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UNIVERSITY OF GHANA 
 
 
IMPACT OF BRAND REVITALIZATION ON CONSUMER-BASED 
BRAND EQUITY: EVIDENCE FROM NESTLÉ GHANA LIMITED 
 
 
 
BY 
 
ETORKO ISRAEL ATTIPOE 
(10550522) 
 
 
 
THIS THESIS IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, 
LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR 
THE AWARD OF MPHIL MARKETING DEGREE 
 
 
 
 
 
JUNE, 2017
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DECLARATION 
I do hereby declare that, this work is the result of my own research and has not been 
presented by anyone for any academic award in this or any other University. All the 
references used in my work have been fully acknowledged.  
I solely bare responsibility for any penalty that will be associated with this work. 
 
 
 
………………………………………………………………                                         …………………………………………………… 
ATTIPOE, ETORKO ISRAEL    DATE 
              (10550522) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  
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CERTIFICATION 
I hereby certify that, this thesis was supervised in accordance with procedures laid down 
by the University. 
 
 
 
………………………………………                                        ……………………………. 
DR. ADELAIDE KASTNER      DATE 
              
(SUPERVISOR) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
………………………………………           ………….…………… 
DR. MAHMOUD A. MAHMOUD       DATE 
 
(CO- SUPERVISOR) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  
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DEDICATION 
This work is dedicated to my family: 
To my Dad and mentor, Rev. Apostle Charles Kwami Attipoe and to my loving and caring 
Mum, Mrs. Charity Abla Adzodi Attipoe for seeing it prudent to educate me. 
To my God father, Professor John Bright Kobla Aheto for his love and support.  
To my lovely wife, Rhoda Makafui Djokoto, I say thank you for all the spiritual and 
physical support. 
I am eternally grateful to my sole sister, Mrs. Esene Afi Attipoe Asante, her husband, Mr. 
Evans Asante, their two lovely kids, Kersia Nhyira and Michel Adom Asante, all my 
uncles, aunties, siblings, cousins, nephews and nieces,  I say thank you all. 
To my spiritual father Rev. Etorko Kofi Gbeku, his Wife, Mrs. Gifty Mawunyo Gbeku and 
his children for all the support. 
Finally, to Wisdom Darlington Mawuli Kobla Kpogli (Chief of Staff), Ex-ARSSUNAT 
Presidents, all Ex-ARSSU NEC members (2012-2016), all ARSSU alumni members, and 
all ARSSU members for their prayers, guidance, support, and love. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 
I sincerely express my hearty appreciation to Dr. Adelaide Kastner and Dr. Mahmoud A. 
Mahmoud who supervised me throughout this research. I further would like to 
acknowledge faculty members at the UGBS, Department Of Marketing and 
Entrepreneurship for their guidance and tutelage throughout the entire duration of my 
studies. 
I further express my indebtedness to all authors whose work I quoted from. 
Finally, glory and honor to God almighty whose unfailing love, direction and blessings 
saw me through this phase of my education. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
DECLARATION ................................................................................................................... i 
CERTIFICATION ................................................................................................................ ii 
DEDICATION .....................................................................................................................iii 
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ................................................................................................... iv 
TABLE OF CONTENTS ...................................................................................................... v 
LIST OF TABLES .............................................................................................................viii 
LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................. ix 
ABSTRACT .......................................................................................................................... x 
CHAPTER ONE ................................................................................................................... 1 
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................ 1 
1.1 Background to the Study ............................................................................................. 1 
1.2 Problem Statement ...................................................................................................... 3 
1.3 Research Objectives .................................................................................................... 5 
1.4 Research Questions ..................................................................................................... 5 
1.5 Significance of the Study ............................................................................................ 5 
1.6 Scope of the Study ....................................................................................................... 6 
1.7 Organization of the Study ............................................................................................ 6 
CHAPTER TWO .................................................................................................................. 7 
LITERATURE REVIEW...................................................................................................... 7 
2.0 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 7 
2.1 The Origin of Branding ............................................................................................... 7 
2.2 The Concept of Brand ................................................................................................. 9 
2.2.1 Brand Life Cycle ................................................................................................. 10 
2.3 The Concept of Brand Revitalization ........................................................................ 12 
2.3.1 Methods of Brand Revitalization ........................................................................ 15 
2.4 The Concept of Brand Equity .................................................................................... 19 
2.4.1 The Definition of Brand Equity .......................................................................... 19 
2.5 The Concept of Customer-Based Brand Equity ........................................................ 22 
2.5.1 Brand Equity Perspectives .................................................................................. 23 
2.5.2 Brand Equity Perspective of this Study .............................................................. 25 
2.5.3 Measuring Customer-Based Brand Equity ......................................................... 26 
