i UNIVERSITY OF GHANA THE CHALLENGES AND PROSPECTS OF EMPOWERING TRADITIONAL AUTHORITIES IN LOCAL DEVELOPMENT A STUDY OF THE TEMA METROPOLITAN ASSEMBLY BY PEARL NAA DEDEI TETTEH (10358750) A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF M.A. DEVELOPMENT STUDIES DEGREE DECEMBER, 2013 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ii DECLARATION I hereby declare that this dissertation with the exception of identified quotations, is the result of my own research and written entirely by myself with the supervision of Professor George Owusu. None of this material has been presented either wholly or in part for a degree in this or another institution. Student ................................... Pearl Naa Dedei Tetteh. Supervisor .................................... Professor George Owusu. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh iii DEDICATION “The race is not to the swift, nor the battle to the strong, neither yet bread to the wise, nor yet riches to men of understanding, nor yet favour to men of skill; but time and chance happens to them all”. [Ecclesiastes 9:11] I dedicate this work to the almighty God for the gift of life and strength. Also to Carl Engmann, whose unflinching support saw me through this period and our two lovely children; Kemiye Naa Lomoteley Engmann and Mitsui Nii Lomo Engmann. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENT "The heights by great men reached and kept, were not obtained by sudden flight. But they, while their companions slept, were toiling upward in the night." -- Henry Wadsworth Longfellow A lot of effort and commitment went into producing this piece of work. I therefore owe a great deal of gratitude to all whose combined effort made this work a success. My profound gratitude goes to Dr. Nii Moi Thompson and Okyenhene, Osagyefuo Amoatia Ofori-Panyin for igniting the desire to pursue this course. The quality of this work benefited from the rich experiences of my supervisor whose guidance, encouragement and suggestions was immense help in shaping this work. May you lack nothing good. My heartfelt appreciation goes to the Chief, Nii Adjei Kraku II and Queen mother, Naa Asheley Agbo, Nii Shipi Asofoatse, and all the Divisional Chiefs of Tema Metropolitan Assembly, the Metropolitan Development Planning Officer, Mr. E. Taylor- Appiah, the Metropolitan Public Relation Officer, Mr. Frank Asante and all the assembly members who participated in this study. Thank you all for sharing your experiences with me. This work would not have been complete without mentioning my parents and uncles for the immense support they showed me during this period. I am eternally grateful. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh v CONTENTS DECLARATION ................................................................................................................................... II DEDICATION .................................................................................................................................... III ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ...................................................................................................................... IV CONTENTS ........................................................................................................................................ V LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................................................. X LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................................................ X ACRONYMS ...................................................................................................................................... XI ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................................................... XII CHAPTER ONE ....................................................................................................................................1 1.0 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 BACKGROUND ...................................................................................................................................... 1 1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT ........................................................................................................................... 3 1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY ..................................................................................................................... 4 1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS .......................................................................................................................... 4 1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY .................................................................................................................. 5 1.6 OUTLINE OF THE DISSERTATION .............................................................................................................. 5 CHAPTER TWO ...................................................................................................................................7 LITERATURE REVIEW ..........................................................................................................................7 TRADITIONAL GOVERNANCE AND LOCAL DEVELOPMENT IN GHANA ...................................................7 2.0 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................... 7 2.1 DEFINITION OF CONCEPTS ...................................................................................................................... 8 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh vi 2.1.1 EMPOWERMENT .................................................................................................................................. 8 2.1 CHANGING ROLES OF TRADITIONAL AUTHORITY IN GHANA ........................................................................ 13 2.1.1 PRE-COLONIAL RULE ............................................................................................................................ 13 2.1.2 COLONIAL RULE ............................................................................................................................. 14 2.1.3 POST COLONIAL RULE ...................................................................................................................... 15 2.2 TRADITIONAL AUTHORITY AND DECENTRALIZATION: ROLE OF CHIEFS IN DISTRICT ASSEMBLIES ........................ 18 2.3 CONSTITUTIONAL AND LEGAL PROVISIONS PREVENTING CHIEFS FROM DIRECT PARTICIPATION ................... 22 2.4 THE STRUCTURE OF THE TRADITIONAL AUTHORITY IN TEMA METROPOLITAN ASSEMBLY ............................. 23 2.5 FUNCTIONS AND ACTIVITIES OF THE CHIEFTAINCY IN TEMA METROPOLITAN ASSEMBLY ............................. 24 2.6 THE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF TEMA METROPOLITAN ASSEMBLY ......................................................... 25 2.7 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK .................................................................................................................. 27 2.7.1 EMPOWERMENT AND LOCAL DEVELOPMENT ........................................................................................... 27 2.7.2 LEGITIMACY BY MAX WEBER ............................................................................................................... 29 2.8 SUMMARY ............................................................................................................................................ 31 CHAPTER THREE ............................................................................................................................... 33 METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................................................... 33 3.0 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................................... 33 3.1 SECTION I – RESEARCH DESIGN ............................................................................................................ 33 3.1.1 ADOPTION OF A QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGN ...................................................................................... 33 3.2 DATA SOURCES .................................................................................................................................. 35 3.2.1 DATA COLLECTED DURING THE RESEARCH TOOK A NUMBER OF FORMS; ........................................................ 36 3.3 TARGET POPULATION...................................................................................................................... 36 3.4 SAMPLING TECHNIQUE: PURPOSIVE SAMPLING ....................................................................................... 36 3.4.1 SELECTING PARTICIPANTS ................................................................................................................ 37 3.5 INSTRUMENT OF DATA COLLECTION ....................................................................................................... 38 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh vii 3.5.1 INTERVIEW GUIDE .............................................................................................................................. 38 3.6 DATA COLLECTION ............................................................................................................................. 39 3.6.1 QUALITATIVE DATA COLLECTION .......................................................................................................... 39 3.6.2 IN-DEPTH INTERVIEW .......................................................................................................................... 39 3.6.3 FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSIONS ................................................................................................................ 40 3.7 DATA ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION ..................................................................................................... 41 3.8 SECTION II – BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY AREA ....................................................................................... 42 3.8.1INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................... 42 3.8.2 LOCATION AND SIZE ............................................................................................................................ 42 3.8.3 MAP OF THE TEMA METROPOLITAN ASSEMBLY ....................................................................................... 43 4.8.4 POPULATION ..................................................................................................................................... 44 3.8.5 CULTURE .......................................................................................................................................... 44 3.8.6 TRADITIONAL SET UP .......................................................................................................................... 44 3.8.7 COMMUNAL SPIRIT ........................................................................................................................ 45 3.8.8 POLITICAL STRUCTURE OF THE ASSEMBLY (LOCAL GOVERNMENT STRUCTURE) ............................................ 45 3.9 STRUCTURE OF THE LOCAL ECONOMY ................................................................................................ 47 3.9.1 AGRICULTURE ............................................................................................................................... 47 3.9.2 MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES ......................................................................................................... 48 3.9.3 COMMERCE/ SERVICES.................................................................................................................... 49 3.9.4 LAND MANAGEMENT ...................................................................................................................... 49 3.10 SUMMARY .................................................................................................................................... 50 CHAPTER FOUR ................................................................................................................................ 51 DISCUSSION OF RESULTS .................................................................................................................. 51 4.0 INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................................................. 51 4.1 PART I: PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS ............................................................................................. 51 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh viii 4.1.1 CHANGING ROLES OF CHIEFS ................................................................................................................ 51 4.1.1.1 BACKGROUND INFORMATION ............................................................................................................ 52 4.1.1.2EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND ( LEVEL OF INSIGHT INTO GLOBAL CHANGES AND DEMANDS) ........................... 52 4.1.1.3PERIOD OF REIGN( ACCEPTABILITY) ..................................................................................................... 53 4.1.1.4BUSINESS VENTURES/ ACTIVITIES ........................................................................................................ 54 4.1.1.5ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES OF ITS PEOPLE ( THE VIABILITY OF THE TOWN)......................................................... 55 4.1.1.6 DEVELOPMENT INTERVENTIONS ........................................................................................................ 56 4.1.1.7SOURCE OF FUNDING FOR DEVELOPMENT INTERVENTIONS ..................................................................... 57 4.1.1.8ROLE PLAYED BY THE TRADITIONAL AUTHORITIES .................................................................................. 58 4.2 PART II: ANALYSIS OF FINDINGS ..................................................................................................... 59 4.2.1 CHANGING ROLES OF CHIEFS ................................................................................................................ 59 4.2.1.1 PRE- COLONIAL ............................................................................................................................... 59 4.2.1.2 COLONIAL ...................................................................................................................................... 60 4.2.1.3POST-COLONIAL / INDEPENDENCE ....................................................................................................... 60 4.2.1.4 ROLES OF CHIEFS IN THE CURRENT POLITICAL DISPENSATION ................................................................... 61 4.2.1.5STAKEHOLDERS ................................................................................................................................ 61 4.2.1.6 THE MANDATE OF THE PEOPLE ........................................................................................................... 62 4.2.1.7DEVELOPMENT INTERVENTIONS (SELF INITIATION) ................................................................................. 62 4.2. l.8 Collaborating for local development ................................................................................ 62 4.2.1.9 Information Dissemination .............................................................................................. 63 4.2.1.10 Comparing Changing roles of chiefs ................................................................................. 63 4.2.1.11 Traditional Authority and Local Development ................................................................. 65 4.2.2 Constitutional Provisions Barring Chiefs ............................................................................... 66 4.2.2.1 Customary laws ................................................................................................................ 66 4.2.2.2 Law and Order (Enforcement) .......................................................................................... 66 4.2.2.3 Social Stability .................................................................................................................. 67 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ix 4.2.2.4 Cultural Norms ................................................................................................................. 68 4.2.2.5 Change and Innovation .................................................................................................... 68 4.2.2.6 Challenges of Empowering Chiefs ................................................................................... 70 4.2.2.7 Funding ............................................................................................................................ 71 4.2.2.8 Measures of accountability .............................................................................................. 72 4.2.2.9 Effectiveness of the Assembly .......................................................................................... 74 4.2.2.10 Capacity for Local Development ..................................................................................... 74 4.3 Summary of Analysis ........................................................................................................ 75 4.4 Findings ............................................................................................................................. 76 CHAPTER FIVE .................................................................................................................................. 78 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS .......................................................................................... 78 5.0 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................ 78 5.1 SUMMARY ....................................................................................................................................... 78 5.1.1 FINDINGS AND CONCLUSION .............................................................................................................. 78 5.1.2 RECOMMENDATIONS TO ENHANCE PARTICIPATION OF CHIEFS IN LOCAL DEVELOPMENT ............................. 79 5.1.2.1 Equal partners in local developing the communities ....................................................... 79 5.1.2.2 Developing standards for enstooling a Chief ................................................................... 80 5.1.2.3 Remuneration ................................................................................................................... 81 5.2 Conclusion .................................................................................................................................... 81 REFERENCES .................................................................................................................................... 83 APPENDIX ........................................................................................................................................ 87 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh x LIST OF TABLES Table 3.1: Focus Group Discussion Sessions……………………………………… 43 Table 4.1: Personal Information…………………………………………………… 56 Table 4.2: Development Interventions……………………………………………. 60 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2.1: Structure of Traditional Authorities in Ghana………………………… 23 Figure 2.2: Structure of the Local Government System in Ghana………………… 29 Figure 4.1: Educational Background………………………………………………. 