Sustainable Water Resources Management (2021) 7:81 https://doi.org/10.1007/s40899-021-00563-3 ORIGINAL ARTICLE Characterisation and quality assessment of surface and groundwater in and around Lake Bosumtwi impact craton (Ghana) Yvonne Sena Akosua Loh1 · Millicent Obeng Addai5  · Obed Fiifi Fynn1 · Evans Manu2,3,4 Received: 27 January 2021 / Accepted: 12 September 2021 / Published online: 21 September 2021 © The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 Abstract Conventional graphical methods have been used to classify water in Lake Bosumtwi and groundwater around the lake. The study also assessed the suitability of these water resources for agricultural use. Results indicate slightly acidic, moderately hard to very hard groundwater with alkaline earth concentrations exceeding alkali metals. In contrast, the lake water is alkaline, showing alkalis in excess over alkaline earth metals. Weak acids exceed strong acids in both lake/groundwater. Rock weathering largely controls groundwater and lake water chemical compositions, resulting mainly in Ca–Mg–HCO3 groundwater and Na–HCO3 lake water types. Thus, suggesting that there is no apparent incipient relationship, which benefits the primary aquifer system in terms of recharge. Water quality indices suggest groundwater of good to excellent quality for human consumption and other domestic use. An evaluation of lake/groundwater based on salinity, sodicity and bicarbonate hazard reveals that the groundwater is generally suitable for irrigation whiles the lake water is not suitable for irrigation. However, the lake water may be used in generous amounts on highly permeable soils and salt-tolerant crops under special soil and water management practices. Keywords Lake Bosumtwi · Water quality · Irrigation · Birimian Introduction 2019). The approach is based on the fact that certain chemi- cal characteristics of water bodies are essential indications The use of hydrochemical datasets in hydrological and of the water sources and evolution processes in transit. Care- hydrogeological studies to characterise water resources, ful analyses of the variations in such parameters in light establish hydrological relationships and track hydrological of the underlying lithology, vegetation, and climatic condi- processes is conventional. For instance, researchers have tions provide very useful leads to groundwater evolutionary utilized such datasets in characterising the hydrogeology trends. Through this methodology, distinct groundwater flow of watersheds, trace groundwater flow paths in aquifers paths have been defined to help conceptualise hydrological (Flusche et al. 2005; Rouabhia et al. 2009; Busico et al. systems and processes (Schilling et al. 2006; Kumar and 2018; Asante and Kreamer 2018; Yidana et al. 2018) and James 2019; Ballesteros-Navarro et al. 2019). to evaluate water quality (Milovanovic 2007; Yidana et al. Lake Bosumtwi has attracted international attention due 2008; Anku et al. 2009; Egbi et al. 2018; Rotiroti et al. to its scientific value. Much of the research in the area has been focused on establishing its origin and evolution through time (Jones 1985; Koeberl et al. 2007a, b; Loh et al. 2016). * Millicent Obeng Addai Although the people living around the lake have depended obengaddaim@gmail.com on groundwater for their drinking and domestic uses over 1 University of Ghana, Accra, Ghana the years, very little work has been done regarding the qual- 2 Water Research Institute, Accra, Ghana ity of groundwater resources within the area. However, the 3 lake has seen gradual depletion (Adu-Boahen et al. 2015) German Research Center for Geosciences, Potsdam, Germany and some deterioration due to the use of agrochemicals by 4 the fisher folks (Mensah et al. 2018) and indiscriminate dis- University of Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany charge of domestic effluents. The effect of these indiscrimi- 5 Department of Geography Education, Univeristy nate discharge of effluents is being felt as there has been a of Education, Winneba, Winneba, Ghana Vol.:(012 3456789) 81 Page 2 of 18 Sustainable Water Resources Management (2021) 7:81 decline in fish catch and delay of the peak season (Mensah The study area et al. 2018). Growing concerns over the reduction in the fish catch of the Lake Bosumtwi has also been attributed Location to climate change (Russell et al. 2003; Mensah et al. 2018). Various researchers (e.g. Milovanovic 2007; Yidana et al. The study area is a well-preserved impact crater (Fig. 1) 2008; Anku et al. 2009; Diaconu et al. 2019; Kattel, 2019) located about 32 km southeast of Kumasi, the capital of concur that water of good quality is essential for good health, the Ashanti Region of Ghana. The crater is filled by Lake ecosystems, economic development and social prosperity. Bosumtwi and lies within latitude 06°32′00′′ N and longi- Previous studies on the water resources within the basin tude 01°25′00′′ W. Various authors have copiously described focused on the hydrology and geochemistry of the lake and the physical structure of the crater (e.g. Jones et al. 1981; streams (McGregor 1937; Turner et al. 