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2.5.4 Measuring Brand Equity at the Consumer-level................................................. 26 
2.5.5 Measuring Brand Equity at the Company-Level ................................................ 26 
2.5.6 The Financial Measure of Brand Equity ............................................................. 27 
2.5.7 Customer Equity versus Brand Equity ............................................................... 27 
2.5.8 Models of Brand Equity Measurement ............................................................... 28 
2.6 The Concept of Customer-Perceived Value .............................................................. 29 
2.6.1 Theoretical Issues of Perceived Value ................................................................ 32 
2.6.2 Some Key Issues in Perceived Value Framework .............................................. 34 
2.7 Conceptual Framework ............................................................................................. 37 
2.7.1 Brand Revitalization and Brand Awareness ....................................................... 38 
2.7.2 Brand Revitalization and Brand Association/Image ........................................... 40 
2.7.3 Brand Revitalization and Perceived Brand Quality ............................................ 42 
2.7.4 Brand Revitalization and Brand Loyalty ............................................................ 44 
2.7.5 The mediating role of Customer perceived value ............................................... 46 
CHAPTER THREE ............................................................................................................. 49 
CONTEXT OF THE STUDY ............................................................................................. 49 
3.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 49 
3.1 The history of manufacturing in Ghana..................................................................... 49 
3.2 Fast Moving Consumer Goods (FMCGs) ................................................................. 50 
3.3 Nestle Ghana Limited Company Profile and History................................................ 51 
CHAPTER FOUR ............................................................................................................... 57 
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ........................................................................................ 57 
4.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 57 
4.1 Research Philosophy and Paradigms ......................................................................... 57 
4.2 Research Purpose ...................................................................................................... 59 
4.3 Research Approach .................................................................................................... 60 
4.4 Research Strategy ...................................................................................................... 63 
4.5 Research Design ........................................................................................................ 65 
4.6 Research Design Adopted ......................................................................................... 66 
4.7 Data Sources and Data Collection Techniques ......................................................... 67 
4.8 Questionnaire Design and Administration ................................................................ 68 
4.9 Population, Sample and Sampling Technique ........................................................... 69 
4.10 The Kind of Nestlé Products Used for the Research and Why?.............................. 72 
4.11 Mode and Instrumentation for Data Analysis ......................................................... 74 
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4.12 Validity and Reliability ........................................................................................... 75 
4.13 Ethical Considerations ............................................................................................. 77 
CHAPTER FIVE ................................................................................................................. 78 
DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS ................................................. 78 
5.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 78 
5.1 Presentation of Qualitative Data ................................................................................ 79 
5.2 Demographic Profile of Respondents (Quantitative Data) ........................................ 81 
5.3 Descriptive Statistics ................................................................................................. 82 
5.4 Analysis and Results of Structural Equation Modelling ........................................... 85 
5.4.1 Confirmatory Factor Analysis ............................................................................ 85 
5.4.2 Measurement Fit ................................................................................................. 89 
5.4.3 Structural Model ................................................................................................. 92 
5.5 Discussion of Results ................................................................................................ 95 
CHAPTER SIX ................................................................................................................... 97 
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ....................................... 97 
6.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 97 
6.1 Summary of the Study ............................................................................................... 97 
6.2 Summary of Major Findings ..................................................................................... 98 
6.3 Conclusions ............................................................................................................. 102 
6.4 Implications for Management and Practice ............................................................. 102 
6.5 Theoretical Implications .......................................................................................... 103 
6.6 Study Limitations and Future Research Implications ............................................. 104 
REFERENCES .................................................................................................................. 105 
APPENDICES .................................................................................................................. 127 
Appendix 1: Questionnaire ............................................................................................ 127 
Appendix 2: Interview Guide ........................................................................................ 129 
 
 
  
