Building Urban
Resilience  
Assessing Urban and Peri-urban
Agriculture in Tamale, Ghana  
ISBN: 978-92-807-3372-3
Job Number: DEW/1784/NA
United Nations Environment Programme
P.O. Box 30552 - 00100 Nairobi, Kenya
Tel.:  +254 20 762 1234
Fax:  +254 20 762 3927
e-mail: publications@unep.org
www.unep.org
www.unep.org
International START Secretariat
2000 Florida Ave NW #200
Washington, D.C. 20009, United States
Tel.: +1 202-462-2213
e-mail: start@start.org
www.start.org
www.start.org
This assessment report presents the ndings of a knowledge assessment on urban and peri-urban 
agriculture (UPA) for the city of Tamale, Ghana, that was conducted in 2012. The assessment 
examines the state of UPA in the city through the lens of intensifying urban pressures and increasing 
climate risks with the objective of identifying how these and other drivers potentially interact to 
aect the long-term sustainability of UPA, and what response options are needed to address existing 
and emerging challenges. 
 
 
global change SysTem for Analysis, Research & Training 
Published by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), November 2014 
© 2014 United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) 
ISBN: 978-92-807-3372-3
DEW/1784/NA 
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Citation 
Gyasi, E.A., M. Fosu, G. Kranjac-Berisavljevic, A.M. Mensah, F. Obeng, G.A.B. Yiran and I. Fuseini. (2014).
Building Urban Resilience: Assessing Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture in Tamale, Ghana. [Padgham, J. and 
J. Jabbour (eds.)]. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), Nairobi, Kenya.
 
A digital copy of this report along with supporting appendices are available at www.start.org/upa/tamale.pdf
Managing Editor: Jon Padgham
Associate Editor/Production Coordinator: Jason Jabbour
Assistant Editor: Katie Dietrich
Copy Editors: Bart Ullstein and Kristie Bates
Layout and Design: Jennifer Odallo and Audrey Ringler
Printing: UNON Publishing Services Section, Nairobi-ISO 14001-certified/D1 No. 14-00107/250
Cover Photo: © Peeter Viisima
UNEP promotes 
environmentally sound practices 
globally and in its own activities. This 
report is printed on paper from sustainable 
forests including recycled fibre. The paper is 
chlorine free, and the inks vegetable-based. Our 
distribution policy aims to reduce UNEP’s 
carbon footprint.
This report represents one from a series of nine city-level reports on urban and peri-urban agriculture (UPA), 
which together form a larger knowledge assessment. The knowledge assessment was carried out in Dakar 
(Senegal), Tamale (Ghana), Ibadan (Nigeria), Dar es Salaam (Tanzania), Kampala (Uganda), Addis Ababa 
(Ethiopia), Dhaka (Bangladesh), Kathmandu (Nepal) and Chennai (India). The nine reports and a synthesis 
report can be downloaded at: http://start.org/programs/upa
Funding Partners
Building Urban
Resilience  
Assessing Urban and Peri-urban
Agriculture in Kampala, Uganda  
ISBN: 978-92-807-3371-
Job Number: DEW/1783/NA
United Nations Environment Programme
P.O. Box 30552 - 00100 Nairobi, Kenya
Tel.:  +254 20 762 1234
Fax:  +254 20 762 3927
e-mail: publications@unep.org
www.unep.org
www.unep.org
International START Secretariat
2000 Florida Ave NW #200
Washington, D.C. 20009, United States
Tel.: +1 202-462-2213
e-mail: start@start.org
www.start.org
www.start.org
This assessment report presents the ndings of a knowledge assessment on urban and peri-urban 
agriculture (UPA) for the city of Kampala, Uganda, that was conducted in 2012. The assessment 
examines the state of UPA in the city through the lens of intensifying urban pressures and increasing 
climate risks with the objective of identifying how these and other drivers potentially interact to 
aect the long-term sustainability of UPA, and what response options are needed to address existing 
and emerging challenges. 
global change SysTem for Analysis, Research & Training 
Building Urban
Resilience  
Assessing Urban and Peri-urban
Agriculture in Tamale, Ghana  
ISBN: 978-92-807-3372-3
Job Number: DEW/1784/NA
United Nations Environment Programme
P.O. Box 30552 - 00100 Nairobi, Kenya
Tel.:  +254 20 762 1234
Fax:  +254 20 762 3927
e-mail: publications@unep.org
www.unep.org
www.unep.org
International START Secretariat
2000 Florida Ave NW #200
Washington, D.C. 20009, United States
Tel.: +1 202-462-2213
e-mail: start@start.org
www.start.org
www.start.org
This assessment report presents the ndings of a knowledge assessment on urban and peri-urban 
agriculture (UPA) for the city of Tamale, Ghana, that was conducted in 2012. The assessment 
examines the state of UPA in the city through the lens of intensifying urban pressures and increasing 
climate risks with the objective of identifying how these and other drivers potentially interact to 
aect the long-term sustainability of UPA, and what response options are needed to address existing 
and emerging challenges. 
 
 
global change SysTem for Analysis, Research & Training 
Building Urban
Resilience  
Assessing Urban and Peri-urban
Agriculture in Chennai, India  
ISBN: 978-92-807-3377-8
Job Number: DEW/1789/NA
United Nations Environment Programme
P.O. Box 30552 - 00100 Nairobi, Kenya
Tel.:  +254 20 762 1234
Fax:  +254 20 762 3927
e-mail: publications@unep.org
www.unep.org
www.unep.org
International START Secretariat
2000 Florida Ave NW #200
Washington, D.C. 20009, United States
Tel.: +1 202-462-2213
e-mail: start@start.org
www.start.org
www.start.org
This assessment report presents the ndings of a knowledge assessment on urban and peri-urban 
agriculture (UPA) for the city of Chennai, India, that was conducted in 2012. The assessment 
examines the state of UPA in the city through the lens of intensifying urban pressures and increasing 
climate risks with the objective of identifying how these and other drivers potentially interact to 
aect the long-term sustainability of UPA, and what response options are needed to address existing 
and emerging challenges. 
 
 
global change SysTem for Analysis, Research & Training 
Building Urban
Resilience  
Assessing Urban and Peri-urban
Agriculture in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia  
ISBN: 978-92-807-339-3
Job Number: DEW/1781/NA
United Nations Environment Programme
P.O. Box 30552 - 00100 Nairobi, Kenya
Tel.:  +254 20 762 1234
Fax:  +254 20 762 3927
e-mail: publications@unep.org
www.unep.org
www.unep.org
International START Secretariat
2000 Florida Ave NW #200
Washington, D.C. 20009, United States
Tel.: +1 202-462-2213
e-mail: start@start.org
www.start.org
www.start.org
This assessment report presents the ndings of a knowledge assessment on urban and peri-urban 
agriculture (UPA) for the city of Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, that was conducted in 2012. The assessment 
examines the state of UPA in the city through the lens of intensifying urban pressures and increasing 
climate risks with the objective of identifying how these and other drivers potentially interact to 
aect the long-term sustainability of UPA, and what response options are needed to address existing 
and emerging challenges. 
 
 
global change SysTem for Analysis, Research & Training 
Building Urban
Resilience  
Assessing Urban and Peri-urban
Agriculture in Kathmandu, Nepal  
ISBN: 978-92-807-337-1
Job Number: DEW/1788/NA
United Nations Environment Programme
P.O. Box 30552 - 00100 Nairobi, Kenya
Tel.:  +254 20 762 1234
Fax:  +254 20 762 3927
e-mail: publications@unep.org
www.unep.org
www.unep.org
International START Secretariat
2000 Florida Ave NW #200
Washington, D.C. 20009, United States
Tel.: +1 202-462-2213
e-mail: start@start.org
www.start.org
www.start.org
This assessment report presents the ndings of a knowledge assessment on urban and peri-urban 
agriculture (UPA) for the city of Kathmandu, Nepal,  that was conducted in 2012. The assessment 
examines the state of UPA in the city through the lens of intensifying urban pressures and increasing 
climate risks with the objective of identifying how these and other drivers potentially interact to 
aect the long-term sustainability of UPA, and what response options are needed to address existing 
and emerging challenges. 
 
 
 
 
 
global change SysTem for Analysis, Research & Training 
Building Urban
Resilience  
Assessing Urban and Peri-urban
Agriculture in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania  
ISBN: 978-92-807-3370-9
Job Number: DEW/1782/NA
United Nations Environment Programme
P.O. Box 30552 - 00100 Nairobi, Kenya
Tel.:  +254 20 762 1234
Fax:  +254 20 762 3927
e-mail: publications@unep.org
www.unep.org
www.unep.org
International START Secretariat
2000 Florida Ave NW #200
Washington, D.C. 20009, United States
Tel.: +1 202-462-2213
e-mail: start@start.org
www.start.org
www.start.org
This assessment report presents the ndings of a knowledge assessment on urban and peri-urban 
agriculture (UPA) for the city of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania,  that was conducted in 2012. The assessment 
examines the state of UPA in the city through the lens of intensifying urban pressures and increasing 
climate risks with the objective of identifying how these and other drivers potentially interact to 
aect the long-term sustainability of UPA, and what response options are needed to address existing 
and emerging challenges. 
 
 
global change SysTem for Analysis, Research & Training 
Building Urban
Resilience  
Assessing Urban and Peri-urban
Agriculture in Dhaka, Bangladesh  
ISBN: 978-92-807-\\\\-\
Job Number: DEW/\\\\/\\
United Nations Environment Programme
P.O. Box 30552 - 00100 Nairobi, Kenya
Tel.:  +254 20 762 1234
Fax:  +254 20 762 3927
e-mail: publications@unep.org
www.unep.org
www.unep.org
International START Secretariat
2000 Florida Ave NW #200
Washington, D.C. 20009, United States
Tel.: +1 202-462-2213
e-mail: start@start.org
www.start.org
www.start.org
This assessment report presents the ndings of a knowledge assessment on urban and peri-urban 
agriculture (UPA) for the city of Dhaka, Bangladesh, that was conducted in 2012. The assessment 
examines the state of UPA in the city through the lens of intensifying urban pressures and increasing 
climate risks with the objective of identifying how these and other drivers potentially interact to 
aect the long-term sustainability of UPA, and what response options are needed to address existing 
and emerging challenges. 
 
 
global change SysTem for Analysis, Research & Training 
Building Urban
Resilience   
Assessing Urban and Peri-urban
Agriculture in Dakar, Senegal  
ISBN: 978-92-807-337-7
Job Number: DEW/178/NA
United Nations Environment Programme
P.O. Box 30552 - 00100 Nairobi, Kenya
Tel.:  +254 20 762 1234
Fax:  +254 20 762 3927
e-mail: publications@unep.org
www.unep.org
www.unep.org
International START Secretariat
2000 Florida Ave NW #200
Washington, D.C. 20009, United States
Tel.: +1 202-462-2213
e-mail: start@start.org
www.start.org
www.start.org
This assessment report presents the ndings of a knowledge assessment on urban and peri-urban 
agriculture (UPA) for the city of Dakar, Senegal, that was conducted in 2012. The assessment 
examines the state of UPA in the city through the lens of intensifying urban pressures and increasing 
climate risks with the objective of identifying how these and other drivers potentially interact to 
aect the long-term sustainability of UPA, and what response options are needed to address existing 
and emerging challenges. 
global change SysTem for Analysis, Research & Training 
Building Urban
Resilience  
Assessing Urban and Peri-urban
Agriculture in Ibadan, Nigeria  
ISBN: 978-92-807-3373-0
Job Number: DEW/178/NA
United Nations Environment Programme
P.O. Box 30552 - 00100 Nairobi, Kenya
Tel.:  +254 20 762 1234
Fax:  +254 20 762 3927
e-mail: publications@unep.org
www.unep.org
www.unep.org
International START Secretariat
2000 Florida Ave NW #200
Washington, D.C. 20009, United States
Tel.: +1 202-462-2213
e-mail: start@start.org
www.start.org
www.start.org
This assessment report presents the ndings of a knowledge assessment on urban and peri-urban 
agriculture (UPA) for the city of Ibadan, Nigeria, that was conducted in 2012. The assessment 
examines the state of UPA in the city through the lens of intensifying urban pressures and increasing 
climate risks with the objective of identifying how these and other drivers potentially interact to 
aect the long-term sustainability of UPA, and what response options are needed to address existing 
and emerging challenges. 
 