1996a, b). In recent Reimold et al. 1998; Karp et al. 2002). The rim of the lake times, Adu et al. (2011) assessed the water quality, empha- stands up to 300 m above present lake level. The irregularly sising on the radionuclide concentrations of the lake and the circular shaped depression around the impact craton makes groundwater resources. A study on the physical and chemi- it a hydrologically closed basin with a rim-to-rim diameter cal properties of the lake water and groundwater resources of 10.5 km, as well as an outer ring of minor topographic in the area cannot be overemphasized. The Government of highs with a diameter of about 20 km (Jones et al. 1981; Ghana in its quest to reduce the country’s steaming unem- Reimold et al. 1998). The inhabitants in and around the lake ployment and increase the food basket to meet the demand have always relied on fish catch from the lake as their pri- of the growing population has initiated a flagship program mary source of livelihood until the fortunes in fishing started of planting for food and jobs. This initiative will not only declining due to mass deaths of the fish (Turner et al. 1996) require water in high quantity but will equally need good and overfishing from a growing population (Prakash et al. quality water for year irrigation and improved crop yields. 2005). Consequently, many indigenes have resorted to the The realization and sustainability of this initiative and the cultivation of various food crops for survival. Again, their Sustainable Development Goals; 1, 2, 3, 4 and 6 depend on dependence on local eco-tourism on the lake has seen many the proper characterisation and assessment of the groundwa- uncoordinated developments in the area. ter resources in the wake of global climate change and dwin- dling surface water resources to augment the rain-fed agri- culture in the study area. This study is in such an endeavour. Climate, vegetation and hydrology In this paper, the physico-chemical parameters of lake and groundwater samples will be studied to classify these The area is characterised by a tropical rain forest environ- water resources into hydrochemical facies and determine ment which has double maxima rainfall pattern. The rainfall their suitability for various uses. The groundwater's physi- amount is between 1600 and 1800 mm. The major rainfall cal and chemical characteristics will be evaluated in terms of season spans March to July, peaking in June, whereas the the water quality index (WQI) to determine its suitability for second season starts from September to November and peaks drinking and other domestic uses. This index is very useful in October. Temperatures are relatively high and uniform, in communicating to consumers and policymakers on the ranging from 32 °C in March and 20 °C in August with quality of drinking water and serves as an essential param- relative humidity in the range of 70% and 80% (Turner et al. eter in assessing and managing drinking water. As many 1996; Adu-Boahen et al. 2015; Adom 2018). Due to exten- countries, including Ghana, are moving away from rain-fed sive and repeated farming, illegal mining and lumbering, peasant farming to more mechanized irrigated commercial the original vegetation cover of semi-deciduous and rain- farming to meet the global demand for food, the study will forest have been degraded to a mosaic of secondary forest. also assess both lake and Groundwater suitability for irriga- Even though the drainage pattern of Bosumtwi District is tion use. Finally, since groundwater moves with very low dendritic, there is internal drainage around the lake, where velocities, degradation in quality may take a considerable the streams flow from surrounding highlands into the lake, length of time to notice, and with the current trend of human forming a dense network due to the double maxima rainfall activities within the area, it is envisaged that the quality of regime. the water resources could be compromised. Thus, this research will establish background conditions (pristine or anthropogenically altered) on the quality of lake Geology and hydrogeology and groundwater resources within the basin needed by poli- cymakers to make more informed water policy decisions. The area is underlain by rocks of the Birimian Supergroup comprising Birimian metasediments and metavolcanics (Kesse 1985) of early Proterozoic age (Fig. 2). These rocks 1 3 Sustainable Water Resources Management (2021) 7:81 Page 3 of 18 81 Fig. 1 Study area map showing location of communities have been extensively studied by various workers (Leube secondary sericite and chlorite and some opaque minerals, et al. 1990; Hirdes et al. 1992) since most of Ghana's min- notably sulfides (Karikari et al. 2007). eral deposits (e.g. gold and diamond) are located in them. The study area falls within the Birimian hydrogeologi- These rocks have been folded, metamorphosed under cal Province (Banoeng-Yakubo et al. 2011). Groundwater greenschist-facies conditions, and intruded by various occurrence and movement in aquifers of this province are generations of granitoids during the ca 2.1 Ga Eburnean associated by secondary porosity and