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LIST OF TABLES 
Table 5.1: Respondents' Demographic Profile .................................................................... 81 
Table 5.2: Variables ............................................................................................................ 84 
Table 5.3: Initial Factor Loadings ....................................................................................... 86 
Table 5.4: Stage Improvement of the model ....................................................................... 88 
Table 5.5: Final Factor Loadings ........................................................................................ 89 
Table 5.6: Measurement Fit ................................................................................................ 90 
Table 5.7: Final Correlation Matrix .................................................................................... 92 
Table 5. 8: Hypothesized Paths ........................................................................................... 93 
Table 5.9: Structural Model ................................................................................................ 94 
 
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LIST OF FIGURES 
Figure 1.1: Conceptual Framework for the Study ............................................................... 38 
 
  
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ABSTRACT 
Over the years, brand revitalization has become essential and has been used by many 
organizations in the fast moving consumer goods industry in Ghana and Nestlé Ghana 
Limited is no exception. Brand revitalization has had a lot of consideration from industry 
professionals. This study therefore sought to find out the impact of brand revitalization in 
achieving customer-perceived value and in turn leading to consumer-based brand equity. 
Based on this, the study’s objectives are to evaluate the direct relationship between brand 
revitalization and consumer-based brad equity (loyalty) and also to determine the 
meditating effect of customer perceived value on brand revitalization and consumer-based 
brand equity. As it is noted that brand revitalization (differentiation; and relevance) drives 
brand equity, the study conceptualizes that, it has an effect on customer perceived value 
and its effect on consumer-based brand equity (perceived quality; brand awareness; brand 
image; and brand loyalty). A positivist approach is adopted using a survey strategy. A 
mixed method was used in addressing the objectives of the study. Thus, a qualitative data 
was acquired through an in-depth interview to address the first objective of the study and a 
quantitative approach was used to address the second and third objectives of the study. 
Data was collected from 240 respondents who were selected on a non-probability basis in 
the Accra Metropolis. Data was coded using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS 
V.20). Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) was used in analyzing the data through a 
two-stage approach where the measurement and structural models were assessed. Findings 
from the study showed that, brand revitalization could lead to consumer-based brand 
equity and customer perceived value also mediates the relationship between brand 
revitalization and CBBE. The study recommends future studies to apply the framework to 
other industries to authenticate its applicability. Qualitative studies could also be 
considered for further studies as quantitative studies have their own limitations.  
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CHAPTER ONE 
INTRODUCTION 
1.1 Background to the Study 
In a modern day keenly competitive commercial settings, the only way a company can 
survive is to always use its brands to appeal to the customers. This means that, companies 
must continuously make their brands vital, fresh and relevant to their consumers as posited 
by Merrilees (2005). For the purposes of this study, the American Marketing Association’s 
definition of a brand is adopted. AMA refers to a brand as “a name, term, design, symbol, 
or any other feature that identifies one seller's good or service as distinct from those of 
other sellers” (AMA, 2016). 
 Numerous authors (Müller et al., 2013; Zhang and Sun, 2009; Lehu, 2004; Keller, 1999) 
write about brand revitalization (BR). They posit that, BR primarily includes the idea of 
stimulating the visual features of a specific brand. From the definition, it is evident that, a 
change in the consumer-product association is attained since a modification in the user’s 
comprehension of the brand is created. In the opinion of Babu (2006), brand revitalization 
and brand rejuvenation are similar and he posits that, it is a kind of restoring of a brand, a 
procedure which also comprises the renewal of the distinctiveness of the brand. This study 
adopts the definition from Merrilees (2005) and Keller (1999) for Brand Revitalization to 
guide the study. “Brand revitalization (BR) is the process that aims at keeping the brand 
fresh, vital and relevant in the contemporary market (Merrilees, 2005, p. 201), by 
obtaining new sources of brand equity or by recapturing lost ones to achieve the intended 
positioning (Keller, 1999, pp. 102-124)”. 
In today’s contemporary business environment, relevance, competition, globalization, 
mergers & acquisitions, innovation, repositioning, rationalization, outgrowth, legal 
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requirements, morale & reputation are the reasons for brand revitalization (Reddy, Reddy 
& Venkatesulu, 2016). According to Reddy, Reddy and Venkatesulu, (2016), it is essential 
to stress that, the use of revival variables which are cautiously integrated into the 
rejuvenating approach will produced improved: market share (continuous growth on all 
markets for the brands), likelihood of the brands selling well in international markets (the 
brands keep covering more of their marketplaces), power of seeming brand Image (report), 
visibility of a brand in general (honors, communication). 
Furthermore, since the brand is the consumers’ idea, the consumer is an active contributor 
or partner in the construction of equity for the brand (Blackston, 2000). It should be noted 
that, brand equity can be seen from three different viewpoints. These three expansive 
groups are financial-based brand equity (FBBE) and consumer-based brand equity 
(CBBE) as postulated by Keller, (1993) and finally the third category of brand equity 
named employee-based brand equity (EBBE) by King and Grace, (2009). King and Grace 
(2009) define EBBE as “the differential effect that brand knowledge has on an employee’s 
response to their work environment”. 
Aaker (1991) defines brand equity as “a set of brand assets and liabilities linked to a 
brand, its name and symbol that add to or subtract from the value provided by a product or 
service to a firm and/or to that firm’s customers”. In Aaker’s opinion, brand awareness, 
brand loyalty, brand associations, and perceived quality are the four dimensions of brand 
equity. Regardless of the definitions above, the most widely accepted and used CBBE 
model was developed by Keller (1993).  
Keller defines CBBE and maintains that, the supremacy of a brand rests on what the 
customer have learned, sensed, realized, and heard about it over time, that is, what exists 
in their minds. Therefore, Keller (1993) posits that, CBBE is “the differential effect of 
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brand knowledge on consumer response to the marketing of the brand”. In general, the 
term consumer-based brand equity is commonly used to denote brand equity (Rajasekar 
and Nalina, 2008).  
Customer perceived value (CPV) acts as an initiator of customer contentment which 
eventually leads to CBBE. When a consumer receives a great worth of service, it results in 
high satisfaction. Previous studies (Yu et al., 2014; Howat & Assaker, 2013; Tam, 2004) 
settled that, service quality drives customers’ perceived value. If the consumers waste less 
money, time and energy compared to the service quality they receive, then the consumer 
will notice a high perceived value of service. Differently put, the remarkable the service 
quality, the greater the customers’ perceived value (Yu et al., 2014; Howat & Assaker, 
2013; Tam, 2004).  
The reasons for brand revitalization (relevance, competition, globalization, mergers and 
acquisitions, innovation, repositioning, rationalization, outgrowth, legal requirements, 
morale and reputation), the likely outcomes (market share, possibility of 
internationalization, strength of perceived brand Image and visibility of a brand) as opined 
by Reddy, Reddy and Venkatesulu, (2016) and its possible impact on CBBE is what has 
given the motivation for this study.  
 