 
global change SysTem for Analysis, Research & Training 
Assessing Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture in Tamale i
Building Urban 
Resilience
Assessing Urban and Peri-urban 
Agriculture in Tamale, Ghana
Edwin A. Gyasi, Mathias Fosu, Gordana Kranjac-Berisavljevic,
Adelina M. Mensah, Francis Obeng, Gerald A.B. Yiran and Issahaka Fuseini
global change SysTem for Analysis, Research & Training 
Building Urban Resilienceii
Preface
Food production in and around cities is an integral part of the urban fabric in much of the developing world. In these regions, urban and peri-urban agriculture (UPA) plays an important 
role in diversifying urban diets and providing environmental services in urban and peri-urban areas. 
As such, there is growing interest in UPA as a strategic component of urban resilience and climate 
change adaptation planning. However, advocacy for UPA in this capacity is outpacing the body of 
evidence regarding important stressors and drivers that act on UPA. Such knowledge is especially 
critical in the developing world where urban areas are experiencing rapid growth and transformation. 
In these regions, UPA is facing intensifying pressures from urban encroachment, waste disposal, 
pollution, and climate change that may undermine the sector’s long-term viability. 
The need to better understand these critical sustainability dimensions provided the impetus for 
city-level knowledge assessments of UPA, whose main findings are contained in nine underlying 
assessment reports including this one. The assessed cities were Dakar (Senegal), Tamale (Ghana), 
Ibadan (Nigeria), Dar es Salaam (Tanzania), Kampala (Uganda), Addis Ababa (Ethiopia), Dhaka 
(Bangladesh), Kathmandu (Nepal) and Chennai (India). All of the reports and the synthesis report 
can be found at http://start.org/programs/upa. The assessments were conducted in 2012, with initial 
stakeholder engagement beginning in 2011. The assessments were led by city-based teams, the 
composition of which varied, with some of the teams being comprised predominately of researchers 
and other teams comprising of a mix of researchers, city officials and urban NGO representatives.
The assessments seek to better understand the changing nature of UPA systems, and the critical interactions 
at the land-water-climate nexus that influence resilience of UPA in rapidly growing developing-country 
cities. The audience for these assessments includes national and city-level policymakers, sectoral experts 
and city planners, the research community, and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) that interface 
with urban farmers and other actors within the broader UPA sector. 
The UPA assessments are part of a larger project on strengthening understanding of critical links 
between climate change and development planning in West Africa, East Africa and South Asia. 
The premise for the project is that progress towards undertaking effective action to address climate 
change risks in these regions is hindered by low levels of awareness of global climate change, lack of 
understanding of the findings of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) and other 
sources of scientific information, lack of location and sector specific knowledge, and the need for 
strengthening capacities to undertake integrated assessments that support decision making. This 
multi-year project has been a collaborative effort between the World Meteorological Organization 
(WMO), the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), START, the University of Ghana, 
the University of Dar es Salaam, and the Bangladesh Centre for Advanced Studies (BCAS).
Jon Padgham Jacqueline McGlade
Deputy Direct  Chief Scientist 
International START Secretariat United Nations Environment Programme
Assessing Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture in Tamale iii
We would like to thank the different individuals and institutions who in one way or another contributed to the execution of the larger European Commission-led project. In particular, 
the successful implementation and completion of the project, and the subsequent knowledge 
assessments were made possible due to the close cooperation and commitment of the International 
START Secretariat; the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) represented by the Division 
of Early Warning and Assessments and the Office of the Chief Scientist; the World Meteorological 
Organization (WMO), the University of Ghana, the University of Dar es Salaam, and the Bangladesh 
Centre for Advanced Studies (BCAS). Several colleagues across these organizations rendered 
valuable insight, expert advice, guidance and encouragement during this 4-year endeavor. We would 
especially like to recognize the efforts and support of Ghassem Asrar, Hassan Virji, Katie Dietrich, 
Clark Seipt, Chris Gordon, Pius Yanda, Atiq Rahman, Chipo Plaxedes Mubaya, Adelina Mensah, 
Elaine Tweneboah, Abu Syed, Salif Diop, Audrey Ringler, Jennifer Odallo, Peter Gilruth and Joseph 
Alcamo as well as Jon Padgham and Jason Jabbour, the project managers and editors of this series.
The overall project and the associated UPA assessments were made possible in large part thanks to 
funding provided by the European Commission (through project ENV/2008/149690 ‘Understanding 
the Findings of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change  (IPCC) Fourth Assessment Report 
“Climate Change 2007”—Integrating Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation in Development 
Planning’), as well as by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), and the Global 
Climate Change Programme at the US Agency for International Development (USAID). The editors 
of this series wish to thank these organizations for their financial support. 
In addition to the numerous authors listed in each of the separate reports, we are grateful to the 
following people for providing useful insights and feedback during the early conception of the 
knowledge assessment, and helpful review comments on the various manuscripts: Rafael Tuts, Anna 
Skibevaag, Stephen Twomlow, Elizabeth Migongo-Bake, Trang Nguyen, Volodymyr Demkine, Jane 
Battersby, Marielle Dubbeling, Anna Kontorov, Richard Munang, Jesica Andrews, Fatoumata Keita-
Ouane, Jacqueline McGlade, Keith Alverson, Stuart Crane, Martina Otto, Robert Yennah, Beverly 
McIntyre, and Tom Downing. We would also like to express our sincere appreciation for the generous 
support of colleagues at the University of Cape Town’s Climate Systems Analysis Group who with the 
climate projections for six African cities.
Acknowledgements
Building Urban Resilienceiv
CALID  Center for Active Learning and Integrated Development, Ghana
CAPD Community Action Programme for Development
CMIP3 Global Model Intercomparison Project Phase 3
CSAG  Climate Systems Analysis Group 
DeCo Decentralised Composting Company
ENSO El Niño –Southern Oscillation
EPA  Environmental Protection Agency, Ghana 
FASDEP  Food and Agricultural Sector Development Policy 
GFDRR Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery
GHS Ghana Health Service 
GMA  Ghana Meteorological Association 
GSS Ghana Statistical Service
ICRISAT  International Crop Research Institute in the Semi-Arid Tropics 
IMF International Monetary Fund
IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
ITCZ Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone
IWMI  Integrated Water Management Institute 
MADU Metropolitan Agriculture Development Unit 
METASIP  Medium Term Agriculture Sector Investment Plan
MoFA  Ministry of Food and Agriculture
MM5  Meteorological Model version 5
NADMO  National Disaster Management Organization 
NCAP Netherlands Climate Assistance Programme
NGO Non-governmental organization
NPC National population commission
PCMDI Program For Climate Model Diagnosis and Intercomparison 
RUAF Resource Centres on Urban Agriculture and Food Security 
SARI Savanna Agricultural Research Institute 
START global change SysTem for Analysis, Research, and Training
TaMA Tamale Metropolitan Assembly
TMA  Tamale Metropolitan Authority
UNEP United Nations Environment Programme
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change 
UPA Urban and Peri-Urban Agriculture
UDS  University for Development Studies 
WMO World Meteorological Organization
WRI World Resources Institute
Acronyms and abbreviations
Assessing Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture in Tamale v
Contents
Executive summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi
Objectives and methods  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Urban and peri-urban agriculture in Tamale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Overview of UPA in Tamale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Characteristics of the urban and peri-urban producers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Crops, livestock and other production elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Institutions and policies influencing UPA  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Institutions involved in UPA in Tamale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
The policy landscape for UPA in Tamale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Influence of urban growth on UPA in Tamale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Urban growth in Tamale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Zonation of Tamale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Land resources for UPA in Tamale  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Urbanization and impact on the community . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Water resources and UPA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Climate factors and UPA in Tamale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Climate trends  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Climate projections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Observations of climate change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Response options and recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Building Urban Resiliencevi
Executive summary
This report presents the findings of a knowledge assessment on urban and peri-urban agriculture (UPA) for the city of Tamale, Ghana, that was conducted in 2012. It examines the state of UPA 
in the city through the lens of intensifying urban pressures and increasing climate risks with the 
objective of identifying how these and other drivers potentially interact to affect the long-term 
sustainability of UPA, and what response options are needed to address existing and emerging 
challenges. The assessment is intended to: 
1) describe the dominant characteristics of urban and peri-urban agriculture, and identify key 
knowledge gaps in these UPA systems;
2) explore the array of stressors that contribute to vulnerability of UPA systems to climatic and 
other environmental changes; and 
3) identify critical areas for strengthening policies and institutional capacities that contribute 
to sustaining the UPA sector within the larger context of resilient cities and food systems. 
The city of Tamale, an important urban hub in the semi-arid savanna region of northern Ghana, 
is experiencing rapid expansion resulting from internal population growth and in-migration 
from surrounding rural areas as well as from neighbouring regions. The resulting urban sprawl is 
encroaching on land used for agriculture, which is a dominant livelihoods source in peri-urban areas 
of Tamale. 
Urban pressures on the peri-urban landscape are being further aggravated by increased land insecurity 
driven by changes in the traditional land distribution system of the indigenous people of Tamale (the 
Dagombas). Under this system, land is held in trust for the people by chiefs and distributed to family 
heads who in turn distribute it among individual family members. In recent times, the high demand 
for land for more lucrative ventures other than agriculture has enticed chiefs to allot and sell lands 
previously given to family heads and individuals for farming purposes, to developers; this is usually 
done without consulting with farmers. Urban expansion into the valleys bottoms around Tamale is 
of particular concern as this is productive land for agriculture and these lands also play an important 
role in helping manage stormwater runoff from the city. 
Enforcement of relevant laws and regulations that are meant to protect lands for agriculture is weak. 
Thus, there is a strong need for clarification of rules and regulations governing agricultural land use 
in urban and peri-urban areas, and greater coordination of the disparate departments and agencies 
of the Tamale Metropolitan Authority. There are currently no provisions for setting aside land for 
agriculture in the city’s zoning plans, and following from that, no by-laws to protect agricultural 
zones from encroachment. There are unused public lands within Tamale that could be allocated for 
agriculture if authority to release those lands could be granted. 
As agricultural land is becoming increasingly scarce and tenancy weaker in the face of urbanization, 
cereal cultivation has begun to be deemphasized in favour of market gardening within the city and its 
periphery. Similarly, livestock keeping is beginning to show signs of shifting from extensive towards 
more intensive practices, such as in the case of confined poultry production. 
Assessing Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture in Tamale vii
Supportive policies and measures are needed to facilitate such shifts, and to understand potential 
co-benefits in terms of reducing exposure to increasing climate risks. Actions would include access 
to training on improved technologies and techniques for vegetable and livestock production, and 
the establishment of micro-credit services for farmers. Moreover, such efforts require strengthening 
of intersectoral relationships and coordination among the different institutions whose actions have 
an impact on UPA in Tamale. These include, in addition to farmer organizations, actors within 
the central government through the Ministry of Food and Agriculture, universities and research 
institutions (e.g., the University for Development Studies and the Savanna Agriculture Research 
Institute), the Tamale Metropolitan Assembly, the Town and Country Planning Department, the 
Lands Commission, the Metropolitan Agriculture Development Unit of MoFA, NGOs and local 
chiefs.
The urban agriculture sector in Tamale is also contending with challenges in accessing adequate or 
suitable water for crop production. In rainfed systems, the issue is untimely or inadequate rainfall 
while in irrigated vegetable production, contamination of surface waters (artificial ponds and small 
dams) from urban runoff is an important challenge. Planning and implementation strategies for the 
development of micro-catchment rainwater harvesting techniques, and the creation of more small 
reservoirs, shallow wells and water-conserving irrigation for crop production are also needed. This 
effort is underway and needs to be expanded.
Building Urban Resilienceviii
Farmers engaged in urban and peri-urban agriculture face significant health risks associated with use 
of waste and wastewater for vegetable production. Urban wastewater management for re-use should 
be viewed as a link between sanitation, agriculture, and a proactive response to growing water scarcity 
challenges. However, such an approach requires the development of new designs for wastewater 
collection and treatment, as well as development of practices for safe wastewater handling. Related to 
this, the problem of urban solid waste holds significant potential to be addressed through conversion 
into high-quality organic fertilizer through mechanical composting and vermiculture. Incentives for 
private sector investment are needed in order to realize this potential. Regulations with provisions 
for strong enforcement need to be developed in the form of local by-laws that aim to reduce risks 
from various contaminants present in the wastewater and enhance environmental services of UPA 
associated with reduction of urban waste streams. 
Climate change is likely to exacerbate vulnerabilities associated with increased marginalization of 
land and water resources for agriculture in and around Tamale. Strengthening adaptive capacities 
for UPA involves respect for accumulated local experience, enhanced access to new technologies 
and adequate financial resources, public health facilities, opportunities for education and training, 
existence of early warning systems, and strong and effective institutions. Support for research 
appropriate institutions into climate change and how it relates to urban and peri-urban agricultures, 
is in line with the Ghana Government’s policy recognition of the importance of urban and peri-
urban agriculture for the country’s economy as embodied in the Medium Term Agriculture Sector 
Investment Plan (METASIP) 2011–2015. 
Assessing Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture in Tamale 1
Objectives and methods
1
As an assessment exercise, the work involved an interdisciplinary appraisal carried out with the primary intent of informing policy and raising awareness among the public, including farmer 
groups, on critical issues. Information for this assessment was derived from secondary sources that 
were supported by primary information gathering. The secondary sources consisted of scientific 
literature as well as unpublished unofficial documents (reports, policy statements, theses, etc.) which 
were compiled from libraries of the University for Development Studies (UDS) and the Savanna 
Agricultural Research Institute (SARI), the Northern Regional Library and Northern Regional 
Archives, the Tamale Metropolitan Authority, the Town and Country Planning Department, and 
from maps and remotely sensed images. Primary information was obtained through field work, 
which involved discussions with government and non-government officials for their views on critical 
issues related to the assessment objectives, rapid appraisal by questionnaire and group discussions 
with farmers located in urban, peri-urban and adjacent rural areas of Tamale.
The assessment’s conceptual framework illustrates the key drivers and stressors, development factors 
and urban and peri-urban products and services. The assessment framework is presented in Figure 1.1. 
FIGURE 1.1 
Conceptual framework
Strategies and
responses
Environmental, 
climatic and socio-
economic change
Agents, institutions 
and policies
Urban and  
peri-urban 
agriculture
Extent of 
marginality
Building Urban Resilience2
The objectives of this assessment are to:
•	 assemble and synthesize knowledge on agricultural activities in urban and peri-urban areas 
of Tamale, and provide scientifically credible information that supports policy planning and 
decision making at the city level;
•	 identify where insufficient knowledge exists and highlight where additional research and 
assessment efforts are needed; and
•	 strengthen capacity within the research community to undertake assessments, and foster 
networks of regional technical expertise, and to encourage stronger communities of practice 
engaged in the topic of urban food production and climate change.
Assessing Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture in Tamale 3
Urban and peri-urban
agriculture in Tamale
2
Overview of UPA in Tamale
Urban farming in Ghana gained in prominence during the 1972–1979 period when the then 
government, under the Operation Feed Yourself programme, encouraged farming in cities to 
supplement food production from rural areas. This edict was in response to food shortages occasioned 
by harsh economic conditions exacerbated by severe droughts in the country. Food production in 
cities was given increased recognition, and cities that had by-laws prohibiting the practice were 
ordered to relax those restrictions (Asomani-Boateng, 2002). The heightened interest in urban 
and peri-urban agriculture (UPA) declined when the long-term drought and ensuing economic 
difficulties subsided in the late 1980s.
In present times, UPA remains a significant contributor to the variety of foods found in urban 
markets. In Kumasi, 90 per cent of all lettuce and spring onions consumed are produced from 
open-space vegetable farming in the city and in Tamale and Accra, about 80 per cent and 10 per cent 
respectively of cabbage found on the markets are produced from the open-space farming in the cities 
(IWMI, 2002, as cited in MoFA, 2010). In Tamale, urban gardens have become important sources of 
food crops especially vegetables, and this activity provides supplementary sources of income for city 
dwellers (Abdul-Ghaniyu et al., 2002; Bediako et al., 2005). Urban farming provides employment 
and income for a chain of beneficiaries, such as farmers, market sellers, suppliers of agricultural 
input, etc., and, therefore, contributes to Tamale’s urban economy (Obuobie et al., 2006).
UPA in Ghana involves the production of food crops (mainly vegetables) and raising of farm animals. 
Fruits and ornamental plants are also produced but in relatively small scale. In Ghana, UPA crop 
farming comprises of two forms: open-space production for the urban market, and backyard gardens 
cultivated mostly, but not only, for home consumption (Table 2.1). 
TablE 2.1 
The two major categories of urban and peri-urban crop farming in Ghana
Farming systems Urban areas Peri-urban areas
Market production (cultivation on 
undeveloped urban land)
Irrigated vegetables (year-round or seasonal), 
flowers and ornamentals; rain-fed cereals
Irrigated vegetables (mostly 
seasonal), fruits; rain-fed cereals
Subsistence production (cultivation 
at the house)
Backyard or front yard farming Home gardens; farming around 
homestead
Source: adapted from Obuabie et al., 2006
Agriculture employs nearly one-third of the residents of metropolitan Tamale (Figure 2.1). Farming 
is the region’s dominant occupation, although within Tamale, non-farming occupations such as 
through skilled employment in the informal and formal sectors predominate. The region’s crop 
production is dominated by cereals (maize and sorghum), tubers (yam), groundnuts and pulses, 
while a vibrant vegetable production sector occurs in and around Tamale. Livestock are ubiquitous 
and poultry keeping is common in most households. 
Building Urban Resilience4
The main UPA production systems in Tamale consist of vegetable production and marketing, 
livestock keeping (including poultry), cereal and legume production, and production of ornamental 
plants. A survey by Ayamga (2006) revealed that 64 per cent of urban and 70 per cent of peri-urban 
households in Tamale generate some portion of their income from agriculture. In urban Tamale 
households, yam is the largest contributor to household farm income (27 per cent of household 
income from the farm), with maize and groundnut contributing a total of 24 per cent. In peri-urban 
communities, income from maize and livestock (small ruminants) are the largest contributors to 
household farm earnings, with maize contributing 15 per cent of the household income. Livestock 
contributes up to 13 per cent of total household farm earnings in peri-urban communities. 
The ability of UPA to sustainably contribute to livelihoods is becoming increasingly problematic, 
as the combined effects of urbanization, insecure tenancy, diminished land and water resources for 
UPA, and related stresses create significant challenges for the farming livelihoods in Tamale. Farming 
households visited in the course of this assessment indicated that agriculture now contributes less 
than half to their household income. In response, farmers are increasingly leaving agriculture for 
other occupations. According to the household survey, as many as half of respondents indicated 
that at least one member of their household had recently abandoned farming for other occupations, 
mostly for informal skilled employment and some for formal sector employment. A common 
sentiment expressed by farmers during focus group discussions was that parents now concentrate in 
giving their children formal education and informal skill training instead of traditional agriculture 
FIGURE 2.1 
Distribution of 
metropolitan Tamale 
population by 
occupation
Source: Fuseini 
(forthcoming), based on 
Ghana Statistical Service 
data, 2005
A
gr
ic
ul
tu
re
Fi
sh
in
g
M
in
in
g/
qu
ar
ry
in
g
M
an
uf
ac
tu
rin
g
Co
ns
tr
uc
tio
n
U
til
iti
es
W
ho
le
sa
le
/r
et
ai
l
H
ot
el
s/
re
st
au
ra
nt
s
Se
rv
ic
es
O
th
er
s
Economic activity
Pe
rc
en
ta
ge
 o
f p
eo
p
le
 e
m
p
lo
ye
d
0
4.6
14.4
3.24.3
24.3
14.4
1
2.2
31.2
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Assessing Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture in Tamale 5
training, which they no longer view as rewarding. In-depth follow-up studies are needed to better 
understand how the diminution of agriculture affects household food and livelihood security. 
Production of cereals and tubers/roots remains the priority of peri-urban and adjacent rural farmers 
for ensuring food security, since these crops constitute the staple crops for the local population. 
Most of the farmers (95 per cent) interviewed during the survey for all the three zones, i.e., core, 
peri-urban and rural areas, cultivate both staple crops (maize, cassava, rice) and vegetables. 
Cultivation of the staple crops requires large areas of land as compared to cultivation of vegetables; 
thus, cultivation of staple crops is greatest in adjacent rural areas and least in the urban core. The 
trend of increased cultivation of staple crops from the urban core to rural areas conforms to the 
distribution of farming households in the three zones, i.e., city core (20.8 per cent), the peri-urban 
(25 per cent) and the rural area (57.3 per cent). Access to wastewater and surface ponds for irrigation 
in the urban core, the scarcity of land and market opportunities are key reasons many farmers prefer 
to produce vegetables instead of cereals and tubers in the urban core. Results from the current field 
survey showed that vegetable production is the primary occupation for 72 per cent of farmers, and a 
secondary occupation for 28 per cent of the farmers in the urban core. 
Despite the pressures of land resources on urban farming in Tamale, farmers who participated in 
focus group discussions described many opportunities that urbanization provided, including a ready 
market for agricultural produce, access to agricultural inputs, motivation for intensive agriculture (as 
a result of increased demand for food items), and the availability of garbage, sludge and other urban 
wastes as inputs for farming.
Characteristics of the urban and peri-urban producers
Gender
Both men and women participate in urban and peri-urban agriculture in Tamale; however, the 
sector is dominated by men. According to Shaibu (2002), out of 60 urban farmers surveyed in 
Tamale, 3.3 per cent were female and 96.7 per cent were male. One reason for this disparity may 
be that most of the undeveloped building plots are owned by men; however, cultural factors may 
also be at play. Obuobie et al., (2006, citing Drechsel et al., 2006) also indicated that men dominate 
open-space vegetable production in cities in Ghana, while marketing of produce is dominated by 
women. Adherence to traditional gender roles is an important factor in the male dominance of 
open-space vegetable production in urban and peri-urban areas. 
Age distribution
Prior studies suggest that the majority of urban farmers in Tamale are within the age bracket of 20 to 
40 years (Obuobie et al., 2006) and 20 to 50 years (Shaibu, 2002; UrbANet, 2008; Al-Hassan, 2009). The 
survey carried out for this assessment found that the majority of farmers in the Tamale metropolis are 
below 30 years of age, which indicates that the youth and young adults are an important constituent. 
Household size and marital status
Results from this assessment indicate that farming households in the Tamale metropolis have 
characteristics that are typical of northern households, being large with very high dependency ratios. 
The average household size among vegetable producers is 10, a figure higher than the average for the 
Northern Region, which is 6.1. Most of the urban farmers (85.2 per cent) are married. 
Building Urban Resilience6
E ducation level
From a survey conducted by Shaibu (2002), 45.9 per cent of the urban farmers were characterized 
as having low levels of formal education (i.e., primary school level), 44.3 per cent with no formal 
schooling, 8.2 per cent with formal education up to junior high school, and less than 2 per cent with 
secondary school education. A survey conducted by Abukari (2012) revealed that three-quarters of 
peri-urban farmers surveyed had no formal education.
 