permeability in the orogenic event. At the northern sector of the study area, rocks, which were created in the wake of the Eburnean rock types ranging from hornblende-to-biotite–muscovite orogenic event some 2.1 Ga ago (Kesse 1985) and impact granite and dolerite (Koeberl et al. 1998) are seen occur- cratering (Reimold et al. 1998). Detailed hydrogeological ring. However, just around the lake, the geology consists characteristics of the rocks in the area have been copiously of meta-sandstones, shales, phyllites and schist (Leube documented (Loh et al. 2016). The rocks, especially the et al. 1990; Hirdes et al. 1992). These metasediments are micaceous and feldspathic schists, usually weather to clays, rich in quartz, felspars (plagioclase and alkali felspars) and which reduce the permeability. Geophysical (resistivity) micas (biotite, muscovite). studies for groundwater prospection in the region and well Detailed petrographical, mineralogical and geochemical logs from boreholes and wells collated from consultants in studies on the lithologies of the Bosumtwi structure have the study area indicate that the stratigraphy of the aquifer is been comprehensively discussed by various researchers (e.g. made up of three layers. These comprise upper, intermediate Koeberl et al. 1997, 1998; Reimold et al. 1998; Boamah and lower layers of humic or lateritic soils, highly weathered and Koeberl, 2002; Karikari et al. 2007). Various acces- rocks and moderately weathered to fractured fresh rocks, sory minerals in these rocks include carbonates, Fe-oxides, respectively. 1 3 8 1 Page 4 of 18 Sustainable Water Resources Management (2021) 7:81 Fig. 2 Geological map of the study area showing sample points Borehole depths in the area are in the range of 26–64 m, analysis. Acidification was necessary to restrict bacterial with an average of 43 m. The depth to the water level in the action, block oxidation reactions, and prevent adsorption or area varies between 3 to 43 m below ground level. Borehole precipitation of cations (Chapman 1996). The sample bottles yields observed in the area are dependent on the topographic were rinsed with distilled water and later with portions of setup, lithology and degree of weathering and range between the filtrate before they were filled. Collected samples were 0.6 m3/h and about 9.0 m3/h with specific capacities in the tightly capped and sealed with an electric insulating tape and range of 0.027–18.18 m3/h/m (Banoeng-Yakubo 2010). were labelled with unique sample IDs. The samples were then stored in iceboxes. A hand-held Garmin-eTrex Vista HCx global positioning system (GPS) was used to take the Materials and methods coordinates (latitude and longitude) and elevations of sample locations. Physical parameters such as electrical conductiv- Standard water sampling protocol was followed to collect ity (EC), total dissolved solids (TDS), salinity (Sal), water 41 representative water samples comprising 34 groundwa- temperature (T), pH, oxidation–reduction potential (ORP), ter and 7 lake water (Fig. 2) for laboratory analyses. The and dissolved oxygen (DO) were measured in situ with an samples were filtered through a 0.45 µm cellulose acetate HI 98,280 GPS Multiparameter Meter manufactured by membrane into two 50-ml sterilized polypropylene tubes, HANNA Instruments. The alkalinity (Alk) (as H CO −3 ) was one of which was acidified with pure nitric acid (HNO −3 ) measured with the Hatch digital titrator in the field. A water to pH < 2 for cations and trace element analyses, while sample location map showing the spatial distribution of the other unacidified filtered samples were used for anion sample points was generated from the GPS locations using 1 3 Sustainable Water Resources Management (2021) 7:81 Page 5 of 18 81 Groundwater Lake water 10000 10000 Legend Max. Legend 1000 75 percentile Max. Median 1000 75 percentile 25 percentile Median Min. 25 percentile100 Min. 100 10 10 1.0 1.0 0.1 0.01 0.1 0.001 0.01 pH 2+ + -ECTDS Na+ Ca Mg2+K F- Cl SO 2-NO - 2+ 3 - Ca K+HCO pH TDS Cl- NO -4 3 EC Na+ Mg2+ F- SO 2- 34 HCO -3 Fig. 3 Boxplot of physical and chemical parameters for the various water samples ArcGIS ArcMap10 software (Fig. 3). The samples were ana- quality parameters. This method has been employed by lysed at Activation Laboratories Ltd in Canada. Major cati- many researchers with the objective of turning complex ons and trace elements were analysed by an Inductively Cou- water parameters such as the pH, TDS, Na+, C a2+, Mg2+, pled Plasma- Mass Spectrometer (ICP-MS). Samples that Cl−, SO 2−4 , N O − −3 , F , Fe, As, Mn, Cu, Zn, Pb, Ni and Cd had concentrations above the detection limit (i.e. > 25 ppm were considered in calculating the WQI in three steps. In the of Na, K, and Sr; and > 100 ppm of Ca, Mg and Si) of the first step, each of these physical and chemical parameters ICP-MS were reanalysed by Inductively Coupled Plasma was assigned a weight (wi) based on their perceived effect Optical Emission Spectrometry (ICP-OES) in milligram per on primary health, with the highest weight of 5 assigned to liter (mg/l). Using Dionex DX 120 Ion Chromatograph (I.C), parameters such