1.2 Problem Statement  
Before this research, current literature has fairly covered studies on brand revitalization 
and consumer-based brand equity in isolation. This means that, numerous studies have 
been conducted on BR and CBBE separately with none of the authors trying to assess the 
impact of BR on CBBE. Moreover, most studies that have dealt with brand revitalization 
are conceptual in nature and empirical studies with a brand revitalization focus are limited 
(Andrews & Kim, 2007). 
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These studies are carefully articulated below;  
Pappu, Quester and Cooksey (2005), took their time to look at “consumer-based brand 
equity: improving the measurement-empirical evidence”. Torres, Augusto, and Lisboa, 
(2015) in another research tried to determine the causal relationships that affect consumer-
based brand equity: The mediating effect of brand loyalty. Christodoulides, Cadogan, and 
Veloutsou (2015) looked into Consumer-based brand equity measurement: lessons learned 
from an international study. In Ghana, Akwensivie, Narteh, and Iden, (2014) took the pain 
to investigate “The Impact of Sponsorship Activities on Consumer-Based Brand Equity 
Behaviors: Evidence from the Mobile Telecommunication Industry in Ghana”. In their 
study, Bravo, Fraj Andres, and Martinez Salinas, (2007) looked critically at “Family as a 
source of consumer-based brand equity”. In their quest to determine what impacts on 
consumer-based brand equity, Pappu, Quester, and Cooksey, (2006) looked at “Consumer-
based brand equity and country-of-origin relationships”. Despite these studies on 
consumer-based brand equity, none of the authors tried to find out about the association 
between brand revitalization and consumer-based brand equity. This calls for a study into 
this area. 
Geographically, all these studies mentioned above in relation to consumer-based brand 
equity have been advocated in Asia, Europe, North America and Australia with limited 
attention to Africa. 
When narrowed down to an emerging country like Ghana, the study conducted by 
Akwensivie, Narteh, and Iden, (2014) is silent on issues concerning brand revitalization. It 
looked at the Impact of Sponsorship Activities on Consumer-Based Brand Equity 
Behavior. 
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All these studies mentioned above touched on how a factor affected consumer-based brand 
equity but none of the authors tried to find out about the relationship between brand 
revitalization and consumer-based brand equity. This calls for a study into this area. 
This study therefore seeks to examine the impact of brand revitalization on consumer-
based brand equity with customer-perceived Value as a mediator with evidence from 
Nestle Ghana Limited in the fast-moving consumer goods industry. 
1.3 Research Objectives  
1. To establish the rationale for brand revitalization by Nestle Ghana Limited. 
2. To evaluate the direct relationship between brand revitalization (BR) and 
consumer-based brand equity (CBBE). 
3. To determine the meditating effect of customer perceived value on brand 
revitalization and consumer-based brand equity. 
 
