Addo et al. Animal Diseases             (2023) 3:1  
https://doi.org/10.1186/s44149-022-00064-6
ORIGINAL ARTICLE Open Access
First molecular identification of multiple 
tick-borne pathogens in livestock 
within Kassena-Nankana, Ghana
Seth Offei Addo1,2*  , Ronald Essah Bentil1, Kevin Nii Yartey1, Jane Ansah‑Owusu1, Eric Behene1, 
Philip Opoku‑Agyeman3, Selassie Bruku3, Victor Asoala4, Suzanne Mate5, John Asiedu Larbi2, 
Philip Kweku Baidoo2, Michael David Wilson1, Joseph W. Diclaro II6 and Samuel K. Dadzie1* 
Abstract 
The risk of pathogen transmission continues to increase significantly in the presence of tick vectors due to the trade 
of livestock across countries. In Ghana, there is a lack of data on the incidence of tick‑borne pathogens that are of 
zoonotic and veterinary importance. This study, therefore, aimed to determine the prevalence of such pathogens in 
livestock using molecular approaches. A total of 276 dry blood spots were collected from cattle (100), sheep (95) and 
goats (81) in the Kassena‑Nankana Districts. The samples were analyzed using Polymerase Chain Reaction (qPCR) and 
conventional assays and Sanger sequencing that targeted pathogens including Rickettsia, Coxiella, Babesia, Theileria, 
Ehrlichia and Anaplasma. An overall prevalence of 36.96% was recorded from the livestock DBS, with mixed infections 
seen in 7.97% samples. Furthermore, the prevalence of infections in livestock was recorded to be 19.21% in sheep, 
14.13% in cattle, and 3.62% in goats. The pathogens identified were Rickettsia spp. (3.26%), Babesia sp. Lintan (8.70%), 
Theileria orientalis (2.17%), Theileria parva (0.36%), Anaplasma capra (18.48%), Anaplasma phagocytophilum (1.81%), 
Anaplasma marginale (3.26%) and Anaplasma ovis (7.25%). This study reports the first molecular identification of the 
above‑mentioned pathogens in livestock in Ghana and highlights the use of dry blood spots in resource‑limited 
settings. In addition, this research provides an update on tick‑borne pathogens in Ghana, suggesting risks to livestock 
production and human health. Further studies will be essential to establish the distribution and epidemiology of 
these pathogens in Ghana.
Keywords Livestock, Rickettsia, Babesia, Theileria, Ehrlichia, Anaplasma
*Correspondence: Introduction
Seth Offei Addo In Africa, the high demand for animal food products 
sethaddo40@gmail.com; 
Samuel K. Dadzie due to fast population development has spurred cross-
SDadzie@noguchi.ug.edu.gh regional livestock commerce leading to an increased risk 
1 Parasitology Department, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical of animal disease transmission (Volkova et al. 2010; Fèvre 
Research, College of Health Sciences, University of Ghana, Accra, Ghana
2 Department of Theoretical and Applied Biology, College of Science, et al. 2006). Global transhumance is also associated with 
KNUST, Kumasi, Ghana animal movements in Sub-Saharan Africa (Motta et  al. 
3 Department of Epidemiology, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical 2018). It is common for herders to engage in cross-border 
Research, College of Health Sciences, University of Ghana, Accra, Ghana
4 Navrongo Health Research Centre, Upper East Region, Navrongo, Ghana migration with their livestock to efficiently use seasonal 
5 U.S. Army Emerging Infectious Diseases Branch, Walter Reed Army pasture resources (Lesse et  al. 2016). Even though such 
Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD, USA
6 activities could facilitate the spread of infectious patho- Navy and Marine Corps Public Health Center, Center for Disease Control 
and Prevention Detachment, Atlanta, GA, USA gens, disease surveillance is poor or nonexistent near the 
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Addo et al. Animal Diseases             (2023) 3:1 Page 2 of 14
borders of many Sub-Saharan African countries (Motta easier (Espinaze et  al. 2018; Hassell et  al. 2017; Olwoch 
et  al. 2017). The cross-border livestock trade has intro- et al. 2008). It is important to note that Babesia, Theileria 
duced exotic tick species and associated infections into and Anaplasma have been identified to infect livestock in 
naïve countries. Ghana (Ayeh-Kumi et al. 2022; Beckley et al. 2016).
