University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON PERCEPTION OF THE EFFECTS OF SOCIAL INTERVENTION PROGRAMMES ON POVERTY REDUCTION IN THE SHAI-OSU DOKU DISTRICT BY NANA KESEWAA YEBOAH (10351821) THIS DISSERTATION IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF MA SOCIAL POLICY STUDIES DEGREE. 2017 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DECLARATION I hereby declare that this research work is my own and that neither a part nor a whole has been submitted anywhere for an award of any academic degree. All references have been duly acknowledged. Nana Kesewaa Yeboah ……………………. …………………….. (Student) Signature Date Certified by; Dr. Alidu Saidu ……………………. ……………………… (Supervisor) Signature Date i University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DEDICATION I dedicate my work to the sovereign God, to my boys Philip and Michael for having missed mummy’s love for all the time I was away to study. ii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I would like to acknowledge the following persons who contributed directly or indirectly to the cause of my work. My heart felt appreciation goes to my supervisor, Dr Alidu Seidu and my lecturer, Dr. George Domfe for their selfless commitment showed to me during the study. My second gratitude goes to my colleague Kirk Kuuku Otoo and the wife for opening their doors to me whenever I needed help towards my work. I will always be grateful to my research assistant, Edmond Gyasi Larbi for the immeasurable help he gave me during my field work and related issues. To my colleagues at Registry, Ledzokuku-Krowor Municipal Assembly, especially Vivian Adobea Mensah your support cannot be over looked. The officers at the Shai-Osudoku District of Social Welfare Department thank you for aiding in the data collection. Mrs Regina Botchwey and Roland Samuel Incoom for the financial assistance, I am internally grateful lastly, to my family members who have solidly supported me through thick and thin, I say God richly bless you in all your endeavors. iii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ABSTRACT This study sought to investigate the perception of effect on social intervention programmes on poverty reduction in the Shai-Osudoku District of the Greater Accra Region of Ghana. Both quantitative and qualitative approaches were employed to address the research objectives. A survey involving 306 beneficiaries was conducted to collect the quantitative data while focus group discussions and in-depth interviews were used to collect the qualitative data. Descriptive statistics and thematic analysis were respectfully used to analyse the quantitative and qualitative data. Findings of the studies showed that, the disability common fund has helped a beneficiary to purchase a tricycle which brings income. A LEAP beneficiary out of the intervention was able to rent land for farming. The study also identified some challenges as working against the effectiveness of the programmes. A suggestion was made to initiate more social intervention programmes and address the identified challenges to make the programmes effective. iv University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh TABLE OF CONTENTS Content Page DECLARATION ................................................................................................................... i DEDICATION ...................................................................................................................... ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT .................................................................................................. iii ABSTRACT ......................................................................................................................... iv TABLE OF CONTENTS ...................................................................................................... v LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................ viii LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................. ix LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ............................................................................................... x CHAPTER ONE ................................................................................................................... 1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................ 1 1.1 Background of the Study ........................................................................................ 1 1.2 Problem Statement ................................................................................................. 5 1.3 Research Objectives ............................................................................................... 8 1.4 Research Questions ................................................................................................ 8 1.5 Significance of the Study ....................................................................................... 9 1.6 Scope and limitation ............................................................................................. 10 1.7 Organization of the Study ..................................................................................... 10 CHAPTER TWO ................................................................................................................ 11 LITERATURE REVIEW.................................................................................................... 11 2.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 11 2.2 History of the Theory of Change .......................................................................... 11 2.2.1 DFID’s Checklist notes for the theory of change.......................................... 14 2.3 The Sustainable Livelihoods Framework ............................................................. 16 2.4 The Conceptual Framework ................................................................................. 18 2.4.1 Relevance of the theory of change for the study .......................................... 18 2.4.2 The Conceptual Framework ......................................................................... 21 2.5 Measures of Poverty ............................................................................................. 22 2.6 The Contribution of Social Intervention Programmes to Poverty Reduction. ..... 24 2.7 Summery and Conclusion .................................................................................... 26 v University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER THREE ............................................................................................................. 27 METHODOLOGY .............................................................................................................. 27 3.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 27 3.2 Research Design ................................................................................................... 27 3.3 The Study Area ..................................................................................................... 28 3.4 Target Population of the Study ............................................................................. 30 3.5 Sampling Techniques and Sampling Size ............................................................ 31 3.5.1 Sample size determination (Quantitative survey) ......................................... 31 3.5.2 Selection of respondents for the qualitative interviews ................................ 32 3.6 Data Collection Technique and Tools .................................................................. 33 3.7 Data analysis procedure ........................................................................................ 34 3.8 Ethical Issues ........................................................................................................ 35 CHAPTER FOUR ............................................................................................................... 36 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS ....................................................................................... 36 4.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 36 4.2 Demographic Characteristics ............................................................................... 36 4.3 Channels through which Social Intervention Programmes Affect the Livelihood of Beneficiaries ................................................................................................................ 42 4.3.1 Beneficiaries on Labour Intensive Public Works.......................................... 42 4.3.2 People with Disability (PWD’s).................................................................... 46 4.3.3 Beneficiaries on Livelihood Empowerment against Poverty (LEAP) .......... 47 4.4 Contribution of Social Intervention Programmes to Poverty Reduction ............. 48 4.5 The Challenges in the Implementation of the Social Intervention Programmes .. 54 4.5.1 Challenges of implementation of the Livelihood Empowerment Against Poverty (LEAP) ........................................................................................................... 54 4.5.2 Challenges associated with the Labour Intensive Public Works (LIPW) .... 55 4.5.3 The Disability Common Fund (DCF) ........................................................... 56 CHAPTER FIVE ................................................................................................................. 58 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION ........................................... 58 5.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 58 5.2 Summary of Key Findings ................................................................................... 58 5.3 Conclusion of the Study ....................................................................................... 61 5.4 Policy Recommendation ....................................................................................... 62 5.5 Limitation of the Study ......................................................................................... 63 vi University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5.6 Recommendation for Future Research Work ....................................................... 64 REFERENCES .................................................................................................................... 65 APPENDICES .................................................................................................................... 68 vii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF TABLES Table 2.1: DFID’s checklist for theories change ................................................................ 15 Table 3.1: Sample size determination (Dodowa) ................................................................ 32 Table 3.2: Sample size determination (Ayikuma)............................................................... 32 Table 4.1: Ownership of natural capital before and after analysis ...................................... 49 Table 4.2: Ownership of physical capital before and after analysis ................................... 51 Table 4.3: Ownership of financial capital before and after analysis ................................... 52 Table 4.4: Ownership of social capital before and after analysis ....................................... 52 Table 4.5: Ownership of human capital before and after analysis ...................................... 53 viii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1.1a: Economic growth rate for Ghana, 1994 to 2013 ............................................... 6 Figure 1.1b: Head count poverty rates (%), 1991/1992 to 2012/2013 .................................. 6 Figure 2.1: Four core criteria of the theory of change ........................................................ 13 Figure 2.2: Sustainable Livelihood Framework Model ...................................................... 16 Figure 2.3: The conceptual framework the study................................................................ 21 Figure 3.1: Map of Shai-Osudoku District .......................................................................... 29 Figure 4.1: Gender of Respondents ..................................................................................... 37 Figure 4.3: Level of educational attainment ....................................................................... 38 Figure 4.4: Marital status of respondents ............................................................................ 39 Figure 4.5: Occupational status of respondents .................................................................. 40 Figure 4.6: Ethnicity of respondents ................................................................................... 40 Figure 4.7: Religion of the respondents .............................................................................. 41 Figure 4.8: Length of stay in the communities ................................................................... 42 ix University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS CG Capitation Grant CIPP Context Input Processes and Products DACF District Assembly Common Fund DCF Disability Common Fund DFID Department for International Development ECLAC Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean FGDs Focus Group Discussions FMHC Free Maternal Health Care GDP Gross Domestic Product GSFP Graduate Scholarships and Fellowship Programme IMF International Monetary Fund ISSER Institute of Statistical, Social and Economic Research KIIs Key Informant Interviews LEAP Livelihood Empowerment Against Poverty LIPW Labour Intensive Public Works MDG Millennium Development Goal NGO Non-Governmental Organization OAP Old Age Pensioners SAP Structural Adjustment Programmes SAPRIN Structural Adjustment Participatory Review International Network SIP Social intervention Programme SPSS Statistical Package for the Social Sciences UNDP United Nations Development Programme x University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh WB World Bank xi University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background of the Study Poverty has been an intractable socio-economic problem for many African countries. This has motivated governments and international donor agencies to device different strategies to address poverty. United Nations in the year 2000, led a group of heads of states and governments to adopt eight Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) one of which (Goal One) sought to reduce extreme poverty and hunger. Currently, the MDGs whose implementation came to an end in 2015 have adopted Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) to continue the gains made by the MDGs in poverty reduction effort. Ghana, since 2010, has had its fair share with the adverse effects of poverty. Around the year 1991, 51.7 per cent of the Ghanaian population was described as poor (GSS, 1995). Many efforts by the Government of Ghana, Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) and other donor agencies yielded positive results when in 2013, the head count poverty rate declined to 24.2 per cent (GSS, 2014). This made Ghana one of the few countries to meet the ‘MGD One’ whose objective was to halve the 1990s incidence of head count poverty rate. During the period of MDGs implementation, Ghanaian economy performed relatively well growing at an average rate of 6 per cent (Ministry of Finance, 2016). At the same time, several social intervention programmes had been introduced. Therefore, poverty reduction during these years could be attributed to the high macroeconomic performance as well as the various roles the social intervention programmes played in the poverty reduction efforts. 