1.4 Research Questions 
Based on the research objectives above, the study seeks to answer the following questions. 
1. What is the rationale for brand revitalization by Nestle Ghana Limited? 
2. What is the direct relationship between brand revitalization and consumer-based 
brand equity? 
3. How does customer perceived value mediate the relationship between brand 
revitalization and consumer-based brand equity? 
1.5 Significance of the Study   
The study aims to come out with findings that would help refine the understanding of 
brand revitalization, customer-perceived value and consumer-based brand equity. The 
study greatly contributes to academia and serves as a basis for further studies as it seeks to 
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answer some unanswered questions of academics and practitioners on brand revitalization, 
customer-perceived value and consumer-based brand equity. Undoubtedly, the findings of 
this work significantly contribute to the existing literature on brand revitalization, 
customer-perceived value and consumer-based brand equity. Findings and 
recommendations from the study will help managers of Nestle Ghana Limited and Fast 
Moving Consumer Good (FMCG) firms on how they can effectively use brand 
revitalization to create equity for their brands.    
 
1.6 Scope of the Study  
The study’s scope covered issues relating to brand revitalization, customer perceived value 
and its effects on customer based brand equity. Data was collected from consumers of 
some brands of Nestle Ghana in Accra. 
 
1.7 Organization of the Study  
The study is organized as follows:  
Chapter One comprises of background of the study; research problem; objectives of the 
study; research questions; research significance; scope and organization of the research. 
Chapter Two contains review of relevant literature on Brand Revitalization, Customer 
Perceived Value and Consumer-Based Brand Equity. It also contains the conceptual 
framework for the study and the hypotheses tested. Chapter Three deals with the study 
context. The methodological approaches which were employed, source and study 
population, sampling techniques and sample size, data collection instrument and method, 
data processing and mode of analysis were presented in Chapter Four. Chapter Five 
comprises of data analysis and presentation of results and the summary, conclusions and 
recommendations are contained in the Sixth Chapter. 
 
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CHAPTER TWO 
LITERATURE REVIEW 
2.0 Introduction  
This chapter probes into the review of related current literature in relation to the various 
concepts and theories that buttresses the research. The chapter discusses the link between 
brand revitalization and customer-perceived value and its impact on consumer-based 
brand equity in relation to some Nestle Ghana Limited brands. A conceptual framework 
was constructed from the various discussions held in this context and hypotheses 
formulated from the conceptual framework. 
 