The situation in the Upper East Region of Ghana is In resource-limited settings, the use of dry blood 
somewhat similar, given the trade of livestock across spots (DBS) in surveillance efforts to diagnose infec-
the borders of Ghana and Burkina Faso, with no meas- tious diseases comes with some advantages, including 
ures to prevent the spread of infectious diseases. The the non-invasive collection of blood, less volume of blood 
residents of this area are extensively involved in livestock required, easy transport, and the long-term storage of the 
rearing, which provides a food source and income. How- blood spots (Grüner, Stambouli, and Ross 2015; Gupta 
ever, because zoonotic diseases frequently afflict peo- and Mahajan 2018). Even though some factors such as 
ple who interact with animals, these animals may act as the method of sample preparation and storage conditions 
amplifying hosts for zoonotic pathogens, placing owners could influence the results obtained using DBS (Lim 
at risk of becoming infected (Al-Tayib 2019). Animals 2018), studies have successfully identified tick-borne 
are the source of various new and emerging pathogenic pathogens in livestock DBS (Tigani-asil et  al. 2021; Roy 
zoonotic diseases (Daszak et al. 2001; Taylor et al. 2001), et al. 2018). This study employed the use of DBS to deter-
with human activities serving as the primary drivers of mine the prevalence of tick-borne pathogens of zoonotic 
their spread (Jones et al., 2013; Karesh et al., 2012). More and veterinary importance in livestock. There is limited 
importantly, increased livestock production, especially information on the distribution and epidemiology of 
near wildlife habitats, has allowed disease interchange, these pathogens in Ghana. Findings from this study will 
with livestock serving as reservoirs for human zoonoses be essential in formulating control measures, especially 
(Jones et  al., 2013; Karesh et  al., 2012). Furthermore, with the constant movement of livestock and humans.
the rapid transmission of infections over long distances 
can be aided by animal movements inside countries and Results
across borders (Dean et al. 2013; Fèvre et al. 2006). A total of 276 DBS were collected from physically healthy 
In Sub-Saharan Africa, the health and productivity of livestock across the Kassena-Nankana district. The live-
livestock are greatly affected by ticks and tick-borne dis- stock sampled were Cattle (n = 100; 36.23%), Sheep 
eases (Jongejan and Uilenberg 2004). Babesiosis, ana- (n = 95; 34.42%) and Goats (n = 81; 29.35%). These live-
plasmosis, theileriosis and ehrlichiosis are the most stock were sampled from Navrongo (n = 246), Nakong 
common tick-borne diseases in Sub-Saharan Africa, (n = 10) and Pungu (n = 20). Overall, 102 (36.96%) live-
harming livestock health and incurring production losses stocks were infected with tick-borne pathogens. Further-
(Morrison 2015). Climate change and the global trade of more, the prevalence of tick-borne infections in livestock 
animals, according to studies, aid tick species invasion was recorded in sheep (19.21%), cattle (14.13%), and goats 
and the spread of infectious pathogens into new loca- (3.62%). Also, all the sampled locations recorded at least 
tions (Byamukama et  al. 2021). This will most certainly one tick-borne pathogen, with the most diverse pathogens 
increase tick-borne diseases in livestock and make patho- recorded from the Abattoir (Tables 1 and 2). No Coxiella 
gen transmission between wildlife and domestic animals burnetii or Ehrlichia pathogens were detected.
Table 1 Livestock characteristics and parasitic tick‑borne pathogens prevalence
Characteristics Total livestock (%) Parasites
Babesia sp. Lintan P-value Theileria orientalis P-value Theileria parva
Age
  < =1 year 164 (59.42) 4 (2.44) p < 0.001 5 (3.05) 0.422 1 (0.61)
 2–5 years 68 (24.64) 17 (25.00) 1 (1.47) 0
 = > 6 years 44 (15.94) 3 (6.82) 0 0
Sex
 Female 194 (70.29) 8 (4.12) p < 0.001 6 (3.09) 0.107 1 (0.52)
 Male 82 (29.71) 16 (19.51) 0 0
Animal host
 Cattle 100 (36.23) 21 (21.00) p < 0.001 0 0.003 0