Production characteristics
The majority of the farmers (70 per cent) use farmyard animal (including poultry) manure to enrich 
and condition soil on their farm. About 20 per cent use chemical fertilizer and only 10 per cent use 
their own prepared compost. Most farmers (58 per cent) use some form of pesticide for controlling 
pests on vegetables. Some (31 per cent) have no strategy for controlling pests on their farms, whilst 
a few (11 per cent) use organic means, including ash and extracts from neem seeds and leaves, as 
insecticides. Many farmers produce and use their own seeds. Most farmers (87 per cent) sell their 
produce at the farm gate and only a few (13 per cent) sell directly at the market. More commonly, 
buyers (mainly middle-women), go to the production sites to buy the produce for retail in the 
markets.
Crops, livestock and other production elements
Vegetables
The cultivation of vegetables in the Tamale metropolis is done individually and on a very small 
scale, because farmland in the city is scarce. In general, vegetable cultivation is restricted to open 
Assessing Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture in Tamale 7
spaces (especially on government lands), parcels around water bodies in backyards, and on private 
undeveloped building plots owned by individuals. This produce is harvested mainly for commercial 
purposes. A description of the land base for vegetable production is provided in Section 3.
The main vegetables cultivated in the core and peri-urban areas are tomato (Lycopersicum 
esculentum), pepper (Capsicum), cassava (Manihot esculentum), cabbage (Brassica oleraceae), “okra” 
(Abelmoschus ssp), “ayoyo” (Corchorus spp), kenaf and lettuce (Latuca sativa), “alefu” (Amaranthus 
spp), legumes and other local leafy vegetables, e.g., Hibiscus sabdariffa (‘Bra’-Kenaf) (Shaibu, 2002). 
Pepper (Capsicum annum) and okra (Abelmoschus esculentus) are the vegetables mainly cultivated 
in the rural areas, mostly under rain-fed conditions. The percentage of farmers cultivating each crop 
is indicated in Table 2.2. Peri-urban farmers are reported to favour the cultivation of cereals either 
as a mono-crop or a mixture of cereals and tubers or legumes or vegetables. However, farmers who 
have access to sources of water for dry season farming grow only vegetables for sale as opposed to 
pursuing mixed farming.
TablE 2.2 
Types of crops grown by peri-urban farmers in Tamale
Crop Frequency Percentage (%)
Vegetables only 
Cereals only
Tubers only
Legumes only
Mix 2 crops
Mix 3 crops
Mix 4 crops
Total
33
74
16
9
41
2
1
176
19.0
42.0
9.0
5.0
23.0
1.13
0.6
100
Source: abukari, 2012
Whilst some of the vegetables are cultivated as both irrigated and rainfed crops, others are cultivated 
solely under rainfed conditions. The ones cultivated as both rainfed and irrigated crops are lettuce, 
kenaf, “ayoyo’”, “alefu” and cabbage. These are cultivated a number of times throughout the year. Other 
crops, including tomato, pepper and okro, are mainly cultivated under rainfed conditions and are, thus, 
grown once in a year. Pepper, for instance, is a succession crop planted after the harvesting of maize 
(Shaibu, 2002). 
TablE 2.3
Percentage of farmers cultivating various vegetable crops in Tamale 
Crop Farmers producing crop (%)
Ayoyo (Corchorus Spp) 48.0
Alefu (Amaranthus spp) 38.4
Bra (Hibiscus sabdariffa) 36.8
Pepper (Capsicum spp) 28.8
Cabbage (Brassica oleraceae) 27.2
Lettuce (Latuca sativa) 20.8
Okro (Abelmochus spp) 11.2
Tomato (Lycopersicum esculentum) 3.2
Source: Shaibu, 2002
Building Urban Resilience8
The main vegetable production sites in the metropolis (Obuobie et al., 2006) are:
•	 Builpiela, which is located to the south of Tamale, about 2 km from the centre of the city. 
Builpiela’s prominence in vegetable production in Tamale is due to the year-round availability 
of water from a dam constructed in 1960 to supply water for domestic use, livestock and 
vegetable cultivation. Also the floodplains to the valley in which the dam is located provide 
ready land for the farmers since it cannot be used for building purposes. 
•	 Sangani, which is located to the northeast of Tamale, about 2 km from the centre of the 
metropolis and like Builpiela, Sangani also contributes greatly to vegetable production in the 
metropolis. Farmers use water from surface ponds, which are available year-round. Though 
located in the urban core, vegetable farmers in Sangani whose lands are close to the water 
sources do not experience encroachment as elsewhere in the city. This is because the chief of 
the area supports the farmers by preventing encroachment on their land. 
•	 Water Works, which is located in a suburb of Tamale called Gumbihini, is so named because 
of the existence of a dam that was built originally to provide pipe-borne water for Tamale. The 
dam is no longer used for domestic water provisioning, thus giving the residents of the area 
around the dam the opportunity to use the water for irrigated vegetable production. 
•	 Zagyuri, which is located about 8 km north of Tamale on the Tamale-Savelugu road. It is 
opposite Kamina Barracks and farmers use untreated sewage water for vegetable production. 
In addition to these main sites, other minor sites include Sakasaka, Kalpohini, Gumani and Ward K.
A major obstacle confronting agriculture in Tamale, as in the rest of Ghana, is the issue of guaranteeing 
a ready market for farm produce, especially for vegetables. The period between harvesting and the 
consumption of vegetables is very short, requiring a ready and efficient means of getting the produce 
to the consumer immediately after harvest. Limited storage infrastructure makes it difficult to store 
vegetables for long periods without incurring high post-harvest losses. Even though the quantity of 
vegetables produced and supplied at peak harvest periods is less than the quantity sold at the markets, 
farmers still receive very low prices due to the surplus that occurs as a result of overproduction and 
the restrictions that hinder direct engagement between farmer and consumers.
Cereals and legumes
The main cereals and legumes cultivated in peri-urban Tamale are maize, sorghum, rice and cowpea, 
which are cultivated under rain-fed conditions, and as either mixed or sole crops. The mixed relay 
cropping system of maize and rice occurs in valleys, with maize planted first to take advantage of 
the early rains, while the rice is planted later in the rainy season. In such a system maize is planted 
on ridges, whilst rice is planted in the furrows. The maize is harvested before the valley floods to 
enable the rice to take advantage of the excess water. Rice is cultivated as a sole crop in water-logged 
areas. Maize and sorghum are also sometimes grown in a mixed-relay arrangement. The maize is 
planted first, followed by sorghum so that after maize is harvested sorghum can take over. The peri-
urban areas where cereals predominate include Fuo, Nyohini, Lamashegu, Kanvili, Shishegu and 
Kakpayili. As part of institutional visits organized in connection with this assessment, officials from 
the Metropolitan Agriculture Development Unit (MADU) noted that farmers in the peri-urban and 
adjacent rural areas are increasingly relocating their farms to valley bottoms to avoid crop losses due 
to reduced moisture and prolonged dry spells in the rainy season. These adverse weather conditions 
and others have compelled farmers to switch to the use of short duration crop varieties (e.g., jasmine 
rice) and hybrid crops. However, these areas are under urban development pressures, as described 
in Section 3.
Assessing Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture in Tamale 9
Ornamentals 
Ornamental horticulture has been practiced in the Tamale area for a long time. In fact, the indigenous 
people (the Dagombas) have a culture of planting at least one shady or edible fruit producing tree in 
front of their home. Places noted for the production of ornamental plants for commercial purposes 
are the Department of Parks and Gardens closer to Water Works, Forestry Services Division and 
Taimako Plants and Herbal Medicine Centre. Popular ornamental plants that are raised by these 
organizations include Cassia siamea, Polyalthia longifolia, Duranta spp and croton plant. In addition 
to the ornamental plants, these organizations produce fruit tree seedlings (e.g., grafted mango and 
guava) for sale to the public. There are a number of individually owned ornamental gardens dotted 
across the city. While some are kept for commercial purposes, others such as Ussif Gardens at 
Nyohini, Nba Alhassan Nursery at Gumbihini and Abass Nursery at Nalongfong are maintained for 
medicinal and aesthetic purposes. 
Many sacred groves (forests preserved for local socio-cultural and religious purposes) are also found 
in the metropolis. These are usually small (0.2–1.0 acre) pockets of residual forest that are protected 
based on the religious beliefs of the indigenous people—the Dagombas (Dorm-Adzobu et al., 1991). 
Before the advent of both the Christian and Islam religions, the Dagombas were mostly traditionalists. 
Their culture was deeply enshrined in their customs and beliefs. The sacred groves are therefore relics 
of shrines for clans and villages that have been engulfed by the sprawling city. 
Livestock
Most of the population engaged in agriculture in the metropolis rear livestock, mostly on a small scale. 
Cattle, goats, sheep and poultry are the important elements of the livestock subsector of agriculture in 
the city. In terms of numbers, poultry account for the largest livestock sub-sector followed by goats, 
sheep, cattle and pigs respectively (Figure 2.2) (UNDP, 2010). Almost all the livestock, including 
FIGURE 2.2 
Comparative livestock 
for Tamale metropolis  
(2005)
Source: UNDP, 2010
0
20 000
40 000
60 000
80 000
100 000
120 000
140 000
160 000
Cattle Sheep Goats Pigs Poultry
Num
ber
Building Urban Resilience10
poultry, are kept under extensive management systems where they are left to roam, especially after 
the cultivation season when there is little supplementary feeding. During the cultivation season, 
tethered animals are fed with groundnut vines and grass clippings as supplementary feed. 
Recently, pigs have been integrated, often intensively, into the livestock industry for commercial 
purposes. The relatively low number of pigs reflects the religious composition of Tamale’s population, 
where over 80 per cent are Muslims. In addition, Abukari (forthcoming) describes a new opportunity 
in livestock related to the purchase and fattening of young bulls before they are sent down to southern 
Ghana for sale. The young bulls (including calves) are fed with household (kitchen) waste and crop 
residue such as groundnut vines, soya beans, pigeon pea pods and cassava peelings. 
Crop and animal integration is increasingly gaining prominence, especially in the peri-urban and 
urban areas of the metropolis in response to space and input constraints. In this case, kraals used for 
housing livestock provide an important source of manure for UPA crop production. For example, 
in the Aboabu area in the urban core, a few farmers keep some sheep under intensive management. 
The Metropolitan Agriculture Development Unit (MADU) view the crop-animal integration as a 
coping strategy for the effects of urbanization and other stresses. Other coping strategies that MADU 
help farmers to adopt are intensive livestock rearing, growing of fodder to feed livestock, adoption of 
hybrid/resistant animal species and regular vaccination of livestock to avoid outbreak of diseases that 
spread rapidly under adverse weather conditions. Poultry keeping is generally done on a small-scale 
basis, though there are a few commercial poultry operations. Aquaculture is a minor component of 
urban food production in Tamale. Fish ponds have begun to be established in the areas of Kamina 
Barracks, Kanvili and Dungu for the production of tilapia.
Assessing Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture in Tamale 11
Institutions and policies 
influencing UPA
3
Institutions involved in UPA in Tamale
The Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MoFA) remains the primary source of improved farming 
technology in both urban and peri-urban communities. In the Tamale metropolis, many institutions—
both governmental and non-governmental—have a stake in UPA. This includes farmer groups, 
research and academic institutions, and government and non-governmental agencies that play 
various roles in influencing the practice of UPA in Tamale (Table 3.1). Agriculture practiced within 
the urban boundaries has quite limited external support systems, especially extension services. 
TablE 3.1
Institutions involved in UPA in Tamale
Categories Institutions Role/function
Farmer 
Associations/
Groups 
1. Northern Poultry Farmers Association 
2. Livestock Farmers Association 
3. Vegetable Farmers Association
Advocacy for subsidies on input, liaison between 
farmers and other agencies (Government and NGO), 
securing group credit for members and negotiating 
prices of produce.
Research/
Academic 
Institutions 
1. University for Development Studies
2. Savanna Agricultural Research 
Institute 
3. Animal Research Institute 
4. Water Research Institute 
Research in areas such as improved seeds, fertilizer 
trials, animal health and soil improvement.
Government 
Agencies 
1. Ministry of Food and Agriculture
2. Town and Country Planning
3. Environmental Protection Agency
4. Department of Parks & Gardens
Administration and enforcement of legislations 
and by-laws, provision of extension services, city 
planning and beautification.
Non-Governmental 
Organizations 
1. ActionAid Ghana
2. CARE International, Ghana
3. Center for Active Learning & 
Integrated Development
4. Community Action for Development 
5. Community Action Programme for 
Development
6. Maata-N-Tudu
7. Sustainable Agricultural and Rural 
Development
8. World Vision Ghana
Advocacy for UPA, provision of credit and 
agricultural inputs, formation of farmer groups and 
provision of infrastructure like boreholes, dams and 
dugouts.
Source: adapted from UrbaNet, 2008
The policy landscape for UPA in Tamale
National, regional and municipal policy frameworks in Ghana provide several potential entry points 
for promoting greater sustainability of UPA. However, the policy landscape for UPA also suffers from 
a lack of coherency between different policy bodies and government units resulting in, among other 
adverse effects, diminished land-tenure security for farmers in peri-urban Tamale. 
Building Urban Resilience12
The Food and Agricultural Sector Development Policy (FASDEP II) constitutes the current policy 
framework governing the agricultural sector of the economy, including the sub-sectors of crop 
and livestock development, fisheries, service delivery, irrigation development, plant protection, 
agricultural mechanization, access to agricultural inputs, human resource development, youth in 
agriculture, gender mainstreaming and improved financial services (MoFA, 2009). Some elements of 
the FASDEP II framework relate specifically to UPA and enjoin urban and peri-urban farmers to take 
advantage of sub-sector policies, which include strategies for the development of food commodities. 
The Medium Term Agriculture Sector Investment Plan (METASIP) 2011–2015 (MoFA, 2010) has 
the component 2.6: Increased Growth in Incomes devoted to urban and peri-urban agriculture. This 
explains that intensive market-oriented urban farming in open spaces is taking place year-round in 
Ghana’s three main cities, Accra, Kumasi and Tamale. It recognizes the numerous benefits of urban 
and peri-urban agriculture to the Ghanaian economy and acknowledges that production is often 
associated with health risks, hence a need for regulatory restrictions on farming with regard to the 
use of pesticides and polluted water for irrigation. 
Section 51–sub-section 3 of the Local Government Act 426 (1993) permits urban farming activities 
but with prior permit from the district/municipal/metropolitan assemblies. All farming activities 
(small-scale vegetable and flower gardening excluded) within the Tamale metropolis are illegal, unless 
permission has been granted by the metropolitan authorities, including the metropolitan officer of 
health. Part of this permission-granting process is to ensure the maintenance of good sanitation in 
the city. The Tamale Metropolitan Assembly has no by-laws regulating the cultivation of open spaces 
in the city, but extensive systems of rearing livestock (cattle, sheep and goats) in the urban and peri-
urban areas is prohibited. Offenders whose animals are captured by the metropolitan authorities are 
required to pay a fee before the animals are released back to them. 
City authorities would be better placed to grant permission for agriculture within the metropolis if a 
well-outlined spatial land-use framework was in place, one that integrated agriculture as a legitimate 
land use. In discussion with the Tamale Metropolitan Assembly during the assessment, the following 
positions on urban agriculture were taken:
•	 Agriculture is acceptable within the metropolis, but should be incorporated into the planning 
process. 
•	 For regulatory matters (including legal restrictions), the assembly is totally dependent on 
the Local Government Act. The assembly by-laws do not currently address urban and peri-
urban agriculture, even though location or community-specific regulations are needed for 
the metropolis.
•	 There are no provisions for agriculture in the zoning plans of Tamale. Should such 
provisions eventually be included, by-laws will be needed to protect agricultural zones from 
encroachment. 
•	 There are derelict public lands within Tamale for which short- to medium-term licenses 
could be granted for agriculture. The assembly has indicated it could initiate negotiations 
with traditional authorities for release of such land—steps should be taken to do so.
Assessing Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture in Tamale 13
Influence of urban
growth on UPA in Tamale
4
Urban growth in Tamale
Tamale is among the fastest-growing cities in Ghana with an annual growth rate of 3.3 per cent. 
The city expanded from a village of about 1 500 inhabitants in 1907 to its present (2012) status of a 
metropolis of 444 000 people (Staniland, 1975; Braimoh and Vlek, 2004; Ghana Statistical Service, 
2005; TaMA, 2012; Unpublished records of the Tamale Metropolitan Area). A major increase in 
the growth of Tamale occurred from the 1970s to the 1980s, ranking it the third-largest city in the 
country by 1984 and outstripping the position held by Sekondi-Takoradi in 1970 (Songsore, 2009). 
This expansion was spurred on by the large-scale rice cultivation in its catchment area, which made 
Tamale a centre for agro-processing with the provision of vital services to the rice industry. The 
development in rice cultivation ended abruptly in the early 1980s with the onset of a revolution of 
sorts that occurred in 1981, where the emerging capitalist rice producers was driven into exile and 
agricultural equipment were partially destroyed. Rice production in the catchment area experienced 
further decline after the removal of agricultural input subsidies in 1983 with the adoption of the 
Structural Adjustment Programme imposed by the IMF.
Around 1945, two years before Tamale was declared the administrative capital of the then Northern 
Territories of Ghana, the radius of Tamale reportedly measured less than 1 kilometre. Currently, the 
official spatial demarcation of Tamale shows that the metropolis has expanded to 922 km2. Due to its 
relative flatness, the city is growing radially (Figure 4.1a). Under the assumption that the 3.3 per cent 
annual growth rate prevails for the next several decades, the metropolis’s population would double 
by 2021 compared with 2000, and in 2050 would be about 1.5 million people. Assuming the rate of 
development is uniform throughout and all land parcels are suitable for development, projections 
done by the assessment team for 2024 estimate that nearly all the land between villages in the peri-
urban zone will have been converted from agriculture to urban land uses (Figure 4.2).
Villages that were separate from the city in the late 1980s, i.e., Choggu to the north, Nyohini to the 
west, Lamashegu to south and Kukuo to the east, are now part of the core of Tamale. Based on an 
analysis of 1973 Landsat images, the land between these villages and the city was used mainly for 
farming. By 1989, 16 years later, housing developments had expanded to reach these villages and were 
integrated into the city. By 2005, developments had grown denser within the area of these villages and 
extended to distant villages. Expansion occurred to the north (Gbalo, Jisonayili and Kanvili), to the 
south (Dungu, Dabokpa and Vittin), to the west (Sheshegu, Kunyevila and Dumale) and to the east 
(Fuo and Taha-Kpawumo). 
Building Urban Resilience14
FIGURE 4.1a 
The expansion of Tamale 
between 1989 and 2005
Source: Satellite image 
classification (Survey of 
Ghana)
FIGURE 4.1b 
Tamale: projection for 
2024 
Source: Satellite image 
classification (Survey of 
Ghana)
Kilometres
0 1.5 3 6
Water Cultivated/Grassland
Forest/ShrubsBuilt up
Tamale in 1973
Legend
Towns
Roads
N
Water
Cultivated/Grassland
Forest/Shrubs
Towns
Built up
Roads
Tamale in 1973
Legend
Kilometres
0 1 42
N
Water
Cultivated/Grassland
Forest/Shrubs
Towns
Built up
Roads
Tamale in 1973
Legend
Kilometres
0 1 42
N
Assessing Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture in Tamale 15
N
Zonation of Tamale
Using the official administrative map as the geographic baseline (Figure 4.2a), the assessment team 
modified the city’s zonation using recent satellite imagery of the TaMA, traversing through the 
city along the trunk roads (Kumasi-Tamale; Yendi-Tamale-Bolgatanga; Tamale-Nyankpala) and 
their branches, and making ground observations along those routes and their branches based on 
the following parameters: housing density, traffic volume, frequency of farms and openness of the 
landscape. A total of more than 726 km2 was delineated in the modified map and differs from the 
official zonation of about 922 km².
This exercise resulted in demarcation of the city into the following three sectors (Figure 4.2b):
•	 City core: Approximately 25 km2 of built-up area extending up to about 3 km from the central 
market, which marks the most central point of the city.
•	 Peri-urban area: Approximately 168 km2 area that extends up to 7 km beyond the boundary 
of the core area.
•	 Rural area: Over 535 km2 area of the rural outlier located beyond the boundary of the urban 
periphery.
FIGURE 4.2a 
The official map of 
Tamale metropolitan 
area
Source: Town and Country 
Planning Department, 
Tamale
Limits of Tamale
Legend
0 3.75 7.5 15
Kilometres
Towns
Colonial
1980
2000
2010
Roads
Umland
Dam
Kogni
Zagayuri
Gbanyamni
Kanvili Tunayili
Choggu
Gumbihini
Nyohini
Lamashegu 
Dungu
Banvim
Zogbeli
Kukuo
Fuo
Gumani
Vittin
Sangani
Taha
Wovogu
Kulaa Zung
Map of Ghana showing the 
location of the South Area
Kpitntalgi
Tuya
Fita
Zakariyili
Tugu
Dagoyili
Tugu Juni
Nyanshie
Surugu Botanayili
Mbanayili Malshegu
Gurugu
Kpeni
Shishegu
Nyerizee
Cheshe
Datoyili
Dunying
Walenyili
Daluguyili
Yong
Sugashie Wumbeyili
Dakpemyili
Lahagu
Difaa
ZuoTua
Tikyeli
Civic and Cultural
Educational
Industrial Area
Open Space
Indigenous Residential Areas
State Housing Sector
Residential
Forest Reserve
The Study Area 
(TaMA)
Building Urban Resilience16
Land resources for UPA in Tamale
The land-tenure system in Tamale is changing from customary to legal title ownership resulting 