as Pb, N O −3 and F − that are considered to anions including Chloride ( Cl−), sulfate ( SO 2−4 ), and nitrate have significant effects on water quality for drinking pur- ( NO −3 ), fluoride (F), nitrite (NO −2 ), and phosphate (PO 3−4 ) poses. The weight (wi) assigned to all other parameters used in milligram per liter ((mg/l) were analysed. Charge Balance in this study is shown in Table 1. It is important to note that Error (CBE) was calculated to check the accuracy of the the index is subjective as it depends on the parameters cho- laboratory (analytical) results was generally within ± 10% sen and their weights assigned by the researcher. The second based on ions expressed in meq/l (Appelo and Postma 2005). step computes the relative weight (Wi) for each parameter as Even though the global standard limit is 5%, Ghana stand- contained in (Eq. 1). ards Authority guidelines accept limit within ± 10%. w Various statistical methods have been applied to the data iWi = ∑ , (1) set using SPSS, Microsoft Excel and other software with wi statistical packages to assess the variables independently and wi the weight of each parameter, and Σwi the sum of the determine the relationships between variable pairs. In addi- weight of all parameters. tion, conventional graphs and spatial distribution maps have Table 1 presents the wi, Wi and WHO guideline values for been made to aid interpretation. These spatial distribution each chemical parameter used in this study. The third and maps were made by fitting an optimal variogram model for final step then computes a rating scale qi, for each parameter the obtained EC and estimated water quality index (WQI). using the following equation: Rigorous cross validation was conducted for different mod- els. Variogram parameters were constantly adjusted until all Ci q = × 100, criteria for an optimal model was achieved. The spherical i (2)Si model proved to be the best model predictor for the obtained EC and estimated WQI for the study area. Ci the concentration of each parameter and Si WHO guide- Water Quality Index (WQI) provides a single value line value. that is used to express the overall groundwater quality at a The water quality sub-index SIi for each parameter is then specific location and time based on certain essential water computed from Eq. 3 with the overall sum (Eq. 4), giving the 1 3 pH, EC (µS/cm), Conc. of ions and TDS (mg/l) pH, EC (µS/cm), Conc. of ions and TDS (mg/l) 81 Page 6 of 18 Sustainable Water Resources Management (2021) 7:81 Table 1 WHO guideline values, weight and relative weight of each of Results and discussion the chemical parameters used for the WQI determination Parameter WHO (Si) Weight (Wi) Relative General hydrochemical distribution weight (W) pH 7.5 4 0.0741 Box and whisker plots of the physicochemical parameters TDS 500 4 0.0741 measured in the groundwater and lake water samples of the SO 250 3 0.0556 study area are presented in Fig. 3. The mean values calcu- Cl 250 3 0.0556 lated for most measured parameters are generally within NO3 50 5 0.0926 the World Health Organisation (WHO 2017) acceptable F 1.5 5 0.0926 limits for drinking. A pH range of 5.08–7.25, with a mean Ca 75 2 0.0370 of 6.37 classifies the groundwater as slightly acidic. It has Mg 30 2 0.0370 been observed that aquifers underlying areas covered by Na 200 2 0.0370 dense tropical rainforest, high rainfall, warm climate and As 0.01 4 0.0741 high organic activity are slightly acidic (Collins and Kuel Cd 0.003 3 0.0556 2000). The study area is characterised by heavy rainfall Cu 1 2 0.0370 (1600–1800 per annum), giving rise to typical dense trop- Fe 0.3 3 0.0556 ical rainforest. The decomposition of organic matter to Mn 0.1 3 0.0556 carbon dioxide and carbonic acids diminishes alkalinity Ni 0.02 2 0.0370 and this get to the groundwater reservoir through recharge Pb 0.01 5 0.0926 mechanisms. This may have given the groundwater in the Zn 3 2 0.0370 area its slightly acidic nature. On the other hand, the lake Ʃ (w ) = 54 water is alkaline, with a mean pH value of 8.86.i The electrical conductivity (EC) values of groundwater from the area are generally low, ranging from 138 μS/cm to 1746 μS/cm with a mean of 623 μS/cm. This suggests WQI that reflects the composite influence of different water diluted or slightly mineralised groundwater. The ground- quality parameter. water of this nature is usually pristine and has a shorter residence time (Freeze and Cherry 1979). From the spatial SIi = Wi × qi, (3) EC map (Fig. 4), most part of the study area has EC values less than 800 μS/cm whiles a portion of the eastern part n ∑ (4) has EC values ranging from 800 to 1500 μS/cm. Also, just WQI = SIi. around the lake EC value greater than 1500 μS/cm is seen. n=1 Even though WHO guidelines stipulate EC value of 1500 The sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) to determine the suit- μS/cm as acceptable for drinking, the indigenes preferred ability of the water for irrigation. The SAR measures the drinking water from the boreholes with EC values below sodium hazard/sodicity in relation to calcium and magnesium 800 μS/cm and mostly avoided. The groundwater with