1 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Ghanaian economy grew negatively in the early1970 - 1980s. ( Fosu & Aryeetey,2006) “The considerable reduction between 1970 and 1983 necessitated a decline in Gross Domestic Product per capita by more than 3% per annum, in industrial output by 4.2% per annum and in agricultural output by 0.2% a year. The main foundation of the economy, cocoa, mineral and timber production, was on the decline. Cocoa exports fell from 382,000 metric tonnes in 1974 to 159,000 metric tonnes in 1983 (World Bank, 1987). Mineral exports declined from an index value of 100 in 1975 to 46 by 1983. Production of starchy staples fell from 7,988,000 tonnes in 1974 to 3,657,000 tonnes by 1983 “(Hutchful, 2002) Around this time, poverty situation in the country was very high. The country received low amount of rainfall with vast proportion of the arable land experiencing devastating bushfires. Ghana therefore had no choice but to turn to the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank’s reform package popularly known as the Economic Recovery Programme (ERP) (Kraev, 2004). Even though the macro economy performed well, there were many complaints that a section of the population had been adversely affected by the economic reforms. the ERP was intended to restore the country's international economic standing, this was heavily criticised in Ghana for ignoring the plight of those who were ignored in the export sector. The devastating shift in resources was toward cocoa restoration and other export sectors, and not toward food production. Government employees, especially those in state enterprises, were aggressively targeted, this resulted in many losing their jobs. Farmers were not left out of the suffering, as the percentage of the total budget devoted to agriculture fell from 10 percent in 1983 to 4.2 percent in 1986 and to 3.5 percent in 1988, this excluded foreign aid projects. (Hutchful, 2002) The Economic Recovery Programme (ERP) was meant to address the crumbled economy by setting the macro-economy right in the early 1980s. The ERP was carried out in three phases. The first was to reduce expenditure and create incentives for private production. The 2 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh second phase of reform saw ERP divesting many assets through privatization and instituting radical foreign exchange reforms to devalue the cedi further. In the ERP's third phase, the government deepened monetary reforms and reduced private corporate taxes to boost private-sector growth. Few years after, it became evident that the IMF/World Bank’s economic reforms have created social disequilibrium (Hutchful, 2002) After a persistent complaint of the adverse effects of the reforms, IMF later, agreed to integrate poverty reduction fully into its operations in the poorest countries (Sowa, 2002). In the case of Ghana, the Government in January 1989, introduced a pro-poor intervention programme known as Programme of Action to Mitigate the Social Costs of Adjustment (PAMSCAD). To address the escalating adverse conditions resulting from the economic reforms (IMF, 2000). Among other things, PAMSCAD sought to bring small scale businesses. These businesses were meant for the poor at the local level. They identified their financial needs and then provided them with funds. In addition, PAMSCAD introduced the supplementary food programme to provide food to children and women to promote good health (Barimah, 1993). Again, PAMSCAD created over 40,000 jobs for the poor most of whom became jobless through retrenchment. In 1993, a ¢10 billion cedis was slated in the budget purposely for the rehabilitation and development of social infrastructure (ibid). Furthermore, there was an additional amount of ¢51 billion set aside to cater for the redeployment and end-of- service benefits for those who were laid off in the civil service (Poli 211 notes, 2013) Because of the positive outcomes of the PAMSCAD on poverty, it became clear to the Government that social protection could (graphic online, 2016) be a potential strategy to reduce poverty in Ghana. Indeed, international organisations and some governments had acknowledged the positive impact of social protection on poverty reduction According to 3 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh the International Labour Organization (ILO) (2010), social protection could be used to reduce vulnerabilities to enhance security and promote wellbeing. Abebrese (2015) opined that social protection could be used to protect the poor and the vulnerable from risks and shocks caused by unexpected economic fluctuations. Aware of the positive effects of social protection in poverty reduction, Government of Ghana has, in the recent years, introduced about forty-four social intervention programmes (Lithur, 2014). Currently ten of these social interventions are being implemented. These interventions include the Livelihood Empowerment Against Poverty (LEAP), the Ghana School Feeding Programme, the National Health Insurance Scheme, the Capitation Grant, Free School Uniform, Free Exercise books, the Labour Intensive public works and Disability Common Fund (DCF). The Livelihood Empowerment Against Poverty (LEAP), is a cash grant that provides cash and health insurance to the extremely poor households across the country. the main aim of this programme is to alleviate short-term poverty and encourage long-term human capital development. The other social intervention programmes have similar objective of reducing poverty. However, studies in Ghana (ISSER, 2013), have not actually quantified the effects of the social intervention programmes currently being implemented in the country on poverty. The main aim of this study is to examine the role social intervention programmes (namely LEAP, LIPW and DCF) have played a role in reducing poverty in Shai-Osudoku District in Greater Accra Region. Shai-Osudoku District is an agrarian district. About 70-80 percent of the population in the district are farmers who grow mangoes, cassava, plantains, vegetables among other farming 4 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh produce. The remaining 20-30 percent are into fishing and petty trading as a way of making a living. 1.2 Problem Statement The poverty situation in Ghana has a long history. Ghana became independent country in 1957 with high hope of attaining economic independence as well. However, few years after independence, the country witnessed incessant overthrows of governments’. Apart from this, there was reports of economic mismanagement and drought that eventually pushed the economy to grow negatively in the 1980s (Aryeetey & Tarp, 2000). Colonial masters used the indigenes to gather the resources without any genuine intention to develop Ghana (Gold Coast). The focus of development was on their home countries and therefore, the few indigenes who worked for them did not receive real wage for their effort. Again, most indigenes did not get opportunity to be employed by the colonial masters. As a result, the indigenes could not develop themselves to take advantage of the prevailing opportunities. In 1983, as a way of addressing the then high incidence of poverty and macroeconomic instability, the Government subscribed to the IMF-led economic reforms (Aryeetey & Tarps, 2000). The economy suffered during much of the period from the mid-1960s and only began to stabilize by 1984. In 1966, 1972, 1975-1976, 1979, 1980-1983, the growth rate was negative. Through these reforms (i.e, ERP, SAP & PAMSCAD), macroeconomic indicators started showing positive signs of recovery. However, the poverty situation got worsened after many workers had suffered retrenchment (ibid). After many years of military regime, the country returned to democratic dispensation in January 1993 and since then the economy has been growing relatively better. At the same time the economy is growing, poverty has also been declining continuously (see Figure 1.1a 5 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh & Figure 1.1b). As a result, there has been several suggestions that economic growth in Ghana has resulted in dramatic decline in poverty. Osei-Assibey (2014) suggested that the decline in poverty during the last three decades in Ghana is because of rapid economic growth. This suggestion appears to be consistent with the description by the Department for International Development (DFID) (2015) that economic growth is a powerful tool for reducing poverty and improving the standard of life in the under developed countries. Figure 1.1a: Economic growth rate for Ghana, 1994 to 2013 16 14.8 14 12 10 9.1 9.3 7.8 8 7.3 5.6 5.9 6.2 6 4.6 4.7 5.24 4.2 4.4 3.7 4.2 4.5 4.3 4.8 4 3.3 2 0 Year Source: World Development Indicators Figure 1.1b: Head count poverty rates (%), 1991/1992 to 2012/2013 60 51.7 50 38.5 40 31.9 30 24.2 20 10 0 1991/1992 1998/1999 2005/2006 2012/2013 Survey period Source: GLSS (iii, iv, v & vi) 6 Head count poverty rate (%) Economic growth rate in percentage University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh From the discussions above, economic growth appears as a very good reason to explain poverty reduction in Ghana. However, it appears the contribution of other factors to poverty reduction in Ghana has not received much attention in the academia. For instance, Government of Ghana has been implementing social intervention programmes with the aim of reducing poverty. More emphasis is placed on economic growth for reducing poverty. ISSER (2013) found that Livelihood Empowerment Against Poverty (LEAP) led to a significant increase in the likelihood of holding savings which could have positive effect on consumption. Again, the study also found that households with four members or less use of own labour compared to hired labour which eventually could also enhance consumption. Despite these findings in 2013 by ISSER, other studies on poverty reduction suggests economic growth as the potential strategy for poverty reduction (Budget Statement, 2018). While economic growth can potentially reduce poverty, it is also true that some people are likely to be left behind for which reason social intervention programmes become necessary for helping such people to overcome poverty. Because poverty is a multi-dimensional in nature, approaches to address it must as well be multi-dimensional (Domfe, et al, 2013). Therefore, the quest to achieve economic growth to reduce poverty should be supplemented by social intervention programmes. Incidentally, the total expenditure on social intervention programmes in Ghana has not been encouraging at all – it only constitutes about 0.71 per cent of the total national expenditure (de-Graft Aikins, 2016). Considering this development, the fear is that the mounting fiscal rigidities on the Ghanaian economy may soon lead to a total abolition of budgetary allocations to social intervention programmes in Ghana. This study therefore aims at adding a voice to ISSER’s (2013) study and other related studies to draw Government’s attention to the positive effects of social intervention programmes in 7 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh the fight against poverty. The difference is that while ISSER’s (2013) study concentrated on one programme at the national level, this study adopted one district and assessed the role of three social intervention programmes that have cash transfers to beneficiaries Additionally, rather than using a robust econometric impact assessment in identifying positive effects of an intervention, this study would depend on the general perception and experiences of the beneficiaries in determining the roles the selected social intervention programmes have played in improving wellbeing of household members. 1.3 Research Objectives The main objective of the study is to investigate the contribution of social intervention programmes to poverty reduction in Shai-Osudoku. Specifically, the study seeks to:  Assess the channels through which the social intervention programmes affect the livelihood of the beneficiaries  Examine the perception of the beneficiaries on the specific roles social intervention programmes have played to reduce poverty  Identify challenges in the implementation of the social intervention programmes 1.4 Research Questions  how do beneficiaries of social intervention programmes perceive the poverty reduction effects of such programmes?  What are the barriers to the positive effects of social intervention programmes on wellbeing?  Are the challenges impeding the smooth running of the programme? 8 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.5 Significance of the Study The results of the study will add a voice to the earlier studies in bringing to the attention of the policy makers the contribution of social intervention programmes to poverty. For instance, because much is not known about the impact of the social intervention programmes, Government has not been too serious with its fiscal commitments to the programmes. According to de-Graft Aikins (2016), budgetary allocations to social intervention programmes in Ghana, have been very small and irregular. Therefore, results from studies such as this will serve as a sign post to alert Government to improve on its fiscal commitments to social intervention programmes in the country. Studies (ISSER, 2013; Abebrese, 2015, Handa et al, 2013) have tried to examine the effects of social intervention programmes on poverty. Even though results of such studies have indicated positive effects of social intervention programmes on poverty reduction, economic growth is necessary condition to poverty reduction, it appears not sufficient enough to address the current poverty situation in Ghana. It is therefore important that more studies are conducted to highlight the contribution of social intervention programmes to poverty reduction. The study will prompt a district level analysis of the contribution of social intervention programmes to poverty reduction in Ghana. Studies (ISSER, 2013) that have attempted to do this concentrated on a programme either in some parts or in the whole country. However, in the present case, three programmes were examined concurrently in one district. Additionally, the findings from the study would strengthen poverty reduction efforts by helping programmes managers to identify key challenges facing smooth implementation of the social intervention programmes. 9 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.6 Scope and limitation Impact or effects studies is best ascertained by undertaking an ethnographic study which is longitudinal and done thoroughly to come up with solid findings. Due to time and resource constraint, this study covered some communities in Shai-Osudoku District. As a result, the study cannot be generalized. Lack of funding restricted the sample size of the study. 