57 Figure 4.2: Period of Reign………………………………………………………… 58 Figure 4.3: Business Venture……………………………………………………… 59 Figure 4.4: Economic Activities of the People……………………………………. 60 Figure 4.5: Development Interventions……………………………………………. 61 Figure 4.6: Source of Funding……………………………………………………. 62 Figure 4.7: Roles Played by Traditional Authorities………………………………. 63 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh xi ACRONYMS DA……………………. District Assembly DACF …………………District Assembly Common Fund DIFD …………………. Department for International Development D-Plan …………………Development Plan DWDA ………………...Dangme West District Assembly FGD…………………… Focus Group Discussion GEMA ………………...Ga East Municipal Assembly GPRS II ……………….Growth and Poverty Reduction Strategy (Two) LAP …………………... Land Administration Project L.I. ……………………..Legislative Instrument MDPO …………………Municipal Development Planning Officer MLGRD ……………….. Ministry of Local Government and Rural Development MDA…………………… Ministries, Department and Agencies MMDA………………… Metropolitan, Municipal, District and Agencies MPRO …………………. Municipal Public Relations Officer PNDC ………………….. Provisional National Defence Council TA……………………… Traditional Area TAs……………………... Traditional Authorities TAARN ………………... Traditional Authority Applied Research Network TDC…………………….. .Tema Development Cooperation TMA …………………….. Tema Metropolitan Assembly TTC ………………………Tema Traditional Council University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh xii ABSTRACT Traditional authority predates colonization. The postcolonial difficulties and mutations of traditional authorities or chiefdoms have indeed constituted the subject of vast scholarly interest. The objective of the study was to investigate, the challenges and prospects of empowering the traditional authorities in local development. In order to achieve the objective, two focus group discussions and four key informants’ interview were conducted. This tried to find responses to issues such as the changing roles of chiefs from pre-colonial to post- colonial, constitutional provisions barring chiefs from direct participation in the assembly, challenges and prospects of empowering the chiefs and finally recommendations for policy implementations. Based on empirical findings that highlight the important role that traditional authorities play in local development, the study submits that traditional authority needs to be radically reformed and not abolished. Some of the reforms needed include opening its funding resources to some scrutiny, accountability to its people, popular participation and public debates in other to be made responsive to the changing forces. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 CHAPTER ONE 1.0 Introduction In the past, the role of a chief was to lead his people in war to defend, protect and extend their territories. The modern role is to combat poverty and other social ills such as illiteracy, ignorance, environmental degradation, and the depletion of resources. Despite their roles in modern day Ghana, the institution has come under a lot of pressure, seeking its abolishment. Some of the arguments being presented basically are: Is the chieftaincy a relic of the past? Is it meritorious and democratic? Does the institution of chieftaincy impede upon or enhance the struggle to lift the country to greater glory and development, is the chieftaincy institution relevant in the current political dispensation. This is further worsened due to altercations and sometimes long, useless, time consuming litigations, disputes and “family feud” engaged in by the traditional institution at the expense of finding solutions to the emerging problems (Adu-Gyamfi 2010). This chapter outlines the background to the project topic, gives the problem statement, objectives of the research, the research questions, the significance of the study and the organization of the research. 1.1 Background The current modern governance system is centred on a decentralized political and administrative framework. Between 1957 and 1988 efforts were made by successive governments to decentralise authority to the local level. These took the form of regional devolution and district focused public administration, progress however was minimal until the 1970’s when the decentralisation system was reformulated into a four tier structure consisting of Regional, University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2 District, Local Councils and Towns and Village Development Committees (Steffensen and Trollegard, 2003). In 1988 Ghana embarked on decentralized administration and development planning, in order to encourage greater local autonomy and participation and to achieve greater efficiency (Ayee, 1995, 1997, 2000; Crook and Manor, 1998 cited in Owusu, 2005). According to Boafo-Arthur (2001) and Arhin (2002) from a historical perspective there has been very little consistency in the roles for chiefs in local administration. Even though the 1957 constitution thought it fit to reserve one- third membership of local government units for chiefs, which was the penchant of the ruling party (Owusu, 2005). The 1960, 1969, 1979 and 1992 Constitution and the local government act however make no provision for the automatic membership of the chiefs on the district assemblies. This lack of institutional representation has diminished the influence of the traditional authorities at the district assembly level and negatively affected their capacity to lead the processes of enhancing the participation of the rural poor in local development. In broad terms the impact of colonialism on indigenous forms of authority may strike a chord of familiarity. Yet it presents only a partial picture. If indeed chieftaincy was robbed of the internal dynamics by the colonial authorities who were vital to the autonomy of chiefs, how is it that they have survived for so very long? If part of the reason for this longevity of chieftaincy is the fact that some chiefs had become co-opted into the local arm of the colonial state, how does one explain the persistence of their apparent legitimacy? (Hendricks and Ntsebeza, 1999). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3 On the whole, traditional authorities are still recognised by the people as their head even if the authority accorded them is somehow diminished. It would however be in the people’s interest to incorporate the traditional authorities into the current form of government to enable them to seek the interest of their people much more effectively, especially those traditional authorities who are developmentally oriented. However for this to be possible it would need the initiation and support from the central government. 1.2 Problem Statement The traditional authorities’ alliance lies first with the people and the community in which they serve. Hence they could better lobby and advocate for development which would complement the efforts of the assemblies in development. In Ghana, the traditional authorities and the district assemblies are not equally resourced in terms of technical, human and financial resources and hence cannot share development opportunities equally. Also with Ghana’s constitution where governments come and go after serving their term of office, the traditional authorities on the other hand continue to occupy their positions with its accompanying courtesies without recourse to which government was in power. Thus there are a number of areas these two institutions could collaborate on, the question is HOW? The purpose of this dissertation is to investigate the challenges and prospects involved in empowering chieftaincy in local development. The study will first examine the measures that need to be taken in order to empower the chieftaincy institution as partners in development with the district assemblies. It will focus on the mechanism involved and also the challenges that need to be overcome to realize the goal of empowering the chieftaincy institution. Secondly, data will University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4 be gathered on the current trend of administration of the traditional authority and the local assembly and how these affect meeting their development agenda for the Tema Metropolitan Assembly. By obtaining all these information, recommendations will be made in order to determine how the challenges and the prospects of empowering the Chieftaincy institution in local development can be made possible. 1.3 Objectives of the Study The objectives of the study are to: Examine the changing roles of the chiefs in local development. 1. Assess the constitutional and other legal provisions barring chiefs from direct participation in the Tema Metropolitan Assembly. 2. To assess the challenges of empowering traditional authorities to participate directly and actively in the Tema Metropolitan Assembly. 3. Provide recommendation for policy implementation. 1.4 Research Questions The research will seek to answer questions such as: • What are the changing roles of chiefs during these periods: a. Pre-colonial b. Colonial c. Post- colonial • What are the constitutional provision barring chiefs from direct participation in the Tema Metropolitan Assembly. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5 • What are the challenges in empowering the traditional authorities in the Tema Metropolitan Assembly? • What are the policy implications of the study? Would the burden on the Metropolitan assembly be eased 1.5 Significance of the Study This study will serve to address issues that present conflict where the roles of traditional authorities and the district assemblies in local development are concerned. When these issues are addressed and consensus is reached on the roles that each of these two important institutions play individually and jointly in local development, the synergy that these two institutions can effect on local development can be fully harnessed. This will in turn make recommendations for policies that are meant to address issues of such conflicts in other to harmonize the development process of the community. 1.6 Outline of the Dissertation The study is divided into six chapters. Chapter one (The introductory chapter): This outlines the background to the project topic, gives the problem statement, objectives of the research, the research questions, the significance of the study and the organization of the research. Chapter two (Literature Review): This chapter looks at Traditional governance and local development. It posts other research and demographic findings on traditional government and local development and also touches on the conceptual framework of the study. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6 Chapter three (Methodology): This chapter is divided into two sections. The first section addresses the method of data collection, the sample size and the sampling technique whilst the second section Presents the demographic features of the study area. Chapter four (Analysis of findings): this chapter deals with the presentation and interpretation of results Chapter five (Conclusion and Recommendation): This would be made based on the findings of the research. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 7 CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW TRADITIONAL GOVERNANCE AND LOCAL DEVELOPMENT IN GHANA 2.0 Introduction The traditional authorities in West Africa has had its powers eroded right from “indirect rule” or “assimilation”, where chiefs were used as stooges to further the colonial power’s control of the African right down to the present subjugation by Presidents in the various administrations (Cheka, 2008). This institution was not dismantled by the British colonial policy of indirect rule. By contrast, in the segmentary southern half of the Cameroonian territory, a region without a tradition of central government, the French colonial masters created ‘warrant chiefs’ (Le Vine 1964; Gardinier, 1963). Also, traditional authorities do not formally constitute part of the deconcentrated institutions of the republican administrative machine that is made up of divisions and subdivisions. They simply are ‘traditional authorities’, albeit stakeholders in governance (Cheka, 2008). With the advent of democracy, Traditional Authorities which are supposed to remain politically neutral have aligned themselves with political parties and have served as ‘vote banks’, especially in one-party states (Fisiy 1995 and Nyamnjoh, 2002). This is however no different from Ghana, a multi-party state which also experiences similar trends further reducing the ability of the traditional rulers’ authority to promote effective local development. With the republican status came the central system of government, this however, seemed quite distant from the vast majority of the population unlike the Traditional Authority which served to mobilize support for development (Cheka, 2008).To complicate matters, councillors, Ghana’s University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 8 equivalent of a district chief executives, are largely retired civil servants who have spent the most of their working lives out of the area. Thus for effective development they would need to connect to the local power in the form of traditional authority in order to carry out meaningful developmental change at grassroots level. 2.1 Definition of Concepts This will attempt to give some understanding of the terms used in this study in order to remove all traces of doubts or misconceptions where a particular concept is contested or have several meanings. The concepts to be looked at would be empowerment, local development and traditional authority. 2.1.1 Empowerment Empowerment is a construct shared by many disciplines and arenas; however this has yielded no clear definition of the concept, especially one that could cross disciplinary lines. As a result, many have come to view “empowerment” as nothing more than the most recently popular buzz word to be thrown in to make sure old programmes get new funding. Rappoport (1984) has noted that it is easy to define empowerment by its absence but difficult to define it in action as it takes on different forms in different people and texts. Even defining the concept is subject to debate. At the core of the concept is the idea of power. Power is often related to one’s ability to make others do what they want, regardless of their own wishes or interests (Weber, 1946). Empowerment has also been defined by Robbins, Chatterjee and Canda (1998) as the “process by which individuals and groups or institutions gain power, access to resources and control over University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 9 their own lives. In doing so, they gain the ability to achieve their highest personal and collective aspirations and goals”. In its broadest sense empowerment is the expansion of freedom of choice and action. This implies increasing one’s authority and control over the resources and decisions that affect one’s life. Thus empowering the traditional authorities would mean linking the chief to the resources they need to perform their function effectively. With such independence and access the chiefs can best focus on the needs of the people in their community in a form of a spill over effect. An empowered institution such as the chieftaincy institution recognizes and identifies its strength and the strength of others for better development. Czuba (1999) stated that the possibility of empowerment mainly depends on two things. First it requires that power can change and if it cannot and it is inherent in people, then empowerment is neither possible nor conceivable in any given way. The challenge of change thus requires both a higher degree of decision making autonomy by stakeholder and increased coordination capacities for collective problem solving. It requires not only a redistribution of roles between the state and civil societies for collective problem solving but also an increase in adaptive capacities of states, organisations, groups and individuals. For a successful reform process to unfold, policy measures to improve governance should be matched with measures to increase stakeholders’ adaptive capacities at each phase of the reform process. Secondly, empowerment depends upon the idea that power can expand. This reflects common experiences of power. For the purpose of this research, Page’s and Czuba’s definition of empowerment as a process that fosters power (that is the capacity to implement) in people, institutions and organisation for use in their own lives, communities and in their society by acting on issues that they define as important would be used. Wilson (1996) pointed out that recently, more researchers, organizers, politicians and employers recognize that individual change is a prerequisite for community and University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 10 social change and empowerment Speer and Hughey (1995); Florin and Wandersman, (1990); Chavis and Wandersman, (1990). This does not mean that we can point the finger at those with less access to power, telling them that they must change to become more like "us" in order to be powerful/ successful. Rather, individual change becomes a bridge to community connectedness and social change (Wilson, 1996). Empowerment is not a panacea for all social illness. It has been criticized as “overly individualistic and conflict-oriented, resulting in an emphasis on mastery and control rather than cooperation and community” (Speer, 2000). Although the practice of empowerment is effective for the removal of powerlessness, certain factors still exist that may inhibit empowerment. These factors include organizational aspects, such as an impersonal bureaucratic climate(s), supervisory styles described as authoritarian and arbitrary reward systems (Conger & Kanungo, 1988). 1.5.2 Local Development Although local development is often cited as an option within the broader context of regional policy the concept remains vague, giving rise to varying interpretation. Due to the lack of a consistently utilized definition of local development, it is possible to identify, in a general way two distinct approaches which are a function of the meaning attributed to the adjective “local” and “Development” (Coffey and Pole`se 1982; 1984). Local for the purposes of this dissertation would be restricted to a particular place in a space, “Spatial” such as a city, town or a small district. The concept development on the other hand has been agreed to be generally a multi- dimensional process involving reorganization and reorientation of entire economic and social system. It is the process of improving the quality of all human lives with three equally important aspects. These are: University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 11 1. Raising peoples’ living levels, i.e. incomes and consumption, levels of food, medical services, education through relevant growth processes 2. Creating conditions conducive to the growth of peoples’ self-esteem through the establishment of social, political and economic systems and institutions which promote human dignity and respect 3. Increasing peoples’ freedom to choose by enlarging the range of their choice variables, e.g. varieties of goods and services (Todaro, 2010). local (Spatial) is usually a restricted or a particular area, hence the term local development is basically the villages, towns, provinces and regions where the local actors such traditional authorities, local government officials, civil society activists who know what best can and cannot work for their communities and hence do have a voice and the support they need to work their way towards a better way of life. Thus local development starts from the grass root level with a ripple effect being witnessed at the national level. 