EC concentrations as shown in the equation below (Eq. 5) (Fetter values greater than 800μS/cm. The areas with EC values 1994): greater than 800μS/cm were low-lying areas with average + elevation of 163 masl. These EC values could possibly (Na ) SAR = . √ (5) be as a result of prolong water–rock interaction, and thus Ca2++Mg2+ increase the mineral content of the groundwater in those 2 areas. Another classification scheme, Wilcox diagram, engineered The lake water, on the other hand, has a mean EC value by Wilcox (1955) was utilized to assess the quality of the water of 1313.29 μS/cm. The lake water's high EC values may for irrigation. This classification scheme measures the sodium be due to indiscriminate discharge of wastewater into the percent (Na %) defined by the following equation: lake, as observed during the field campaigns. The ion con- centration percent frequency diagrams (Fig. 5) are useful (Na+) Na% = × 100. (6) in defining the relative concentration of cations or anions Na+ + K+ + Ca2+ +Mg2+ as percentages of total cations and anions, respectively (Kortatsi, 2006). Results of the analyses (Fig. 5) show that sodium, calcium and magnesium ions are fairly represented, and no cation dominates in the Groundwater except in a few 1 3 Sustainable Water Resources Management (2021) 7:81 Page 7 of 18 81 Fig. 4 Spatial distribution of electrical conductivity (EC) for the groundwater samples cases where these cations extend to the zone of dominance 27% respectively of total anions in the lake. The order of (i.e., % meq/l > 50). Among the major cations, however, relative abundance of major cations in the groundwater N a+, on the average amounts to about 37% in abundance, samples is Na+ > Mg2+ > Ca2+ while that of the anions is followed by Ca2+ which is approximately 32% with Mg2+ H CO −, > C l− > S O 2−3 4 > NO −3 thus, bicarbonates of calcium, and K+, respectively, representing 30% and 1% of the total magnesium and sodium generally dominate the groundwater cations. Bicarbonate (HCO −3 ) ions, among the major anions, and lake. The trace elements measured in both the ground- constitute about 78% of total anions followed by Cl− ions, water and the lake were below the WHO guideline limits (14%) with S O 2−4 ions representing 7%. On the other hand, for such elements and therefore was not considered for fur- N a+ contributes as much as 82% of total cations with M g2+, ther analysis. However, nickel, iron and manganese showed K + and C a2+, respectively, representing 9%, 6% and 3% in elevated concentrations in some of the boreholes. The areas the lake while H CO −3 and Cl−, dominate the major anions with these elevated ionic concentrations are underlain by with relative percentage contribution of about 73% and mafic volcanic rocks in the study area (Fig. 2). 1 3 8 1 Page 8 of 18 Sustainable Water Resources Management (2021) 7:81 Fig. 5: Percentage frequency distribution of the major ion concentrations in the groundwater samples Hydrochemical facies acids (SO 2 + C l−4 ). The overall enrichment of the ground- water with bicarbonate relative to chloride or sulphate may The Chadha diagram (Chadha 1999) (Fig. 6) was used to be attributed to recharge by rainwater. Bicarbonate ion con- classify the overall chemical characteristic of the ground- centration in groundwater generally results when silicate water and used to conceptualize the possible relationship minerals weather in the presence of a weak carbonic acid between the lake water and groundwater. Figure 6 shows obtained from rainwater (Appelo and Postma 2005; White that about 76% of groundwater samples have alkaline earth & Brantley 2018; Cronan 2018). The hydrochemical pro- metals ( Ca2+ + Mg2+) exceeding alkali (Na+ + K +) metals. cesses that control the major ions concentration of the lake The remaining 24% of groundwater samples and all the lake and groundwater in the area have been copiously discussed water samples show an excess of alkali metals over the alka- by Loh et al. (2016). A majority (~ 76%) of the groundwater line earth metals. Almost all the water samples except two samples are characteristically of Ca–Mg–HCO3 water types. (2) groundwater samples located at Timeabu (HW001) and The remaining groundwater samples plot in fields defined by Beposo (GW041) have weak acid ( HCO −3 ) over the strong the Na–K–HCO3, and Na–K–Cl (Fig. 6), representing 18% 1 3 Sustainable Water Resources Management (2021) 7:81 Page 9 of 18 81 Fig. 6: Chadha diagram show- ing the hydrochemical facies of the study area and 6%, respectively. The lake water is also characterised by temperatures and low humidity, which encourage surface Na–K–HCO3 water type. evaporation. However, the dilution effects of inflowing rain- The Gibbs diagram (Gibbs 1970) (Fig. 7) further high- water (and possibly groundwater) tend to mask the effects of lighted the evolutionary trends and the possible sources of evaporation such that the total dissolved contents are not so variation in groundwater hydrochemistry in the area. The high. It is also apparent that due to the high residence time diagram is divided into regions based on a contribution from of much of the water