1.7 Organization of the Study The study consisted of 5 Chapters. Chapter One comprised of the background study, the problem statement, objectives and significance of the study. Chapter Two discussed related literature to the main issues while Chapter Three discussed the various methods of the study. The Chapter Four concentrates on the data analysis according to stated objectives of the study. Chapter Five summarizes, recommends and finally concludes. 10 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Introduction The chapter reviews relevant literature on social interventions and poverty reduction. It begins with discussions on the theoretical perspective of the study. This is followed by a conceptual framework and literature on social intervention and how it contributes to poverty reduction. 2.2 History of the Theory of Change While it is not known when the theory of change was first used (C T C, 2017), several researchers (Weiss, 1995; Grant Craft, 2006; Cathy, 2011) have used it to explain changes in the outcomes and circumstances of behaviours after initiating intervention programmes. Weiss (1995) made the term “Theory of Change” popular to the research world when she attempted to describe a set of assumptions that could establish the connections among the goals, activities and outcomes of programmes. Theory of change is basically an all-inclusive of how and why an anticipated change is supposed to come about within a given circumstances. This is then mapped out to find the missing puzzle on the change initiative such as an intervention and how this can lead to the desired change sort after. This is done by first finding the desired long-term goals and then works back from these to identify all the conditions (outcomes) that must be in place (and how these related to one another causally) for the goals to occur. These are all mapped out in an Outcomes Framework. (http://www.theoryofchange.org/what-is-theory-of-change/) There is uncertainty regarding the theory of change and some have misunderstood log frames to be theory of change (C T C, 2017). 11 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The theory of change focuses on the dynamics of change within a precise context and the indicators through which change comes about – regardless of any planned interventions. The Logframe Matrix is a planning tool that uses linear cause and effect relationships. A Logframe matrix at times adopts the idea of simple, often quantitative, measurement and mostly tends to focus on results and not on process and relationships. (Brown, 2016) DFID (2012) provided different views of theory of change based on different perspective or thinking. It came out in their analysis that thoughts may vary depending on the ideas of its developments, the context and nature of the intervention as well as the purpose of the development. Therefore, in the views of DFID, there is no single window from which to describe the theory of change. However, there are core criteria every programme must meet for it to impact on the intended beneficiaries. These are input, output, impact and outcome. According to OECD (2016) the inputs could be in the form of material resources, logistics human or financial resources. The inputs are usually needed before the programme takes off. The financial capital, the human capital and the material resources used to start these programmes are classified as inputs. On the other hand, output are the products – goods and services – which are usually channeled to effect changes in the expected outcomes of the programme. Later, in the life of the programme, the outcomes are expected to lead to measurable change (impact). Figure 2.1 uses construction of a dam to provide water to farmers as an illustration of the four core criteria of the theory of change. At the initial stages (input stage), the necessary equipment for the construction of the dam should be procured. Additionally, people who will work on the dam as well as financial inputs should also be considered here. After this, it is expected that certain number of dams will be built (indicating output) to provide easy 12 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh access to water (outcome). However, the impact is ascertaining from the increases in the yield because of easy accessibility to water. Figure 2.1: Four core criteria of the theory of change INPUTS IMPACTS OUTPUTS OUTCOMES • Equipment • Increased • No of • Improved yields • Financial small access to dams water • Increased Resource incomes • Human Resources • Reduced Poverty Source: Adapted from OECD (2016) Woodrow et. al (2013) described the theory of change as the number of actions which when embarked on can produce a desired outcome within a given perspective. Within a context, most theories of change are pillared by a range of activities that emerge to produce a desired outcome. The theory of change focuses on the dynamics of change within a precise context and the indicators through which change comes about. The Planning process groups set objectives to be attained, draws up strategies to reach the set objectives, creates the avenues for achieving your target and implement, straight and observes the steps in a sequential order to reach the desired results. This also includes involvement and assessment. The theory of change focuses on mapping out the missing puzzle and plans on how to get to the desired results. The outcome arrived at, will then suggest the best practices to adopt. Woodrow et. al (2013) have a modest way of explaining the theory of change as: That is when an X (act) is embarked on; it will produce a Y variable which will bring about change. This implies that it will bring about change by moving from a previous state towards a current state which is better. 13 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Theories of change are essential for programme logic and rationale which suggest why ‘X group’ is chosen to be worked with at a time and uses a set of methods to arrive at a finding. Theory of change proposes some assumptions about how change comes about and also how gaps and unmet needs are discovered. Again, the theory of change can bring about development among stakeholders with a common understanding to make informed decisions. Therefore, theory of change ensures strong programme design, monitoring and evaluation (ibid). Theory of change has become very useful theory in evaluation studies. Allen et. al (2017) used theory of change to explain the impact of decision support systems on beneficiaries. Other authors (Stein et. al, 2012; Rogers, 2008) used the theory of change in their work to evaluate the impact of complicated intervention programmes on beneficiaries. 2.2.1 DFID’s Checklist notes for the theory of change DFID uses checklist notes (see Table 2.1) to find out whether the programme is consistent with the four core criteria of the theory of change. For instance, the analysis context of list examines whether the intervention makes sense in accordance to the needs and aspirations of the beneficiaries. Apart from the above, other issues considered are whether the hypotheses are clear enough to effect changes. 14 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 2.1: DFID’s checklist for theories change context analysis does the theory of change make sense as a response to analysis of the context, the problem and the changes needs is there one statement that sums up the the theory of change? clear hypothesis of change are causal pathways well mapped in a diagram? i.e, ● in detail-including intermediate outcome? ● no missing links? ● conceptually clear- no congested boxes containing several inputs, outputs outcomesor causal links ● presenting the specifics of this programme not just a generic type of intervention are assumptions made explicit (in the diagram or text) ●about causal lines ● about implementation ● about context exeternal factors? ●does the narrative highligt and describe the overall logic of the intervention and the key hypothesis which the programmes is based on? assessment of the evidence ●is there a narrative assessment of the evidence for each key hypothesis? ● is the strength of the evidence assessed? ● does the assessment make sense giventhe evidence referred to? other is the theory of change and logframe consistent? do the evaluation questions mentioned in the management case pick up on hypothesis in the theory of change which have a weak edvidence base? Source: Adopted from, DFID, 2012 15 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.3 The Sustainable Livelihoods Framework A sustainable livelihood framework is another model that can explain how the social intervention programmes in Shai-Osudoku District have been helping to reduce poverty. According to DFID (2000) a livelihood comprises the capabilities, assets and activities required for a means of living. Therefore, livelihood is described as sustainable when it is able to help beneficiaries to cope with and recover from stresses and shocks. Figure 2.2 explains the various components of the model. Figure 2.2: Sustainable Livelihood Framework Model Human Capital Social Capital Natural Capital The Poor Physical Capital Financial Capital Source: DFID (2000) The sustainable livelihood framework focuses on the general wellbeing of the people. In other words, the framework is more interested in the people rather than the resources involved. Again, it is holistic; it can be said to be aspired by understanding the stakeholders’ livelihood entirely. The Sustainable Livelihood Framework assist in identifying the important pressing issues that people encounter. Another principle is that, the framework is dynamic. Just as humans change so the framework is structured to absorb all changes that may arise. This is to make room for supporting positive effect whiles dropping the negative impacts. Building on the strength of the framework offers a more articulate and solid 16 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh approach to poverty. Here, the approach searches for the individual’s potentials and build upon it. (Krantz, 2001) The needs and problems of the beneficiaries are the starting point. This contributes to the robustness and ability of stakeholders to achieving their full potential. Another principle of the framework is the macro-micro link. At the development level, it’s either the macro or the micro activities which is focused on. SLF bridges the gap between the macro and the micro levels. People are affected by decisions at either the macro or micro policy level. This results in relations that are needed to bridge and foster on sustainable development. Livelihood can be said to be sustainable if it is resilient, can withstand external shocks and stresses. SLF should be independent from external support and must be able to maintain long-term productivity of natural resources. This does not undermine the livelihood options of others. (Twigg, 2001) Sustainable livelihood framework seeks to it that the poor and vulnerable in the society get their fair share of the national care. As a result, intervention programmes such as the Labour Intensive Public Works (LIPW), the Livelihood against Poverty (LEAP), and the Disability Common Fund are crafted to provide some form of relieve to the poor and vulnerable. These interventions are measured against the human, physical, financial, social and the natural capital to ascertain their impacts. These are some of the questions asked on the indicators of the framework. Has the intervention improved the natural capital by way of acquiring land and produce, aquatic resources and water, wildlife, food and fibers? The framework is used to evaluate if the interventions have helped beneficiaries to access health care? are households able to eat nutritional food? Are household school going children able to attend school, what kind of knowledge or skills have the interventions given to beneficiaries, have beneficiaries built their capacity one way or the other to work with? And how have they built their capacity? 17 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The financial capital assesses whether beneficiaries can open bank account? If they are, are they enable to access loan facilities? What of remittances, pensions and wages, are beneficiaries able to get all this after the programme? Another indicator is the physical capital. The physical capital is categorized into; infrastructure and tools and technology. Here enquiries are made to know if beneficiaries able to secure infrastructure such as shelter and buildings, cars, water supply and sanitation, what type of energy are they using. Are they able to buy any form of communication gargets to improve their communication? With regards to tools and technology, are beneficiaries able to use modern technology for farming? What of acquisition of seeds, fertilizers and pesticides? The last indicator on the SL framework is the social capital. The social capital discusses the network and connections built after signing on to any of the social intervention programmes. Whether beneficiaries have improved their relations of trust and mutual support, the number of formal and informal groups they have joined and if beneficiaries have assumed leadership role. The sustainable livelihood framework examines the total lives of beneficiaries. 2.4 The Conceptual Framework The conceptual frameworks are the systems of concepts, assumptions, expectations, beliefs and theories that assist and inform a research on the study design (Miles & Huberman, 1994; Robson, 2011). This part of the study discusses the various assumptions and models of pathways through which the social intervention programmes could help reduce poverty. 2.4.1 Relevance of the theory of change for the study The concept of change is relevant for the study because all the three intervention programmes selected – Labour Intensive Public Works (LIPW), Livelihood Empowerment 18 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Against Poverty (LEAP) and Disability Common Fund (DCF) – appear to have the core criteria of change. Working closely to DFID (2012) adaption of theory of change in suggesting the improvement of quality education in Ethiopia, the study adopts the following underlying assumptions for the three selected programmes: Labour Intensive Public Works (LIPW) The Labour Intensive Public Works provides off season jobs for beneficiaries to earn extra income and acquire skills to provide opportunity for further employment. the programme used the daily minimum wage ratio to pay the beneficiaries. (⸿8 as at 2017). Beneficiaries become members through registration at the offices of the LIPW. Labour Intensive Public Works (LIPW) is a social intervention programme geared towards providing beneficiaries with employment during off season when farming activities have gone down and there is not much to do. This helps to respond to external shocks too. These works are in the form of construction of roads, dams and activities to preventing climate change. This intervention selects the poor rural households. The benefit type is in a form of cash. Shai-Osudoku District happens to be one of the districts selected to pilot this programme. The district has been involved in the construction of roads within the district that are not engineered. This the inception of this programme, the assembly has so far constructed 2km roads, in the district. The intention of the programme is to help reduce poverty within the district and to give work to the people during off season when majority of them are not going to the farm. The LIPW programme has been giving beneficiaries some form of income to cushion them. LIPW give jobs to beneficiaries, as a way of assisting the poor and the vulnerable within this community. 