1.5.3 Traditional Authority Chambers Twentieth Century English Dictionary defines the noun ‘tradition’ as handing over, oral transmission from generation to generation, anything bound up with or continuing in the life of a family or community etc. It defines an ‘authority’ as ‘a person or body holding power or right, permission derived from office or character.’ More specifically, according to Osborn’s University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 12 Concise Law Dictionary (1976), ‘authority is a body charged with power and duty of exercising prescribed functions’. Traditional authority as such refers to an institution or power that is received and handed down or over from generation to generation. In pre-modern and modern societies, there has been a hierarchy of command of which everyone must adhere to. In order for this system to operate, there must be someone in charge or otherwise known as authority (Henry, 2007). According to Weber, authority is power accepted as legitimate by those subjected to it. Advocates argue that ‘traditional authority’ constitutes a genuinely African form of local governance, while detractors suggest that these institutions were irrevocably corrupted by their involvement with the colonial administration. Traditional authority relies heavily upon the traditions, customs, habits and routines in order to regulate human behaviour, to distinguish right from wrong and to assure sufficient stability to allow the group to survive. Those who hold positions of power in systems of traditional authority typically do not do so because of personal competence, knowledge, or training. Instead, people hold their positions based upon characteristics like age, gender, family, etc. At the same time, however, the allegiance that people owe towards authority figures is very much personal rather than towards some “office” that the person holds. For the purposes of this study, traditional authority whether created by law, that is the constitution governing the country, in centralized or in decentralized societies, is a power, or permission, an institution that draws its legitimacy, whether wholly or partially, from tribal/ ethnic/ cultural values of a group of people (wherever they may be) that share them. Here traditional authority comprises of the chief, the queen mother, the sub chiefs and the linguist in the palace. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 13 2.1 Changing Roles of Traditional Authority in Ghana The role of the traditional authority has gone through some changes. These changes were looked at in terms of Pre-colonial, Colonial and Post-Colonial. 2.1.1 Pre-colonial rule Pre-colonial African societies were of a highly varied nature, they evolved in correspondence with changing condition such as in the direction of major trade routes, in the location of international markets, struggle for the control of natural resources including gold and the rise of the expansionist ideologies (Brempong 2002). They could be either stateless, state run or kingdoms, but most were founded on the principles of communalism in that they were self- governing, autonomous entities, which implied that all members took part, directly or indirectly, in the daily running of the tribe (Ayittey 1992). These traditional authorities operated in societies which lent to them their legitimacy and were governed by a set of rules, laws and traditions called customs that established how the people would live together peacefully as part of a much larger group. Survival of the tribe was the main focus (Ayittey 1992). The chief’s power was based on his ability to lead them in times of wars, conflicts and collect revenue and tribute usually through the control of trade. The organizational structure of the traditional authority derives its legitimacy and authority based on kinship and ancestry. The traditional African chief performed many functions as his status required. These functions included, Political (administrative) head of the tribe, he was responsible for maintaining good order, handling public affairs and acting as the ultimate authority in all matters affecting the welfare of the state. He presided over the Chief’s court, which was the final court of appeal unless there was a king, in which case his court was the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 14 final. He was the religious head of the tribe, the presumed direct living representative of the ancestral spirits that guarded the tribe and whose goodwill and cooperation were considered essential to the everyday existence of the tribe (Ayittey, 1992). In a nutshell, the chiefs were law makers and enforcers, judges, army generals, land owners and the moral epitome of their communities. 2.1.2 Colonial rule The advent of the colonial powers saw the beginning of the subjugation of the traditional authority, however; during the early period of colonial rule the colonial government exercised minimal control over tribal structures. By indirect rule, for example, the British sought to borrow legitimacy from traditional authorities for the implementation of colonial policies (Jua, 1995). This disturbed the pre-existing redistributive lineage system, undermined the foundation for the existence of chiefs and limited their tradition-based and personalised form of authority. It also transformed chiefs from independent representatives of various people into government liaison officials, appointed by the new colonial power and paid a salary. Shorn of their judicial power and prevented from performing their traditional functions, their pre-existing worlds of authority were dwarfed by the overpowering force of the colonial state (Hendrick and Ntsebeza, 1999). Although Lugard (cited in Berry, 1992) pointed to the civilizing influence of indirect rule, critics of the policy argued that the element of popular participation was removed from the traditional political system. Despite the theoretical argument in favour of decentralization, indirect rule in practice caused chiefs to look to Accra (the capital) rather than to their people for all decisions and this permitted the colonial government to avoid movement toward any form of popular University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 15 participation in the colony's government. British indirect rule in countries such as South Africa thereby reduced chiefs to salaried officials, responsible to white magistrates, corrupted by the control of an unsympathetic white government (Morton, 1987). British laws were superimposed on local traditional modes of governance through a number of ordinances. For instance, the Native Jurisdiction Ordinance of 1878 gave statutory recognition to indigenous authorities and granted the Governor-General the power to depose and deport recalcitrant chiefs and to suspend chiefs who abused their powers. Also in 1883, the Gold Coast Native Jurisdiction Ordinance recognised local chiefs and their courts and thereby further incorporated chiefs into the British colonial administration. 2.1.3 Post colonial rule The postcolonial difficulties and mutations of traditional authorities or chiefdoms have indeed constituted the subject of vast scholarly interest. Immediate post-colonial government continued along similar lines as their predecessors. The pre-colonial executive and legislative and judicial powers were never restored. Rather attempts were made to weaken the chiefs and limit their role in the administration of the modern nation state (Odotei, 2010). Nkrumah’s government not only weakened the political and judicial roles of the chiefs but also made them appendages by breaking their financial backbone. For example through an enactment of laws such as Akim Abuakwa (Stool Revenue) Act, 1958 (Act 8), Ashanti Stool Act, 1958 (Act 28) and the Stool and Lands Control Act, 1960 (Act 79), usurped the regulation of the collection and usage of stool revenue (Brempong, 2011). Richard Rathbone, a professor of Modern African History at University of London, U.K, explains in “Nkrumah & the Chiefs: The Politics of Chieftaincy in Ghana, 1951-1960," Nkrumah waged sustained campaign to bring down traditional rulers and in the face of his "frustrated attempts to democratize local government there were also long and University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 16 bitter campaigns mounted by many southern chiefs to resist their political marginalization”. This was the first of many wrangling the chieftaincy institution was taken through which had some fundamental changes in making the traditional authorities key participants in Ghana’s development process. However, Dr. Daniel Tetteh Osabu-Kle, a political scientists at Canada’s Carleton University, argues that Nkrumah’s regime was confronted with intense difficult climate that was influenced by some powerful Traditional rulers. “The traditional rulers became a problem so Nkrumah had to clip their wings… Nkrumah on the other hand wanted to encourage the traditional rulers but they didn’t allow (Cited in Akorsah-Sarpong, 2008). In East Africa, particularly Uganda, there were also serious tensions between the post-colonial leadership represented by the late President Milton Obote, who was intent on destroying the ancient Kingdom of Buganda, and King Mutesa II (the Kabaka) who challenged the authority of “modern” rule through the electoral verdict. Obote responded with an armed attack on the King’s palace, sending Kabaka into exile in London and in 1967 a new constitution abolished all of Uganda’s kingdoms including Buganda. Even under Yoweri Museveni's pro-monarchical regime were the kingdom was restored after several years of internal disturbances, granting the ancient kingdom a large degree of autonomy in contemporary Ugandan politics. However, tensions between the Ugandan Government under Museveni and the kingdom continue to be the defining feature of Ugandan politics. In the South of Africa, settler societies uprooted the traditional governance institutions (notwithstanding the resistance mounted by warrior tribes like the Zulu) (Odotei and Awedoba, 2006)The story of chieftaincy in Ghana however is one of evolution – especially under Kwame Nkrumah and the military regime of Jerry John Rawlings. With independence came the centralized system of governance. This saw a shift in the 1980’s to the decentralization system of governance which has been attributed to a couple of factors. This University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 17 includes; the movement of international trends, development and globalization (Kenyah, 2010) which advocated for a reduction of the state structure for effective management and also to concentrate resources in the right sectors and also to increase grassroots participations in local development. Since independence, there has been little in any effective participation of the chiefs in Local development especially since the advent of the Decentralization process in Ghana. This has been attributed to the ill-defined relationship between the traditional authorities and the Assemblies. In the light of all the changes, traditional authorities still play some vital role in the socio- economic development of their communities and this is mainly through partnership with the Metropolitan, Municipal and District Assemblies. These functions include the following: • Custodians of natural resources especially land including wildlife • Play a leading role in fighting for social development for their people • Leadership role in the drive to educate their people • Have arbitration and representative roles and have the potential to facilitate accountability to the people • Management of peace and security at the local level • Development of bye-laws • Guardians of traditional heritage, being expected to guard and sustain traditional norms, values and principles and serve as the link between the external community and his people (Arhin 1985, Ray 2003a; 2003b, Agbenorku 2010 cited in Ayee 2007) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 18 Alhassan (2006 cited in Agbenorku, 2010; p.4) argues that the role of the traditional authority in the effective management of natural resources has long been acknowledged in Africa”. Examples of such related projects are the Land Administration Project (LAP) which was issued in June 1999 by the government through the World Bank loan facility and the DFID – funded Securing Land Rights Projects. These have led the traditional authorities initiating policies for land acquisition and use. However the sacrosanctity of the project is threatened due to lack of formal space for traditional authorities within the mainstream local governance structure to engage the MMDA. Unclear linkages and modes of engagement and cooperation between Traditional Authorities and MMDA, sub-structure taking over some of the functions, lack of recognition for the chiefs, not forgetting the disputes over succession and land ownership. 2.2 Traditional Authority and Decentralization: Role of chiefs in District Assemblies At the dawn of Ghana’s independence, there was little, if any effective participation of chiefs in the decentralization process in Ghana. One of the outstanding issues of decentralization today is the role that chiefs should play in the operations and machinery of the district assemblies (DAs) and the sub-district structures (Ayee, 2006). This is largely attributed to the barring of chiefs from active involvement in politics in the 1992 constitution, hence their lack of institutional representation in the various assemblies which has contributed to the -misgivings by most chiefs and also a position of non-cooperation which is quite evident in the attitude of both parties on integration. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 19 There seems to be a striking resemblance between developments in the North West Province of Cameroon and Ghana. Boafo-Arthur (2001) cited in Fokwang (2003) contends that the Ghanaian Constitution clearly prohibits chiefs from participating in “active politics” (1992 Constitution Article 276 (1) and Article 94 (3)) but not necessarily in the democratic process. This has led to division of the institution into two factions, on one hand, there is this group who argue that the constitutional provisions infringes on their civic and basic right by debarring them from active politics and on the other hand, which comprises a majority of the chiefs, maintain that, ‘a chief who dabbles in politics is likely to be treated no different from a politician who could be booed, hooted at and even insulted and this will ultimately discredit their institution. Boafo-Arthur, argues that many prominent chiefs are not respected because they are seen as ‘allies of the ruling government. Another reason given by the chiefs for abstaining in active politics was the danger of losing their respect as Father of everybody in their respective communities. Although chiefs are by nature politicians, joining political parties may set them against their subjects who may be members of other political parties; a partisan chief is likely to lose the respect if the party he openly identifies loses power; a non-partisan chief becomes the conscience of the nation with sufficient moral authority to call politicians to order when matters appear to be getting out of hand cited from Boafo-Arthur, (2001). Under the law, District Assemblies, have overall responsibilities for the development of the district (Owusu, 2005). From a historical perspective, there has been very little consistency in the role of chiefs in local administration Boafo-Arthur, (2001) and Arhin, (2002); cited in Owusu 2005). Also there have been little if any contributions from the chieftaincy institution in the form of any collaboration for local development. This absence in the working of chiefs in the Assemblies has meant that a potent force to the mobilization of the community at the local level University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 20 is lacking (Owusu, 2005). Again with the exception of state owned lands, the bulk of land resources are in the hands of the traditional authorities, who are to hold it in trust for their people. In his study of ‘Chieftaincy and the Modern State’, Fisiy (1995) argues that it is important to examine ‘the relation between their control over people and over resources’ the most important of which is Land. For most rural people he argues, ‘the control and management of land is at the heart of control over the people (Jua 1995). However due to the lack of collaboration of these two institution, most development projects are not realised and those that see the light of day are sometimes surrounded with disputes as to who should own the project. The structure of the traditional authorities in Ghana has been illustrated in figure 2 below. Figure 2.1: Structure of Traditional Authorities in Ghana Source: Owusu (2005) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 21 The traditional authority system has at its basis, the family. In each lineage or family group is a political unit with a headman who represents the lineage at the village council (Osei –Tutu 1994, 2000 cited in Owusu, 2005). Through this a system of hierarchy is developed in the following ascending order: Family/ Lineage Head; Village Headman/ Village Council (govern a village or a settlement); Divisional Chiefs (responsible for a group of settlements and responsible for the village head/ other sub divisional chiefs); Paramount Chief (political head of a traditional area or state) (Owusu, 2005). It should be noted however that modern day Ghana is made up of Traditional Areas, which are usually composed of semi-autonomous polities. They are usually defined in ethno linguistic terms as communities composed of people with primordial characteristics like common ancestry, origin history, language and culture. This is not to say that they are mutually exclusive, some of these entities are multifaceted, which suggest that the inhabitants are united under circumstances other than common ancestry and language alone (Owusu, 2005). There are 193 officially recognised Traditional Areas in Ghana (Osei-Tutu, 2005). This is made up of defined boundaries and a system of local government governed by traditional authorities in accordance to traditions and customs, these Traditional Areas constitute the primary constituency of chieftaincy in Ghana (Owusu, 2005). This is followed by the Regional House of Chiefs. It is the council for the national house of chiefs. There are ten regional houses of chiefs representing each region. Their functions include arbitration that is they are responsible for resolving disputes and all matters relating to the chieftaincy institution in their region. Also, the regional house of chiefs forms the basis where the government liaises with the traditional authorities in the region. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 22 Next is the National House of Chiefs. This is composed of paramount chiefs selected from the regional house of chiefs. They are the apex of traditional governance system. The law establishing the National House of Chiefs, The Chieftaincy Act (Act 370) of 1971 states that: The National House of Chiefs shall appellate jurisdiction in any matter relating to chieftaincy which has been determined by the house of chiefs in a region from which appellate jurisdiction there shall be an appeal with the leave of the Supreme Court or the National House of chiefs to the Supreme Court. (Chieftaincy Act, Act 370, Clause 22 (1) cited in Owusu, 2005) 2.3 Constitutional and Legal Provisions Preventing Chiefs from Direct Participation The place of traditional authorities has been guaranteed in the five constitutions which Ghana has had since independence, namely, the 1957, 1960, 1969, 1979 and 1992 constitutions (Ayee, 2007).Similarly, the National Decentralization Action Plan, 2003-2005 also recognizes that “traditional authorities are important partners in ensuring judicious natural resource management” (MLGRD, 2003). The Constitutional Commission’s proposals in 1978 also contained recommendations on the importance of traditional authorities. In spite of certain features which have often given cause for serious concern and the not altogether satisfactory record of some chiefs in national life, many remain convinced that the institution of chieftaincy has an important and indispensable role in the life and government of Ghana, both for the present and for the foreseeable future. They, therefore consider it right and University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 23 necessary that the institution should be protected and preserved by appropriate constitutional guarantees (Republic of Ghana, 1978: 96 in Aryee, 2007). However, this has been one if not the only traditional institution that has seen the most political interference. This is witnessed in the form of imposition by the British colonialism followed closely by ordinances which attempts to redefine the powers and jurisdiction of the chief, thus eroding their power and authority. These include; the Supreme Court ordinance of 1874, the native jurisdiction ordinance of 1910 and the Native Administrative bill of 1927. After Ghana’s republic status, we had the introduction of the courts act 1960 (Act 9). A unique feature of the 1992 Constitution is the provision in Article 276 that “A chief shall not take part in active party politics; and any chief wishing to do so and seeking election to Parliament shall abdicate his stool or skin”. However a chief may be appointed to any public office to which He is otherwise qualified. One could argue that these two provisions are contradictory in practice where on one hand a chief is barred from active politics whilst in the same breadth being eligible to be appointed to hold public office. Here a hint of partisanship could be detected as appointments are given to sympathizers and not necessarily qualified individuals. 2.4 The structure of the traditional Authority in Tema Metropolitan Assembly The Traditional authority in Tema Metropolis is embedded in the chieftaincy institution. The authority continues to play a pivotal role in the current governance system in the metropolis. There are three main traditional authorities in TMA; they are the Tema Manhean, Kpone and Nungua traditional authorities. The Tema Manhean and Kpone traditional authorities have their University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 24 seat of governance in the metropolis. The Nungua traditional authority however has their seat of governance in the Nungua area. They are both represented in the General Assembly and are very active in the Assembly’s activities. There is a cordial working relationship between the Assembly and the Traditional Authorities. This relationship stems from the fact that the current Chief of the Manhean Traditional area was formally an assembly man of the area. Also, before the assembly puts up a project, there is some consultation with the traditional rulers to identify the appropriate area and community that needs it most. Lastly, the assembly sometimes make pledges during the festival of the people to help the chief develop his community. 2.5 Functions and Activities of the Chieftaincy in Tema Metropolitan Assembly Over the years these traditional authorities have contributed immensely to the development of the Assembly. Under the local government system, chiefs can be appointed by the government to serve on assemblies. The traditional authorities such as the chief, queens, queen mothers, family heads, elders and traditional priests are agents of development in their communities and perform this role through the mobilization of both human and material resources for development. They often control the lands on behalf of the stools and families and are key to negotiate the use of lands, groves and forest with the assembly. They continue to form an important link between the local government and the people by acting as channels of communication through the dissemination of government policies and decisions to the people and also encourage their people to get involved in all of the Assembly’s activities. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 25 They are also critical in ensuring peace in their traditional areas, most especially on issues of traditions. Even on instances where such situations are sent to court, they are called upon to arbitrate at home due to their expertise in that area. This collaborative effort between the traditional authorities and the Assembly has made it easy in most cases for the Assembly to implement their plans without any confrontations with the people. 2.6 The Structure and Functions of Tema Metropolitan Assembly Ghana’s current programme of decentralization was initiated prior to the national democratic transition in the early 1990s (TMA D- PLAN).The current local government law (PNDC Law 207 of 1988 which has been superseded by the local government Act, 1993, Act 462) provides for the Metropolitan/Municipal/District Assemblies where two-thirds of the members of each assembly are elected by universal adult suffrage and one – third of the members appointed by the president in consultation with the chiefs and other interested groups in the district (Yankson, 2002). The structure of the local government system in Ghana has been illustrated below in figure 3. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 26 Figure 2.2: Structure of the Local Government System in Ghana Source: Ministry of Local government and Rural Development (November 1996) The Tema Metropolitan Assembly is divided into three (3) sub- metropolitan Districts. They are Manhean, Kpone and Tema west. Each Sub- Metropolitan District has a Sub- Metropolitan District council. The Council is made up of a chairperson elected by the Assembly members, elected members of the Assembly in the Sub-Metropolitan District and a number of adult residents in the sub- district. The total membership of the council is not less than twenty- five (25). The Sub-metropolitan district also has an administrative officer who is the secretary to the council. Regional Co-ordinating Council Metropolitan Municipal District Sub-Metropolitan Town Councils Zonal Councils Urban/Town/Area Unit Committees University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 27 2.7 Conceptual Framework 2.7.1 Empowerment and local development The sobering reality in Ghana is that development challenges run very deep. At the root of this cause is the empowerment of local people, institutions and organisations. Unfortunately, most development advocate prefer a quick fix to solving the poverty needs by paying attention to projects which are technically oriented and are ill-suited to local conditions. Empowerment as a concept lacks a unified conceptualization in both academic and management practice discourse. It is therefore still used loosely to describe a very wide range of schemes that, it is sometimes unclear if there is no comparing like with like (Wilkinson, 1998). Yet some researchers argue that seeking to attach only one understanding to the empowerment construct will ultimately hinder research and practice (Bartunek et al. 1907). Generally two distinct perspective have evolved over the years; structural and psychological empowerment. Structural empowerment refers to organisational policies, practices and structures that grant ‘employees’ greater latitude to make decisions and exert influence over regarding their work (Liden and Arad 1996, Elyon and Bamberger, 2000, Mills and Ungson, 2003). Consequently, researchers have identified organisational practices and structures that grant power in its many guises through knowledge and skill development, access to information, support, resources and responsibility as empowering (Kanter, 1997, Eylon and Bamberger, 2000). However in some institutions or organisations, power, knowledge, information and rewards have been shared, yet ‘employees’ still evinced disempowerment and in other situations all the objective features of empowering work climate were absent, yet employees felt empowered (Spreitzer and Doneson, 2005).The psychological empowerment perspective proposes that empowerment is a University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 28 constellation of experienced cognitions (Thomas and Velthouse 1990, Spreitzer 1995a). Building on Conger and Kanungo’s (1998) initial conceptualization of empowerment essentially as a process of enhancing feelings of self-efficacy Thomas and Velthouse (1990) and subsequently Spreitzer (1995a), described psychological empowerment in terms of intrinsic task motivation manifested by four dimensions, i) finds meaning in his or her work role, ii) feels competent with respect to his or her ability or capacity to perform, iii) has a sense of self determination with regard achieving the desired outcomes and iv) believes that he or she impact on the larger work environment (Thomas and Velthouse 1990, Spreitzer 1995a). Development projects do not exist in a vacuum. When a project begins, even as a rather abstract idea in the mind of an engineer, it gradually becomes part of a larger social, economic and political reality (Carias, 2011). In the literature around local development, one can find several definitions depending on the scope of interests, however for this dissertation, local development would be referred to as a close environment of a population including all stakeholders (Public or Private), within a confined geographical area/ territory, who share a feeling of common belonging and experience common constraints and benefits (Handicap International: Lyon 2001). According to (Murray and Hart 2002), local development incorporates the following characteristics. The first of which is that local development incorporates bottoms up approach. Here, the local needs and opportunities are deemed vital for the development of the community; hence it is appropriate that development priorities should be determined in an environment which reflects the interests of the local government, the business sector, community groups and voluntary organizations. This is not to disregard the top-down approach, which remains vital for University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 29 keeping a set of overarching policy, and strategic contexts and taking responsibility for some aspects of implementation. Secondly, it is integrative, here making connections with key stakeholders is deemed vital. This is to enhance the capacity for seamless policy making and smooth management. Thirdly, it is strategically driven. Again in order for local development to be effective there is a need for a clear direction based on local understanding of the local issues supported by a confident but realistic vision of the future. Lastly, Local development is collaborative. Here, there is the need for the involvement of multiple stakeholders, working together rather on individual basis. It embraces the volunteerism within the community and voluntary sectors, elected representatives, public officials and private sector participants. 2.7.2 Legitimacy by Max Weber Max Weber pioneered a path towards understanding how authority is legitimated as a belief system. His essay “The three types of legitimate rule” translated in English and published posthumously in 1958, is the clearest explanation of his theory. Weber’s three types of authority are traditional, charismatic, and legal-rational authority. Traditional authority is a form of leadership where its authority is derived from tradition or custom, Charismatic authority is found in a leader whose mission and vision inspires others. This is based on the perceived extraordinary characteristics of an individual. Legal and Rational authority is empowered by a formalistic belief in the content of the law (legal) or natural law (rationality). Here obedience is not given to a specific individual leader but rather a set of principles. Coser points out that Weber wrote about “pure” types of authority, and that “he was aware that in empirical reality mixtures will be found in the legitimating of authority” (Coser 1971, 227). As such, many examples of the authority types may overlap. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 30 For the purpose of this study, focus would be on traditional authority and its legitimacy. To some scholars “traditional authority” is synonymous with traditional chiefdom or ruler-ship. Here traditional authority is legitimated by the sanctity of tradition. This implies the ability and the right to rule is passed down from generation to generation often through hereditary. In fact Weber states: “The creation of new law opposite traditional norms is deemed impossible in principle.” Traditional authority is typically embodied in feudalism or patrimonialism. In a purely patriarchal structure, “the servants are completely and personally dependent upon the lord”, while in an estate system (i.e. feudalism), “the servants are not personal servants of the lord but independent men” (Weber 1958, 4). But, in both cases the system of authority does not change or evolve. This helps to explain the Ghanaian perspective of the traditional system and how it derives its legitimacy. Despite many calls to do away with such narrow scope (royal) of enstooling a chief and open up the selection process to popular mandate (voting), it has met some opposition who insist that only royals can and should ascend to the throne. Professor Donald I. Ray presented an overview paper on "Traditional Leadership and Local Government: Some Policy Questions for Consideration". The main argument of his paper was that the political legitimacy of traditional leaders should be added to the legitimacy of local government in order to expand the capability of local government in its efforts to promote development and democratization (Ray and Sharma, 1997). This he attributed to the fact that traditional leadership and the contemporary state make different appeals to people on the question of legitimacy, that is, the reasons why people obey authority. He noted that within the Commonwealth democracy incorporates diversity, difference and plurality. Thus differences in the bases of legitimacy of democratic contemporary government and traditional leadership do not mean that these are incompatible. The two main bases of University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 31 legitimacy for democratic government, he noted, includes local government, are appeals to democracy (including elections where all adult citizens vote) and constitutional-legal roots created during the colonial and independence periods. Traditional leaders draw much of their legitimacy from two roots which are pre-colonial and sacred in nature (Ibid, 1997). Thus in order to promote effective development and democratization, one will need to increase people’s acceptance of local government structures and policies. A large number of options on how to accomplish this were considered, from which Commonwealth members can choose. One set of options focused on different types of involvement of traditional leadership in local government (i.e. formal government structures). These ranged from reserving seats to joint committees of local government and chiefs. Another set of options examined local governance (i.e. both formal and unofficial structures and processes). The creation of networks of traditional leaders, officials and researchers (such as the Traditional Authority Applied Research Network - TAARN) was also suggested as being needed (Ibid, 1997). 2.8 Summary Empowering an ‘individual’ or an ‘institution’ has the ability to promote or build up and generate collective or group empowerment, which can effect change; to improve their community life conditions, providing care or help for the community, setting up community level education centres and so forth. Furthermore, ‘this individual’ or ‘institutional’ empowerment is reinforced by continued involvement with and support from the group (Evans, 1992). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 32 In Ghana, chiefs have long been central to the Ghanaian society. Today there is a general consensus that chieftaincy must be integrated somehow into local government but Ghanaians are not in agreement on the extent of this process. Common interest epitomized in local development seems to be a common denominator of the essence of traditional authority, governance and the republic. ‘Common interest regulates their concerns and forms their laws and the laws which common interest ordains, have a greater influence than the laws of government’ (Paine, 1792: 78 cited in Chake, 2008). An empowered Traditional Institution could complement rather than compete with modern authorities where the institution of chieftaincy work for the local development of their communities but then some means would have to be explored in order to open it to funding, resources, accountability, popular participation, public debates, morality, and responsiveness to the people’s aspirations. Given all the social and economic problems in the Tema Metropolitan Assembly, the chiefs need more than a day’s workshop to get on with the “programmes” and acquaint themselves with what is at stake in their communities. Yes they do need real government- formulated training in Public Administration, entrepreneurship and business skills in order to manage their towns and villages effectively. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 33 CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY 3.0 Introduction This chapter provides an account of the research design used for this research and its analysis. The chapter begins with the rationale for the adoption of a qualitative research design and further discuss the overall study design and the study’s data collection and the various activities used to collect data to answer the research question. The chapter will be divided into two sections. The first will focus on the research design whilst the second focuses on the data analysis. 3.1 Section I – Research Design 3.1.1 Adoption of a qualitative research design In a qualitative research, researchers are basically interested in understanding the meaning people have constructed, that is, how people make sense of their world and the experiences they have in the world (Merriam, 2009). This further adopted phenomenology research approach which focuses on understanding the individual’s lived opinions, perception, social meanings, social structure and process systems. There were compelling reasons for the selection of qualitative methodology for this research topic. • The study focus was the various actors and stakeholders in local development. These included the TMA and its assembly members as well as traditional authorities • The research does not seek causal determination, prediction and the generalization of findings; it rather seeks to understand the peculiar empowerment challenges and the issues of development which may be related to similar situations. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 34 • The method of inquiry included in-depth interviews, focus group discussions; where the interactions among individuals in the group served as the observational unit. Here questions and observation were aimed at drawing out individual experiences and perception by allowing the participants to talk about the issue at hand in their own words free of the constraints imposed by fixed response questions that are generally seen in quantitative studies and finally document analysis. • The data collected was then transcribed, coded and the themes generated were further interpreted. • The data sought were not merely factual, objective data to be discovered in published documents, policy statement and government statistics. To hear from different voices, alternative viewpoints, dissenting opinions and experience first-hand on how the various stakeholders perceive the issues of empowering the traditional authorities was considered important • Moreover, to get the feel of the process and the personalities involved, open ended questions were used to find out how respondents responded to the phenomenon in different ways. For example, why has the local assemblies attracted financial commitments from the central government to the detriment of the local traditional authority. The responses to this question could only be obtained through quantitative method which tremendously enhanced the study. Keeping in mind the study’s objectives, the research needed to result in a data repository sufficient to answer the research questions posed by the researcher which covered the four major research areas. A. Changing roles of Chiefs University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 35 B. Constitutional provisions barring chiefs C. Challenges of empowering Chiefs D. Possible recommendation to enhance participation of Chiefs in local development The character of the research demonstrates that a qualitative research approach is appropriate for this study. 3.2 Data Sources Since this was a qualitative study, multiple sources were consulted which resulted in a wealth of textual data. This section discusses the sources of data and the strategies to collect data. The study used three techniques to collect data: • Documentary evidence consisting of primary source material related to the chieftaincy institution, the assembly and local development • Guided interviews with key stakeholders in local development of the Tema Metropolis • Focus group discussions Data sources included an extensive literature review, documentary analysis, interviews and site visits. The data gathered from the chief’s palace, offices of the metropolitan assembly, the assembly members and the various divisional chiefs’ palaces. Additional data included extensive literature review consisting of already published data related to the research topic.For the purposes of this study the following sources were used for documentary data collection; • The 1992 Constitutional Provision on decentralization and roles functions of the traditional authorities. • Constitutional provisions barring chiefs from direct participation in local Assemblies Books and papers from renowned writers (authorities on the said topic) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 36 3.2.1 Data collected during the research took a number of forms; • Transcripts of interviews • Documents • Summaries • Abstracts of documents and research notes. 3.3 Target Population Target population is generally a large collection of individuals or objects that is the main focus of a scientific query (Castillo, 2009). The criteria for selection included: (1) Must be from the Tema Metropolitan Assembly; (2) Expertise on the subject matter; (3) Must have been in office not less than a term (for Assembly members); (4) Must play key role in the development of the metropolis. Thus for the purpose of this study, The Tema Traditional Council (TTC), made up of the Paramount and Divisional Chiefs and the Queen mothers, Tema Metropolitan Assembly and the Assembly members were the target population for this study. 3.4 Sampling technique: Purposive Sampling The sampling method used was purposive sampling technique, which was chosen due to the study’s objective and also keeping in mind that the selection criterion is relevant to the research question. Thus the participants were selected on a non-random basis which was theoretically University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 37 significant and not necessarily statistically representative. Qualitative studies typically use smaller samples selected through purposive techniques (Kemper & Teddlie, 2000). 3.4.1 Selecting Participants Purposive sampling targets a particular group of people most especially when the desired population for the study is quite difficult to locate and recruit for the study. The justification for the choice of sampling technique was informed by the nature and work of the respondents who are not stationary due to their busy schedule. The selection of the respondents was done in consultation with the supervisor and key staffs of the TMA due to their ability to identify the various actors in local development. Thus the sampled groups were selected from a population of sixty – four potential participants (64). This was made up of 34 respondents comprising of 20 assembly members for the focus group discussion who were picked based on their longevity in service to the assembly. The 2 officials from the Tema metropolitan assembly were picked based on their strategic position, expertise and their day to day interactions with the traditional authorities and assembly members on development issues. The 12 from the traditional authority’s council were made up of the Chief, the Queen mother, 2 divisional queen mothers, 8 divisional Chiefs from the Tema Traditional Council (TTC). They were picked due to their roles as front liners on issues with the chieftaincy institution and the development of their communities. The research was designed to inform the inclusion of the traditional authorities as active partners in local development and not just as custodians of the customs and traditions of the people. Thus for the purpose of this study the sampled group included the following; • The Metropolitan Public Relations Officer • The Metropolitan Development Planning Officer University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 38 • The Paramount Chief of the Tema Metropolitan Assembly (TMA) • Eight Divisional Chiefs of the (TMA) • The Queen mother of TMA • Two Divisional Queen mothers of TMA • Twenty Assembly members for the FGD 3.5 Instrument of data collection This included; • Tape recorder • Video Camera • Note pads for taking down notes • Interview guide • One page survey questionnaire 3.5.1 Interview Guide The interview guide was divided into four sections and this was made up of questions that will get the respondents to be free and express their opinions without fear of reproach. The first section seeks to find out the changing roles of chiefs during the Pre-colonial, Colonial and Post- colonial. The second section covers the various constitutional provisions barring chiefs from direct participation, with the third being the challenges involved in empowering the chiefs and the last section touching of recommendations for policy implications. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 39 3.6 Data collection 3.6.1 Qualitative Data Collection The focus was on explaining the results from the qualitative data collected. Data collection strategies included an extensive literature review, documentary analysis, in-depth interviews, site visits, informal observation and focus group discussions. An interview protocol was developed and used mainly an interview guide. Documentary evidence was used to validate the information obtained during the interviews and FGD. The participants were asked for consent before recording to avoid any confusion by debriefing them and providing them with information for clarity of the interview questions and their relevance to the study. Data collection was done in stages. 3.6.2 In-depth interview Fourteen in-depth interviews were conducted with each interviewee being interviewed at the time and place of their convenience. The intent of conducting the in-depth interview in this manner was to give respondents the opportunity to express their opinions freely which helped to identify the underlying concerns, consistencies, inconsistencies and explore strategies that would empower the institution of the TAs to make them active and equal partners in development. The interviewees comprised of the Chief, queen mother, two key officials from TMA, two divisional queen mothers and eight divisional Chiefs. The interviews were conducted separately. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 40 3.6.3 Focus group discussions The focus group discussion was held in two sessions and this had a total of two hours and twenty six minutes (2hrs 26mins). The initial session was held with 10 participants. The initial session was held with 10 participants made up of assembly members who had served a minimum of 12 years comprising of 3 terms and a maximum of 16 comprising of 4 terms in their capacity as assembly members in active duty, where a term in office is made up of four years. The second session was made up of 10 participants who took a similar trend. This however involved people who had served in the assembly with a minimum of 4 years which is just a term and a maximum of 8 years, which is 2 terms. Both sessions took 46 minutes and 1hour 10 minutes respectively. Table 3.1: Focus Group Discussion Sessions GROUPS NO. OF PARTICIPATS TERM OF OFFICE (YEARS) DURATION OF FGD GROUP 1 10 12-16 years 46 minutes GROUP 2 10 4- 8 years 1hour 10 minutes The intention behind conducting the focus group discussion session in this manner was to probe for and examine based on their experience on the challenges and how the chieftaincy institution could be made an equal partner in development. It is important to note that these research sessions with the assembly members were highly qualitative by design to elicit information about factors that may influence or be indicative of opinions and attitudes and actions. It cannot be assumed, however that the information revealed is either definitive or representative of the population as whole. Here the analysis was focused on how each interviewee responded to each University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 41 issue, which enabled the researcher to explore the connections and relationship between the issues presented above, whilst highlighting issues of interest. 3.7 Data analysis and Presentation Qualitative data collection and analysis are distinct but related processes. According (Marshall and Rossman, 1995), the two procedures “go hand in hand to promote the emergence of substantive theory grounded in empirical data”. Participants’ interviews were transcribed verbatim as interviews as interviews were completed. The process begun with an analysis of the transcribed audio taped interviews leading to intimate familiarity with the words, descriptions, meanings and personal narrative of participants. The constant comparison method allowed categories to emerge directly from the data by coding, categorizing and comparing bits of data within individual cases as well as among different cases. Each participant’s transcript was colour coded. Through the process of sifting the data, a series of themes and patterns emerged embodying both personal and social aspects of each individual’s experience. The data was grouped by developing a set of categories so that each criterion (or set of criteria) which helped distinguish some observation from others. First, similar bits of data and themes were highlighted by colour coding each data bit. Second, preliminary rules of inclusion were written and preliminary category names were established. Category refinement was an on-going process. Some of the tentative categories that appeared similar were combined, sub categories were created and the rules of inclusion were revised. Third each colour coded data bit was read several times, paying attention to the various themes. Each category was then coded with its own symbol and corresponding descriptive phrase. Examples of emerging themes are listed below; • Practical changes that have taken place University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 42 • Rights and responsibilities and how these effect local development Plural legal systems of statutory and customary laws 3.8 Section II – Background of the Study Area 3.8.1 Introduction This chapter provides an in depth description of the area under study and the justification for choosing the metropolis for this particular research. It touches on its locations and size, population, culture, traditional set up, governance and the structure of the economy. 3.8.2 Location and size Tema Metropolitan Assembly is a coastal district at the eastern side of Ghana, situated about 30 kilometres east of Accra and this serves as the eastern gateway of Ghana’s economic development. It shares boundaries on the North East with the Dangme West District Assembly (DWDA), Southwest by Ledzokuku Krowor Municipal Assembly, North West by Adentan Municipal Assembly and the Ga East Municipal Assembly (GEMA), North by the Akuapim South District Assembly and the South by the Gulf of Guinea. The Ashaiman Municipal Assembly is an in-lock enclave within the TMA. The Metropolis covers an area of about 396km2 and lies within the coastal savannah zone. The Greenwich Meridian (i.e. Longitude 0º) passes through the Metropolis, which meets the equator or latitude 0° in the Ghanaian waters of the Gulf of Guinea. The southern tip of the Metropolis lies on latitude 5º41” North. The Metropolis proximity to the sea with its low lying terrain which projects into the sea makes it a natural endowment for a harbour. This evidently University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 43 informed the decision of the construction of the Tema Harbour in 1957, making the metropolis “the Eastern Gateway of Ghana”. Below is a map of the study area. 3.8.3 Map of the Tema Metropolitan assembly University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 44 3.8.4 Population According to the 2000 Ghana Population and Housing Census and Household Survey, the total population of the Metropolis was 298,432 with males and females forming 49% and 51% of the population respectively. With a growth rate of 2.6%, the population as at the time GPRS II (2006) was prepared was estimated at 348,815; subsequently the current population size could be estimated at 387, 045 and expected to reach 418, 444 by the end of the planning period (2013). The Metropolitan population growth rate of 2.6% per annum is quit on the low side when compared with the regional and national figures of 4.4% and 2.7% respectively. 3.8.5 Culture The culture of the people of Tema is seen in their way of life. These include their inherited ideas, beliefs, values and knowledge. Since culture is dynamic in nature it must be noted that some practices of the people have undergone major changes over the years. 3.8.6 Traditional Set Up Tema was created out of a cluster of small fishing villages. History has it that “Torman”, as it was originally called was founded by a migrating people called the ‘Kpeshie’s’ who were Gas. On arriving they came along with the gourd plant, which they planted at their new-found site. The seeds thrived very well producing lots of gourds and the area was referred to as “Torman”, meaning a town of gourds, which stood at where the defunct Meridian Hotel is located. The traditional people were later relocated to their present location at Tema Manhean in 1961 when the Tema Harbour was constructed. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 45 There are three major traditional areas in the Tema Metropolitan Area, namely, Kpone, Tema and Nungua. The traditional festivals celebrated by the people are namely Kpledzoo and Homowo. “Kpledzoo” is celebrated between March and April whiles “Homowo”, which literally means Hooting at hunger is celebrated from July to September every year. During these festivals people from all walks of life in the traditional area are brought together for the celebration. The indigenous occupation of the people is fishing and is forbidden for fishermen to go to sea on Tuesdays. This deprives fishmongers and others engaged in fishing activities of their income for the day, and as such some form of revenue is lost to the Assembly. For the people in Kpone it is forbidden to fry fish caught in the Gao and Lalooi Lagoons. 3.8.7 Communal Spirit The communal spirit of the people in Tema depends on one’s location. Settlers in the township find it difficult to respond to calls for community mobilization especially those living in Urban Tema. However, for those in the rural communities they respond on the average to calls from their chiefs, elders and Assembly members to participate in communal labour. They also pay up levies for purposes of development in their respective communities. 3.8.8 Political Structure of the Assembly (local government structure) Ghana’s current programme of decentralisation was initiated prior to the national democratic transition in the early 1990s. In 1988, the PNDC government introduced a major piece of legislative reform, the Local Government Law (PNDC Law 207). This created 110 designated districts within Ghana’s ten regions, with non-partisan District Assembly (DA) elections held initially in 1988/89 and subsequently every four years (1994, 1998, and 2002). In addition to the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 46 two-thirds of DA members elected on an individual, non-party basis, one-third was appointed by central government, along with a chief executive for each district. The Local Government Act 462 1993 and Local Government Legislative Instrument LI 1929, established the TMA on the 1st day of November 2007 under the decentralisation system to take control of the day-to-day running of the city. TMA was empowered by the law with deliberative, executive and legislative responsibilities. The Assembly was tasked to make laws, including the rules and byelaws which give legal effect to decisions and also mobilize resources to undertake developmental programmes and activities. The General Assembly is the main body in the Assembly responsible for formulating laws and policies in the district. The Membership of the General Assembly stands at sixty (60). The Assembly meets at least three times in a year. The members are drawn from the Metropolitan Chief Executive, the fifty- six (56) Assembly members of which thirty- seven (37) are elected and nineteen (19) appointed by the president in consultation with the traditional authorities and other opinion leaders and the three members of parliament from the Tema west, Tema East and Kpone Katamasu constituencies which fall under the jurisdiction of TMA. However the three members of parliament do not have voting right during voting at Assembly meetings. The Assembly members are elected every four years through the Universal Adult Suffrage. These members are expected to keep close contact with their electoral area, consult their people on issues discussed at the Assembly and collate their views and opinions and present to the Assembly. However the lack of finance makes it difficult for the Assembly members to carry out University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 47 this responsibility. As a result of this, there is absence of grass root participation in local governance at the metropolis. This has resulted in lack of community acceptance and ownership of projects thus making these projects not sustainable. The Assembly members elect one representative among them to serve as the presiding member who presides over the General Assembly meetings. The presiding member is elected once every two years and is eligible to stand for re-elections. 