in the lake, silicate mineral weathering atmospheric precipitation, which is characterised by low to processes have contributed significantly to the hydrochemis- moderate TDS and high Na/(Na + Ca) weight ratio, rock try of the lake. Banoeng-Yakubo (2000) asserts that weath- dominance region; exemplified by moderate TDS and Na/ ering of the Birimian rocks has resulted in forming a thick Na + Ca ration and an evaporation–crystallization region; regolith that constitutes the most common type of aquifer typically, in the high TDS and Na/(Na + Ca) ratio. Any in the area. Studies on the geochemistry of soils around the other factor influencing the hydrochemistry in an aquifer crater (Boamah and Koeberl 2002) have indicated that rocks apart from these three factors mentioned above cannot be have reached the highest degree of weathering due to intense distinguished from the Gibbs diagram. Researchers (e.g., chemical weathering. They further stated that the soils and Obiefuna and Orazulike 2011; Yidana et al. 2012a; Sakyi their parent rocks are depleted in the major ions. This sug- et al. 2016; Koffi et al. 2017) have used the Gibbs diagram gests that the major ions in the groundwater may have been simultaneously with other diagrams to identify the major derived from the leaching of minerals and weathering of sources of variation in hydrochemical data. For instance, rocks underlying the area. A few of the samples that have Yidana et al. (2012b) used the diagram together with hierar- low to moderate TDS and high Na/(Na + Ca) ratio plot along chical cluster analysis to distinguish anthropogenic sources the rainfall–rock dominance side of the diagram implying from the natural sources in the variation of hydrochemistry Groundwater that is influenced by precipitation where the in the aquifer underlying the Ankobra Basin. recharge process appears to be rapid and does not provide It is evident from Fig. 7 that most of the samples in the for long residence time in order for active water–rock inter- present study plot within the rock dominance portion of the action to occur. Finally, the chemistry of samples that plot boomerang. This shows that the main mechanism influencing outside the envelope could be influenced by evaporation of the hydrochemistry of the water is the interaction between surface water and moisture in the unsaturated zone, which is the recharge water, rocks and their weathered products. influential in the development of the chemical composition These water samples are characterised by moderate TDS of surface water bodies and shallow groundwater (Garrels and Na/(Na + Ca) ratio. It is also obvious that the lake water and Mackenzie 1967; Balugani et al. 2017). A bivariate plot has the fingerprint of evaporative enrichment of the major of (Ca2+ + Mg2+) and ( SO 2−4 + HCO −3 ) (Fig. 8) shows that parameters due to the exposure of the lake to high ambient both silicate and carbonate mineral weathering contribute 1 3 81 Page 10 of 18 Sustainable Water Resources Management (2021) 7:81 Fig. 7 Gibbs diagram show- ing the positions of the water samples in the study area to the chemistry of Groundwater. Majority of the samples The computed WQI values are usually classified into plot above the 1:1 equiline, suggesting that silicate mineral five categories (Table  2) (Sahu and Sikdar 2008) and weathering is the principal hydrochemical process in the provide a much more global picture of the suitability of groundwater system (Boateng et al. 2016; Nematollahi et al. groundwater for domestic uses. The results based on this 2016). classification scheme for each sample presented in Table 3 classify groundwater samples as good to excellent for Groundwater quality assessment for domestic use human consumption. All the major ions and some of the trace elements used in calculating the WQI have concentra- An evaluation of groundwater quality based on the water tions within the WHO (2017) guideline values for domes- quality index (WQI) has been made. The distribution of the tic use. However, six samples representing about 18% of trace elements used in calculating WQI for the groundwater the total samples show elevated Mn above 100 µg/l, the from aquifers underlying the BIC and its surrounding areas WHO's guideline value. Two of the boreholes, GW055 and is shown in the Box plot (Figs. 9 and 10). The WQI pro- GW056 located at Adaito have manganese concentration vides a single value used to express the overall groundwater of 492 µg/l and 267 µg/l respectively. The others include quality at a specific location and time based on certain vital GW057 (186 µg/l), GW048 (119 µg/l), GW062 (367 µg/l) water quality parameters. This method has been employed and GW069 (158 µg/l) and are, respectively, located at by many researchers to turn a complex water quality data Yapesa, Dunkura, Brodekwano No. 2 and Adumasa. The into information that is understandable by the general public borehole located at Brodekwano No. 2 is the only bore- and policymakers. hole with nickel concentration above the WHO guideline 1 3 Sustainable Water Resources Management (2021) 7:81 Page 11 of 18 81 Fig. 8 Scatter plot of ( SO 2−4 + HCO −3 ) versus ( Ca2+ + Mg2+) for the samples value. On the other hand, Fe concentration in 5 boreholes Irrigation water quality exceeded the WHO recommended value of 300 µg/l. These include GW042 (350 µg/l), GW048 (510 µg/l), GW056 The United States Salinity Laboratory (USSL 1954) com- (1020 µg/l), GW070 (730 µg/l) and GW069 (2490 µg/l). bined the SAR with the EC to classify irrigation water. In While GW070 and GW069, both located at Adumasa, vis- line with the USSL (1954) scheme, a plot of SAR against ibly show sediment loads in the groundwater, the others EC on a semi-log axis (Fig. 11) was made to assess water were noted as dirty during sample filtration. Even though quality from the study area for irrigation purposes. The the guideline value for both iron and manganese are for diagram classifies the water into five (5) categories of low aesthetic reasons, their presence in groundwater can indi- salinity/sodium hazard (C1S1), medium salinity/low sodium cate deteriorating groundwater quality which may cause (C2S1), high salinity/low sodium hazard (C3S1), high salin- adverse health effects (Chapman, 1996; Bjørklund et al. ity/medium sodium hazard (C3S2) and high-salinity/high- 2017; Chen et al. 2019). Complaints of food discoloura- sodium hazard (C3S3) irrigation waters (Fig. 11). About tion has been reported by consumers in these communities. 21% of groundwater samples that plotted within the C1S1 Spatially, the water quality index grouped the groundwa- region of the USSL diagram are acceptable for irrigation ter samples into excellent (green colour) and good(red) as of most crops and almost all soil types, and the potential shown in Figs. 9 and 10. Those areas that exhibited the of this class of irrigation water to cause infiltration prob- good index are characterized by the boreholes that showed lem is improbable. The C2S1 category contains about 38% elevated iron, nickel and manganese. of groundwater samples. This irrigation water type can be used to irrigate most crops but can be detrimental to 1 3 8 1 Page 12 of 18 Sustainable Water Resources Management (2021) 7:81 Fig. 9 Spatial distribution of water quality index(WQI) salt-sensitive crops that include but not limited to beans and like sands. The use of this category of water for irrigation peanuts. Forty-one percent (41%) of the studied groundwater requires special soil and water management (Kumar et al. samples plot in the high salinity/low sodium hazard (C3S1) 2007; Daliakopoulos et al. 2016). field. This type of irrigation water can have an undesirable Like the USSL diagram, the Wilcox diagram also clas- effect on moderately sensitive crops such as grains, forage sifies irrigation water quality based on sodium content. and vegetables, and therefore, should not be applied on soils This diagram was used in this study to substantiate the with restricted drainage (Kumar et al. 2007; Daliakopoulos findings based on the USSL classification system. The et al. 2016; Sayyad-Amin et al. 2016). The lake water plot Wilcox diagram (Fig. 12) shows that all but one ground- within the C3S2 and C3S3 field and are not suitable for irri- water sample fall within the 'Excellent to good' (represent- gation. However, where it becomes necessary to use the lake ing 68% of total Groundwater from the area) and 'good to water for irrigation, it should be used in generous amounts permissible' (29% of total groundwater samples) irriga- on salt-tolerant crops and soils with very high permeability tion water categories, thus classifying the groundwater as 1 3 Sustainable Water Resources Management (2021) 7:81 Page 13 of 18 81 Fig. 10 Boxplot of trace ele- Box and Whisker Plot ment distribution in the ground- 10000.0 water samples of the study area Legend Max. 75 percentile 1000.0 Median 25 percentile Min. 100.0 10.0 1.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 Fe Mn Cu Ni Zn As Cd Pb Parameters Table 2 Classification WQI Category According to RSC, the water quality classification for categories of WQI irrigation indicates that 85% of the total groundwater sam- < 50 Excellent water ples fall below RSC value of 1.25 and are therefore suitable 50–100 Good water for irrigation. Three other groundwater samples, represent- 100–200 Poor water ing 8% of the total number, are in the marginal range of 200–300 Very poor water 1.25–2.5, while the remaining 7% and all the lake samples > 300 Water unsuitable have values greater than 2.5, suggesting that they are not for drinking suitable for irrigation. High levels of carbonates and bicar- bonates in irrigation water can lead to calcite precipitation leaving Na as the dominant ion in solution, thus decreasing suitability for irrigation. However, the lake samples plot soil permeability, lowering infiltration capacity and increas- within the 'doubtful to unsuitable' category suggesting that ing erosion, causing stunted plant growth (Mclean and the lake water contains excessive sodium. Continued lake Jankowski 2000; Singh et al. 2015). Excessive bicarbonates water application for irrigation over time may accumulate in the lake water can also be problematic for micro-spray sodium onto soil particles and cause