19 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Evidence proves that when the poor and the vulnerable are given interventions in the form of jobs it helps raise them from abject poverty. Livelihood Empowerment Against Poverty Livelihood Empowerment Against Poverty is Cash transfer and has the component of NHIS as part for beneficiaries. LEAP is a social cash transfer programme that provides cash grant to the extremely poor households across the country. This programme is run by the Department of Social Welfare (DSW) The main aim of LEAP is to alleviate short-term poverty and to encourage long- term human capital development. One of the objective of the LEAP Programme is to provide cash transfer to beneficiaries to improve household nutritional value and use the money to do brisk business that can fetch the household some form of income. In addition, beneficiaries and their dependents get the opportunity to go to the hospital free due to the NHIS policy. Beneficiaries are accessed by the officials using the poverty indicators derived by the Ghana living standards indicators to select people come on the programme. The theory of change focuses on the dynamics of change within a precise context and the indicators through which change comes about – regardless of any planned interventions. The Logframe Matrix is a planning tool that uses linear cause and effect relationships. A Logframe matrix is at times adopts the idea of simple, often quantitative, measurement and mostly tends to focus on results and not on process and relationships. (Brown, 2016) Disability Common Fund The Disability Common Fund is Cash transfer which Provides skills for beneficiaries and procures equipment for starting small scale business. Two per cent of the district assembly’s common fund has been set aside for running the operations of the disability common fund. This fund specifically supports people with 20 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh disability by way of giving cash transfers, providing skills and procurement of equipment to aid in setting up the PWD’s. A committee under the district assembly is responsible for disbursing the funds to beneficiaries. Persons with disabilities are registered under the programme at the district level. 2.4.2 The Conceptual Framework This study used the logframe model of the theory of change to explain how social intervention used the linkages to explain reduction in poverty. The logframe is a matrix that demonstrates how the outputs, the outcomes and the effect for a programme are interrelated. It is a summary of what the whole work is about in a single illustration. Figure 2.3 shows how the programme is set out to deliver. Figure 2.3: The conceptual framework the study outputs Outcome impacts s Direct Indirect Increased Intervention Improved Reduced beneficiaries beneficiaries livelihoo income & poverty d access welfare for the poor Source: adopted from BEAM Exchange The interventions are the various set of actions taken by government. That is; the LEAP programme, the Labour Intensive Public Works and disability common fund are part of the measures the government put in place to make sure that the poor and the vulnerable who are identified benefit from these interventions: these are the direct beneficiaries. The indirect beneficiaries: are members of the household who benefit from these interventions by living in the same household with the beneficiaries. These could be children, spouses, nephew and 21 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh nieces of once household. The idea of these intervention programmes is for beneficiaries to access these interventions, which in the long run can improve their livelihood. The Livelihood Empowerment Against Poverty (LEAP) is a social cash transfer programme which provides cash and register the poor and vulnerable groups under the national health insurance to access free health care throughout the country to ease short to medium term poverty and vulnerability and encourage long-term human capital accumulation, growth and development (Sudhanshu, 2012). These monies received can foot bills of beneficiaries. The activities of LIPW which are in the rural areas of the country include feeder road construction and rehabilitation of small earth dams for irrigation and dry season agriculture and climate change activities to improve forest vegetation and all this is aimed at poverty reduction (Niyuni, 2016). The DCF program supports persons with tools and skills needed to make soap, basket, hat weaving and guinea fowls farming. 2.5 Measures of Poverty Mack (2016) defined poverty as a critical circumstance which is characterized by dire deprivation of the basic needs of humans such as shelter, food, safe drinking water, good sanitation, healthcare education and access to information. Mack does not restrict his definition to only income but also easy access to services. (Mack, 2016) Poverty is in two types: absolute poverty and relative poverty.absolute poverty is equal to destitution and happens when people are unable to provide for their daily basic needs such as healthy balanced diet to support a minimum level of physical health. Relative poverty is when people are unable to enjoy a minimum sandard of living set down by a country. This may deffer from country by country (ibid). 22 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh International Labour Organisation (ILO) (2003), report is of the view that, for the poverty cycle to be broken, one needs to have a full time employment and a decent work to be able to break away from the shackles of poverty. (ILO, 2003) This has been a major push of the ILO approach. Suggestion shows that decent and productive jobs, sustainable enterprises and economic transformation play a key role in reducing poverty. The complex nature of measuring poverty is mirrored by this definition, this complexity rises as the inclusion of participatory methods are applied. (Maxwell, 1999) According to the World Economic Forum (2014), majority of the countries measure poverty using the absolute threshold or the fixed standard of the items household are to consider measuring the basic needs. Some countries measure poverty by using the relative threshold. This method has a cutoff point between the relationship of the overall distribution of income and the consumption of a country. (Feng, 2014) Relative poverty lines are the overall distribution of individual income or consumption within a country where poverty line is measured by an estimation of 50 per cent of the mean consumption of a country. Absolute poverty line measures the households basic needs to know the households’ cost of basic food needs such as the cost of nutritional needs of the family for a healthy existence, Absolute poverty line is very reliable in this instance. (Ibid) Poverty is classified under the individual and the household according Morrissey (1991) Poverty according to EUROSTAT, (2000) is measured using surveys on income and expenditure. Here, a household access to nutritional food, safe drinking water, shelter, access to health care, and ways of income generation are used to measure poverty level (Atkinson, 1987). 23 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh From the point of view of social researchers, poverty is a complicated phenomenon. This is influenced by a large set of factors that can be studied from different angles. Interpreting poverty is not an easy task as there are varied ways of interpreting how poverty works. The first classification type is based on the information used, this can be subjective or objective poverty, this is the reference used to set the threshold. That is, the absolute or relative poverty needs to separate static studies from dynamic studies. The Ghana Statistical Service measures poverty by using the headcount index (P0), also known as the poverty incidence. This estimates the proportion of the population that is poor. But it does not indicate how poor the poor are. Secondly, the poverty gap index (P1) measures the intensity of poverty in a country, which is the average ratio of the gap to which individuals fall below the poverty line (for non-poor the gap is counted as zero). The measure does not reflect changes in inequality among the poor but adds up the extent to which individuals on average fall below the poverty line and expresses it as a percentage of the poverty line. (GLSS1) The Ghana statistical Service uses these indicators to measure poverty. the expenditure of a minimum consumption basket required by an individual to fulfill his or her basic food and non-food needs is a criterion for measurement. This expenditure is referred to as the poverty line. 2.6 The Contribution of Social Intervention Programmes to Poverty Reduction. Osei, (2011) undertook a study titled, “Reducing Poverty Through A Social Grants Programme”. at the institute of statistical social and economic research (ISSER). The main findings of this study were that a universal social programme of the nature described in this study will reduce the incidence and depth of poverty as well as inequality in Ghana- both 24 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh the incidence of poverty and the Gini coefficient will be reduced by about five per cent (5%) points. It however finds out that affordability remains the biggest challenge as such programme will cost in net terms, of about three per cent (3%) of GDP. The policy implications are that, the model can be simulated by changing the parameters under the different policy modules. Jensen (2003) found a much larger poverty impart of OAP in the Venda region: a reduction of 26 percentage points in the poverty rate among elderly households, considering the crowding out associated with pension receipt (Jensen, 2003) Work by Callistus Agbaam and Mulugeta F. Dinbabo of Institute for Social Development, University of the Western Cape, Cape Town, South Africa. Title, “Social Grant and Poverty Reduction at the Household Level: Empirical Evidence Fromm Ghana”. The study established that, the LEAP social grant has a significant positive impact on food consumption, frequency of utilization of health care facilities and the school enrolment rate for children aged 6-13 years in beneficiary household. Despite this hypothesis, no significant impact is observed in relation to the incidence of child labour in the household. Work by Babken Babajanian (2013) titled, “Social Protection and its Contribution to Social Inclusion” The paper suggests that social protection can nurture social inclusion by improving the standard of living through income support; that is, social protection can address the causes of poverty and vulnerability by investing in human capabilities and productive capacity, through promotion of legal rights and by accessing institutionalised services, again inequalities can be addressed through the design and implementation social protection programmes. 25 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.7 Summery and Conclusion This Chapter looked at two theories; namely Theory of Change and Sustainable Livelihood Framework to explain LEAP, LIPW and DCF. The conceptual framework adopted the logframe to elaborate how social intervention programmes can help improve the welfare of the people in the selected communities. The curtain was drawn by reviewing works done by other people. 26 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY 3.1 Introduction This chapter gives a step by step overview of the methods used in addressing the objectives of the study. The chapter focuses on issues such as study area, target population, sampling technique, sample size, data collection and data analysis. 3.2 Research Design Research design of a study shows how, when and where data are collected and analyzed” (Parahoo, 1997). This study employed mixed method approach which involves the use of both quantitative and qualitative data for addressing the research issues. Since both quantitative and qualitative approaches have shortcomings, the use of the two is an attempt to minimize these limitations to ensure robust outcomes. Qualitative research is explorative in nature. It is used to gain understanding into areas where quantitative research uses more of numbers in its description. This type of research is used to disclose the trends in the researcher’s thoughts and opinions. This method varies, using both structured and semi structured approach. Qualitative research could be used to delve deeper into the research problem at hand. Examples of the methods used are, focus group discussions, in-depth or individual interviews and observation. With the qualitative research, usually, the sample size is very small. (DeFranzo, 2011) Qualitative research enables the researcher to examine the phenomena using in-depth examination that uses subjective information. Another important thing is that, it is not 27 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh limited to rigidities in a definable variable. Questions that are impossible to ask using quantitative methods are answerable with qualitative methods (Ibid). On the other hand, quantitative methods quantify problematic issues and uses it to generate the numerical data or converted to statistical data for use. This method uses variables that can be quantify opinions, attitudes as well as behaviours. Quantitative methods generalize large sample outcomes. This method is structured. Another thing is that quantitative methods uses measurable data to discover patterns in research and to articulate facts. Quantitative data collection uses different types of surveys Quantitative Research is used to quantify the problems by way of generating numerical data or data that can be transformed into usable statistics. It is used to quantify attitudes, opinions of respondents. (ibid). When both the quantitative and the qualitative methods are integrated it helps to fortify the studies since the weakness of one will be covered by the other. This makes the studies more reliable and can touch on all the relevant issues that will crop up (Cameron, 2015). 