in land tenancy becoming less secure. Farming can be stopped at any time if the traditional leader 
designates an alternative use for the land. In the past, land allocation was heavily tilted towards 
farming and indigenous residential development. The market involves speculative land sales in the 
wake of the rising land values, a situation which, as a rule, does not favour agriculture, especially 
by the poorer farmers who lack secure land tenure and whom urbanization often marginalizes 
(Ubink, 2006; Yaro, 2010).
Under this new dispensation, the sale of land in Tamale is done by the chiefs who keep a significant 
portion of the proceeds of land sales. The chiefs have the right to dispose of the land for any purpose 
without consulting existing land users. Although some parcels within the official land-use planning 
regulations are earmarked for agriculture, some chiefs sell the land to prospective developers without 
reference to the required legal provisions to apply for change of use. Almost all the land within a 
15 km radius of the city centre, and in some cases beyond, has been acquired or allotted by chiefs 
for developmental projects other than agriculture. During one of the stakeholder workshops hosted 
in Tamale for this assessment, a representative of the Town and Country Planning Department 
expressed the concern that the schemes they design to provide for agriculture are not being enforced 
by the Metropolitan Assembly. Such lack of enforcement perpetuates agriculture’s disadvantage in 
the face of rapid urban development pressures. In this assessment, farming households indicated that 
nearly two-thirds of them acquire land for farming through traditional family/kinship arrangements 
while almost one-third acquire land through sharecropping. The high reliance by farming households 
on these arrangements increases their susceptibility to being displaced by other more economically 
lucrative uses of the land. 
FIGURE 4.2b
Modified map of Tamale 
metropolitan area 
The dots represent the 
assessment field sites
Source: Field appraisal, 2012
102.5 50
Kilometres
N
Study Localities
Area (sq Km)
Other Localities
Existing Roads
Proposed Roads
Urban/Core  24.77
Peri-urban    168.29
Rural              539.48
Towns
Legend
Tamale Metroplitan Area 
Kogni
Salamba
Surugu
Nyanshie
Botanayili
Wayamba
Yanduni
Katariga
Mbanayili
Kpeni
Nangbago
Kasaligu
Shigu
Namandu
Shishegu
Nyerizee
Kunyevila
Adubiyili
Dungu
Zagayuri
Gurugu
Dumale
Kpalsi
Gbolo
Choggu
Gumbinini
Nyohini
Lamashegu
Dungu
Kanbonayili
Dunying
Fooshegu
Manguli
Walenyili
Banvim Dakpemyili Sugushie Wambeyili
Vitin-Dbogshie
Yong Dakpemyili
Yoguyili
Yong Botingle
Dakpemyili
Gbanyamni
Wovogu
Kulaa Zung
Wovoguma
Map of Ghana showing the 
location of the Study Area
K pintalgi
Tuya
Tikyeli
Zuo
Gbabshie
Dunyin
Lahagu
Pagazaa
Changnaayili
Fita
Zakariyili
Tugu
Tugu Yapalsi
Dagoyili
Tugu Juni
Gbalahi
Taha
Bihinayili
TunayiliKanvilli
Gumani
Nyashegu
Sangani
Fuo
Kukuo
Difaa
Bulpeila
Ugbeli
Banvim Tua
Vitin
Dabokpa
Parishie
Daluguyili
The Study Area 
(TaMA)
Cheshe
Datoyili
Mwazie Kurugu
Malshegu
Dugshegu
Kpanvo
Assessing Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture in Tamale 17
With increasing loss of farmland due to expanding industrial development, infrastructure and 
housing, farmers are compelled to move away from their own cleared lands and family farmlands to 
other tenancy forms. During the survey, farmers in the core and peri-urban areas whose lands have 
already been taken away from them indicated that they are relocating to more distant communities 
to farm. Farmers of large tracts of land who bush fallow have to migrate seasonally to distant 
farming communities. Others do not migrate, but commute daily between the city and their distant 
farms. This is, however, very expensive given the large investments required for land preparation, 
transportation and labour acquisition. 
Due to the acquisition of land for non-agricultural purposes, those who farm within the city core do 
so increasingly on government lands and in open spaces. Some of these farmers practice backyard 
farming for subsistence, while others are commercial vegetable producers. Urbanization, however, 
provides opportunities to move from traditional occupations, such as farming, to new ones, such as 
trading. For others, intensive livestock rearing is considered most viable, especially poultry farming 
and rearing of pigs and small ruminants. Few respondents considered relocation into distant rural 
areas as a viable option for continuing traditional practices.
The undulating landscape in peri-urban Tamale includes many valley bottoms that contain good 
soil for rice, maize and vegetable production, and the ephemeral streams in the valley bottoms 
are important for peri-urban livestock keepers. In addition, these valleys play a critical role in 
stormwater management for Tamale because they carry stormwater runoff away from the city. The 
destruction of these streams, either through building structures on them or poor farming practices 
in the stream channel is diminishing the potential of the valleys both for food production and for 
regulating stormwater management. Urban encroachment pressures in these valleys have increased 
in recent years, especially in the northeast part of the city (Gurigubaani off the Tamale-Kumbungu 
road, Vittin-Barrier off the Tamale-Salaga road, Kasalgubaani off the Tamale-Nyankpala road and 
Kobilmahagu). 
Small farm size is also a concern. Based on the Shaibu (2002) field survey, the mean size of farm 
plots is about half an acre with more than half (53 per cent) of respondents farming on half an acre 
or less. In some instances, farmers own more than an acre of land, but rarely cultivate all of it. The 
average land sizes for the cultivation of the crops, based on Shaibu (2002), are presented in Table 
4.1. In farmer surveys associated with this assessment, it was revealed that about half of the farmers 
cultivated less than 1 acre of land and only 1 per cent had sizable allocations of land, those greater 
than 5 acres. 
TablE 4.1
Average land sizes for vegetable crops
Crop Average land size (acres)
Tomato
Pepper
Cabbage
Okra
Ayoyo
Kehaf
Lettuce
Maize
0.25
0.15
0.10
0.27
0.05
0.01
0.07
0.25
Source: Shaibu, 2002
Building Urban Resilience18
Urbanization and impacts on the community 
The native Dagbon people of Tamale are still dominant, although the population is becoming more 
diverse as people migrate into the city from within and outside of Ghana (Ghana Statistical Service, 
2005). Moreover, due to the relative peace in Tamale, people from nearby conflict-prone towns of 
Bawku, Yendi and Gushiegu are increasingly settling there. Development patterns for housing are 
changing in Tamale from the traditional compound housing system that can hold a large number 
of households to self-contained dwellings (UN-Habitat, 2009). This more individualistic type of 
housing development has negative implications for the availability of agricultural land, as more land 
in the periphery is likely to be converted for housing. The assessment team observed during its field 
visits that lands about 15 km away from the town centre along the major routes have been acquired 
for development and signposts of property owners have been erected on those properties. 
Tamale’s physical growth was also confirmed by residents during the field survey carried out for 
this assessment. Indicators that respondents used to confirm the expansion included increased road 
networks, the presence of people of diverse ethnic background in their communities, improved 
social amenities, provision of services which were previously non-existent in their communities such 
as transportation, the felling of trees for construction and limited availability of land for farming, 
especially in the core zone. They also added that, in the past, one was afraid to walk alone to town, but 
now bushes have been cleared and houses constructed along the routes. A respondent from Vittin, 
a community in peri-urban Tamale, explained that in the past “anybody from where I come from will 
say I am from Vittin, a village near Tamale, but now I will confidently say I come from Tamale, because 
it is difficult to separate Vittin from Tamale.” Due to urbanization, these distant villages are now 
considered to be within peri-urban Tamale. 
The expansive growth of Tamale also brings benefits. Those benefits, as identified during the focus 
group discussions and corroborated by the household surveys, included the availability of modern 
means of communication, more schools, readily available markets, increased health facilities, access 
to transport, more stores, available electricity, credits, women empowerment, availability of building 
materials, availability of fuel, access to fertilizer, more houses and increase in commercial activities 
(Figure 4.3). 
Residents, however, also considered the negative effects of the expansion and urbanization of Tamale 
to include land scarcity and deterioration of soil fertility, lack of firewood, shortage of water, lack of 
grazing land for animals, food shortages, loss of the economically important shea and dawadawa 
trees and livelihoods associated with their processing, waste management problems, out-migration, 
rampant road accidents, extinction of medicinal plants, high cost of education, high prices of goods 
and services, loss of traditional values and negative influence of Western cultures among youth 
(Figure 4.4).
Water resources and UPA
The Tamale metropolis is poorly endowed with groundwater resources. The aquifers are mainly 
sandstone, shale and mudstone. The drilling success rate is quite low and the yields of wells and 
boreholes are generally poor (Abdul-Ghaniyu et al., 2002). As a result, the population relies mainly 
on surface water for domestic, industrial and agricultural use. 
Assessing Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture in Tamale 19
FIGURE 4.3 
Benefits of Tamale’s 
growth/urbanization 
(multiple choice 
responses), by frequency 
of response
Source: Field appraisal by the 
assessment team in 2012
FIGURE 4.4 
Adverse effects of Tamale 
growth/urbanization 
(multiple choice 
responses), by frequency 
of response
Source: Field appraisal by the 
assessment team in 2012
Access to social amenities 
48%
I mproved
transportation
19%
Access to market
14%
Employment
opportunities
16%
Access to credit 3%
Land scarcity
35%
Water shortages
12%Indiscipline/
truancy of children 
9%
Loss of
livelihoods
6%
Increased 
theft cases 
15%
Loss of 
traditions 
10%
Food insecurity 
4%
Urban waste problems 
9%
The Nawuni River, also known as the White Volta, a tributary of Ghana’s major freshwater body Lake 
Volta, is the primary source of drinking water in the Tamale metropolis. However, this source of water 
is threatened by siltation as a result of sand harvesting along the riverbanks. The shallow riverbed 
Building Urban Resilience20
in turn heightens the risk of increased flooding during the rainy season. Water-borne guinea worm 
disease, which was common in the region in the late 1980s and 1990s due to a general lack of clean 
drinking water, has now been almost eradicated owing to educational campaigns and the extension 
of pipe-borne water to many parts of the city. Even though as many as 79 per cent of the residents 
have access to pipe-borne water, 46 per cent of that group do not have pipes going directly into their 
homes. The ever-increasing population in the city has made it difficult for the Ghana Water Company 
Limited to supply water to the entire city at all times. Water is therefore rationed to different sections, 
mostly on a weekly basis.
Alternative water bodies are few and ephemeral, usually lasting only for the duration of the rainy 
season. Notable among these streams are the Pasam, Dirm-Nyogni and Kwaha. Water sources for 
crop production consist of wastewater, micro-dams, shallow wells and small reservoirs (Obuobie et 
al., 2006). Artificial dams (e.g., the Builpela and Lamashegu) and small ponds have been constructed 
by some communities to store water for both humans and livestock, but these dry up after the rainy 
season (Abdul-Ghaniyu, 2002). There are about 91 micro-dams dotted around communities within 
the Tamale metropolis. However, with increasing urbanization, these sources of water are polluted 
with runoff water that carries indiscriminately disposed waste and human excreta. The high incidence 
of open defecation due to lack of toilet facilities in many homes (35 per cent) (NPC, 2006) contributes 
significantly to the contamination of these surface water bodies. This increases the cost of treatment of 
water for domestic and industrial uses. 
The higher water demand for domestic and industrial purposes with increasing urbanization limits 
access to water for agricultural purposes. According to respondents in the field survey, the situation 
for farmers has worsened in recent years as they experience extreme and erratic weather conditions 
such as floods, droughts, reduced rainfall, shortened rainy season, windstorms and changing pattern 
of the harmattan. These conditions have led to shortage of water, crop failure and disease intensity 
and rapid spread.
According to Zibrilla and Salifu (2004), approximately 52 per cent of irrigation schemes use wastewater; 
however, this is in sharp contrast to the findings in this assessment, which is 1 per cent. Shallow wells 
offer better quality water for irrigation, but as they dry up in the long dry season, it limits the ability 
of farmers to grow crops year-round. With increasingly scarce water due to increased non-agricultural 
demand, farmers may increasingly rely on wastewater sources for intensive vegetable production. At 
present, significant amounts of water are wasted due to improper handling and lack of planning. The 
main drainage system passing though Tamale is not complete, thus causing floods in some residential 
areas, as well as flooded cultivated fields during peak flows. Completion of drainage works, as well as 
expansion of the wastewater treatment plants, would provide additional water sources for agriculture and 
reduce pressure on dams, dugouts and wells that are presently used for drinking, livestock and irrigation 
purposes. 
Health risks associated with waste and wastewater use
Farmers engaged in urban and peri-urban agriculture face significant health risks associated with 
use of waste and wastewater for crop production. The main crops cultivated using wastewater in 
Tamale are leafy vegetables, mainly cabbage, and some local vegetables (e.g., Corchorus spp), while 
fecal material is used to fertilize cereal fields. Surveys carried out in 2007 and 2008 show that over 80 
per cent of the UPA farmers do not use any form of protective clothing when engaging in farming 
activities, even when these include handling of wastewater and waste (Asenso, 2007; Norvinyeku, 
2007; Ansu, 2007; Kennedy, 2008). In addition, 50 per cent of urban farmers interviewed during 2008 
Assessing Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture in Tamale 21
surveys admitted that they use children to help with wastewater irrigation of vegetables (Kennedy, 
2008), which poses heightened levels of risk. Farmers also face health risks associated with the 
application of agrochemicals for crop protection predominantly without protective clothing, and 
with very poor knowledge of appropriate use of the pesticides (Northern Presbyterian Agricultural 
Services, 2012). A recent study (Abdul-Ghanyu et al., 2011) indicates a high incidence of skin and 
gastro-intestinal diseases associated with wastewater use for agriculture in Tamale (Table 4.2). 
TablE 4.2
Disease incidences associated with wastewater application
Observed problems/disease incidence Respondents (%)
Foot rot 47
Diarrhoea 17
Skin sores 13
Nausea 10
No problems observed 13
Source: abdul-Ghanyu et al., 2011
© Gordon Dix
Building Urban Resilience22
Box 1. The Case of Decentralised Compost Company (DeCo) in Tamale
The Tamale Decentralised Composting Company (DeCo) was established in 2008 as a 
registered social business NGO with the overall objective of improving the organic matter 
content of soils of the savanna region of Ghana. It buys farm and household waste biomass 
from local people and composts the biomass into organic fertilizer for farmers in northern 
Ghana. It also works with a waste management company called Zoomlion to get biowaste 
from towns for the same purpose. DeCo operates decentralized composting plants and follows 
a low-tech approach, windrow composting, in order to minimize technical barriers and risks, 
and employs local people. The plants are located close to villages to lower the cost of production 
and transportation and are run by local managers with higher education degrees and employ 
people from the surrounding villages part time. On the basis of diverse inputs (like fruit and 
vegetable waste, neem tree leaves, and waste from processing shea butter and other local agro-
processing activities), DeCo produces high quality organic fertilizer targeting small-scale 
farmers close to the production sites. By working together with local NGOs, MoFA (Ministry 
of Food and Agriculture) and research institutions, DeCo aims not only to sell a product but 
inform and educate farmers about the benefits of applying organic matter to their soils.
One tangible benefit of UPA for Tamale could be its potential to reduce the urban waste stream 
through the conversion of urban waste into high-quality organic fertilizer with mechanical 
composting and vermiculture. Recent research efforts have been oriented towards processing fecal 
sludge into compost, reducing risks in handling wastewater (Kranjac-Berisavljevic et al., 2009; 
Abaidoo et al., 2009), and improving general hygiene and knowledge of farmers and other groups 
involved in production and selling of food crops in the metropolis, especially for leafy vegetables 
where contamination risks to the consumer are high (Amoah et al., 2009). The establishment of the 
Decentralised Composting Company (DeCo) in 2008 to produce compost for Tamale holds promise 
for elevating the role of UPA as a user of compost that can reduce the urban organic waste (Box 1). 
The company produces about 3 000 metric tonnes of compost annually that is being used by small-
scale farmers in and around Tamale. 
Assessing Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture in Tamale 23
5
Climate factors and UPA 
in Tamale
Climate trends
The climate in northern Ghana is driven by the El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and the West 
African monsoon. The seasonal rainfall fluctuates considerably on inter-annual and inter-decadal 
timescales, due in part to variations in the movements and intensity of the Inter Tropical Convergence 
Zone (ITCZ), and in the timing and intensity of the West African monsoon (GFDRR, 2011). 
Tamale has a relatively dry climate, with a single rainy season that begins in May and ends in October. 
Annual rainfall for Tamale varies between 900 mm and 1 100 mm, with a long-term average annual 
rainfall of 1 078 mm (Table 5.1). Inter-annual variability of rainfall is up to 17 per cent (GMA field data, 
1960–2010). Total annual rainfall has slightly decreased in the period between 1960 and 2010, though 
the trend is not significant (Figure 5.1a). The mean daytime temperature for Tamale is 28o C, with a 
range from 34o C for the March–April period to 21o C for the December–January period. Mean annual 
temperatures have risen by approximately 1o C between 1960 and 2010 (Figure 5.1b).
TablE 5.1
Average monthly rainfall distributions in Tamale, 1939–2009
Rainfall (mm) Annual 
RainfallJan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
3.0 8.3 41.5 82.2 118.0 142.0 153.7 195.8 222.1 90.3 16.9 4.4 1077.6
Source: Meteorological Services Department, Tamale, 2011
Climate projections
Rainfall
A few studies have been undertaken in Ghana to ascertain overall future climate projections in the 
Guinea savanna zone. The World Bank study of the Economics of Adaptation to Climate Change for 
2010–2050, and the UNDP Climate Profile of Ghana for 2060–2090 (Lizcano and McSweeney, 2008) 
project a decrease in rainfall (UNFCCC, 2007), while the Meteorological Model version 5 (MM5) 
projects an increase. Figures 5.2a and b depict an envelope of projected precipitation change derived 
from a suite of regionally downscaled climate model projections from CMIP3, under a future scenario 
of high greenhouse gas emissions (A2) and a future scenario of low greenhouse gas emissions (B1). 
In Figure 5.2a, the light purple bars represent historic precipitation trends (1961–2000) by month 
and the dark purple bars represent projected precipitation in the 2046–2065 period. 
Building Urban Resilience24
The analysis (under both A2 and B1 scenarios) indicates that by mid-century, the months of July, 
September, October and November could become wetter, rainfall in August could become drier than 
historical means, while the rest of the months show none or very little change in the amount of 
rainfall (Figure 5.2 b). As indicated by the purple bars, the model projection trends for the months 
with increased rainfall are predominately above the zero line, indicating general agreement between 
the models as to the direction of future rainfall. 
In interpreting these results, it is important to note that, in Figure 5.2b, the bars indicate the spread of the 
climate model results and thus the relative degree of uncertainty with respect to the envelope analysis. 
The shorter the bar the greater the degree of agreement of rainfall projections between the models, and 
thus higher the degree of relative certainty with respect to future rainfall projections. The distribution of 
the bars is also important. Bars that are distributed predominately in one direction relative to the zero 
line indicate agreement between the models regarding either increasing rainfall (bar is mostly above the 
zero line) or decreasing rainfall (bar is mostly below the zero line). Bars that evenly straddle above and 
below the line show poor agreement and thus a relatively greater degree of uncertainty. 
FIGURE 5.1a, b
(a) Rainfall trends for 
Tamale, 1960–2010; 
(b) Temperature trends 
for Tamale, 1960–2010
Source: Authors’ construct 
based on data from Ghana 
Meteorological Agency
1960 1964 1968 1972 1976 1980 1984 1988 1992 1996 2000 2004 2008
1800
1600
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
(a) 
Rai
nf
al
l (m
m
)
1960 1964 1968 1972 1976 1980 1984 1988 1992 1996 2000 2004 2008
29.5
29.0
28.5
28.0
27.5
27.0
26.5
(b) Te
m
p
er
at
ure
 (°C)
Assessing Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture in Tamale 25
Heavy rainfall events
Near-term (2040–2060) projected changes indicate a potentially increasing incidence of extreme 
rainfall during June and July (Figure 5.3). Projected changes for September are also positive, but in the 
context of existing high incidence these changes are relatively less significant. April, however, shows 
nearly doubling of the incidence of extreme rainfall, but historically is a month of low incidence so 
the impacts of these changes may be smaller.
FIGURE 5.2a, b 
Change in monthly total 
rainfall (mm) for Tamale 
station (a) SRES A2 
Scenario and  
(b) SRES B1 Scenario 
Source: GSAG, 2013
FIGURE 5.3 
Change in rain days 
>95th percentile  
(days/month) 
Source: GSAG, 2013
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Mon
thl
y 
to
ta
ls (m
m
)
Ano
m
al
y 
m
on
thl
y 
to
ta
ls (m
m
)
(1961–2000) (2046–2065)
(2046–2065) (1961–2000)
250
200
150
100
50
0
40
30
20
10
0
-10
-20
-30
Rai
n 
d
ay
s > 95t
h p
er
ce
nt
ile
 (d
ay
s/m
on
th)
Rainfall (m
m
)
5
4
2
3
1
0
-2