 Goat 81 (29.35) 0 0 0
 Sheep 95 (34.42) 3 (3.16) 6 (6.32) 1 (1.05)
A ddo et al. Animal Diseases             (2023) 3:1 Page 3 of 14
Table 2 Livestock characteristics and bacterial tick‑borne pathogens prevalence
Characteristics Total livestock (%) Bacteria
Rickettsia spp P-value Anaplasma capra P-value Anaplasma ovis P-value Anaplasma P-value Anaplasma P-value
phagocytophilum marginale
Age
  < =1 year 164 (59.42) 4 (2.44) 0.648 32 (19.51) 0.664 14 (8.54) 0.363 0 0.01 9 (5.49) 0.042
 2–5 years 68 (24.64) 3 (4.41) 13 (19.12) 5 (7.35) 2 (2.94) 0
 = > 6 years 44 (15.94) 2 (4.55) 6 (13.64) 1 (2.27) 3 (6.82) 0
Sex
 Female 194 (70.29) 8 (4.12) 0.214 39 (20.10) 0.285 8 (4.12) 0.002 1 (0.52) 0.01 8 (4.12) 0.214
 Male 82 (29.71) 1 (1.22) 12 (14.63) 12 (14.63) 4 (4.88) 1 (1.22)
Animal host
 Cattle 100 (36.23) 4 (4.0) 0.731 16 (16.00) p < 0.001 5 (5.00) p < 0.001 5 (5.00) 0.01 0 0.044
 Goat 81 (29.35) 3 (3.70) 4 (4.94) 0 0 3 (3.70)
 Sheep 95 (34.42) 2 (2.11) 31 (32.63) 15 (15.79) 0 6 (6.32)
Addo et al. Animal Diseases             (2023) 3:1 Page 4 of 14
Prevalence of tick-borne pathogens Single bacterial infections were recorded in 30.8% 
An overall prevalence of 3.26% was recorded for Rickett- livestock DBS, with 1.81% having coinfection. Addition-
sia DNA in the livestock examined. Prevalence rates were ally, 10.87% sampled livestock had one parasite infection 
recorded as 1.49% in cattle, 1.12% in goats, and 0.75% in without coinfections. In the Livestock, DBS, single bacte-
sheep. However, the positive samples could not be char- rial or parasite infections were reported at 30.43%, with 
acterized to determine the specific Rickettsia species. bacterial and parasitic coinfections at 6.52%. Sheep were 
This could be due to insufficient DNA in the PCR prod- the most often infected livestock host, and there was a 
ucts that were sequenced. strong correlation between bacterial infections and hosts 
Initial screening of the samples showed that 37 (p < 0.001).
(13.41%) were positive for Babesia/Theileria with an Additionally, it was discovered that parasitic infec-
infection rate of 24% (95% CI, 15.39–34.33) in cattle and tions had a highly significant (p < 0.001) correlation with 
13.68% (95% CI, 7.09–22.79) in sheep. No infections were age and the hosts. The majority of parasitic infections 
detected in goats. Sequencing of the positive PCR prod- occurred in cattle (21%) between the ages of 2–5 years 
ucts resulted in identifying Theileria orientalis (2.17%), (26.47%) (Table  3). However, a substantial correlation 
Theileria parva (0.36%) and an unclassified Babesia des- was also found between disease with bacteria or parasites 
ignated as Babesia sp. Lintan (8.70%). BLAST analysis and the cattle hosts (p < 0.001).
showed that the Babesia/Theileria positive samples in According to the risk analysis, no livestock attrib-
this study were 82–94% similar to Babesia and Theileria ute (age, sex or animal host) was found to significantly 
isolated in China and East and Southern Africa. From the increase the likelihood of contracting a bacterial or para-
phylogenetic analysis, the samples LK-B41, LK-B42 and sitic tick-borne infection (Table 4).
LK-B44 clustered with isolates from China (accession 
numbers KX698109.1 and MK962313.1) with 99% boot- Discussion
strap support (Fig. 1a). However, all the samples LK-B50, Small-scale livestock producers in developing countries 
LK-B51 and LK-B53 clustered with a bootstrap value of contribute significantly to agricultural production and 
100% (Fig. 1b). rural development (McDermott et  al. 2010). However, 
From the 276 livestock samples examined, 85 (30.80%) due to the cost of acaricides, tick infestations are not 
were positive for Ehrlichia/Anaplasma. The highest prev- adequately controlled, especially during the rainy season 
alence rate was observed in sheep (18.84%), followed by (Achukwi et al. 2001), leading to an increase in tick-borne 
cattle (9.42%) and goats (2.54%). It was observed that all diseases infecting animals (Dantas-Torres, Chomel, and 
positive samples were Anaplasma species after sequenc- Otranto 2012).