3.3 The Study Area The Shai-Osudoku District is one of the sixteen districts in the Greater Accra Region. Previously, Shai-Osudoku and Ningo-Prampram were together as the Ga-Dangme District with four traditional areas. However, in the year 2012, Ga-Dangme District was divided into two – the Ningo-Prampram District and the Shai-Osudoku District. The Shai-Osudoku District has Dodowa as its district capital, with forty-one other communities namely; Agomeda, Odumasi, Mantetse, Wedokum, Kadjanya, Abornya, Luom, Asebi, Ayikuma, Natreku, Sota, Teye- Kwame, Mueter, Doryumu, Adaam, Salem, Apperko, Astsuare, Congo, Kordiabe, Atrobinya, Agotor, Osuwem Kwesi Lanor, Apese, Ayeya, Volivo, Huapa, 28 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Osuwem, Agagakope, Kasunya, Ayibom Gozakope, Dunyokope, Dzogbdzi, Nyapienya, Adakorpe, Agbkotsekpo, Dzokpo, Tsumkpo, Abuviekpong, and Tokpo with two traditional areas. The total population according to the 2010 Population and Housing Census was 51,913 out of which 48.7 percent were males and 51.3 percent females. The District’s population constitutes 1.3 percent of the Region’s total population. The main economic activities range from farming, forestry, and fishing. My study took place in the district capital, Dodowa and Ayikuma Figure 3.1: Map of Shai-Osudoku District 29 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.4 Target Population of the Study According to Bryman and Bell (2007: 197) “decisions about sample size represents a compromise between the constraints of time and cost and the need for precision”. Thus, the choice of the sample size was based on the constraints of time as well as the very limited resources available to the researcher for the study. The study selected the district capital (Dodowa) and another community (Ayikuma). Reason being that, people from these two communities have these programmes LEAP, LIPW and DCF and have benefitted from it too. Under Dodowa, seventy-three (73) beneficiaries were chosen for the study under LIPW, LEAP was seventy-three (73) and DCF also seventy-four (74) making a total of two hundred and twenty (220) for Dodowa alone. At Ayikuma. Twenty-nine (29) beneficiaries for LEAP were selected, twenty-nine (29) people were selected for DCF and 28 for LIPW. Making eighty-six (86) beneficiaries for Ayikuma. A total of three hundred and six (306) beneficiaries were eventually selected from the following social intervention programmes: Shai-Osudoku have roughly, ten (10) social intervention programmes. Ranging from National Health Insurance Scheme (NHIS), Free School Uniform (FSU), Capitation Grant (CG) Free Exercise Books, Free School Feeding (FSF), Free Senior High School (FSHS) Livelihood Empowerment Against Poverty (LEAP), Ghana Luxembourg Social Trust Project GLST(I), GLST(II), Labour Intensive Public Works (LIPW) and Disability Common Fund (DCF). The three programmes were selected out of the lot because they are cash transfers or jobs in exchange for money. The choice was because of the significance of change it brings on the lives of the beneficiaries. Purposive sampling was used to select the three programmes for this study. 30 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.5 Sampling Techniques and Sampling Size Various probability sampling techniques (multi-stage sampling) were employed to select respondents for the survey. Firstly, simple random sampling technique was used to select two communities. Names of all the communities were written on equal sheet of papers. The papers were then folded, put into a close box after which they were mixed together and two of them picked to represent the two communities in the District. Eventually, Dodowa, the capital town was selected together with Ayikuma. 3.5.1 Sample size determination (Quantitative survey) Even though poverty is usually measured at the household level (Domfe et, al, 2013) the analysis of this study was done at the individual level. In other words, the study sought to find out if the social interventions selected have in a way improved the wellbeing of the individual beneficiaries after enrolling on the programme. Therefore, having selected communities (two communities), resident programme officers of the various intervention programmes were approached for the list of the individual beneficiaries. This list was merged for all the three selected social intervention programmes. In all, a total of 500 beneficiaries of the three selected social intervention programmes were identified at Dodowa Township. Using a sample calculator with confidence interval of 3 and confidence level of 99 percent, 220 came out as appropriate sample size (see Figure 3.2a). The same exercise was repeated for Ayikuma where 90 beneficiaries of the programmes were identified. Eventually, 86 beneficiaries were selected. Therefore, the sample size for the quantitative survey in the District was 306. 31 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 3.1: Sample size determination (Dodowa) Confidence Interval 3 Confidence level 99% Population 500 Sample size 220 Table 3.2: Sample size determination (Ayikuma) Confidence Interval 3 Confidence level 99% Population 90 Sample size 86 A systematic random sampling technique was then used to select the beneficiaries. While almost all the beneficiaries were selected in the case of Ayikuma, at Dodowa, A purposive sampling of respondent was used to select from the list of the beneficiaries, the next name on the list was ignored with the other that follows immediately being selected. This was done to ensure that the selected respondents were well spread out across the entire township. 3.5.2 Selection of respondents for the qualitative interviews The study used Key Informant Interviews (KIIs) to interview the programme coordinators whereas, Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) was used to interview the beneficiaries of the programmes. District coordinators for the three selected programmes were all select for the KIIs. Additionally, three officers, one for each programme were selected for interviews at the national level. In all, six FGDs took place in the two communities. Three in each community were conducted. Each FGD consisted of 8 participants of a social intervention programme. The participants of the FDG in Dodawa were carefully selected to include only beneficiaries of each programme. Moreover, as a way of introducing gender dimension, one of the three 32 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh FDGs in each community, selection of all-male was considered, the other, all-female and the last, a mixture of males and females. In Ayikuma, the FGDs had to rely on the respondents of the survey. Key informant interviews are where the interviewer focuses on issues that pertains to the field of the interviewee or is very conversant with. Interviewee always have first-hand information and agrees to be interviewed on such issues. The primary objective with this interview is to be able to obtain qualitative narrative of all the perceptions rather than measuring some aspects of those experiences. When this type of interview is used, it makes researchers to explore unanticipated ideas from knowledgeable people. (Mountain States Group, 1999) One advantage of Focus Group Discussions is to bring people together who have similar experiences or circumstances make them find themselves in the same situation to share, specific topic of interest to them. This kind of group is moderated by a facilitator who leads the discussions and get all participants to take active part in the discussions. For a FGDs to be lively, the facilitator must make the group members to feel at home and more relaxed. In an atmosphere where participants are relaxed, they tend to be open and this can enrich the discussions. Participants should be made to agree or disagree. The key element in FGDs is facilitation after the session, detail report should be produced to reflect the ideas of the group members. (Morgan, 1988) 3.6 Data Collection Technique and Tools Questionnaire was used for the quantitative survey while interview guide was used for the qualitative interviews. Questionnaires are research instrument which comprise questions that are used to solicit for information from respondents. Quantitative research uses 33 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh questionnaires for the data collection. Before questionnaires could be designed, it needs to have the component of being able to collect the needed data, the data collected must be comparable and changeable to analysis. This minimizes bias in the formulation of the questions. Questionnaire makes questions asked more engaging and more variable. (Holmes &Rahe, 1967). Questionnaire provides an easy yet efficient way to obtain large quantities of information from a very large sample. In the case of the study, the questionnaire consisted of both open ended and closed ended questions (see Appendix 1). Interview guides were carefully designing to reflect the objectives of the study (see Appendix 2 & 3). Four research assistants were trained to help with the data collection. Language was not a barrier since all the research assistants could speak the local language fluently. Two weeks were used for the data collection exercise. Earlier, a letter was sent to the District to seek permission to undertake the study. This letter was later sent to the various programme coordinators for their attention and approval. 3.7 Data analysis procedure SPSS software was used to enter the data after which excel was used to do the analysis. The analysis included chart, tables and figures. The analysis was carefully done to reflect the objectives of the study. The main issues that came up from the qualitative analysis were grouped into themes to undertake a thematic analysis with the qualitative data. In other words, the qualitative interviews were mainly used to shed light on quantitative outcome. 34 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.8 Ethical Issues Participants were assured of confidentiality. Symbols, alphabets or numbers were used in place of their names. Recorded audio was handled with extra care in order not to leak personal information. Due diligence was done to contact the gatekeepers of the community. Participants were made to understand that, all information collected were purely for academic purposes. 35 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FOUR RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 4.1 Introduction This chapter analyses and discusses the findings of the study based on various objectives. It begins with demographic characteristics where issues such as age, marital status and employment status of the beneficiaries are discussed. This is followed respectively by the discussions based on the three objectives. 4.2 Demographic Characteristics This part of the study discusses demographic characteristics of the respondents in the quantitative survey. This is done to understand why the respondents gave responses to the various questions asked. Figure 4.1 describes the males and females proportion selected for the study. The data suggest a higher participation of females in the study compared to their male counterparts. Since probability sampling techniques were used in sampling the respondents, it is fair to conclude that the population of the beneficiaries in the two communities are mostly women. 36 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Male 36% Female 64% Figure 4.1: Gender of Respondents Source: Field Work, 2017 The data (Figure 4.2) shows the age categories of the respondents. It appears the respondents are mostly advanced in age – about 50 per cent being either 50 years or above. This could be attributed to the choice of selection made during the interviews. Between 30-40 under 30 years years 2% 8% Between 40-50 years 14% 50 years and above 76% Figure 4.2: Age of the respondents Source: Field Work, 2017 37 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh An official of one of the intervention programmes explained why the beneficiaries are mostly old: Our programmer’s focus is to reduce poverty, and, in this community, the old ones are mostly unemployed and very poor. That is why the programme tends out to select majority of them as beneficiaries. (KII, Ayikuma, September 2017) Figure 4.3 shows the level of educational attainment of the respondents. The data shows very low level of educational attainment compared to what is pertaining at the national level (GSS, 2014). This therefore could partly explain the high incidence of poverty in the communities. A participant of the FGDs shared her experience: My parents did not have formal education and never considered it as important for their kids to go to school. (FGDs, Dodowa, September 2017) SHS Vocational/ Technical 4% 1% JHS 12% none 54 % primary 29% Figure 4.3: Level of educational attainment Source: Field Work, 2017 38 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 4.4 illustrates the marital status of the respondents. The data reflect the picture at the national level (GSS, 2014). A significant proportion (59%) of the respondents reported as being married. Separated 14% Single 14% Married 59% Divorced 13% Figure 4.4: Marital status of respondents Source: Field Work, 2017 The data (Figure 4.5) shows the type of occupation of the respondents. Interestingly, none of the beneficiaries is a paid worker. This could be as a result of low level of educational attainment (see Figure 4.3) that makes the respondents less attractive in the paid labour market. A participant of an FGD shed light on this: Because of the low level of education, majority of us are farmers. We cannot work at the bank or teach at the school. The teachers you see here came from other towns and they have more money because Government pays them at the end of every month. (KII, Ayikuma, September 2017) 39 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Unemployed 5% Petty Trading 46% Farming 45% Apprenticeship 4% Figure 4.5: Occupational status of respondents Source: Field Work, 2017. As expected, about 9 out of every 10 respondents belong to the Ga-Dangme ethnic group. This means that the communities are not too attractive to members of other ethnic groups in the country. Akan Northern Ghana 4% 2% Ewe 5% Ga-Dangme 89% Figure 4.6: Ethnicity of respondents Source: Field Work, 2017. 40 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The data (Figure 4.7) indicates that the respondents are predominantly Christian. Even though Christianity is the predominant religion in Ghana, Islam and traditional religions fare better at the national level compared to the study area (GSS, 2014). Islam 1% Traditionalist 1% Christiannity 98% Figure 4.7: Religion of the respondents Source: Field Work, 2017 Figure 4.8 describes the length of stay of the respondents in the communities. The data indicate that 7 out of every 10 respondents have stayed in the communities for over 20 years. This appears to suggest that the respondents have mostly remained in the communities since birth. A participant of the FDGs shared an opinion on this: I was born here and have lived here all my life. I am happy being here. I did not go to school and therefore I do not know what I could have done to travel. (FGDs, Dodowa, September 2017) 41 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1% Between 5 and 10 years 15% Above 20 years Between 10 and 20 71% years 13% Figure 4.8: Length of stay in the communities Source: Field Work, 2017 4.3 Channels through which Social Intervention Programmes Affect the Livelihood of Beneficiaries The first objective of the study sought to identify the channels through which social intervention programmes can affect poverty. This section of the paper focuses on this objective by considering how each of the three-social intervention programmes could affect the wellbeing of the beneficiaries. 