swelling/dispersion irrigation systems where scale build-up can clog orifices of soil clays, surface crusting and pore-clogging. The soil and reduce flow rates. On the whole, the groundwater in the eventually becomes hard and compact when dry, thereby area is suitable for irrigation. However, further groundwa- obstructing infiltration and increasing surface runoff ter resource quantification and sustainability studies should (Bauder et al. 2011). Consequently, the lake water cannot be conducted to determine how much groundwater can be be used for irrigation, or it should be used on salt-tolerant abstracted for irrigation sustainably. The lake water is not crops and on soil types that are highly permeable and not generally suitable for irrigation but can be used where nec- particularly susceptible to developing sodicity related essary under careful soil and water management practices. problems. Soil permeability is mainly affected by the long-term use The residual sodium carbonate (RSC) expressed in of irrigation water containing excess sodium, calcium, mag- meq/l (Eq. 2.8) is an important index used to determine the nesium and bicarbonate. In the wake of this, Doneen (1964) HCO − hazard and the suitability of water used in agricul- developed a standard for evaluating groundwater suitability 3 ture. The calculated RSC varied from − 5.10 to 3.65 meq/l for irrigation, premised on permeability index (PI). The per- averaging − 0.02 meq/l in the groundwater, whiles the lake meability index of groundwater and lake water within Lake water has a mean value of 7.01 meq/l. Bosomtwi ranged between 39.98 and 139.82% and 110.15 and 149.7%. Out of the 34 groundwater samples, 27 samples 1 3 Concentrations (ug/l) 8 1 Page 14 of 18 Sustainable Water Resources Management (2021) 7:81 Table 3 WQI and classification Station ID Sample ID WQI Classification Station ID Sample ID WQI Classification of groundwater from the study area Esaase GW007 23.09 Excellent Konkoma GW045 29.83 Excellent Adwafo GW012 26.76 Excellent Brodekwano2 GW046 20.58 Excellent Obo GW015 17.94 Excellent Dunkura GW048 38.53 Excellent Obo GW016 15.61 Excellent Abosoma Jyide GW054 12.57 Excellent Pipie Kese GW020 27.23 Excellent Adaito GW055 65.20 Good Brodekwano GW021 45.68 Excellent Adaito GW056 53.27 Good Apewu/Banso SW001 25.94 Excellent Yapesa GW057 28.93 Excellent Timeabu HW001 20.82 Excellent Nyameani GW058 11.58 Excellent Dompa GW024 20.70 Excellent Sarpong Nkwanta GW059 14.49 Excellent Dompa GW025 25.05 Excellent Nkowinkwata GW060 22.88 Excellent Duase GW028 26.46 Excellent Pipie GW061 39.52 Excellent Ankaase GW032 24.39 Excellent Brodekwano2 GW062 54.18 Good Ankaase GW034 24.42 Excellent Apewu/Banso SW002 19.19 Excellent Amakom GW037 27.00 Excellent Adumasa2 GW069 67.09 Good Adjamam GW039 29.32 Excellent Adumasa2 GW070 28.43 Excellent Beposo GW041 24.33 Excellent Gyapoadu GW072 10.51 Excellent Pemenase GW042 34.53 Excellent Deduako GW074 33.15 Excellent Konkoma GW044 41.08 Excellent Dwumakro GW078 8.71 Excellent Fig. 11 USSL diagram of sodium hazard (SAR) versus salinity hazard (EC) for the samples 1 3 Sustainable Water Resources Management (2021) 7:81 Page 15 of 18 81 Fig. 12 A Wilcox diagram showing classification of irriga- tion water in the study area representing 79.41% fell in Class I and Class II waters. The facies dominate the Groundwater whiles the lake water is remaining seven samples representing 20.59% were Class III Na–HCO3 water type. These suggest no apparent incipi- waters. Based on Doneen's (1964) criterion, 79.41% of the ent relationship, which benefits the main aquifer system in groundwater samples are suitable for irrigation and 20.59% terms of recharge. The study also suggests rock weathering unsuitable (Fig. 13). processes as the major sources of variation in the aquifers' hydrochemistry. WQI classify all the groundwater samples as good to excellent for human consumption. An evalua- Conclusions tion of groundwater and lake water suitability for irrigation purposes based on salinity, sodicity, and bicarbonate hazard The hydrochemical studies of aquifers around Lake reveals that the groundwater in the area is generally suitable Bosumtwi classify the Groundwater as slightly acidic, for irrigation. The study finds the lake water unsuitable for moderately hard to very hard with alkaline earths (Ca + Mg) irrigation. However, where necessary, it can be used in gen- exceeding alkali (Na + K) metals. On the other hand, the erous amounts on highly permeable soils and salt-tolerant lake water is alkaline, showing an excess of alkali metals crops under special soil and water management practices. over the alkaline earth metals. Ca–Mg–HCO3 hydrochemical 1 3 81 Page 16 of 18 Sustainable Water Resources Management (2021) 7:81 Appelo CA, Postma D (2005) Geochemistry, Groundwater and pol- lution, 2nd edn. Balkema, Rotterdam Asante J, Kreamer DK (2018) Identifying local and regional Ground- water in basins: chemical and stable isotopic attributes of mul- tivariate classification of hydrochemical data, the Lower Vir- gin River Basin, Nevada, Arizona and Utah, USA. 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