3.9 Structure of the Local Economy 3.9.1 Agriculture The local economy of Tema Metropolis is made up of Agriculture, Industry and Commerce/Services. The industrial and the service sectors form the backbone of the local economy as it employs majority of the labour force. A significant number of the people are also engaged in agriculture, these include food crop farming livestock and fishing and this employs about 19.0% of the population. This however is largely on subsistence basis. The fishing sector plays a key role as the economic nerve of the metropolis. This can be grouped into four main key players i.e. the fishermen, canoe owners, fish mongers and cold store operators. Cassava fish, herrings, salmon are some of the catch by the fishermen. These key players in the fishing industry can be identified by their various groupings in terms of cooperatives/associations. Notable among them are the Canoe Owners’ Association, the Cold Store Operators Association, the Fishermen Association and the Fish Mongers Associations. The formation of these associations can help them access soft loans from the financial institutions to University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 48 help expand the industry. . It is worth noting that the service sector is growing at a faster rate and employs more women than men. This can be attributed to low skills and education required before getting into the sector. These associations face various challenges that threaten their ability to stand as a unified force. Some of these challenges are: • High cost of outboard motors; • Interferences from pair trolleys; • Lack of management capacities to run cooperatives; • High cost of fuel; • High cost of other fishing gear; • Damaging of nets by ships without compensation; and • Lack of docking space for the large number of canoes. 3.9.2 Manufacturing Industries The Metropolis serves as one of the industrial hubs of the country and therefore harbours most of the industries in the country. The country’s biggest Port and Harbour facilities are situated in Tema, and they contribute substantially to the revenue of the State as well as the metropolis. Among the major manufacturing industries in the Tema Metropolis are those that produce chemicals, clothing, consumer electronics, electrical equipment, furniture, machinery, refined petroleum products, steel, and tools. There are numerous factories located in the metropolis but only 245 have registered and pay their business operation permit fee to the Assembly. The payment of the Business Operating Fee contributes to the generation of internal revenue to the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 49 Assembly. These are categorized into 8 major areas – Chemical, Textiles, Food Processing, Engineering, Paints, Fish Cold Stores, Printing and Woodwork industries. A number of light industrial estates have also been zoned for use by persons engaged in mechanical repairs, namely Kpone Light Industrial estate, Community 9 Light Industrial Area. However, pockets of such mechanics can still be found scattered in the Metropolis. 3.9.3 Commerce/ Services By virtue of its location, the Tema Port serves as a conduit for the flow of a wide range of goods to and from other parts of the country as well neighbouring countries like Togo, Benin, and Nigeria and beyond. Thus, the development of an appropriate bulk breaking market within the Metropolis can therefore be seen as an important step towards enhancing economic and social growth in Tema. The service sector in the metropolis covers a wide range of tertiary activities. These include hairdressing, driving, selling and petty trading, tailoring and dressmaking. Most of these activities are carried out usually on small scale. 3.9.4 Land management As part of the resources for development, land and its management is a major source of dispute in the municipality. The metropolis comprises of two district planning areas. These are the Tema Acquisition area, which is administered by the Tema Development Corporation (TDC) and the non- Acquisition Area which though is owned by the traditional authorities is managed by the Tema Metropolitan Assembly with the help of the Town and country planning department. The land use plan was prepared in the 1960 based on the concept of self- sufficiency per community and the neighbourhood Concept of Town planning. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 50 Before the establishment of TMA (by Act 462), the Tema Development Co-operation-TDC, established by L.I 1468 ensured the appropriate development of the Acquisition Area. Currently this area also falls under the jurisdiction of TMA. This situation has resulted in the overlapping of planning functions which continues to breed a lot of conflict on issues between the two planning authorities. For instance, most residents report that development permits acquired from TDC are normally annulled by TMA and vice-versa. Unlike other districts where majority of the lands are under the stool lands, this is however not the case in the Tema Metropolitan Assembly, where most of its lands have been acquired by the government for development. Thus the chiefs do not have much say on those lands that have been acquired by the government, however, on the on – acquired lands, the chiefs collaborate with the planners of the Land that is TMA who determine what project should be done on a particular piece of land with some inputs from the Tema Traditional Council. 3.10 Summary The aim of this chapter was to provide an overview of the research methodology. The qualitative research is relatively more subjective research discipline compared to quantitative method. This helped in understanding the survey responses. Ultimately, this design seemed appropriate for research that does require either extensive, deep analysis of qualitative data or multivariate analysis of quantitative data. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 51 CHAPTER FOUR DISCUSSION OF RESULTS 4.0 Introduction The interview transcripts were studied for coding purposes. In response to the semi-structured questions in the interview protocol, responses were then grouped into several emerging themes. This information was then segmented (Tesch, 1990) into various themes to help direct the discussion of the results. This process of transcript analysis was done manually without the use of computer software. Two other colleagues assisted with the analysis of the data thus increasing the internal validity of the data. This chapter presents the findings and analysis of the findings which was looked at in two parts. The first part focused on the presenting the findings of the research while the second part deals with the analysis. 4.1 PART I: PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS This part presents the findings of the interview questions through descriptive analysis under the following broad themes whiles addressing the various sub themes that emerged during the discussion. • Changing roles of Chiefs • Constitutional provisions barring chiefs • Challenges of empowering Chiefs 4.1.1 Changing roles of Chiefs A total of 34 key respondents in local development were included in the research. Inferential analysis was then carried out to investigate the relationship between empowering the TAs to earn the mandate and the people and the ability to undertake various development interventions in the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 52 community effective. The research questions touched on the educational background, business activities and the economic activities of its people. The purpose of this was to ascertain the changed roles, the current strength of the TAs, the gaps and their current relevance. 4.1.1.1 Background Information Table 4.1: Personal Information DIVISIONAL AREA Educational Background Period of Reign Business Ventures/ activities Economic activities of its people ASHAIMAN Technical Over 15 years (Deceased) Technician Farmers KLAGON Secondary 11years Farmer Farmers ADJEI KOJO Technical 4 years Technician Farming ZEINU Technical 11 years (Deceased) Cattle Farmer Farming KUBEKLO Secondary 11 years Cattle Farmer Farming SAKUMONO Secondary 11 years Driver (VRA) Fishing ADIGON Secondary 11 years Farming Farming SASABI Secondary 11 years Farming Farming Tema Manhean Secondary Over19 years Contractor Fishermen/ Commerce/ Industry 4.1.1.2 Educational Background ( level of insight into global changes and demands) From the table above, technical and secondary education appeared to be the highest level of academic qualification attained by the Chiefs. According to the chiefs, during the post- colonial era, achieving higher educational standard was not a criterion for the selection of a chief, however, due to the gradual move towards the new paradigm of gaining an academic University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 53 qualification in order to compete effectively in the global village, Chiefs are being encouraged to seek higher education to give them an edge in dealing with issues of development of their inhabitants. Out of the 9 divisional chiefs interviewed in the Tema Metropolitan Assembly, all have been through second cycle education with none attaining a tertiary education or any professional education. This is depicted in figure 5.1 below. Figure 4.1: Educational Background 4.1.1.3 Period of Reign( acceptability) In Ghana succession to the throne is hereditary and the general practice was that a new chief succeeded a dead Chief through confirmation of the kingmakers. According the Chiefs to be crowned, one needed to be a royal. Destoolment of any Chief only occurs when his subjects are displeased with some actions the Chief had taken. If he rules with fairness, he stays on the throne till he dies. In most cases where disputes arise as to who should be the rightful heir to the throne, such cases tend to prolong because succession to the throne has not been clearly documented. However in situation where the Chiefs are considered to be fair and dully appointed, their subjects entrust them to rule over them, expecting him to be pro-active by bringing development to the community thus gaining the mandate of the people. From the above table, eight out of the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 54 nine chiefs have ruled their jurisdiction for over ten years, also, it’s been indicated that two out of the nine chiefs are currently deceased. This is depicted in figure 5.2 below. Figure 4.2: Period of Reign 4.1.1.4 Business Ventures/ activities The next was to find out if their funding sources have changed. However due to the lack of support in the day to day running of their office, majority of chiefs have resulted in engaging themselves in some form of a business venture to support themselves. Thus from the table, of the nine chiefs interviewed, Two are technician, One is a driver, Two are Cattle farmers, One is a contractor and the remaining three are crop farmers. This is depicted in figure 5.3 below. Figure 4.3: Business Venture University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 55 4.1.1.5 Economic activities of its people ( the viability of the town) The local economy of Tema Metropolis is made up of Agriculture, Industry and Commerce/Services. The industrial and the service sectors form the backbone of the local economy as it employs majority of the labor force. A significant number of the people are also engaged in agriculture, these include food crop farming livestock and fishing and this employs about 19.0% of the population. This however is largely on subsistence basis. This has however not seen much change. This is depicted in the figure 5.4 below which shows that 7 out of the 9 divisions are engaged in farming activities with 1 division going into fishing due to its location near the sea and the remaining division engaging in Commerce and Industry. Figure 4.4: Economic Activities of the People University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 56 Table 4.2: Development Interventions (self-initiative) DIVISIONAL AREA DEVELOPMENT INTERVENTIONS SOURCE OF FUNDING ROLE PLAYED BY CHIEFS ASHAIMAN Schools, Health Centre, TMA/ Private Individuals Provided the Land KLAGON School TMA Provided the Land and Labor ADJEI KOJO Schools, Market KVIP TMA/ Private Individuals/ Traditional Authorities Provided land and Proceeds from Lands Sold ZEINU KVIP TMA/ Traditional Authority Proceeds from lands sold, labor KUBEKLO Boreholes, Feeder roads TMA/ Traditional Authority Provided Land and Some proceeds from land sold SAKUMONO Schools, Health Centre, Market TMA Provided Land ADIGON Boreholes TMA Provided Land and Labor SASABI KVIP TMA Provided land and labor Tema Manhean Schools, KVIP, Health Centre TMA/ TDC/ Traditional Authorities Provided Lands 4.1.1.6 Development Interventions There are three levels of development interventions. The first is at the structural level, which includes broad programmes of societal change, the second level deals with the government. The third level is at the grassroots, community base. For the purpose of this study the focus was on the third level which is the grass root level where the Traditional Authorities are active agents in propagating for local development. Hence the focus was to find out what are the various development interventions at the local level. From the above table two (2), development University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 57 interventions at the grass root level range from building of schools, constructing boreholes, building of health centres, construction of feeder roads, markets and KVIPs. Out of the nine divisional areas, five had access to school infrastructure, two areas are also benefiting from Health Centres, and two areas also have a market infrastructure and KVIPs respectively. Figure4.5: Development Interventions 4.1.1.7 Source of Funding for Development Interventions The purpose of development interventions is to support the empowerment of the people to give them greater control over their lives. These interventions require funding. The Challenge here is the source of the funds. The quest here was to find out where most of the development intervention gets their source of funding. From the above table, it could be noted that majority of the development interventions receive their funding from Central Government through the Tema Metropolitan Assembly their representative in the District, this is followed by the Traditional Authority who mostly give out lands and also some proceeds from the lands sold to undertake certain development projects in their communities, followed by the Tema Development Council. From figure 5.6 below out of the four sources of funding for development projects, TMA provides he majority of the funds where their involvement is felt in all the nine divisional areas, University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 58 followed by the traditional authorities with some contributions strongly felt in 4 out of the nine regions, this is followed by private individuals with their presence in 2 divisions and lastly the Tema Development Council with its presence strongly felt in one division. Figure 4.6: Source of Funding 4.1.1.8 Role Played by the Traditional Authorities Chiefs are generally considered to be a major stakeholder in the development of their various communities. Thus this aspect sought to find out the roles these chiefs play in the various development interventions in their communities. From the figure 5.7 below, eight out of the nine divisions contributed by providing land for the various development interventions, with four out of the nine providing assistance in the form of land and labour. Figure 5.7: Roles Played by Traditional Authorities University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 59 4.2 PART II: ANALYSIS OF FINDINGS The term “empowerment” was redefined by analysing the continuum of change for analytical purposes spanning little to considerable changes for a number of variables and its effect on local development in the main research question so that the correct measure of empowerment is adopted by addressing the various sub-themes that emerged. This reveals the underlining misgivings, showing why things were the way they are and the way forward. The challenges and prospects of empowering traditional authorities in local development overall explored: • Changing roles of Chiefs • Constitutional provisions barring chiefs • Challenges of empowering Chiefs • Possible recommendations to enhance participation of chiefs in local development 4.2.1 Changing Roles of Chiefs Respondents expressed their views indicating some knowledge about how these changes have affected the roles chiefs used to play in their communities in terms of development. This was looked at in three different stages; these were, the pre- colonial, colonial and after independence. 4.2.1.1 Pre- colonial Due to its historical tone, the respondents were quite hesitant in expressing their views citing little knowledge about the historical background, however as the discussion proceeded, respondents were able to come up with issues they thought were forgotten. Under the pre- colonial stage, the chiefs were known as the overlord and custodians of the land and its people. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 60 The general impression running through all the interviews was that during those periods the chiefs were a force to reckon with and their decision was final. 4.2.1.2 Colonial According to the respondents, the advent of the colonial powers saw the beginning of the subjugation of the traditional authority. Also the colonial government exercised minimal control over tribal structures, thus they basically used indirect rule by borrowing legitimacy from the traditional authorities for the implementation of colonial policies. One issue of interest that came up was that of taxation and this was brought up by a member of the Traditional Council. According to him taxing the people directly came to a halt. Once indirect rule was implemented, the chiefs became responsible to the colonial powers, thus a percentage of monies collected by the chief had to be given to the colonial authority. This the Chief explained to be the beginning of the curbing of their powers and authority as over lords of their subject. 4.2.1.3 Post-colonial / Independence Most scholarly interest of the chieftaincy institution was focused around this period. It also witnessed the most comments and some discomforts from the interviewees. The general agreement was that there has been some curbing in the control, power and authority of the chiefs. However the TMA officer was quite sceptical as to whether the chiefs have lost total control of his people. Another issue of interest that came up from the interview with the Traditional Council (TC) was that, development of their communities has to be done in partnership with the metropolitan assembly, thus giving the chief (the owners of the land) the benefit of fulfilling their mandate to develop the communities in which they are located, unlike the former periods which saw them as University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 61 the leaders in initiating any development projects in their locality. Thus development of the community is currently in the hands of the Assembly who are the planners of the Metropolis. 