4.3.1 Beneficiaries on Labour Intensive Public Works Labour Intensive Public Works (LIPW) is under Ghana Social Opportunities Project (GSOP) under the Ministry of Local Government and Rural Development is a social intervention programme with a core objective of providing employment for the people during the period when they are less engaged. For instance, because agriculture is rain fed 42 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh in Ghana, farmers tend to be out of employment during dry season and the aim of the programme is to mainly engage such people to maintain livelihood. The implementation Agency is Shai-Osudoku District. The sub-project is the rehabilitation of Mokomeshimator JN-Abonya feeder (2.2km) road within the district. A contractor by name, M/S Durays Engineering Company Limited was procured to construct the roads and instead of using machines to do the construction, beneficiaries on the programme are hired to use manpower and less sophisticated tools. The funding agency is World Bank/IDA/GOG. The estimated person of employment is 11,858. The total amount to be paid to the contractor is GH⸿ 136,774.64. The total amount to be paid to unskilled labour is GH⸿71,146,77. This project started on 15th March 2016 and the expected completion date is 15th September 2018.What was of prime interest to the study was how such engagements helped improved the wellbeing of the beneficiaries. from the studies, LIPW have helped in the following roles in reducing poverty efforts. In other words, some beneficiaries have acquired productive assets such as:  Natural Capital  Financial Capital,  Physical Capital  Social Capital  Human Capital Natural Capital Some beneficiaries confirmed that through the programme they have been able to acquire land for either agricultural purpose or to start small household non-farm business. Those who could save money through engagements in LIPW to hired land indicated that their 43 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh farms have become bigger than they used to be and as result they now harvest more farm products. Participants of the FGDs shared their experiences: Last year, I managed to save some money out of which I later rented a large farm land that was much more fertile than the one I was previously using. Today, I am happy because I harvested more maize and have made so much money. (FGDs, Dodowa, September 2017) Another participant of the FDG shared similar experience: It was always difficult to acquire land in this area for farming. The people from the city have come to acquire all the fertile land for building purposes. However, the savings I made through LIPW activities helped me to travel to acquire fertile land in the next village. I have started vegetable farming and hope to get more money in future to start mango farming which fetches a lot of money in this town. (FGDs, Dodowa, September 2017) Another participant said she used the money acquired from the activities of LIPW to rent a small piece of land in the middle of Dodowa to erect kiosk and hope to save more money to commence trading business. Acquisition of natural capital (land therefore came out as a channel through which LIPW could improve the general wellbeing of the beneficiaries. Physical Capital Physical capital is anything man made that could enhance production. Through engagements in the LIPW activities, the beneficiaries indicated they acquired physical assets such as cutlass, weedicide, fertilizers to help in their farming. A participant in the FDGs remarked: My land is not fertile enough and because I did not have money, I was never able to buy fertilizer. After engaging in the LIPW activities, I managed to save some little money to buy fertilizer. As a result, I harvested five bags of maize last farming season 44 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh compared to the one bag I used to harvest. This has improved my life. (FGDs, Ayikuma, September 2017) Social Capital Since the inception of the LIPW programme, beneficiaries agreed they have improved their social capital through the formation of informal groups. Apart from this, they have also established relationship with people who have been of immense help. A participant of the FDGs explained this better. The men in the LIPW group are one now. We help ourselves during farm seasons. To me this has been very helpful because I am now able to till larger farm lands than I used to. This means more harvest and more money. (FGDs, Ayikuma, September 2017) Human capital Human capital development is one way to improve wellbeing. The beneficiaries indicated that through their involvement in the activities of the road construction, they have acquired and improved their skills which have helped them in other productive activities. A participant of the FDGs shared his story: Before joining the LIPW, I easily got tired anytime I went to farm. However, I am now very fit and work better than before. Besides, my weeding skills have been improved tremendously. As a result, I now harvest more vegetables that previously (FGDs, Dodowa, September 2017) 45 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.3.2 People with Disability (PWD’s) A legal framework has been enacted for people with disability to help assist and protect their rights (Act 715). As a result, 2 percent of the District Assembly’s Common Fund (DACF) has been set aside to help promote the PWDs. The implementation Agency is the MMDA’S across the countries of which Shai-Osudoku District is a part of districts assigned to undertake this intervention programme. Shai Osudoku district collect data on all persons living with disability in the district and what they can do. This information is gathered and base on the information gathered, equipment (such as deep freezers, sewing machines, shoe making machine among others) are procured in addition to cash amount to help do small scale businesses to keep them going. Some beneficiaries were receiving direct cash through this intervention and they explained how it has been helpful in improving their wellbeing. Financial Capital Some of the beneficiaries indicated that they have been saving the money they receive from the Assembly and because of what they have in their accounts, they managed to secure loans to undertake other productive businesses. A participant of the FGDs remarked: I saved all the money I received for two years after which I went to the bank and collected loan. Through this, I opened this shop. My life was not any better but now it has improved from how it was. (FGDs, Dodowa, September 2017) Physical Capital Some of the beneficiaries indicated they have managed to save to acquire capital assets which earns them further income. A middle year-old man shared his experience. I have tricycle (Aboboyaa) I used the small money I received from the Assembly to acquire this. After saving for a while, I got someone to top it up for me and I acquired 46 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh the machine. Few months of operations, I paid back the money taken from the person and it is now my own. This tricycle makes daily sales and that is what my family depend on. (FGDs, Dodowa, September 2017) 4.3.3 Beneficiaries on Livelihood Empowerment against Poverty (LEAP) LEAP is a cash transfer programme for the poorest households to assist them to meet the basic needs of life, including food. It also aims at improving health and educational status of children within the households to secure better life in future. Beside the cash transfer, beneficiaries are entitled to access health care by accessing NHIS. Interactions with the beneficiaries indicated that their lives have improved through the following channels. Natural Capital Few of the beneficiaries indicated that they have been able to acquire plots where they are currently doing business. An elderly woman explained: Life was very difficult for me before LEAP came. I could hardly feed myself and my grandchildren. I have been saving some of the LEAP money and through that I managed to hire this place from the chief to sell vegetables. (FGDs, Ayikuma, September 2017) Physical Capital Some of the beneficiaries of LEAP also indicated that their wellbeing has been further enhanced through acquisition of farm tools such as fertilizers and insecticides. These tools and insecticides made their yields increase from the time they had not used insecticides. A farmer shared her experience: Anytime I receive LEAP money, I set aside part of it to buy fertilizer and other farm tools. Through this, I now have a very big vegetable farm and things are now better. (FGDs, Dodowa, September 2017) 47 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Social Capital Through LEAP, some of the beneficiaries indicated they have established relationship with people who have been helping their household members. Before they enrolled on the LEAP programme, every day when they wake up they didn’t have any place to go since they were not working. Now, they meet other beneficiaries as well as officers of the programme. An old lady explained: A young gentleman from the Assembly is always here to visit me and my grandchildren. He always wants to find out whether my grandchildren are attending school. Sometimes he would buy me drugs if one of us is sick. (FGDs, Dodowa, September 2017) The following submissions under this section of the study indicate the following channels – acquisition of natural capital (land), physical capital, financial capital, social capital and human capital – as the media through which the three selected social intervention programmes could affect poverty. 4.4 Contribution of Social Intervention Programmes to Poverty Reduction To know if the selected social intervention programmes to some extent helped in improving the welfare of beneficiaries, the study adopted the Before and After case study. This method describes a single instance of a phenomenon involving individual, group, social responses before and after an event of interest. To complete a before-and-after case study, the researcher could do some or all the following: deepen the understanding of aspects of the before period of the case study; identify the pivotal event(s); and clarify the changes in the after period. Outcomes of such a study could include theories on the impacts of the events, related change efforts, or future interventions. The Sustainable Livelihood framework’s model was used to know if the life style of the beneficiary has improved from before they 48 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh joined the programme to the time the interview was done. Among other things, the section assessed the ownership of the various capital assets before and after the programmes. from table 4.1-4.5, this clearly showed that, natural, financial, physical, social and human capital increased in percentages. Therefore, proportionate increases in ownership of any of the assets by the beneficiaries would be an indication of improvement in wellbeing or reduction in poverty. The discussions begin with ownership of natural capital by the beneficiaries before and after the programme. As a way of addressing the effects of the counterfactuals, beneficiaries were asked to mention things they did not have and are currently having solely because of enrolment on the intervention programmes. The only natural capital beneficiaries mentioned was land. The data (see Table 4.1) indicate that before the programme, only 20 percent of the beneficiaries had access or could rent land. However, after the programme, the proportion of beneficiaries who were able to rent land increased to 45 percent. This means that 15 percent more beneficiaries had access to land because of enrolment on the intervention programmes. A participant of the FGDs explained the potential of land in poverty reduction. Land is very important for us. Most of us are farmers and our livelihood depend very much on ownership of land. I just rented land, and this has been of tremendous help to me in meeting some necessities of life. (FGDs, Dodowa, September 2017) Table 4.1: Ownership of natural capital before and after analysis Before After Natural capital Have Have not Have Have not Land 20% 80% 45% 55% Source: Field Work, 2017 49 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The next group of assets considered were physical assets. According to Domfe and Bortei- Doku Aryeetey (2016), ownership of physical assets can help holders improve their wellbeing by using these assets to generate further income. For instance, ownership of canoe could be used to generate further wealth. However, not all the physical assets can generate further wealth. The data (see Table 4.2) indicate that proportion of the respondents who owned assets increased for all the physical assets. A participant of the FDGs shed light on the extent to which physical assets are useful in poverty reduction. I managed to save to secure bicycle after years of being enrolled on the LEAP programme. Earlier I used to travel over 10 kilometers to a farm on top of the mountains and always got there very tired and late. After securing the bicycle, I now get to the farm early and especially when I am returning where I descend, I use few minutes to get home. This has enhanced my productivity. I now harvest 4 bags of maize compared to the 1 bag I used to harvest. This has improved the wellbeing of myself and my dependents. (FGDs, Dodowa, September 2017) 50 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.2: Ownership of physical capital before and after analysis Before After Physical capital Have Have not Have Have not Television 18% 82% 35% 65% Radio 48% 52% 85% 15% Tricycle 0% 100% 2% 98% Motorcycle 0% 100% 5% 95% Bicycle 10% 90% 15% 85% Canoe 1% 99% 8% 92% Fishing net 1% 99% 8% 92% Box iron 65% 35% 95% 5% Electrical iron 7% 93% 35% 65% Refrigerator 2% 98% 10% 90% Mobile phone 18% 82% 67% 33% Mobile smart 0% 100% 5% 95% Source: Field Work, 2017 Table 4.3 illustrates proportion of the beneficiaries who had access to financial capital before and after being enrolled on the social intervention programmes. It came out that a higher proportion of the beneficiaries (25%) had access to loans after being enrolled on the programmes compared to days before the enrolment (1%). This means that more beneficiaries could now take loans to improve their lots. A middle age woman shed light on this: I never had account, but the LEAP programme, we were made to have one. Now I take my money at the bank. because of that I can take loan. I plan on setting up a business, so I can improve on my life. (FGDs, Ayikuma, September 2017) 51 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.3: Ownership of financial capital before and after analysis Before After Financial capital Have Have not Have Have not Bank Accounts 30% 70% 65% 35% Access to loans 1% 