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
-1
5
4
2
3
1
0
-2
-1
(decrease)
Model results 1944 to 2008 (increase) 10th to 90th percentile range  from 2040–2060 (decrease)
Building Urban Resilience26
FIGURE 5.4a, b 
Change in monthly 
mean maximum daily 
temperature (degrees C) 
for TAMALE station 
(a) SRES A2 Scenario and 
(b) SRES B1 Scenario 
Source: CSAG 2013
Temperature projections
Climate model projections of temperature analysed by the University of Cape Town’s Climate Systems 
Analysis Group indicate a mid-century temperature rise of between 2.0o and 2.5o C (A2 scenario) and 
1.6o to 1.9o C (B1 scenario), with the largest difference between current and future temperatures 
occurring in the June to September period (Figure 5.4a, b). Minimum temperatures are projected to 
increase by about 2.2o to 2.7o C (A2 scenario) and 1.7o to 2.0o C (B1 scenario) (Figure 5.5a, b). 
These figures show an envelope of projected temperature change derived from a suite of regionally 
downscaled climate model projections from CMIP31, under a future scenario of high greenhouse gas 
emissions (A2) and a future scenario of low greenhouse gas emissions (B1). In Figure 5.4b, the light 
purple line represents historical trends (1961–2000) and the dark purple line represents projected 
temperatures for the 2046–2065 period. In Figure 5.4b, the dashed blue line indicates the mean 
projected temperature anomaly and the pink area that encompasses the dashed line represents the 
spread of model projections for temperature; a narrower line indicating closer agreement between 
models, a broader the line indicating less model agreement. 
Observations of climate change
According to a World Bank analysis of Ghana (GFDRR 2011), extreme rainfall events increased 
during the 1980s and 1990s with greater frequency and recurrence of storms, floods and droughts. 
Respondents in the field survey acknowledged increasing risks to their livelihoods brought about 
by climate change. Various descriptions of how the climate has changed and affected agriculture 
included erratic rainfall, reduced rainfall, warmer temperatures, changing pattern of the harmattan, 
increased windstorms, drier conditions, shortened raining season, stunted growth of crops and 
disappearance of certain crops. 
1 CMIP3 or Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 3, is a climate model output from simulations of the past, pre-
sent and future climate (20th–22nd century) for the physical climate systems (atmosphere, land surface, ocean and sea 
ice) collected by the Program for Climate Model Diagnosis and Intercomparison (PCMDI).
42
40
38
36
34
32
30
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
(1961–2000) (2046–2065)
Maxi
m
um
 te
m
p
er
at
ure
 (°C)
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
(2046–2065) (1961–2000)
Ano
m
al
y 
m
axi
m
um
 te
m
p
er
at
ure
 (°C)
42
40
38
36
34
32
30
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
(1961–2000) (2046–2065)
(2046–2065) (1961–2000)
Maxi
m
um
 te
m
p
er
at
ure
 (°C)
Ano
m
al
y 
m
axi
m
um
 te
m
p
er
at
ure
 (°C)
Assessing Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture in Tamale 27
FIGURE 5.5a, b 
Change in monthly 
mean minimum daily 
temperature (degrees C) 
for TAMALE station  
(a) SRES A2 Scenario and 
(b) SRES B1 Scenario 
Source: GSAG, 2013
FIGURE 5.6 
Farmer perception of 
changing climate 
Source: Field survey, 2012 
Populations at risk of food insecurity are concentrated in the northern, upper east and upper west 
regions of Ghana. Periods of acute food insecurity result from the convergence of climatic and non-
climatic factors, as was the case in 2007 when severe floods and drought combined with chieftaincy 
conflicts and a spike in global food and fuel prices to amplify the already existing vulnerabilities 
among people and communities in these regions (Cudjoe et al., 2010). 
The high degree of climate risks in the north contributes to low and volatile productivity levels, and 
the prospect of increasing climate risks to agriculture from climate change is of serious concern. 
Rainfed cereal cultivation, the mainstay of food production in Ghana, faces a number of potential 
threats from climate change related to rainfall deficits, high temperature stress, extreme events, 
pest and disease pressure, and enhanced land degradation (UNEP/UNDP, 2010). For example, a 
temperature increase of 1o C in the Tamale area has been estimated to decrease yield of maize by 6 per 
cent (Atakora, 2011). The most significant factor limiting agricultural production is the erratic nature 
drier
57% 
wetter
5% 
erratic
29% 
warmer
8% 
cooler
1% 
28
26
24
22
20
18
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
(1961–2000) (2046–2065)
Min
im
um
 te
m
p
er
at
ure
 (°C)
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
(2046–2065) (1961–2000)
Ano
m
al
y 
m
axi
m
um
 te
m
p
er
at
ure
 (°C)
30
28
26
24
22
20
18
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
(1961–2000) (2046–2065)
Min
im
um
 te
m
p
er
at
ure
 (°C)
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
(2046–2065) (1961–2000)
Ano
m
al
y 
m
axi
m
um
 te
m
p
er
at
ure
 (°C)
Building Urban Resilience28
of the rainfall with annually occurring intra-seasonal dry spells lasting between two to three weeks. 
The dry spells have become more frequent and longer (Bediako et al., 2005). 
Respondents in the assessment confirmed that the rainy season has become drier and warmer than 
it was 20 years ago (Figure 5.6). These seasonal dry spells often resulted in significant crop losses and 
occasionally total crop failure. Most farmers in the Tamale area now plant in July instead of May/
June, which was formerly considered the period of onset of the rains. There are also potential impacts 
on livestock productivity including the loss of livestock herds to drought, heat-related reductions in 
livestock productivity, reduced productivity of rangeland, and high cost/unavailability of feed and 
water for livestock (UNEP/UNDP, 2010). 
Farmers consistently reported stunted growth of crops, for example some local varieties of late-
maturing millet and sorghum are no longer being grown by farmers in the metropolis, since they 
cannot reach maturity before the rains stop (Field survey, 2012). Farmers also observed that due 
to insufficient moisture during pod formation, groundnut seeds no longer fill the pods. During a 
discussion with a group of poultry farmers, one poultry farmer remarked ‘‘we now experience very 
high temperatures in the months of January and February and during those times many layers become 
spent leading to a reduction on the number of eggs collected daily.’’ 
Variability and changes in rainfall patterns and increasing temperatures could have serious 
repercussions on UPA in the Tamale area. While the knowledge base regarding potential impacts 
on cereal and tuber crops is growing, there remains a lack of clear understanding of how irrigated 
and rainfed vegetable production in northern Ghana may be affected by climate change, or how 
indirect effects linked to urban stresses, such as greater marginality of land resources for agriculture 
or increased demand for non-agricultural use of water, may interact with climate change to affect 
UPA. Such compound stresses are likely to impel farmers to further shift to the use of marginal 
water sources, such as municipal wastewater for irrigating crops, which have attendant health risks. 
Important climate change factors to consider for horticultural crops produced under UPA include 
the extent of direct impacts from heat and water stress, and how water resource availability and 
quality for UPA production may change as both urbanization and climate change play out over the 
next several decades.
Assessing Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture in Tamale 29
Response options and
recommendations
6
Protect land in valley bottoms for agriculture
Land located in valley bottoms is less drought-prone thus provides good soils for agriculture. This 
land provides an important environmental service by carrying stormwater runoff away from the city. 
The lack of legal provision backing UPA has led to the conversion of valley bottoms and swampy 
areas into built-up areas. Areas such as Gurigubaani and Gumani were good rice fields before they 
were converted to residential facilities. Strong policy frameworks are needed to protect valley-bottom 
lands for agriculture. These efforts need to be informed by greater understanding of the urban flood 
mitigation function of these lands and how the potential for increased heavy rainfall with climate 
change will affect the need for such environmental service provisioning. 
The importance of valley bottoms for UPA also requires greater farmer support, such as through 
extension services, in the peri-urban zones to manage risks of crop loss to flooding. For example, 
access to short duration varieties and to other inputs that make it easier to undertake early planting 
and harvesting before the peak of the rains can reduce flood loss risks. Policy support for resolving 
conflicts between livestock keeping and crop production as the land base constricts is also needed. 
In terms of land-tenure security and land-use planning more broadly, credible security of access 
to land either through formal mechanisms such as legal title and enforcement or through informal 
mechanisms such as community recognition and enforcement of rights, is needed to enhance the 
viability of agriculture. Facilitating urban households’ access to land may require the acquisition of 
temporary rights for use of idle public lands. The Metropolitan Assembly has expressed support for 
such an exercise. The major task now is to conduct a detailed profile of possible locations for action. 
In the case of peri-urban areas, the possibility of zoning and demarcating agricultural land still exists. 
However, such a process should start at the community level. Policy makers in ministries and state 
departments, especially the Department of Town and Country Planning, the Tamale Metropolitan 
Assembly and the Ministry of Food and Agriculture could then be introduced into the process at 
later stages. City authorities could be better placed to grant permission for agriculture within the 
metropolis if there were a comprehensive spatial land-use framework, integrating agriculture as 
legitimate land-use form. 
At the community level, the demarcation process could begin with community mapping and should 
be done by communities and should highlight priorities of communities in terms of land use. In such 
maps community members, through a participatory process, would outline the sites they intend for 
various uses or infrastructure, including agriculture or farming zones. This is a process that requires 
significant time and resources. Green belts in the form of agriculture and woodlot enclaves should be 
used to separate adjoining residential areas. This will help increase the amount of land surface with 
vegetative cover in the city.
Building Urban Resilience30
Actors: Tamale Metropolitan Assembly, Town and Country Planning Department, the Lands 
Commission, Ministry of Food and Agriculture, Department of Parks and Gardens and local chiefs.
Enhance water resource management
Competition between agricultural and non-agricultural uses of water will intensify with increased 
urban growth, and this competition is likely to be exacerbated by higher temperatures and more 
erratic rainfall with climate change though the extent to which this will occur has not been estimated. 
The future outlook on water resources for Tamale requires a careful examination of the potential 
for using wastewater to meet increasing irrigation needs for UPA, including potential health risks 
for producers and consumers of UPA products, particularly leafy greens. The International Water 
Management Institute should collaborate with Tamale-based research institutes and universities to 
provide training to vegetable farmers in Tamale on safe use of wastewater for vegetable production.
Planning and implementation strategies for the development of micro-catchment rainwater harvesting 
techniques, and the creation of more small reservoirs, shallow wells and water conserving irrigation 
for crop production are also needed. This effort is underway and needs to be expanded. For example, 
the Savanna Agricultural Research Institute and the International Crop Research Institute in the 
Semi-Arid Tropics introduced drip irrigation to the communities around Tamale under the African 
Market Garden project (SARI, 2007) with promising results. Rainwater harvesting has the potential 
to curb flooding during heavy rainfall events, but requires resources and inputs for efficient and safe 
capture and storage, including aptly covered containers to prevent mosquito breeding. Possibilities 
for rainwater harvesting include rooftop gutters, creating of reservoirs and building micro-dams and 
ponds on ephemeral streams to collect water during the rainy season. Important actors for leading 
investment in water resource efforts are the District Assembly, the Tamale Municipal Assembly, 
NGOs, and the Irrigation Development Authority of the Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MoFA). 
Diversify production systems to lessen reliance on rainfed agriculture
Farmers in the region have demonstrated a strong predilection to adopt new varieties of rainfed staple 
crops (e.g., cowpea, maize and sorghum) that are shorter duration and thus escape drought or that 
are more tolerant of drought than older varieties (Bediako et al., 2005). This need is likely to increase 
in response to climate change. Furthermore, diversification of urban and peri-urban agriculture to 
give more emphasis to vegetable production under small-scale irrigation and subsequent reduction 
in rain-fed cereal production could become increasingly important both as a response to a growing 
market for horticultural crops from an expanding urban population and as a risk-management 
measure to counter rainfall vagaries in cereal and other rainfed crop production. 
Many vegetable producers are cultivating local leafy vegetables that are of high nutritional but low 
market value. New entrants into vegetable production need specialized training, with the Savanna 
Agricultural Research Institute (SARI), MoFA and University for Development Studies appropriate 
to provide this training. For example, vegetable production requires intensive use of pesticides with 
which come health and environmental impacts; training and monitoring are required to minimize 
these risks. Access to seeds of improved varieties of high-value vegetables is also needed. Prices of 
seed for such improved varieties are high for farmers and only seeds of exotic varieties such as carrot 
(Daucus carota), cucumber (Cucumis sativus) and cabbage (brassica olereceacapitata) are sold since 
farmers cannot easily produce them. An extension of the current subsidy on inorganic fertilizer to 
cover planting materials of improved varieties will motivate private agro input dealers to put them 
on stock for sale. 
Assessing Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture in Tamale 31
Commercial poultry production is increasingly gaining grounds in Tamale, as agriculture practitioners 
are given technical assistance by the Metropolitan Agriculture Development Unit (MADU) in livestock 
production to enable them to diversify from solely producing crops. According to MADU officials, 
this training of farmers becomes necessary in the wake of diminishing agricultural land in the city and 
unfavourable weather conditions resulting from changing climate. A survey conducted by Mensah-
Bonsu and Rich (2010) identified breeders/hatcheries, farmers, traders and consumers as major actors 
in the poultry industry in the Tamale metropolis. Inputs identified as used by commercial farmers 
are concentrates (i.e. formulated feeds), vitamins and labour. The main products of the commercial 
poultry farms include eggs (and spent layers), broilers for the holiday seasons and manure. Whilst 
formulated feeds are purchased from an Agricare sales outlet in Tamale, day-old chicks are mostly 
purchased in Kumasi and transported to Tamale usually in the evenings. Due to the young nature of the 
poultry industry in Tamale, about 85 per cent of the supply of eggs comes from Sunyani in the Brong 
Ahafo region (Mensah-Bonsu and Rich, 2010).
Beekeeping is gaining importance, especially among women in the peri-urban settlements of Tamale. 
This can become an import vocation, which together with poultry production, could reduce reliance 
on rainfed crop production. Both poultry and beekeeping require some capacity building related 
to management practices, which could be provided by research and development partners. These 
capacity building efforts should increasingly target women, as they are more vulnerable to climate 
change effects, due to their lack of access to land, capital and other resources. One group to target 
are women involved in shea butter nut gathering and processing, an enterprise that has diminished 
in Tamale due to urban sprawl and environmental changes that have reduced the number and 
productivity of shea trees. 
Farmers who participated in focus group discussions held in the core, peri-urban and adjacent rural 
areas of Tamale expressed a strong need for diversification as a way of better coping with more variable 
climatic conditions. Strategies for doing so included 1) increasing the share of market-oriented 
gardening as an alternative to traditional cereal-based subsistence agriculture; 2) concentrating on 
intensive livestock rearing to deal with greater constriction of the land base and to provide a more 
reliable source of animal manure for crop production; 3) promoting alternative livelihoods that 
include trading or other professions such as construction work, mechanics, tailoring, etc.; and 4) 
increased support for education, especially for children; the traditional occupation of farming is 
no longer as rewarding and thus parents find it prudent to channel their resources into giving their 
children good formal educations, which provide greater future job opportunities than farming.
Actors: Central government, Ministry of Food and Agriculture, research institutions (e.g., the 
Savanna Agricultural Research Institute), universities (e.g., the University for Development Studies), 
Tamale Metropolitan Assembly and local chiefs.
Increase farmer access to seasonal weather forecasts 
Climate risk management at the farm level, such as shifts in planting dates and time of fertilizer 
application, are already being adopted. For example, most farmers in the Tamale area now plant 
cereals in July instead of June due to delay in the onset of the rains. Shifting planting dates is a very 
difficult response to manage, as changes in the onset of the rains are quite variable. In the absence of 
good seasonal weather forecasts, farmers will be unable to adjust effectively to the annual variability 
in the onset of the rains. 
The efficiency with which farmers can adapt to climate change and variability by changing their 
planting dates will depend on availability of timely, relevant and actionable seasonal weather forecast 
Building Urban Resilience32
information, especially prediction of the onset of the rains. There is need to develop seasonal weather 
forecasting that farmers understand, in addition to early warning systems of impending drought or 
excess rainfall. The National Disaster Management Organization (NADMO), which has its regional 
office in Tamale, has limited resources to deal with the effects of flood and drought, and they have no 
early warning systems for impending drought and floods. Weather forecast information from Ghana 
Meteorological Association (GMA) hardly gets to farmers and even when it does, the forecasts are 
often ignored because of lack of confidence in weather forecasts made by GMA. 
Actors : Tamale Metropolitan Assembly, the Metropolitan Agriculture Development Unit of MoFA, the 
National Disaster Management Organization (NADMO), and the Ghana Meteorological Association 
(GMA). 
Promote more sustainable technologies and extension support for UPA farmers
As land holdings around Tamale diminish as a result of urbanization and land degradation undermines 
the resource base, land-use intensification will become more prominent as a means of sustaining and 
increasing productivity. The use of fertilizers and pesticides will increase, which will pose health and 
environmental hazards if not properly managed. To maintain the productivity of the land under 
intensive cultivation, the use of integrated management regimes (e.g., integrated pest management 
and integrated nutrient management) is important. Such efforts can be implemented in a manner 
that also reduces the urban waste stream. As described in this report, the NGO DeCo is producing 
organic fertilizers near Tamale using poultry manure and compost made from urban waste. DeCo 
is also developing a partnership with Zoomlion to compost all waste generated in Tamale for use as 
fertilizer. If this partnership succeeds, organic fertilizers will be available for farmers at affordable 
prices, which would have positive implications for reducing pollution and health risks from UPA.
Expanding the availability of credit and crop insurance could help farmers acquire inputs, and 
thus encourage diversification. In particular, there is widespread interest in the development of 
crop insurance schemes that would reimburse farmers in the event of a climate-related production 
problem. The availability of insurance could also promote the adoption of new, better-adapted 
varieties. Interventions to protect human and livestock health are also needed, such as through 
conducting tuberculosis and brucellosis screening in the milk collection areas, and organizing 
vaccination campaigns for livestock. 
Non-governmental organizations such as ActionAid Ghana and CARE International Ghana together 
with the University for Development Studies, Tamale, should collaborate with MoFA to facilitate the 
delivery of new technology and extension services to urban agricultural producers and other actors. 
Through research and development, enormous amounts of technology have been developed that 
when made available to households could significantly improve output levels. Again it lies within 
the ambit of the of Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MoFA) to embark on door-to-door education 
and sensitization of farming households on new technology that will enable the farmers to maximise 
output even in the face of changing climate and shrinking land size. The MoFA can do this through 
the Metropolitan Agriculture Development Unit (MADU), a unit of the Metropolitan Agriculture 
Department. 
Actors : Tamale Metropolitan Assembly, the Metropolitan Agriculture Development Unit of MoFA, 
universities, research institutions and non-governmental organizations (NGOs).
Assessing Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture in Tamale 33
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Published by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), November 2014 
© 2014 United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) 
ISBN: 978-92-807-3372-3
DEW/1784/NA 
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Citation 
Gyasi, E.A., M. Fosu, G. Kranjac-Berisavljevic, A.M. Mensah, F. Obeng, G.A.B. Yiran and I. Fuseini. (2014).
Building Urban Resilience: Assessing Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture in Tamale, Ghana. [Padgham, J. and 
J. Jabbour (eds.)]. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), Nairobi, Kenya.
 