4.2.1.4 Roles of chiefs in the Current Political dispensation According to the officials from the Assembly, there is a provision in their planning guidelines that mentions chiefs as stakeholders when it comes to the development of the districts and also at the assembly level they are represented by their own selected representatives. The chiefs on the other hand claim that any development projects undertaken by them must have the approval of the assembly, thus despite being owners of the land they acknowledge the fact that TMA is the planner for the land, hence the need to collaborate for effective development. Again the TAs were quite surprised about the issues raised by the assembly’s assertion that the chiefs were stakeholders in development. Clearly one can see the inconsistency in the responses for both stakeholders of development in the locality. If such a clause really exists, then it should not be difficult in involving the chiefs in the development of the district, however, the difficulty here lies in the fact that even though such a clause might exist, it’s not been fully implemented which might be the cause of confusion among the various stakeholders. 4.2.1.5 Stakeholders According to the Chief, any development undertaken by them must first receive approval from the assembly who are the planners of the land despite owning the lands (in trust). There is a provision in the planning guidelines that mentions the chiefs as stakeholders when it comes to the districts. However the chiefs’ claim there is little or no collaboration between them and the assembly since they are hardly ever invited to any of the assemblies monitoring and evaluation exercises. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 62 4.2.1.6 The mandate of the people According to the TAs their authority is derived from the people. This is further buttress by (Ayittey, 1992) in his book, “Africa betrayed”, that the authority of the TAs was derived from the societies in which they rule with the help of a council of elders and set of rules and customs. This in a way prevented the chiefs from taking any unilateral decisions without the consent of his people which could lead to losing his subject if such a stand is taken. Also from the responses one could see some traces of democracy creeping into the system where some of the respondents believe the system should be open for anyone to be part through elections and not necessarily belonging to a royal family. 4.2.1.7 Development interventions (Self Initiation) In terms of development the TAs were solely responsible for the immediate needs of its people. During the pre-colonial era, however due to the huge financial commitment and virtually little or no source of funding, the chiefs were quick to relinquish this role to the assembly. This raised some division among the respondents. One side agreed to the move citing financial constraints whiles the other questioned the commitment of the TAs to the development of their communities. The TAs further claimed the move has helped them to amass some wealth for themselves. 4.2. l.8 Collaborating for local development The general response was that there is a healthy collaboration between the assembly and the TAs which has helped in most cases for the assembly to implements their plans without any confrontation from the chief and his people. The assembly members on the other hand recount some difficulty with the TAs in carrying out their duties in the communities. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 63 4.2.1.9 Information Dissemination On disseminating information, majority of the respondent agreed that information on various development projects should be made public and not be shrouded in secrecy as it will enable the people know who to hold accountable when such projects stall or are completely abandoned. They also agreed that information dissemination is a two way affair, however that of the assembly and the TAs have gotten poorer over the years and this has contributed to the underlying friction between the two main stakeholders which in turn slows down the development process due to suspicion from either party. According to the United Nations Human Development Report (UNDP, 2003), the contemporary understanding of participation is a means of bringing individuals closer to social, economic, cultural and political processes which directly affect their lives and affords them the role as a responsible citizen. 4.2.1.10 Comparing Changing roles of chiefs Compared to the past where the chiefs were the overlords and the sole authority, one could clearly see a decline in the roles played by the traditional authorities in terms of developing their various communities. According to the chief these changes in the roles of any development projects in their communities has accelerated the development of the metropolis. In his explanation, citing the huge amount involved in executing such project and the limited resources available to the traditional council, the local government system came at the opportune time to ease the burden on the TAs and in the same course accelerate the pace of development. The TAs uncharacteristically quickly relinquished the role they played as a pivot in the development of their communities, due to the ‘huge financial commitment’, to the Assembly. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 64 This makes one question how true the assertion ‘that chiefs are just ceremonial heads and should not be tasked to do more’. One might find this assertion quite harsh but if the once pioneers of development are quick to relinquish that hold, attributing it to financial difficulties, one just has to wonder whether the assembly members are right in their assertion. On the other hand, the chiefs could not be faulted looking at the huge financial investment involved in getting such projects completed. The assembly members on the other hand, still hold on to belief that even though the assembly has taken over most of the development projects, the Chief still plays a pivotal role in arbitration especially on issues of conflicts in the traditional council and even where the courts are involved in such cases, in the long run they are taken out of courts to be settled at home. Thus they are still consulted in their field of competence that is dealing with traditional issues. This makes them quite relevant because a peaceful nation would develop at a much faster rate compared to that which is witnessing one conflict after the other example the Northern region of the country. There have been several reasons that have been attributed to the changing roles of chiefs. These reasons ranged from the interventions of the colonial powers to the various constitutional provisions right down to the introduction of the of the local government system. This issue however generated a unanimous agreement on the fact that the main issues that accounted for the changing roles of chiefs was the introduction of the political system of governance and currently the decentralization system which has introduced grass root participation has accounted for the change in their roles. With the coming into effect of the of the local government system, the activities and duties of the chiefs have been taken over. Thus the issue of nation building coming from the central University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 65 government is still causing the chiefs to lose their resources as people do not see the reason to give to the chiefs due to their limited roles now. On the other hand the TC claimed that such a measure has rather helped them in amassing some wealth. This they attributed to the fact that since they are now partners in development with the assembly, the pressure on them to bring out monies for development have been reduced if not totally lifted. Generally, there is less transparency than before. This is due to the fact that there has been several instances where monies given to chiefs cannot be accounted for and due to their reverence and respect for the throne, monies given out cannot be asked to be accounted for. 4.2.1.11 Traditional Authority and Local Development The general response here was that, there is a healthy collaboration between the assembly and the chieftaincy institution which has made it easy in most cases for the assembly to implement its plans without any confrontations with the people. This is however not the case from the perspective of the Assembly members who insinuated that in executing their duties there has been instances where they had had some confrontations with the chiefs over various issues of interest in the development of the locality. In the local government systems, the chiefs are needed to the play the role as stakeholders by acting as the go between the indigenes and the assembly. This is because they live with the people in the community and can best tell the needs of the people in their community. Thus they relay the concerns of the people to the assembly whilst bringing back the assembly’s development agenda to the people in the community, for instance the planning guidelines says that they should be one of the key stakeholders University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 66 4.2.2 Constitutional Provisions Barring Chiefs The 1992 constitution guarantees existence of the chieftaincy institution. However, it refers to customary laws and usage as the source of their functions and powers which has raised lots arguments with concern to their role in our current constitutional dispensation. 4.2.2.1 Customary laws After several probing the interviewees stated some of these laws that the constitution refers to, the chief could only come up with just two, this could imply that either these laws are no more being practised or are extinct due to the introduction of the judiciary and the police system or have not been documented. However if one cannot readily identify such provision how would one know if one is in bridge of the said provision, thus bringing to bare the need for the documentation of such provisions in order not to throw away such rich customs and tradition. 4.2.2.2 Law and Order (Enforcement) According to the chief, the key to getting people to listen to and obey their directives is to educate them. Thus people are educated on the norms and practices of the community in which they reside. Also they do have people from the law enforcement agency who come over to educate the people on the do’s and don’ts as they in turn also enforce their rule which should not be in bridge of any constitutional provisions. Fortunately for the chief of the Tema traditional council there has not been many of such instances were force had to be applied and this has been attributed to the great respect their subjects have for them due to their role as champions of their traditions and customs and preserving these traditions for future children. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 67 Under the pre-colonial stage the Chiefs were known as the overlord and custodians of the land and its people. They were also the final arbiter in the administration of Justice. However, where the systems functioned well, the institutional checks as well as the Queen mother safeguard against dictatorial tendencies. As Busia observed, “the chief had to keep strictly the injunction that he was to act only on the advice of his elders”, he ruled by consensus and indeed, he could be destooled or dethroned for violating the trust, sanctions or taboos of the state as well as for incompetence. The general impression during the discussion was that, during those periods the TAs were force to reckon with and their decision was final. It also came to bare that even though the assembly has taken over most development projects, the TAs still played a vital role in conflict resolution especially on issues pertaining to the tradition and culture of the people. In instances where the courts are involved in such cases, these cases in long run are taken out of court to be settled at the Chief’s palace. 4.2.2.3 Social Stability “A peaceful nation would develop at a much faster rate compared to that which is witnessing one conflict after the other”, this was the view shared by majority of the respondents. The TAs were the political, social, economic, legal and military head of the traditional state. As the political head, he was responsible for the maintenance of good order in his state. According to Schapera (1995), the TAs had the sole mandate of their subjects, hence mobilizing them for any development project was easy because of the goodwill they enjoyed from the people. However this peace is currently being threatened by the on-going dispute over who is the rightful heir to the throne with some pockets of conflict which are easily resolved because of the metropolitan nature of the community which makes it difficult for people to form factions and alliances. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 68 4.2.2.4 Cultural Norms According to the TAs, the key to getting people to listen to and obey their directives in modern day Ghana, is to educate them. Thus the people are educated on the norms and practices of the community in which they reside. Also the law enforcement agencies sometimes come over to the community to educate the people. Fortunately for the Chief Tema Metropolis has enjoyed some calm devoid of instances were force had to be applied due to the great respect their subjects have for them. 4.2.2.5 Change and Innovation In Ghana, neither the Constitution nor the Local Government act had made any provision for the institutional representation of chiefs in either the district assemblies or the sub-district structures or even spelt out what kind of relationship should exist between the assemblies and the traditional authorities. This seemingly purposive silence according to Dr. Mahama in his remark at a consultative workshop on twenty years of decentralization in Ghana makes the assemblies to stay clear from the traditional authorities while others forge an informal relationship with the TA’s in their localities to facilitate the execution of development. Despite provisions barring assembly members from aligning themselves to any political party, the some respondents attest to the fact that members however have their party intonation and hence a chief would have to belong to one or the other divide. This assumption was however debunked by others who stated emphatically that assembly membership is strictly on partisan basis. There is however a slight problem with his submission. The constitution specifically states that for a chief to become a member, he would be doing so in his capacity as a chief, hence he University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 69 would be treated equally with all the other appointees, which might not auger well for the chief and his position. The chiefs on other hand admitted that they have an influence over their people so the mere mention of chief aligning himself to any political party spells doom for the institution and its operations in the community and alienate anyone who does not share his political ideals. However there have been some instances where the various political parties have had to go to the chief’s palace to seek their approval during electioneering year and these has sparked some debates in the media as to their neutrality to party politics. It should however be noted that the underlining assumptions here is that the assembly and its members are divided along political lines and would make it quite difficult for a chief to remain politically neutral. Also before the decentralization system, the chiefs were in charge of organising their people for communal labour and this was easily organised by their chiefs. In the olden days development was measured by how to keep the community clean and make sure that their basic needs like toilet and water is provided for and the chiefs were the engineers of such development. Currently development has taken another dimension which includes the provisions of lights, dual carriage roads, electricity dams, (high technology). However such an authority no more resides with the chiefs but rather the local government system, which goes further to buttress the initial assessment of the roles of chiefs being reduced to just ceremonial functions in their community. It was quite interesting to note that all the people interviewed where however quick to disagree with the calls for the abolishment of the institution. Despite attributing different reasons for their disagreement of such provisions, it was quite clear, that the call for its abolishment was not shared by all and sundry. The call for its abolishment however came from a few strong University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 70 opinionated members during the discussions which one could deduce was emanating from some run- ins with the traditional authorities which has resulted in the resentment of the institution. 4.2.2.6 Challenges of Empowering Chiefs With the advent of the decentralization system of governance where community development depends on the local assembly, there is a strong need for an institution that will not only represents the interest of the people but also commands the respect of the assembly within its community. However with the TMA representing the central government in the district, such institution will need to have a good working relationship with the assembly. Interestingly enough, the relationship with the assembly and that of the TAs is quite cordial. The choice of word is “Diplomacy”. Tema is a unique case, unlike other communities undergoing some conflicts between these two agents or stakeholders of development; TMA has chosen to remain cordial despite the issue of legitimacy of the chief. Thus in order not be drawn into a similar conflict, TMA has chosen not get involved with the issues of chieftaincy conflicts by dealing with the popularly acclaimed Chief of the people and not the Gazetted chief. On the other hand, the responses gained from the interview with other respondents indicated that their relationship was far from cordial especially on the issue of “Ownership” , there is however some undertones of tolerance for the peace of the community. This has to do with the issue of who the head of the community is and who best represents the interests of the people in the various communities. Whilst the chief claim to be the ‘custodians’ of the land for development and the assembly members claiming to be the ‘political head’ of the various communities, thus lies the crux of conflict in the community. According to the chiefs, the introduction of partisan politics into their local administration impedes their efforts in developing their community. Thus University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 71 in situations where some assembly members have tried to use their powers to enstool a chief of their choice who is in contention with the current and sitting chief has resulted in bringing all development efforts to a standstill in that community. The assemblymen on the other hand debunked the chief’s assertion and attributed the conflict to the fact that, the chief has aligned himself to a particular party which makes it difficult to approach them in order to pursue any development issue with them and when even they are approached there are treated with contempt especially when they do not share the political ideals of the chief. 