ing. The pathogens identified were Anaplasma capra In sub-Saharan Africa, Rickettsia infections have been 
(18.48%), Anaplasma ovis (7.25%), Anaplasma margin- identified in animals and humans, with ticks playing 
ale (3.26%) and Anaplasma phagocytophilum (1.81%). the role of principal vectors (Parola et  al., 2013). Ticks 
BLAST analysis showed that the Anaplasma samples are natural reservoir hosts of Rickettsia (Piotrowski and 
were 98–99% similar to isolates from Hungary, Panama, Rymaszewska 2020) with sparse knowledge of animals as 
South Korea, and South Africa. Furthermore, from the potential reservoirs. In Spain, researchers detected Rick-
phylogenetic analysis, all the Anaplasma samples (LK- ettsia infection in a goat blood sample, suggesting the 
A1, LK-A9, LK-A10 and LK-A15) clustered with isolates risk of transmission to humans (Ortuño et al. 2012). Like-
from France (accession number MF580636.1), Nigeria wise, Rickettsia was found in Sika deer in Japan (Inokuma 
(accession numbers JF949765.1 and JF949768.1) and Bur- et  al. 2008). In a study from China, domestic animals, 
kina Faso (accession number MT259778.1) with 100% including cattle and goats, were found infected with Rick-
bootstrap support (Fig. 2). ettsia (Liang et  al. 2012). Findings from this study indi-
cate Rickettsia DNA in all the types of livestock sampled. 
Characteristics of tick-borne pathogens in sampled Even though animals are not considered reservoir hosts 
livestock of Rickettsia, they could amplify the pathogen and infect 
A significant association was observed between the par- feeding ticks and humans.
asitic pathogen Babesia sp. Lintan and the animal host, An estimated 2 billion cattle are at risk of babesiosis 
sex and age (p < 0.001). Male cattle between the ages of exposure despite the efforts in research and preventive 
2–5 years were the most infected with Babesia sp. Lintan measures (Gohil et al. 2013; Bock et al. 2004). In Africa, 
(Table 1). Furthermore, bacterial pathogens A. capra and B. bovis and B. bigemina transmitted by Rhipicephalus 
A. ovis were significantly associated with animal hosts ticks cause bovine babesiosis (Bock et al. 2004). Although 
(p < 0.001), with most infections recorded in sheep at bovine infections are predominantly caused by B. 
32.63 and 15.79%, respectively (Table 2). bigemina, B. bovis infections are fatal due to neurological 
A ddo et al. Animal Diseases             (2023) 3:1 Page 5 of 14
Fig. 1 Phylogenetic analysis of Babesia and Theileria in the livestock based on the rRNA gene fragments (lsu5‑lsu4) of mitochondrial genome. a 
Babesia. The sequences obtained in this study are indicated as LK‑B41, LK‑B42 and LK‑B44. b Theileria. The sequences obtained in this study are 
indicated as LK‑B50, LK‑B51 and LK‑B53
Addo et al. Animal Diseases             (2023) 3:1 Page 6 of 14
Fig. 2 Phylogenetic analysis of Anaplasma in the livestock based on the 16S rRNA gene. The sequences obtained in this study are indicated as 
LK‑A1, LK‑A9, LK‑A10 and LK‑A15
Table 3 Bacterial and parasitic pathogens in association with livestock characteristics
Total livestock Bacterial Parasitic Bacterial/Parasitic
(%)
Single infection Coinfection P-value Single infection P-value Single Bacteria/ P-value
bacteria or Parasite 
parasite coinfection
Age
  < =1 year 164 (59.42) 56 (34.15) 2 (1.22) 0.227 9 (5.49) p < 0.001 53 (32.32) 7 (4.27) 0.145
 2–5 years 68 (24.64) 17 (25.00) 3 (4.41) 18 (26.47) 20 (29.41) 9 (13.24)
 = > 6 years 44 (15.94) 12 (27.27) 0 3 (6.82) 11 (25.00) 2 (4.55)
Sex
 Female 194 (70.29) 57 (29.38) 4 (2.06) 0.676 14 (7.22) 0.005 59 (30.41) 8 (4.12) 0.051
 Male 82 (29.71) 28 (34.15) 1 (1.22) 16 (19.51) 25 (30.49) 10 (12.20)
Animal host
 Cattle 100 (36.23) 26 (26.00) 2 (2.00) p < 0.001 21 (21.00) p < 0.001 29 (29.00) 10 (10.00) p < 0.001
 Goat 81 (29.35) 10 (12.35) 0 0 10 (12.35) 0
 Sheep 95 (34.42) 49 (51.58) 3 (3.16) 9 (9.47) 45 (47.37) 8 (8.42)
 Addo et al. Animal Diseases             (2023) 3:1 Page 7 of 14
Table 4 Multivariable multinomial logistic regression model for tick‑borne bacterial and parasitic pathogens
Characteristics Bacterial
Single bacterial infection Bacteria coinfection
IRR (95%CI) P‑value IRR (95%CI) P‑value
Age
  < =1 year vs 2–5 years 0.41 (0.11–1.48) 0.175 2.49 (0.20–31.20) 0.478
  < =1 year vs = > 6 years 0.46 (0.10–2.22) 0.34 0 0.996
Sex
 Female vs Male 1.18 (0.63–2.22) 0.612 0.41 (0.04–4.38) 0.459
Animal host
 Cattle vs Goat 0.19 (0.04–0.90) 0.037 0 0.994
 Cattle vs Sheep 1.56 (0.40–6.34) 0.507 2.08 (0.15‑‑29.20) 0.586