A digital copy of this report along with supporting appendices are available at www.start.org/upa/tamale.pdf
Managing Editor: Jon Padgham
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This report represents one from a series of nine city-level reports on urban and peri-urban agriculture (UPA), 
which together form a larger knowledge assessment. The knowledge assessment was carried out in Dakar 
(Senegal), Tamale (Ghana), Ibadan (Nigeria), Dar es Salaam (Tanzania), Kampala (Uganda), Addis Ababa 
(Ethiopia), Dhaka (Bangladesh), Kathmandu (Nepal) and Chennai (India). The nine reports and a synthesis 
report can be downloaded at: http://start.org/programs/upa
Funding Partners
Building Urban
Resilience  
Assessing Urban and Peri-urban
Agriculture in Kampala, Uganda  
ISBN: 978-92-807-3371-
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This assessment report presents the ndings of a knowledge assessment on urban and peri-urban 
agriculture (UPA) for the city of Kampala, Uganda, that was conducted in 2012. The assessment 
examines the state of UPA in the city through the lens of intensifying urban pressures and increasing 
climate risks with the objective of identifying how these and other drivers potentially interact to 
aect the long-term sustainability of UPA, and what response options are needed to address existing 
and emerging challenges. 
global change SysTem for Analysis, Research & Training 
Building Urban
Resilience  
Assessing Urban and Peri-urban
Agriculture in Tamale, Ghana  
ISBN: 978-92-807-3372-3
Job Number: DEW/1784/NA
United Nations Environment Programme
P.O. Box 30552 - 00100 Nairobi, Kenya
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International START Secretariat
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Tel.: +1 202-462-2213
e-mail: start@start.org
www.start.org
www.start.org
This assessment report presents the ndings of a knowledge assessment on urban and peri-urban 
agriculture (UPA) for the city of Tamale, Ghana, that was conducted in 2012. The assessment 
examines the state of UPA in the city through the lens of intensifying urban pressures and increasing 
climate risks with the objective of identifying how these and other drivers potentially interact to 
aect the long-term sustainability of UPA, and what response options are needed to address existing 
and emerging challenges. 
 