99% 25% 75% Source: Field Work, 2017 Table 4.4 shows proportionate increases in ownership of social capital. In other words, the social intervention programmes helped beneficiaries to establish productive relations. A 50-year-old man living with disability explained the usefulness of social capital in poverty reduction. I am an executive member of the PWD association in this village. I sometimes travel to Accra to meet other executives of the association. Through these contacts, I have managed to secure job for my son as a teacher. He now gives me money every month. This has improved my life from how it uses to be. (FGDs, Dodowa, September 2017) Table 4.4: Ownership of social capital before and after analysis Before After Social capital Have Have not Have Have not Membership of employment association 39% 61% 72% 28% Membership of Susu group 30% 70% 46% 54% Acquaintances with officials of the intervention programmes 0% 100% 95% 5% Leadership position 4% 96% 18% 82% Source: Field Work, 2017 Enrolment on the social intervention programmes helped some of the beneficiaries to acquire knowledge on leadership role which was relevant to livelihood enhancement. Figure 52 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.4 shows the types of benefits that accrues to beneficiaries. The data suggest that higher proportion of the beneficiaries had their social capital improved. Many participants of the FDGs shared this opinion of a middle-aged man: Before joining LIPW programme, I could hardly stand in front of people and talk, but now I am able to address large number of people. This has enhanced my confidence level which can give me opportunities over a person who has no such exposure. (FGDs, Dodowa, September 2017) Table 4.5: Ownership of human capital before and after analysis Before After Human capital Have Have not Have Have not Health 40% 60% 92% 8% Nutrition 35% 65% 70% 30% Education 15% 85% 65% 35% Knowledge & skills 5% 95% 45% 55% Capacity to work 30% 70% 80% 20% Source: Field Work, 2017 Beneficiaries of LEAP and DCF have access to free health care since the NHIS is part of their intervention. Table 4.5 shows that, before the programme, only 40% of beneficiaries were able to access health care. After enrolling on the intervention programme, additional 52% of beneficiaries have been added up. Initially, whenever I fall sick, due to lack of money, I resorted to herbs for treatment of my sickness. Now thanks to the NHI, I can visit the hospital when I fall sick. My dependents also go to hospital when they are sick. (FDG, Dodowa, 2017) 53 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.5 The Challenges in the Implementation of the Social Intervention Programmes Objective three of the study sought to identify challenges of implementation of the intervention programmes. The social interventions, whose preoccupation had always been poverty reduction have long been in Ghana but had been confronted with several challenges ranging from administrative difficulties, irregular-inflows of grants and perceived political interferences among others (C. Agbaam & M. F. Dinbabo, 2014) 4.5.1 Challenges of implementation of the Livelihood Empowerment Against Poverty (LEAP) Analysis at this section relied mostly on the interviews with the officials LEAP. The programme coordinator identified several challenges since the inception. Among these was the insufficient amount released to the beneficiaries. A coordinator lamented: The intention of the programmes is good but the monies paid to the beneficiaries are not sufficient enough to significantly impact on their poverty situation. (KIIs, Dodowa, September 2017) This was corroborated by a beneficiary: The money they give us is very small. However, I cannot complain because it is better than nothing, after all I did not work for it. Otherwise I would have advised that they increase it a bit to meet the increasing cost of living. (FGDs, Ayikuma, September 2017) Another key identified problem was the delay in payment of the grants. The officials complained that even though things are now better than they were, delays in the disbursement has not been helpful. A coordinator explained: Sometimes the money gets delayed for over a month and the beneficiaries would be coming here every day. You could see frustrations written all over their faces as they come here to complain. This is not good enough. (KIIs, Dodowa, September 2017) 54 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Another challenge identified was the design of the programme. The programme should also focus on vocational skills. What the researcher is implying is training beneficiaries in auto mechanics, braiding of hair/ hair-dressing wielding, carpentry, catering, showing making, pluming, electricals among others. That way, with the little push, beneficiaries could find solutions to their poverty and trade with the skills acquired. Targeting of the beneficiaries also came up as challenge to LEAP. The officials interviewed complained of the excessive political patronage. However, according to them, recent household register initiated is meant to tone down these excesses. There should be other forms of exit rather than exit by death, so that new entrants could be enrolled. Due to limited funds such programmes are not able to take large numbers. List of people have been compiled with the hope of enrolling them since there is no clearance all those numbers are in the queue waiting. One thing that has been worrying is the fact that there are no exit measures for members who sign on to the programme. As a result, the numbers keep increasing. This could be the reason for inadequate transfers to beneficiaries. (KIIs, Dodowa, September 2017) 4.5.2 Challenges associated with the Labour Intensive Public Works (LIPW) As already indicated, LIPW is an off-season intervention that engages the beneficiaries at the time they have no work to do. During this time, beneficiaries’ source of income dwindles thereby exposing them to poverty. A challenge identified through interactions with the officials of the programme is that some officers who are put in charge of the programme sometimes frustrate the process when beneficiaries refuse to tip them. This the programme coordinator made clear in his statement. A coordinator at the national level of the programme explained: 55 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The other time one of the beneficiaries came to my office to lodge a complaint against an officer who wanted to extort money from him before allowing him to complete a process for the second face of the project. This officer was transferred out of the district eventually. (KIIs, Headquarters, Accra, 2017). 4.5.3 The Disability Common Fund (DCF) Disability Common Fund (DCF) is a pro-poor intervention programme to help absorbed the persons with disability into the mainstream society (Adjei-Domfeh, 2016). However, the programme has been encountered with several challenges since its inceptions. For example, because the central government delays in the payment of the DACF to the assemblies, disbursement of the PWD fund to the beneficiaries usually get delayed as well. An official at the assembly explained: We pay the PWD fund from 2% of the DACF allocations. These days, government could be in arrears for three quarters which means that disbursement would have been also delayed for 9 months. Even though such monies eventually come, it is not good enough. (KIIs, Dodowa, September 2017) Another challenge of the fund is how the beneficiaries utilize the money. There is no system in place to guide them to use the money productively. An official at the assembly complained; They use the money on frivolous things. One woman at one time immediately she took her money went to buy funeral cloth to attend an upcoming funeral. Can you imagine? (KIIs, Dodowa, September 2017) Another challenge with the PWD fund is that it is too insufficient to make meaningful impacts. A person living with disability lamented: My sister, hmmm! the money is not adequate to take care of our needs. By the time you use the money to buy food for the household, there will be nothing left to safe let 56 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh alone use some to run a business. it’s only God who has been seeing us through. (KIIs, Dodowa, September 2017) 57 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FIVE SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 5.1 Introduction This chapter summarizes the key findings of the study and draw conclusions on them. Policy recommendations are then suggested based on the conclusions. 5.2 Summary of Key Findings The study set out to investigate the effect of social intervention programmes to poverty reduction in Shai-Osudoku District in Greater Accra Region undeniably, the findings from this study leads to the conclusion that, cash transfer of these programmes (LEAP, LIPW& DCF) has a positive effect on the beneficiaries’ indicators such as the natural, financial, physical, social and human capital. Although the findings of this study confirm the effect of social cash transfers on the aforementioned poverty indicators, its effect on the final outcomes of such indicators such as improved natural capital, financial capital, physical capital, social capital, and human capital, are less definite and inconclusive. Objective One Firstly, the study employed DFID’s Livelihood Sustainable Framework model to identify five key channels through which the interventions programmes could help reduce poverty of the beneficiaries: These were: natural capital, financial capital, physical capital, social capital and human capital. It came out of the study that acquisition of natural capital was a potential means of reducing poverty, some of the beneficiaries explained that upon acquisition of land after being enrolled on the social intervention programmes, their wellbeing got improved. For those 58 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh who acquired farm lands, they went into farming and managed to secure more income which contributed significantly to improvement in their wellbeing. Again, financial capital such as access to loan and having account with a financial institution also were identified as channels of reducing poverty. Those who opened bank account only after being enrolled on the programmes explained how they use the opportunity to secure loans to help improved their wellbeing. Additionally, acquisition of physical capital such as fertilizer, wheelbarrow, insecticides, farm tools and bicycles came out as a potential channel through which poverty could be reduced. Some of the beneficiaries confirmed how they have used the physical capital they secured after being enrolled on the programmes to earn further income which contributed in improving their wellbeing. Also, human capital came out of the study as a potential channel through which the social intervention programmes could impact on poverty. This was especially the case for the beneficiaries who were engaged in the labour intensive programme activities. Some of them explained how the skills they acquired through road construction had helped them to perform better in their other economic engagements. Lastly, social capital also emerged as a possible channel through which poverty could be reduced after being enrolled on the social intervention programmes. Some of the beneficiaries explained how the various social relations and connections they established through the various activities of the programmes helped them in other commercial engagement to improve their income and general wellbeing. 59 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Objective Two The second objective sought to examine the specific roles the social intervention programmes had played in reducing poverty. This became easier especially when the channels through which the programmes impact on poverty had already been identified. Both quantitative and qualitative data sets were used in addressing this objective and while the quantitative specifically identified assets the beneficiaries claimed they acquired only after being enrolled on the programme, the qualitative explained how these assets helped in improving wellbeing. For instance, the study found out that significant proportion of the beneficiaries acquired land, farm tools, loans, established new relations as well as improving their human capital after being enrolled on the programmes. The beneficiaries later explained that acquisition of such assets indeed helped them to improve their wellbeing. Objective Three The purpose of the objective three was to identify the main challenges to the implementation of the social intervention programmes in the district. Among other things, the study found out that delays in payment of grants, where applicable, was a major challenge. For instance, both the LEAP officials and beneficiaries complained about the delays. Other issues such as corrupt behaviours of officials, insufficient grants and lack of empowerment in the design of some of the programmes came out as key challenges to the smooth implementation of the selected social intervention programmes in the district. For instance, both beneficiaries of the PWD fund and LEAP complained about the insufficient amount received as benefits. 60 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5.3 Conclusion of the Study The study made several conclusions based on the key findings. For instance, conclusions are made to explain the possibility of the identified channels helping to improve the wellbeing of the beneficiaries after being enrolled on social intervention programmes. Firstly, acquisition of farm land is very important means of securing employment in Ghana. This is especially the case if the community involved is a farming one. In the case of the two communities that the study selected as study areas, farming was identified as the main occupation and therefore the dream of most of the residents would be getting access to fertile piece of land to do farming. It is therefore concluded that access to fertile land in communities where farming is a major occupation can help reduce poverty. Again, access to financial resource can help individual to either enter new business or expand the existing business. However, it also came out of the study that some beneficiaries used the financial grants they had on frivolous things. The study therefore conclude that financial resources are necessary but not automatic means to reduce poverty. Additionally, the study concludes that social capital and acquisition of additional skills can help reduce poverty because for they open new opportunities of engagement. Moreover, because significant proportion of the beneficiaries acquired more assets after enrollment, the study concludes that social intervention programmes can help beneficiaries to acquire more assets which they can use to generate further incomes to improve their wellbeing. The Government of Ghana has recently been having problems with the payment of statutory due to increasing fiscal deficits and rigidities. Therefore, the study concludes that fiscal problems the economy is facing is the reason for the delays and that the fiscal space is also 61 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh too limited for the Government to increase the insufficient grants current paid to the beneficiaries. 5.4 Policy Recommendation Based on the conclusions made in the previous section, the study recommends that opportunities are created for Ghanaians to own the following assets: natural capital, financial capital, physical capital, social capital and human capital. In the case of the natural capital, Government should collaborate with the traditional authorities to revise the current land tenure system to make fertile land available for those who are ready to farm. Again, mechanism should be put in place to control the rapid expansion of Accra to adjoining farming communities such as Dodowa in order not to take away all the fertile land to deny the farmers in these communities of their livelihood. Regarding ownership of financial assets, Government needs to work with the financial institutions to encourage more Ghanaians to open bank accounts to improve their accessibility to loans. Besides, the cost of credit should be affordable enough to attract more people to take loans. Ownership of physical assets could be improved through education. In this case, the National Commission for Civic Education (NCCE) could be used to educate Ghanaians on the need to save to acquire physical capital for commercial purposes. This will help reduce unemployment and poverty. Again, Ghanaians should be encouraged to embrace vocational and technical education to help improve their human capital. This will in doubt improve productivity as well as strengthening the current poverty reduction efforts by the Government and other international donor agencies. 62 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Again, social capital as a means of reducing poverty should be factored into the larger framework of poverty reduction in Ghana. Indeed, in the rural communities of Ghana, social capital has always been a very important asset. District Assemblies could coordinate with the various local communities to popularize formation of productive associations. That unavailability of fiscal space and fiscal inflexibility seem to make it difficult to timely disburse sufficient grants to beneficiaries of social intervention programmes appears to suggest low commitment from Government in line with the potential of the intervention programmes in reducing poverty. The evidence from this study is enough to prove that implementation of social intervention programmes is a good complement to economic growth in poverty reduction efforts. The study therefore recommends that Government should prioritize its fiscal allocations by considering expenditure on social intervention programmes as one of the tops most allocations. When this is done, more social intervention programmes could be introduced to augment the existing one. 5.5 Limitation of the Study Even though the findings from the study indicate that social intervention programmes could be a good complement to economic growth in fighting poverty in Ghana, there are certain limitations that must be acknowledged:  The study took place in only two communities in just one district in Ghana.  The approach of impact analysis was not robust enough to deal with the problem of counterfactual. Even though respondents were asked to mention resources they had acquire only because of enrolment into the intervention programmes, they could still be a possible case of extricating the real impact of the programmes on poverty. 63 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh  The use of a cross-sectional data means that the study had to rely on memory which could sometimes be misleading. 5.6 Recommendation for Future Research Work The study suggests a national level investigation into the contribution of all the social intervention programmes currently being implemented in the country to identify the contribution of the programmes to poverty reduction. A robust econometric impact evaluation analysis together with qualitative methods could be used to quantify, in monetary terms, the main contribution of social intervention programmes to find out whether the current efforts on the programmes is worth it. 64 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh REFERENCES (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.theoryofchange.org/what-is-theory-of-change/ Abebrese, J. (2015). Social Protection in Ghana, an overview of existing programmes and their prospects and challenges. Retrieved from library.fes.de/pdf- files/bueros/ghana/10497.pdf Agbaam, C. & Dinbabo, M. F. (2014). Social Grants and Poverty Reduction at the Household Level: Empirical Evidence from Ghana. Agyekum, P. K. (1997). Structural Adjustment and Social Disequilibrium in Ghana: An Assessment of PAMSCAD Programme as a Policy Response Tool. Kumasi: Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology. Aryeetey, A. F. (2006). Ghana's Post-Independence Economic Growth Performance. Aryeetey, E., & & Tarp, F. (2000). Strctural Adjustment and After: which way Forward? Economic Reforms in Ghana. . Academy of Management Review, 12(1), 67-75. Bank, W. (2013, October 9). data countries and economies: Ghana. Retrieved October 9, 2013, from http://data,worldbank.org/country/ghana Barimah, K. B. (1993). an outcome and process evaluation of the PAMSCAD supplementary food programme at Ayeredee in the Brong Ahafo Region of Ghana , West Africa. Wilfrid Laurier University. Barrientos, A. (2010). Social Protection for the Poor and Poorest. Cambridge University Press. Brown, A.-M. (2016, March 14). Difference between Theory of Change and logframe. Cameron, R. (2015). Mixed methods research. Melbourne: Deakin university. Center for theory, c. f., & center for theory of change. (2017). Theory of Change. New York: Center for Theory of Change. Retrieved 12 2, 2017, from http://www.theoryofchange.org/what-is-theory-of-change/toc-background/toc- origins DFID. (2015). Retrieved from www.scirp.org/reference/ReferencesPapers.aspx?ReferenceID=17846 Feng, J. (2014). How should we measure poverty? World Economic Forum;. Washington DC.: The World Bank Blog. Fund, I. M. (2000). Ghana: Economic Development in a Democratic Environment. International Monetary Fund. Fund, I. M. (2003--5). an agenda for growth and prosperity, vol 1, GPRS. IEEE. 65 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Hutchful, E. (2002). Ghana's Adjustment Experience: the paradox of Reform. Ismi, A. (2004). impoverishing a continent, the world bank and the IMFin Africa. Ottawa: Canadian centre for policy alternative, Ottawa. ISSER. (2013, October). Livelihood Empowerment Against Poverty Program. Retrieved from https://www.unicef.org/.../gh_resources_LEAP_Quant_impact_evaluation_FINAL _O.: Jones, H. (2013). empowering rural women through scoial protection. Krantz, L. (2001, February). the Sustainable Livelihood Approach to Poverty reduction. Lithur. (2014, November 25). Retrieved from www.graphic.com.gh Mack, J. (2016, October 27). Absolute and overall poverty. Maxwell, S. (1999). "The meaning and measureement of poverty" poverty brifing. London SWIE 5DP, ISSN:1465-2617: Overseas Development Institute. Retrieved from http://www.oneworld.org/odi Online, G. (2016, 2 11). Ghana's social intervention programmes hailed. Accra, Ghana. Organisation, I. L. (2010). definition of Social Protection Programmes. Report ILO, D. G. (2003). working out of poverty. Genève 22, Switzerland: International Labour Orgaisation. Rogers, D. (2008). Aframework of sustainable chains. Emerald Insight. Service, G. S. (2008). Ghana Living Standards Survey. Accra: Ghana Statistical Service. Service, G. S. (2013). Non-monetary poverty in Ghana. accra: Ghana Statistical Service. Sowa, N. K. (2002). An Assessment of Poverty Reducing Policies and Programmes in Ghana. Morocco: presentation at a MIMAP Workshop on Assessing Poverty Policies to be held at Rabat, Morocco January 25. Sstepenson, I. V. (2012, July). Retrieved November 2017, 2017, from http://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/.../appendix_3_ToC_examples. Stein, M. (2013). Disability and Equality Law. Ashgate. Twigg, J. (2001). Sustainable Livelihoods and Vvulnerabilty to Disasters. UNDP, U. N. (2013, November 12). Cash Transfer Programmes in Africa. Retrieved November 12, 2013, from htt://www.ipc- undp.org/pagenwesiteb.do?id=120&active=3 UNICEF. (2001). Social Protection in Eastern and SouthernAfrica: A framework and Strategy for UNICEF. Nairobi: UNICEF Esaro. 66 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh University of Ghana. (2013, November 4TH). STRUCTURAL ADJUSTMENT PROGRAMME - POLI 211 NOTES. Accra, Ghana. 67 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDICES Appendix 1: Questionnaire COLLEGE OF HUMANITIES UNIVERSITY OF GHANA CENTER FOR SOCIAL POLICY STUDIES INTERVIEW SCHEDULE This study is for academic purpose only; as such information that will be gathered would be treated with utmost confidentiality. Your input in this study is of great significance as it will contribute to a meaningful outcome. Thank you for your corporation. SECTION A: DEMOGRAPHIC INFORMATION Please tick “√” against the box for the correct answer 1) Gender Male Female 2) Age Under 30 30-40 40-50 50&above 3) Educational Level Non JHS High School Diploma Vocational/Technical Degree Post Graduate 4) Marital Status Single Married Divorced Widowed 68 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5) Occupation Petty Trader Artisan Unemployed 6) Ethnic Background Akan Ewe Mole-Dagbane Ga-Adangbe Guan Others 7) Religion Christianity Islam Traditional Others 8) Length Of Stay In The Community Below 5years 5-10years 10-20 20 and Above SECTION B: OBJECTIVE ONE- TO DESCRIBE THE VARIOUS SOCIAL INTERVENTION PROGRAMMES ADOPTED IN GHANA 1) How many direct beneficiaries of the social intervention programmes are in your household? One two three four & above 2) How many Social Intervention Programs are you on? One two three three four and above 3) Mention in order of importance social intervention programmes that have been most beneficial? ……………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………… 69 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ……………………………………………………………………………………… 4) How long have you been on any of the Social Intervention Programme? One two three above four 5) How would you describe the effect of the Social Intervention Programme on you? A. Very Good B Good C. Moderately Good D. Average E. Below Average. 6) Mention the core business of the social intervention programmes that operate in your community………………………………………………………………………………….. …………………………………………………………………………….……….. ……………………………………………………………………………….……. 7) What are the challenges you are facing with regard to the intervention? …………………………………………………………………………. ………………………………………………………………………….. ………………………………………………………………………….. 70 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh SECTION C: OBJECTIVE TWO – TO DETERMINE THE EFFECTS OF THE INTERVENTION ON POVERTY REDUCTION. Answer this section according to the situation before and after enrolling on the programme. 1) How many times in a day did you eat before the programme? A) one B) two C) three D) four & above 2) How many times in a day did you eat after enrolling on the programme? 2) Source of water for drinking/domestic chores Let 1= yes, 2= no Water type Before after Pipe borne water Bore hole Well water Stream water Sachet water others 3) Toilet facility Let 1= yes, 2= no Toilet type before after WC KVIP Pit latrine others 4) Source of light Let 1= yes, 2= no Light type before after electricity Candle Lentin others 71 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5) The type of clothing Let 1= yes, 2= no Clothing type before after Already-made Sewn cloth Second cloth Old cloth Tattered clothing 6) The type of house Let 1= yes, 2= no House type before after Own house Family house Compound house Mud house Cemented house Wooden structure others 7) The type of floor used Let 1= yes, 2= no Floor type before after Tiled Cemented Terrazzo Wooden Thatched others 8) description of job Let 1= yes, 2= no Job type before after Government work Petty trading Artisanal work Part-time work By-day others 72 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 9) the level of income Let 1= yes, 2= no Income level before after 50&below 50-100 110-200 201-300 301-400 401-500 500& above 10) Medical facility Let 1= yes, 2= no Type of facility before after Government Private Traditional others 11) source of fuel for domestic use Let 1= yes, 2= no fuel type before after Gas Charcoal Wood others Methods of delivery for pregnant women Let 1= yes, 2= no Delivery methods Before after Traditional birth attendant Delivering home Visiting the hospital others 73 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 13) the of type education for wards Let 1= yes, 2= no Type of education before after Public Private Scholarship Home tuition others 12) ownership of assets Let 1= yes, 2= no Ownership of assets before after Furniture Television;  Coloured  Black and white  Flat screen Radio Land Motorbike Bicycle Fridge Bed Others House Canoes Fishing net Tricycle Iron  Electrical  Box Blender Microwave Kettle Gas cooker Cooking utensils Cars Laptop Mobile phone  Yam  smart 74 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Appendix 2: Interview Guide for Participants COLLEGE OF HUMANITIES UNIVERSITY OF GHANA CENTER FOR SOCIAL POLICY STUDIES INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR PARTICIPANTS This study is for academic purpose only; as such information that will be gathered would be treated with utmost confidentiality. Your input in this study is of great significance as it will contribute to a meaningful outcome. Thank you for your corporation SECTION D: OBJECTIVE THREE- TO ASCERTAIN THE EXIT MEASURES FOR BENEFICIARIES. 1) How long ago have you enrolled on this programme? 2) Wh at are the types of benefits received 3) Wh at is the condition of life before and after the programme? 4) Wh at are some of the challenges of the programme? 5) Would you say the intervention has improved your life? 6) Wh at are the exit measures put in place? 75 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Appendix 3: Interview Guide for Progamme Coordinators COLLEGE OF HUMANITIES UNIVERSITY OF GHANA CENTER FOR SOCIAL POLICY STUDIES INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR PROGAMME COORDINATORS This study is for academic purpose only; as such information that will be gathered would be treated with utmost confidentiality. Your input in this study is of great significance as it will contribute to a meaningful outcome. Thank you for your corporation SECTION D: OBJECTIVE THREE- TO ASCERTAIN THE EXIT MEASURES FOR BENEFICIARIES. 1. Can you tell me the number of years the programme has been in operation in the community? 2. Mention the types of benefits given to people who have enrolled on the programme? 3. What are the number of beneficiaries on the programme? 4. Do you intend changing the number of beneficiaries? 5. What are the sustainability measures put in place? 6. What are the challenges the programme is facing? 7. Is there any exit policies in place for beneficiaries? 76