Characteristics Parasite
Single parasite infection Parasitic coinfection
IRR (95%CI) P‑value IRR (95%CI) P‑value
Age
  < =1 year vs 2–5 years 0.48 (0.05–4.96) 0.54 – –
  < =1 year vs = > 6 years 0.08 (0.01–1.15) 0.063 – –
Sex
 Female vs Male 1.46 (0.62–3.45) 0.387 – –
Animal host
 Cattle vs Goat 1 – – –
 Cattle vs Sheep 0.13 (0.01–1.37) 0.09 – –
Characteristics Bacterial and Parasite
Single bacteria or parasite infection Bacteria/Parasite coinfection
IRR (95%CI) P-value IRR (95%CI) P‑value
Age
  < =1 year vs 2–5 years 0.27 (0.07–1.10) 0.069 0.89 (0.11–7.06) 0.91
  < =1 year vs = > 6 years 0.16 (0.03–0.85) 0.031 0.25 (0.02–3.52) 0.304
Sex
 Female vs Male 0.89 (0.46–1.69) 0.713 2.04 (0.69–6.06) 0.197
Animal host
 Cattle vs Goat 0.06 (0.01–0.34) 0.001 0 0.982
 Cattle vs Sheep 0.55 (0.13–2.40) 0.428 0.83 (0.10‑‑2.09) 0.174
symptoms (Uilenberg 2006). In this study, cattle and In animals, Theileria infections are either asympto-
sheep were infected with Babesia sp. Lintan. It causes matic or severe, with fever, hemoglobinuria, anemia 
moderate to severe infections in sheep and goats (Wang and death (Zhang et  al., 2015). An animal can become 
et  al. 2020; A. H. Liu et  al. 2007; Niu et  al. 2009). This infected for life, serving as a reservoir host for tick spe-
study reports the first molecular detection of Babesia sp. cies (Glass 2001; Ahmed et al. 2008). Most cases of ani-
Lintan infections in livestock in Ghana. With no record mal infections originate from the tropical and subtropical 
of infections in cattle, there is a need to determine the zones in Asia, Africa, Southern Europe and the Middle 
epidemiology of Babesia sp. Lintan in cattle production. East (Sivakumar et al. 2014; Rjeibi et al. 2016; Belotindos 
Symptoms of infections such as anemia, hemoglobinuria, et  al. 2014; Hussain et  al. 2014). In Africa, theileriosis 
fever and jaundice in sheep and goats could be similar to is a significant tick-borne disease that affects domestic 
that in cattle since they are ruminants. The detection of ruminants (Clift et  al. 2020) with varying mortality and 
B. bigemina (Bell-Sakyi et al. 2004) and B. bovis (Nagano morbidity rates (Mans, Pienaar, and Latif 2015). Many 
et al. 2013), coupled with the identification of Babesia sp. African countries have reported the occurrence of Tropi-
Lintan suggests multiple Babesia species are in circula- cal theileriosis caused by T. annulata and East Coast 
tion within Ghana. fever (ECF) caused by T. parva (Moumouni et al., 2015). 
Addo et al. Animal Diseases             (2023) 3:1 Page 8 of 14
Theileria mutans, T. velifera and T. orientalis have been According to reports from Ghana (Futse et  al. 2019), 
reported in Africa (Moumouni et al., 2015; Perveen et al., South Africa (Hove et  al. 2018), Madagascar, Uganda 
2021) to be less pathogenic (Kalume, Losson, and Saeger- (Byaruhanga et al. 2018; Muhanguzi et al. 2010), Thailand 
man 2011). In Ghana, T. mutans and T. velifera have been (Jirapattharasate et al. 2017) and China (Yang et al. 2017), 
identified in domestic ruminants (Bell-Sakyi et al. 2004). A. marginale has been found in cattle. Anaplasma mar-
This study reports the first molecular identification of ginale has been detected in sheep (Yousefi et  al. 2017) 
T. parva and T. orientalis in sheep from Ghana. Theile- and goats (Barbosa et  al. 2021; Da Silva et  al. 2018), as 
ria parva causes significant cattle deaths (Nene et  al., seen in this study, despite having a substantial impact on 
2016) and further hinders livestock production in numer- cattle production globally (Kocan et  al. 2010). Animals 
ous African countries (Mukhebi, Perry, and Kruska with infections produce less milk, have abortions, and 
1992; Kivaria 2006; McKeever 2009). Theileria parva is face death (Kumar et  al., 2015). There is a higher likeli-
thought to kill over a million cattle annually, costing at hood of disease transmission among the animals in the 
least $300,000,000 in lost revenue (Nene et  al., 2016). study areas because ruminants frequently interact with 
Additionally, livestock production is hampered by sick one another. Additionally, animals that recover from 
animals’ slower growth, lower productivity, and the high severe A. marginale infections function as reservoir hosts 
costs of disease control (McKeever 2009; Kivaria 2006). and spread the disease to attached ticks (Eriks, Stiller, 
It is thought that T. parva evolved from resistant African and Palmer 1993; Kieser, Eriks, and Palmer 1990).