4.2.2.7 Funding Before the advent of the colonial authorities, the TAs administered tributes, court fines, market tolls and other revenues. The implementation of the indirect rule system deprived the chiefs from generating any money for development projects to be undertaken in the community. The general concession by majority of the respondent was that that function had shifted to the TMA and for an institution to be effective in performing its assigned duties, one will need not only a constant supply of funds which is devoid of any constraints but also of fluctuations., Interestingly, issues of funds with chieftaincy institution is tied to their natural resources, hence stools which do not have such resources are handicapped. Tema is a peculiar case where most of its lands were acquired by the government for the development of the harbour city, thus leaving it with small parcels of lands at the outskirts. There is however an exception to this development in the new crop of traditional rulers who have taken it upon themselves to look for investors to invest in their various communities, examples include, Asagyefuo Amoatia Ofori-Panyin, University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 72 Otumfuo Osei Tutu II, and Awomefia of Ho Asogli. Hence one would wonder why other chiefs are not taking up this exemplary step of these chiefs. According to the chiefs, apart from what they receive as royalties from lands and gifts from their people, they also do receive some percentage of DACF from the assembly given to the traditional authority that has gained the paramount status. However the claim of the attainment of paramount by the chief was debunked by the TMA who claimed it was rather the Kpone traditional area that has gained this status and not Tema as claimed by the chief and also on the issue of the percentage of the DACF being given to the chieftaincy institution, the TMA alluded that the monies are given to the Traditional Council however due to the issue of legitimacy with the current chief the money is yet to be disbursed. According to the TMA an amount of GHc 12,000, is lying idle due to some dispute and this money can augment the fortunes and resources of the Traditional Authorities. Further investigation from the traditional authorities revealed that, there were some political manipulations from various governments for their own selfish agenda. Here, a couple of the Divisional Chiefs interviewed hinted that the various governments gained some satisfaction from their internal dispute and this keeps the institution from assessing any funds meant for them to develop their community. From their statement, one could detect a strong sense of anger, displeasure and frustration at their current situation and their inability to get out of it. 4.2.2.8 Measures of accountability In looking at ways of financing the institution, issues of accountability of the Chieftaincy Institution came up strongly. This issue generated a lot interest among the respondents. The general consensus was that, if a chief is questioned on monies received, it is believed that his University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 73 authority is being questioned, thus in order not to offend the chief, people try as much as possible not put themselves in his line of fire by avoiding the issue of how monies given to them are spent. The Chief on other hand claimed that they do have a financial team in place to handle all their financial issues. Thus they do not come into direct contact with monies sent to their institution. According to the Chiefs, members of the traditional council do know their financial standings and do understand when certain issues are not elaborated. Thus the issue is with their subjects and the fear of being forced to expose issues that are best kept from public consumption. This however was the bone of contention with the members of the assembly who thought issues of accountability with the chieftaincy is quite serious and is one of the issues that breeds mistrust among the assembly members and the chiefs. Despite numerous calls for the abolishment of the chieftaincy institution, there has also been an equal call for its empowerment to make them effective partners in local development. Calls for its empowerment however was dependent on the institutions being reformed and making it transparent to the general public. The reaction generated on the issue of whether the chief should be empowered in any way was quite mixed which was an apt reflection of the general argument in the public. Where some members supported the idea of empowering the chiefs, others thought why trust an institution that cannot account for what it already receives with any more resources. Surprisingly some assembly members supported the idea that more assistance should be given to the TAs to empower the institution. Of no surprise is the response of the chief and that of the queen mother and this was quite emphatic, who expressed that when they are empowered, they could take up certain University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 74 responsibilities such as being involved in awarding a project, its implementation, monitoring and evaluation. Also the assembly could cede some aspect of taxing to them to enable them relate directly and also give the people a voice on issues affecting them that needs to be addressed as the assembly is considered to be quite removed from them unlike the chief who lives among them and can do something immediately to solve their issues, unlike the assembly which has a lot of competing communities for the same limited funds. 4.2.2.9 Effectiveness of the Assembly The assembly has an enormous task of awarding contracts, implementing projects, raising funds for the said project and making sure these projects are completed on time with the exact specification through monitoring and evaluating. With this task comes the question of whether the assembly is capable in ensuring that projects started are completed. This issue is of much interest to the researcher as there have been several projects which have been abandoned for one reason or the other ranging from finances to policy change due to the change in government. Thus if it’s not in a party interest to pursue one of such policies, it is abandoned and left to rot forgetting the bigger picture of making life better for the people. 4.2.2.10 Capacity for Local Development Under the current 1992 Constitutional arrangement, Article 242 (paraphrased) District Assembly (non-partisan in nature) – is the highest political authority in the district and consists of the following: (a) one person elected by universal adult suffrage from each electoral area (b) the member of Parliament from constituents that fall within the area of authority of the District Assembly (no voting power) (c) the District Chief Executive of the district appointed by the President with executive powers and with the prior approval of not less than two-thirds (2/3) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 75 majority of the members of the assembly present and voting at the meeting (d) other members not being more than thirty percent (30%) of all the members of the District Assemble, appointed by the President in consultation with the traditional authorities and other interest groups in the district. According to the chief, this is done in consultation with the regional minister. However it should be noted that proposals from the chiefs is not automatically accepted. The general assumption here is that these individuals who go to the assemblies through the appointment system are basically there to represent the interest of the traditional authorities, however in most cases these representatives are appointed without the chiefs knowledge and or even sometimes placed in committees that has very little to do directly with development or where they are best suited. Again such appointments are not formally done which makes it difficult to task such persons to account for their stewardship to the chief. 4.3 Summary of Analysis The data analysis sought to ascertain the challenges facing the TAs and how empowering them can make them more effective in the development of their communities. Two variables were found to be significantly related to the empowerment component. These were; earning the mandate of the people and also how to better equip them to undertake developments. According to (Bierschenk et al, 2000), development actors or brokers must be able to speak at least three languages; the language of the donor (NGO, etc.), that of the government officials and that of the communities. The analysis of the demographic information revealed that the institution will need some major reforms in order to make it an active participant in local development. The TAs from the survey were depicted as an institution which lacked the necessary edge to compete in the global market University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 76 effectively. Reforming the institution will have to focus on training them to improve their marketability. On the having the mandate of the people, the institution is said to enjoy some support from the indigenes, however, their appeal is diminishing considering the fact that some of these chiefs have been reduced to working as drivers and contractors, just to support themselves. Also the economic activities of the people should be a driving force in bringing development projects to the community. From the data received, one can deduce that development interventions have basically focused on providing basic social amenities for the people. Hence the Chiefs can also focus on bringing interventions that will improve the economic life of the people. Again, on the issue of the contributions made by the TAs in any development interventions, it is noted that the chiefs acted mostly as passive representatives of the beneficiaries or the care takers of the land. TAs were often invited to attend project events even if they hardly participated in the said project (Ubink, 2008). In more than half of the time a development project is undertaken, the TAs role is limited to either proving land, labour or contributing a quota to the said project. The systematic entrustment of the Chiefs with development funds would also secure their position at the district level and re-establish their authority at the district level. 4.4 Findings Discussion with respondents revealed some divisions on the issue that the TAs as whole had outlived its useful and for that reason they should participate in the administration of local government in Ghana. Some of the respondents believed that the TAs played an important role in local government, some of which fall within the parameters of economic development, dispute University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 77 resolution, legislative, judicial, religious and cultural functions. Some respondent asserted that the constitutional crises bordering on “who the rightful heir is”, have made it difficult for them to play an active role in local government. They further argue that succession should be adequately documented to enable the process attain some level of fairness since such disputes halts or even slows down the pace of development in the community. The TAs, just like everybody else had been caught up in the web of global economic deterioration. This economic deterioration has worsened the economic status of some chiefs. Thus in order to survive the current economic hardship, TAs had to either work or seek the government’s favour which in turn implicates them as being bed fellows with the government of the day which questions their neutrality. It was however agreed that the TAs should play a greater role in the administration of local government in Ghana. This they explained that a Chief by the virtue of his position performs inter-personal roles, informational roles and decision making roles; he serves as a leader in community, attends meetings and ceremonies, represents his people outside his jurisdiction; acts as information disseminator by transmitting information to and from his subjects to the assembly and vice versa. It was also observed that the decision making role of the chief is indispensable. He initiates change, settles disputes especially those relating to the culture and tradition of the people which is line with the studies of Boafo-Arthur (2003). Lutz and Linder (2004), where customary courts are said to be popular and often resorted to due to its accessibility, cheapness, fastness and comprehensibility. Also his negotiating role is equally important as he represents his community in reaching agreements with other parties. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 78 CHAPTER FIVE CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 5.0 Introduction This will attempt to summarize the findings of the research, drawing on areas of agreement and disagreement of the various respondents and the make recommendations for policy implementations. 5.1 Summary This research attempted to find responses to issues that affect the traditional authority in empowering them to make them an effective partner in the development of their community. The research touched on; • Changes roles of Chiefs • Constitutional provisions barring chiefs • Challenges of empowering Chiefs • Possible recommendations to enhance participation of chiefs in local development. This summary would attempt look at some of the running themes under the various research questions. 5.1.1 findings and conclusion The definition of empowerment was established through the analysis of the continuum of change the institution has undergone. From the responses, it was deduced that, the authority of the institution has been reduced over the past decade with the assemblies taking over most of the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 79 former roles. Thus even though they enjoyed the mandate of the people, this has dwindled due their weakened state in initiating any development intervention. Further analysis revealed that, the promulgation of the various laws to prevent the institution from active party politics has served to preserve and protect the institution from public ridicule and insults, keeping the institution politically neutral. Finally TAs must play an active role as development initiators by acting as mutual interdependence with the assembly rather than being competitive. Central government is constantly aligning itself to the TAs in other to increase its presence in the communities, hence the TAs must also renegotiate their position with central government in order to enjoy some support and acceptance and not serve as stooges. 5.1.2 Recommendations to enhance participation of chiefs in local development Take off the chief, and the whole traditional hierarchy tumbles down like the wall of Jericho. Thus it should be kept in mind that the desired outcome would be to gain more development and not to destroy a great institution. Recommendations for empowering the chieftaincy institution to make them an effective partner in local development are presented below 5.1.2.1 Equal partners in local developing the communities There should some means of making the chiefs co-partner with the district assemblies and district chief executives. They can be used as another arm of the central government to initiate and monitor development projects in their areas, oversee low level conflict resolutions, keep the politicians and contractors on their toes by making sure the best materials are used, be the first University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 80 responders and ears of government to low rumbling conflicts, official corruption, and be the focal point of mobilizing the people to undertake district level projects etc. After all they, their people and society at large stand to benefit from government projects and them getting involved at the planning and implementation of programs would bring rare and vitally needed local level perspectives to programs that are often drawn and pushed down from Accra (Central Government). 5.1.2.2 Developing standards for enstooling a Chief In situations where the chiefs suffer from stark illiteracy and moral turpitude, there should be clear standards and qualifying processes imposed in order to select the very best in education, wisdom and morality from the royal households. This would enable the selection of not only those who qualify but also have chiefs who are developmentally oriented with the interest of its people at heart. There is no term limits in chieftaincy. However this could easily be set to a term limit of (say 15 years) or in situation where that is not possible, there should a clause that states that a chief could be dethroned for any misdemeanour which would be specified by the law. Succession lines are too convoluted. Before a chief dies, his heir apparent heir should be well known. The line of succession should be documented and published for the community’s perusal. Also, the institution is unequally gendered and where there female members there mostly relegated to the background. There ought to be more involvement of women. This would champion their cause in their various communities. Despite the little coverage on the activities and works of these queen mothers, they still continue their works as advocates on the issues of University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 81 girl child education, teenage pregnancy, abortion, domestic violence and are also better at conflict resolution than men. 5.1.2.3 Remuneration It is recommended that a substantive remuneration be given to the Chiefs by the central government through the District Assembly Common Fund (DACF) especially due to their peculiar situation of where majority of their stool lands have been taken over by government. 5.2 Conclusion During the colonial era the TAs were subjected to various forms of manipulation including the collaboration and undermining. By independence, both the nationalists and scholars were predicting that the forces of modernization and social change would relegate the institution to either inconsequence or oblivion. Despite many influences and pressures, the institution has remained resolute in their quest to represent its people. This notwithstanding the institution has seen some modification and adjustment just to remain relevant in today’s current dispensation. In short, radical reforms are what the Tema Traditional Council needs and not its abolition. The chieftaincy institution works but there is the need to explore other means to open it to funding, resources allocation from central government through the DACF, accountability, popular participation, public debates, morality, and responsiveness to the people’s aspirations. In the words of Dr. Kwegyir Aggrey, “When we look at the keys of the piano, we can see black and white keys, you can get some note by playing only the white keys and the same applies when you play the black keys alone. But you get the best melody when you play both the black and University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 82 white keys together”. 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The Paine Burnings of 1792–1793 Past and Present (2006)193(1):111-155 Yankson, P.W.K. (2000) “Decentralization and Traditional Authorities in Ghana”, in W. Thomi, P.W.K. Yankson and S.Y. Zanu (Eds) A Decade of Decentralization in Ghana: Retrospect and Prospects (EPAD Research Project/Ministry of Local Government and Rural Development: Accra). Ivankova, N., & Stick, S. (2007, Feb). Students’ persistence in a Distributed Doctoral Program in Educational Leadership in Higher Education: A mixed methods study. Research in Higher Education, 48(1), 93-135. DOI: 10.1007/s11162-006-9025-4 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 87 Appendix University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh