analytical skills are also developed as well as the promotion of their understanding and practical application of concepts. It further promotes students’ interest in the learning of science whiles leading to high academic performance in Science (Secker, 2002) as cited in (Abdi, 2014). Outdoor learning is another teaching approach that has been found to be effective when it comes to the teaching of science. This form of learning exposes students to the environment outside the formal or traditional classroom, and keeps students actively engaged in the learning of science by giving them tasks that make them interact and learn from the outdoors (Dhanapal & Lim, 2013). This way students’ academic performance in science is improved as they actively participate in University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.ghUniversity of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 31 learning, through these experiences with the outdoors and construct their own meaning and understanding which they are able to reproduce in tests and exams while also applying these to their day-to-day experiences. 2.6 Theoretical Review The underlying theory for this study is the constructivism theory which is one of the theories of teaching and learning. It is one of the pedagogical theories that has made tremendous impact on teaching and learning because of the ability to adopt it into educational strategies. 2.6.1 Constructivism Theory The Constructivism theory of education was developed by Lev Vygotsky a post-revolutionary Soviet psychologist which according to Elliot (2006, p.256) as cited in (McLeod, 2019) is “an approach to learning that holds that people actively construct or make their own knowledge and that reality is determined by the experiences of the learner.” It believes that cognitive functions come about as a result of learners personally constructing their own meaning through prior experiences in interaction with new events. The theory believes that learning is an active process rather than a passive one in which learners are seen to have no knowledge and thus must be filled with knowledge. It rather argues that learners can gain knowledge through active engagement with their environment. For example, learners would be encouraged to do experiments in science or solve Mathematical problems to gain this experience or understanding and knowledge. This is because learners may receive knowledge University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.ghUniversity of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 32 passively as in a teacher-centered approach to teaching for example, a lecture, but for them to gain understanding they must be actively engaged to enable them to connect their prior knowledge with new ones and the learning process (McLeod, 2019). According to Dewey (1938) “education must not be a telling and being told affair, but an active and constructive process” which is done through interaction instead of an abstract concept, that is, co-constructing knowledge socially or with others Dewey (1938) as cited in (McLeod, 2019). Cognitive development comes about when there are social interactions from guided learning based on what learners know and co-constructed knowledge with their peers (Vygotsky,1978). Thus, learners must be actively engaged with teaching methods that make them experiment and solve real life problems. Using learner centred and teacher learner interactive methods such as discussions, collaborative, peer tutoring, demonstration, problem based, inquiry learning for example are a good way to help students make meaningful connections between prior knowledge, new knowledge and the processes that are involved in learning. Here, the teacher guides classroom activities in a way that supports students’ prior ideas or knowledge so they can build on them. This approach makes teaching effective because, acting as facilitator, the teacher directs his guidance to learners’ level of understanding, demonstration and giving hints whiles adapting teaching materials and activity (Oliver, 2001, Copple & Bredekamp, 2009) as cited in (McLeod, 2019). Individual learners may have their subjective ideas and learning history; however, they can benefit from each other’s knowledge through sharing of common knowledge and through this, upgrade their knowledge as they gather new knowledge and interpret it to suit them (Fox, 2001). Thus, it is important to engage learners with methods that promote this social interaction such as co-operative or collaborative learning and discussions so they are able to interact with each other and learn from each other. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.ghUniversity of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 33 Various studies have shown that the constructivist approach to teaching Mathematics and Science impacts the teaching and learning of these subjects. For instance, with Mathematics, it connects it with everyday experiences instead of teaching abstract formulas and embracing a creative approach to solving mathematical problems (Vintere, 2018). The same goes for science teaching where constructivist strategies are encouraged for promoting students’ active involvement in lessons whiles improving their academic performance (Dhanapal & Lim, 2013) as cited in (Hassan & Ibrahim, 2018). This is because gaining knowledge depends on interactions between a learner’s environment and their innate characteristics which help them gather and interpret their own understanding (Vintere, 2018). 2.7 Empirical Review One of the studies investigating the effectiveness of teaching methods and how they affect academic performance of learners was carried out by Ganyaupfu (2013). The objective of the study was to find out the differences in effectiveness of teaching methods on students’ academic performance, focusing on teacher-centered, student-centered and teacher-student interactive methods. A sample of 109 undergraduate students were used, and the data was analyzed using inferential statistics. The findings were that teacher-student interactive methods made the most impact, followed by student-centered methods, with teacher centered methods being the least effective. The findings prove that teacher-student interactive and student centred methods gives students the engagement and interactiveness they need to construct their own understanding of concepts. That involvement enables them understand and express themselves in their own way which the teacher centred approach does not offer them. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.ghUniversity of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 34 Another study was conducted by Martin, Laciste and Concepcion (2019) with the purpose of determining the impact of modern teaching method in the teaching learning process. A questionnaire was used as the data collection instrument, using the descriptive-quantitative method. Frequencies, percentages and weighted mean were used to treat the data. The target population was two hundred and eighty-six (286) senior high school students at the University of La Salette, Inc.