Cape buffalo to finally infect cattle with East Coast fever Cattle and sheep were discovered to be infected with 
(Norval, Perry, and Young 1992). Africa’s cattle produc- A. ovis in this study. There have been reports of A. ovis 
tion has suffered greatly as a result of T. parva in nations infections in sheep and goats across Africa, Europe, Asia 
including Zambia, Uganda, Zimbabwe, Kenya, Rwanda, and North America (Yin and Luo 2007; Han et al. 2017). 
Burundi, and Sudan (Mukhebi, Perry, and Kruska 1992). Finding A. ovis in sheep can be compared to studies in 
Although T. orientalis infections are often mild (Aktas, Sudan (Lee et  al. 2018), Tunisia (Said et  al. 2015), Sen-
Altay, and Dumanli 2006), reports link the pathogen to egal (Dahmani et  al. 2019), West Iran (Mohammadian, 
sporadic outbreaks that cause clinical signs and notable Noaman, and Emami 2021), and Uganda (Kasozi et  al. 
losses (Kamau et al. 2011; Perera et al. 2014). Mild infec- 2021) which recorded a higher prevalence of infections. 
tions produce symptoms such as anemia and hypoxia, The variations in A. ovis prevalence may be caused by 
whiles severe conditions result in weakness, pyrexia, and stress factors such as coinfection and a dry and hot cli-
occasionally abortion (Lawrence et al. 2018; Swilks et al. mate (Renneker et  al. 2013). Given the zoonotic nature 
2017). Furthermore, hosts’ compromised immune sys- of the disease as described in Iran, the aforementioned 
tem and stress are associated with most clinical cases of reports indicate that A. ovis has a major impact on the 
T. orientalis infection (Watts, Playford, and Hickey 2016). production of small ruminants and poses a risk to those 
From interactions with livestock owners in the Kassena- who handle animals (Hosseini-Vasoukolaei et  al. 2014). 
Nankana Districts, it was observed that Ivermectin is The experimental infection of various wild ruminants 
typically used to treat their cattle. According to a study, with A. ovis illustrates the pathogen’s diverse host range 
Ivermectin protects against T. orientalis infection in cat- (la Fuente et  al., 2006; Zaugg, 1987, 1988; Zaugg et  al., 
tle (Park et al., 2019). The use of Ivermectin may explain 1996). This, coupled with the continuous interactions 
why the studied cattle did not have any T. orientalis amongst the ruminants in the Kassena-Nankana Dis-
infections. However, infectious diseases are likely to be tricts, may be the cause of finding cattle with A. ovis 
exchanged because of the frequent interaction between infections.
the animals in the Kassena-Nankana Districts. This study reports the first detection of A. phagocy-
In this study, A. phagocytophilum, A. capra, A. ovis and tophilum in cattle from Ghana. A zoonotic pathogen 
A. marginale were identified in the sampled livestock. with a broad host range, A. phagocytophilum can infect 
This finding supports studies that indicate these Ana- both domestic and wild animals and humans (Fuente 
plasma pathogens infect animals (Niaz et al. 2021; Ren- et al., 2005; Dumler et al., 2001; Zhan et al., 2010). This 
neker et al. 2013). However, due to A. marginale and A. pathogen causes infections that induce respiratory symp-
ovis, the livestock industry experiences huge financial toms, fever, infertility, and decreased milk production in 
losses on a global scale (Z. Liu et  al. 2012; Kocan et  al. afflicted cattle (Noaman and Shayan 2009).
2003). While A. ovis is only moderately detrimental to In addition, infections caused by A. phagocytophilum 
goats and sheep (Seong et  al. 2015), A. marginale can can be mild to severe, leading to multiple organ failures 
result in lethal acute anaplasmosis (Abdullah et al. 2020). and death (Battilani et  al., 2017; Li et  al., 2015). Ticks 
A ddo et al. Animal Diseases             (2023) 3:1 Page 9 of 14
from Kenya (Mwamuye et al. 2017), Tunisia (Sarin et al. can cause infections in animals and humans. Poor tick 
2005), livestock in Uganda (Muhanguzi et al. 2010), and prevention increases the risk of infections among the dis-
ticks and cattle in Ethiopia (Teshale et  al. 2018; Teshale trict’s Abattoir workers and animal handlers. It is evident 
et  al., 2015) have all been found to carry this zoonotic that the trade of livestock across borders has an influence 
pathogen. Infection with A. phagocytophilum in cat- on the distribution and spread of tick-borne pathogens. 
tle from this investigation was lower than that reported As such, there is a need for effective measures to control 
in Iran (Mohammadian, Noaman, and Emami 2021), tick populations that will prevent the spread of tick-borne 
Uganda (Muhanguzi et al. 2010), Ethiopia (Teshale et al., pathogens to humans and animals. Furthermore, there is 
2018), and China (Zhou et  al. 2019). However, it was a need to educate the abattoir workers on hygienic prac-
higher than a study from Tunisia that found a prevalence tices and the use of personal protective equipment to 
rate of 0.6% in cattle for A. phagocytophilum (M’Ghirbi reduce the risk of infections.
et  al., 2016). Even though several tick-borne pathogens 
cause diseases in Africa (Kocan, Blouin, and Barbet Methods
2000), there is little evidence to support the distribution Study area and ethical approval
of A. phagocytophilum. This is most likely because no The study was conducted in seven locations within the 
reliable diagnostic methods are available (Stuen, Gran- Kassena-Nankana districts of Ghana. Sampling sites 
quist, and Silaghi 2013). People who work closely with included the abattoir, where livestock from within the 
animals or reside in rural areas with tick-friendly habitats community and beyond are slaughtered daily. Other loca-
are more likely to contract the disease (Thomas, Dumler, tions were based on livestock availability and the animal 
and Carlyon 2009). owners’ willingness to allow sample collections. Tick spe-
Additionally, this study also reports the first identifi- cies including Amblyomma variegatum, Rhipicephalus 
cation of A. capra in cattle, sheep and goats in the Kas- sanguineus, Hyalomma truncatum, Hyalomma rufipes, 
sena-Nankana District. This zoonotic pathogen infects Rhipicephalus evertsi and Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) sp. 
humans, ruminants, and wild animals (Amer et al., 2019; are prevalent in the Kassena-Nankana districts (Paintsil 
Jouglin et al., 2019; Li et al., 2015; Peng et al., 2018). After et al. 2022).
A. capra was first discovered in asymptomatic goats, a Before this study, ethical approval was obtained from 
case of human infection was later reported from China in the University of Ghana Institutional Animal Care and 
2015 (Li et al., 2015). Anaplasma capra was more preva- Use Committee (UG-IACUC; UG-IACUC 001/19–20). 
lent in this investigation than in studies from China (Peng After verbal consent from the livestock owners, the ani-
et al. 2018) and Turkey (Altay, Erol, and Sahin 2022). mals were restrained with the help of the owners, and 
Infections with A. capra in sheep and goats can range samples were collected under the instruction of a local 
from mild to severe, with symptoms such as fever, weight veterinarian.
loss, decreased milk production, miscarriage and death 
(Said et al., 2018; Yasini et al., 2012). Numerous hard tick Sample collection
species can carry and spread A. capra to zoonotic and A minimum of 248 livestock was required for this study 
domestic hosts (Guo et al., 2019; Segura et al., 2020; Seo using Epi Info V. 6. The sample size was calculated based 
et al., 2018; Yang et al., 2016). This pathogen thus poses on the following assumptions; a population size of 5000 
a serious risk to public health, necessitating the devel- livestock (local veterinarian estimate), a prevalence rate 
opment of efficient preventative and control methods. was 21.6% (Johnson et  al. 2019), and a 95% confidence 
Anaplasma prevalence may be impacted by husbandry level with a 5% error margin. The breed of livestock was 
practices, according to some observations (Fuente et al., not taken into consideration in this study. The livestock 
2005). Suitable husbandry methods and tick control included in this study were physically examined to be 
measures will help stop the spread of the Anaplasma healthy by the attending Veterinarian before the blood 
pathogens and lessen the risk to animal and human sample collection.