 
global change SysTem for Analysis, Research & Training 
Building Urban
Resilience  
Assessing Urban and Peri-urban
Agriculture in Chennai, India  
ISBN: 978-92-807-3377-8
Job Number: DEW/1789/NA
United Nations Environment Programme
P.O. Box 30552 - 00100 Nairobi, Kenya
Tel.:  +254 20 762 1234
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International START Secretariat
2000 Florida Ave NW #200
Washington, D.C. 20009, United States
Tel.: +1 202-462-2213
e-mail: start@start.org
www.start.org
www.start.org
This assessment report presents the ndings of a knowledge assessment on urban and peri-urban 
agriculture (UPA) for the city of Chennai, India, that was conducted in 2012. The assessment 
examines the state of UPA in the city through the lens of intensifying urban pressures and increasing 
climate risks with the objective of identifying how these and other drivers potentially interact to 
aect the long-term sustainability of UPA, and what response options are needed to address existing 
and emerging challenges. 
 
 
global change SysTem for Analysis, Research & Training 
Building Urban
Resilience  
Assessing Urban and Peri-urban
Agriculture in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia  
ISBN: 978-92-807-339-3
Job Number: DEW/1781/NA
United Nations Environment Programme
P.O. Box 30552 - 00100 Nairobi, Kenya
Tel.:  +254 20 762 1234
Fax:  +254 20 762 3927
e-mail: publications@unep.org
www.unep.org
www.unep.org
International START Secretariat
2000 Florida Ave NW #200
Washington, D.C. 20009, United States
Tel.: +1 202-462-2213
e-mail: start@start.org
www.start.org
www.start.org
This assessment report presents the ndings of a knowledge assessment on urban and peri-urban 
agriculture (UPA) for the city of Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, that was conducted in 2012. The assessment 
examines the state of UPA in the city through the lens of intensifying urban pressures and increasing 
climate risks with the objective of identifying how these and other drivers potentially interact to 
aect the long-term sustainability of UPA, and what response options are needed to address existing 
and emerging challenges. 
 