- Santiago City during the school year 2018-2019. Some of the modern methods used were practice based learning, inquiry-based learning, brainstorming and computer-based learning. The findings were that modern teaching methods have a positive impact on the learning of students and lead to lifelong learning. Also, the study revealed that among the four teaching methods, brainstorming is the most effective for students’ learning. Following the findings and conclusions of the study, teachers were encouraged to continually adopt a method of teaching that will help their students learn easily meet and satisfy the needs of the students. Thus, teachers are encouraged to always reflect on their own methods to improve the teaching learning process. Also, in choosing an appropriate teaching method, teachers should consider subject matter and students’ level and abilities. Brainstorming may not always be an effective method in the teaching and learning process thus, before teachers use any teaching method, they must test for its effectiveness. The positive impact recorded with these methods can be attributed to the fact that these methods promote learning through practice, experiment, observation which develops their research and analytical skills. The hands-on experiences is what makes these methods impact positively on student understanding and performance. Brainstorming also helps students to develop their own ideas on concepts being taught and have the boldness to share or communicate what they know with each other. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.ghUniversity of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 35 Another study carried out in Kenya looked into teaching practices and their effects on learners’ achievement was carried out by Ngware, Oketch and Mutisya (2014). The study focused on low and high performing schools in Kenya. The researchers hypothesized that teaching style plays a key role in explaining the differences in academic achievement between primary schools. The researchers collected and analysed information from 72 recordings of mathematics lessons in 72 primary schools in Kenya. The key finding of this study and implications for policy were that students learning achievement can be greatly improved through quality teaching even though some conditions such as class size are not conducive. These findings go further to support the fact that having good teaching practices such as using teaching strategies are central to promoting good performance of students. When strategies and the right methods are used, students would experience change in terms of learning and understanding concepts, though meeting conditions such as teaching and learning in decent and good settings also help motivate students to learn. A Study by Karami, Pakmehr and Aghili (2012) examined the effect of collaborative learning on the development of critical thinking skills in high school learners. The study focused on all high school male students of Farima-Khorasan Razavi in the 2011 academic year, using multistage cluster sampling. One high school out of three was selected randomly then from three stages of that high school, one was selected using 26 students as the experimental group in a pre-and post- test study. The findings showed that applying collaborative methods during classroom discussions and other social interactions, such as criticism increased the students’ inclination towards critical thinking. The collaborative method also increased the students’ motivation to be creative and innovative. It can be said that using the collaborative methods developed students critical thinking University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.ghUniversity of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 36 skills compared to traditional teaching methods. Collaborative methods challenge students more cognitively than teacher centred methods in that students have the opportunity of stretching their analytical and problem-solving abilities when they are left on their own to learn with their peers, unlike being spoon-fed by teachers as found with the traditional methods. A study done in Ondo, Nigeria on Senior Secondary School students, found out that students exposed to the word problem teaching strategy model performed significantly better in Mathematics than their counterparts in the control group. The study looked at the effects of instructional strategies on Senior Secondary School (SSS) students in Mathematics word problems with a selection of one hundred and twenty-five (125) SSS 2 students by purposive sampling from two schools. The study used quasi experimental design. Based on the findings, it was recommended to other Mathematics teachers to adopt the use of instructional patterns in teaching Mathematics in secondary schools (Fajemidagba et al., 2012). It can be said that using word problems make students analyse problems posed to them in the course of teaching and learning and this stretching of their cognitive abilities makes them find ways of solving mathematical problems hence their significantly better performance in the subject. One other study into teaching methods and their impact on student achievement was conducted by Cordero and Gil-Izquierdo (2018). The aim of their research was to explore the impact of different teaching strategies on student performance, specifically differentiating between modern active learning and traditional teaching focusing on lecture, memorising and repetition. Data from fourteen (14) countries that participate in the well-known educational survey worldwide that is, the Programme for International Students Assessment (PISA). Their choice of teaching strategies was based on information gathered directly from teachers’ responses given by teachers in the same school. Their empirical analysis was based on data provided by PISA 2015, which for the first time included a University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.ghUniversity of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 37 questionnaire completed by teachers about their background and instructional activities. The findings showed that, both traditional and modern strategies have a positive impact on students´ science achievement, however, they realised that the impact of the former is clearly more relevant, and that, the positive effect of modern strategies was found mostly among high-achieving students. These findings have important policy implications for the design of educational policies as they prove that previous conclusions reached in other studies using data about activities conducted by individual teachers, although most of them only referred to a single country. Ali, Akhter and Khan (2010) researched into the effect of problem-solving method on mathematics students. The objective of the study was to investigate the effects of problem-solving methods on students’ achievement in mathematics in elementary schools. The pre-test and post-test design was used. The sample for the study was seventy-six (76) eighth grade students who were selected by random sampling and divided into two groups of 38. One group was used as the experimental group and the other the control group. The control group was taught using the conventional methods of lecturing and questioning from textbooks, whiles the experimental group was taught using problem-based method where students were further divided into groups to solve problems. The results showed that, adopting the problem-solving method improved students’ achievement in mathematics as compared to traditional methods. The study recommended that teachers should use problem solving methods in teaching mathematical concepts because they helped students to better understand concepts leading to better performance of students in mathematics. This study further proves the effectiveness of problem-solving method in teaching Mathematics and must really be enforced in the teaching of the subject for better results. In Kenya, another research looking into teachers’ use of teaching methods and their impact on academic performance of learners was conducted by Akama (2015). The study sought to University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.ghUniversity of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 38 investigate teaching strategies adopted by science teachers and how they impacted academic performance of learners in science in public schools in Kenya. It also sought to find out the reasons behind science teachers’ preference for these strategies. The target population was 30 public primary schools, 650 teachers and 20,733 pupils. Six schools were finally selected and 130 teachers interviewed, using a questionnaire as the main research instrument. The findings of the study were that inquiry method was the most used method by science teachers, though experiment method was identified as the most effective for teaching science. The reason for the science teachers’ choice of these strategies were that they did not have the needed teaching and learning resources to enable them to use the right strategy to teach and improve students learning of science. The findings of the study is a call for educational stakeholders to ensure that teachers have the needed resources to enable them use the appropriate strategies and methods for teaching to ensure understanding of concepts as well as good academic performance in the subject. Adekoya and Olatoye (2011) studied the effects of three teaching strategies in science education, that is agricultural science namely, demonstration, peer-tutoring and lecture. The lecture method was used as the control method as it is known to be the most popular method of teaching. 150 Senior Secondary School agricultural science students were drawn from three schools, and a pre- test, post-test experimental design and a control group. Findings were that students performed significantly at different levels in the three schools. Demonstration and peer tutoring methods were found to be the best methods for increasing student achievement. This is because, peer tutoring a progressive peer facilitated teaching strategy, used student partnerships in which high and low performing students were paired or put in groups so as that the high performing students could teach the low performing ones, whiles the low performing ones also learnt from the high performing students. Demonstration is also useful in science University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.ghUniversity of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 39 education because of its practical involvement and hands on approach, where a teacher demonstrates by performing an activity and students learn by following the teacher’s actions or demonstration. Findings were that peer tutoring and demonstration strategies lead to cooperation and create pleasant environments where peer relations are fostered and goes a long way to increase academic achievement of students. A study was done by Bamidele in 2020 with the objective of evaluating the effectiveness of two student-centred methods of teaching as compared to traditional instructional methods on tertiary education students. It sampled 192 level 200 students drawn from various colleges of education in South-West Nigeria. Data Collection instruments were a collaborative learning guide and individualised instructional strategies guide. The findings were that there is a significant difference on the effectiveness of the three teaching methods (Collaborative, individualised and conventional or traditional learning methods). It revealed that, collaborative learning was the most effective teaching strategy followed by individualised instructional techniques. Thus, there is a difference in performance of higher institution students taught with collaborative and individualised instruction as compared to conventional instructional methods. Per the finding students must be encouraged to work together to promote the pooling of academic resources or knowledge to enhance student understanding of concepts and also improve academic performance of students. One of the studies that investigated the impact that teaching strategies have on the academic achievement of science students was done focusing on engineering education. The objective of the study done by Giridharan and Raju in 2016 was to assess the impact of teaching strategies on students’ academic achievement especially demonstration-based strategy using working models and lecture methods. The experimental research design was used. A sample size of one hundred and forty-four (144) students were selected and divided into four groups of thirty-six (36). The University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.ghUniversity of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 40 demonstration method was found to have a more significant effect than the lecture method, that is demonstrating significant impacts on academic achievement among engineering students. Demonstration as a method gives students practical experiences of seeing and doing whereas lecture just describes and so can easily be forgotten and does not promote meaningful learning. A Study by Karami, Pakmehr and Aghili (2012) examined the effect of collaborative learning on the development of critical thinking skills in high school learners. The study focused on all high school male students of Farima-Khorasan Razavi in the 2011 academic year, using multistage cluster sampling. One high school out of three was selected randomly then from three stages of that high school, one was selected using 26 students as the experimental group in a pre-and post-test study. The findings showed that applying collaborative methods during classroom discussions and other social interactions, such as criticism increased the students’ inclination towards critical thinking. The collaborative method also increased the students’ motivation to be creative and innovative. It can be said that using the collaborative methods developed students critical thinking skills compared to traditional teaching methods. In Ghana, Ameyaw-Baah, Amoah, Annafo and Assem (2018) conducted a study to ascertain if there were any differences between the effects of enquiry-based learning methods and traditional methods of teaching Science on the performance of JHS 2 students. Using quasi-experimental and action research methods under mixed methods design, they selected thirty (30) JHS 2 science students through purposive sampling from two schools. The sample was further split into two groups, one being the experimental group which was taught using enquiry-based learning methods and the other, the control taught using traditional teaching methods. Data collection instruments were Science Knowledge Assessment and Engagement checklis