health. At the abattoir, blood samples were collected from 
the slaughtered livestock and spotted onto labelled FTA 
Conclusion Gene cards (GE Whatman, Maidstone, Kent, United 
This study demonstrates the use of DBS in the surveil- Kingdom), air-dried overnight, and stored in sample bags 
lance of tick-borne pathogens in livestock. Pathogens of containing silica gel. Within the communities, each ani-
zoonotic and veterinary importance were identified pri- mal was restrained, and the blood collection area (facial 
marily in the abattoir. Among these pathogens were Ana- vein) was disinfected. Using animal lancets (Goldenrod™ 
plasma capra and Anaplasma phagocytophilum which Animal Lancet, Medipoint, NY, USA) blood was drawn 
Addo et al. Animal Diseases             (2023) 3:1 Page 10 of 14
and spotted on FTA cards. The cards were subsequently Supplementary Information
dried overnight and stored in sample bags containing sil- The online version contains supplementary material available at https:// doi. 
ica gel. All the samples were then transported to the labo- org/ 10.1 186/ s44149‑0 22‑ 00064‑6.
ratory and stored at -80°C pending analysis.
Additional file 1. 
Additional file 2. 
DNA extraction and molecular analysis Additional file 3. 
DNA was extracted from the livestock dried blood spots Additional file 4. 
using Qiagen DNA Mini Kit (Qiagen Inc. Hilden, Ger-
many) according to the manufacturer’s instructions. The 
extracted DNA was screened for Coxiella burnetii using AcknowledgementsThe authors are grateful to the Navrongo Health Research Centre and the 
an IS1111 assay that targets the 295 bp fragment of the Parasitology Department of Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research 
transposase gene of C. burnetii IS1111a element (Klee for their support and contribution.
et al. 2006) (see Additional file 1). Authors’ disclaimer statement
Again, Rickettsia DNA was detected in the livestock The views expressed in this article are those of the authors and do not neces‑
DBS using a quantitative PCR which targets the 115 bp sarily reflect the official policy or position of the Department of the Navy, 
fragment of the 17 kDa surface protein of Rickettsia spe- Department of Defense, or the US Government. Opinions, interpretations, conclusions, and recommendations are those of the authors and are not 
cies (Jiang et al., 2004). Samples that were Rickettsia posi- necessarily endorsed by the US Army.
tive were subsequently characterized using primers that The authors Joseph W. Diclaro II and Suzanne Mate are military service mem‑
target the rOmpA gene (ompA) of Rickettsia amplify- bers or employees of the US Government. This work was prepared as part of their official duties. Title 17 USC §105 provides that “Copyright protection 
ing at 632 bp (J Jiang et  al. 2005) (see Additional file 2). under this title is not available for any work of the United States Government”. 
To identify Babesia/Theileria in the samples, a conven- Title 17 USC §101 defines US Government work as work prepared by a military 
tional PCR that amplifies the 150 bp fragment of rRNA service member or employee of the US Government as part of that person’s official duties.
gene fragments (lsu5-lsu4) of the Babesia mitochondrial 
genome (Qurollo et al. 2017) as well as other apicompl-
exan pathogens was performed (see Additional  file  3). Authors’ contributionsSOA and REB wrote the main manuscript. SOA, REB, KNY, JA, EB, PO, and SB 
Furthermore, Ehrlichia and Anaplasma DNA were conducted the laboratory analysis. EB analysed the data. SOA, VA, SM, JAL, PKB, 
detected in the samples using conventional PCR that MDW, JWD and SKD designed the study. JAL, PKB, MDW and SKD supervised 
amplifies the 345 bp fragment of the Ehrlichia genus this study. All authors reviewed and approved the final manuscript.
16SrRNA gene (Nazari et al. 2013). The primers used in Funding
the PCR reaction were designed to amplify a wider spec- This study was funded by the Uniformed Services University Center for Global 
trum of organisms in the Ehrlichia and Anaplasma gen- Health Engagement (CGHE) through the Global Health Engagement Research Initiative (Grant number: GRANT12767296).
era (see Additional file 4). All positive PCR products were 
shipped to Macrogen Europe B.V. (Amsterdam, the Neth- Availability of data and materials
erlands) for Sanger sequencing. All the data supporting this study are included in the article.
Declarations
Phylogenetic analysis
The sequences obtained in this study were mapped to Ethics approval and consent to participateApproval was obtained from the University of Ghana Institutional Animal Care 
similar sequences in the NCBI database, including ref- and Use Committee (UG‑IACUC; UG‑IACUC 001/19–20).
erence sequences. Sequences were further aligned using 
the Clustal Omega tool in MEGA X (Kumar et al. 2018). Competing interestsThe authors declare no conflict of interest.
The relationships between the isolates were determined 
using phylogenetic trees created in MEGA X based on 
the Neighbour-joining method. Received: 25 October 2022   Accepted: 5 December 2022
Statistical analysis
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