 
global change SysTem for Analysis, Research & Training 
Building Urban
Resilience  
Assessing Urban and Peri-urban
Agriculture in Kathmandu, Nepal  
ISBN: 978-92-807-337-1
Job Number: DEW/1788/NA
United Nations Environment Programme
P.O. Box 30552 - 00100 Nairobi, Kenya
Tel.:  +254 20 762 1234
Fax:  +254 20 762 3927
e-mail: publications@unep.org
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International START Secretariat
2000 Florida Ave NW #200
Washington, D.C. 20009, United States
Tel.: +1 202-462-2213
e-mail: start@start.org
www.start.org
www.start.org
This assessment report presents the ndings of a knowledge assessment on urban and peri-urban 
agriculture (UPA) for the city of Kathmandu, Nepal,  that was conducted in 2012. The assessment 
examines the state of UPA in the city through the lens of intensifying urban pressures and increasing 
climate risks with the objective of identifying how these and other drivers potentially interact to 
aect the long-term sustainability of UPA, and what response options are needed to address existing 
and emerging challenges. 
 
 
 
 
 
global change SysTem for Analysis, Research & Training 
Building Urban
Resilience  
Assessing Urban and Peri-urban
Agriculture in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania  
ISBN: 978-92-807-3370-9
Job Number: DEW/1782/NA
United Nations Environment Programme
P.O. Box 30552 - 00100 Nairobi, Kenya
Tel.:  +254 20 762 1234
Fax:  +254 20 762 3927
e-mail: publications@unep.org
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International START Secretariat
2000 Florida Ave NW #200
Washington, D.C. 20009, United States
Tel.: +1 202-462-2213
e-mail: start@start.org
www.start.org
www.start.org
This assessment report presents the ndings of a knowledge assessment on urban and peri-urban 
agriculture (UPA) for the city of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania,  that was conducted in 2012. The assessment 
examines the state of UPA in the city through the lens of intensifying urban pressures and increasing 
climate risks with the objective of identifying how these and other drivers potentially interact to 
aect the long-term sustainability of UPA, and what response options are needed to address existing 
and emerging challenges. 
 
 
global change SysTem for Analysis, Research & Training 
Building Urban
Resilience  
Assessing Urban and Peri-urban
Agriculture in Dhaka, Bangladesh  
ISBN: 978-92-807-\\\\-\
Job Number: DEW/\\\\/\\
United Nations Environment Programme
P.O. Box 30552 - 00100 Nairobi, Kenya
Tel.:  +254 20 762 1234
Fax:  +254 20 762 3927
e-mail: publications@unep.org
www.unep.org
www.unep.org
International START Secretariat
2000 Florida Ave NW #200
Washington, D.C. 20009, United States
Tel.: +1 202-462-2213
e-mail: start@start.org
www.start.org
www.start.org
This assessment report presents the ndings of a knowledge assessment on urban and peri-urban 
agriculture (UPA) for the city of Dhaka, Bangladesh, that was conducted in 2012. The assessment 
examines the state of UPA in the city through the lens of intensifying urban pressures and increasing 
climate risks with the objective of identifying how these and other drivers potentially interact to 
aect the long-term sustainability of UPA, and what response options are needed to address existing 
and emerging challenges. 
 
 
global change SysTem for Analysis, Research & Training 
Building Urban
Resilience   
Assessing Urban and Peri-urban
Agriculture in Dakar, Senegal  
ISBN: 978-92-807-337-7
Job Number: DEW/178/NA
United Nations Environment Programme
P.O. Box 30552 - 00100 Nairobi, Kenya
Tel.:  +254 20 762 1234
Fax:  +254 20 762 3927
e-mail: publications@unep.org
www.unep.org
www.unep.org
International START Secretariat
2000 Florida Ave NW #200
Washington, D.C. 20009, United States
Tel.: +1 202-462-2213
e-mail: start@start.org
www.start.org
www.start.org
This assessment report presents the ndings of a knowledge assessment on urban and peri-urban 
agriculture (UPA) for the city of Dakar, Senegal, that was conducted in 2012. The assessment 
examines the state of UPA in the city through the lens of intensifying urban pressures and increasing 
climate risks with the objective of identifying how these and other drivers potentially interact to 
aect the long-term sustainability of UPA, and what response options are needed to address existing 
and emerging challenges. 
global change SysTem for Analysis, Research & Training 
Building Urban
Resilience  
Assessing Urban and Peri-urban
Agriculture in Ibadan, Nigeria  
ISBN: 978-92-807-3373-0
Job Number: DEW/178/NA
United Nations Environment Programme
P.O. Box 30552 - 00100 Nairobi, Kenya
Tel.:  +254 20 762 1234
Fax:  +254 20 762 3927
e-mail: publications@unep.org
www.unep.org
www.unep.org
International START Secretariat
2000 Florida Ave NW #200
Washington, D.C. 20009, United States
Tel.: +1 202-462-2213
e-mail: start@start.org
www.start.org
www.start.org
This assessment report presents the ndings of a knowledge assessment on urban and peri-urban 
agriculture (UPA) for the city of Ibadan, Nigeria, that was conducted in 2012. The assessment 
examines the state of UPA in the city through the lens of intensifying urban pressures and increasing 
climate risks with the objective of identifying how these and other drivers potentially interact to 
aect the long-term sustainability of UPA, and what response options are needed to address existing 
and emerging challenges. 
 
 
global change SysTem for Analysis, Research & Training 
Building Urban
Resilience  
Assessing Urban and Peri-urban
Agriculture in Tamale, Ghana  
ISBN: 978-92-807-3372-3
Job Number: DEW/1784/NA
United Nations Environment Programme
P.O. Box 30552 - 00100 Nairobi, Kenya
Tel.:  +254 20 762 1234
Fax:  +254 20 762 3927
e-mail: publications@unep.org
www.unep.org
www.unep.org
International START Secretariat
2000 Florida Ave NW #200
Washington, D.C. 20009, United States
Tel.: +1 202-462-2213
e-mail: start@start.org
www.start.org
www.start.org
This assessment report presents the ndings of a knowledge assessment on urban and peri-urban 
agriculture (UPA) for the city of Tamale, Ghana, that was conducted in 2012. The assessment 
examines the state of UPA in the city through the lens of intensifying urban pressures and increasing 
climate risks with the objective of identifying how these and other drivers potentially interact to 
aect the long-term sustainability of UPA, and what response options are needed to address existing 
and emerging challenges. 
 
 
global change SysTem for Analysis, Research & Training