2.1 The Origin of Branding 
As a marketing tool, branding in recent years is aimed at creating a pool of loyal 
customers to the brand and for building an enduring relationship with customers (Keller 
and Lehmann, 2003). The importance of branding in the achievement of a firm’s business 
objectives notwithstanding, it was not until recent years that managers gained the 
appreciation that branding is the responsibility of all the functional areas of the business 
operation and not the obsession of the marketing department (Davis, 2002; Keller and 
Lehmann, 2003).   
It is difficult to trace the origin of the concept of branding and brands to a specific date in 
history. Numerous scholars have given an idea of how and why the practice of branding 
started in the field of commerce or business. For instance, brick-makers in ancient Egypt 
practiced branding mainly as a tool for identifying their bricks from that of the bricks of 
other competing brick makers. These brick makers who were also traders in effect 
understood and applied the idea of a trademark which is a common business practice 
nowadays. Farquhar (1989) contributed to the understanding of the origins of branding 
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when he observed that ancient Merchants who traded in whisky as far back as the 
beginning of the sixteen century differentiated their barrels of whiskies with various 
marks, signs, and drawings before shipment to the consignee. During the turn of the 
nineteenth century, businessmen used branding in ways that enhanced a product perceived 
value through the principle of association.  
This principle of association is premised on the assumption that, when a given brand is 
directly associated with another element such as a brand, person, event, ideas or place, or 
music that is liked or favorably perceived by the consumer or target audience, the 
consumer is likely to transfer that likeness positive perception unto the brand in question 
thereby acting favorably towards the brand.  
It has also been established that, branding has developed in the twentieth century with new drives 
and approaches (Baalbaki, 2012). Several scholarly contributions in the twenty-first century 
indicate the growing awareness among marketers on consumers’  preference for branded products 
as against non-branded ones (Bodet and Chanavat, 2010; Bedbury & Fenichell, 2002; Kotler, 
2000; Kapferer, 1997; Barwise et al., 1990). The common wisdom among these marketers was the 
knowledge that consumers tend to prefer branded product; which made it possible for companies 
to charge premium prices on branded products (Keller & Lehmann, 2003). This phenomenon may 
be expounded by the fact that branded products can induce positive feelings, emotions, and 
positive purchasing reaction from target customers in the form of brand loyalty which emanates 
from perceived added value attributable to the brand. The perceived added value is what scholars 
referred to as brand equity (Kotler, 2000; Aaker, 2003) or customer-based brand equity by scholars 
such as Keller and Lehmann, (2003), Aaker (1996, 2003) and Netemeyer et al (2004). The 
customer is thus positioned as a strategic entity in achieving marketing objectives. This explains 
why the literature has mostly emphasized the strategic importance of customers (Kotler, 2000; 
Kohli, Jaworski & Kumar, 1993) in terms of business survival and profitability. Although the 
strategic importance of the customer raises no debate in the business circles, one should not lose 
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sight of the equal importance of brands in achieving the objectives of the firm and that of other 
stakeholder groups.  
Arguably, brands are the most valuable assets of the business organization (Aaker and 
Joachimsthaler, 2000; Davis, 2002), hence the need to learn and understand ways to grow, 
gauge, and manage brand equity is of extreme relevance (Kapferer, 2005). Brand equity 
(BE) is essentially an intangible asset that may be difficult to gauge with absolute 
precision due to the fact that customers are complex entities that are affected and are 
influenced by multiplicity of factors, some of which may not allow for easy explanation by 
customers themselves (Schiffman & Kanuk, 2007). It is useful to mention that BE or 
CBBE as conceptualized by Aaker (1991) and Keller (1993) have received wide 
acceptance in the scholarly community. According to David Ogilvy, “brand is the 
consumer’s idea” and therefore the customer is a primary contributor or associate in the 
establishment of equity for the brand (Blackston, 2000, pp. 101-105). Given that the aim 
of this study is to ascertain the impact of BR in terms of achieving CBBE, the study will 
take into consideration the consumer’s viewpoint of BR in terms of the constructs of 
CBBE. The study is thus expected to enable scholars and practitioners gauge and place the 
right emphasis on BR in terms of CBBE. 
 
2.2 The Concept of Brand 
The American Marketing Association  defines a brand as “a name, term, design, symbol, 
or any other feature that identifies one seller's good or service as distinct from those of 
other sellers” (AMA, 2016). 
In the opinion of Keller, (2001, pp. 68-72), “a brand is term, name, sign, symbol, design or 
a combination of them which is intended to identify the goods or services of one seller or a 
group of sellers and differentiate them from those of the competition”. 
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A firm’s brand is a significant aspect of any business, but it is the assets which is not well 
discovered and explored. Giant businesses surpass visible and useful paybacks by 
generating encouraging passionate links that can effortlessly endure any single offering. A 
robust brand builds connections with consumers (CBBE), which provides surety for 
forthcoming business (Young and Rubicam, 1994, p. 157). According to Wansink and 
Seed, (2001, pp. 211-222), “the brand is the most valuable property a company acquires 
over time; is its reputation, its goodwill, and its brand name".  
A brand is an influential strategic defense for a company. It differentiates a business from 
another business. Brands express to the investors, a firm’s strategic position, all that a 
business trusts in and what investors should anticipate from a business. “A great brand is a 
story that is never completely told – each new product, promotion or advertisement is just 
another passage, one more chapter, and one more revealing insight into a complex yet 
familiar plot” (Wansink and Batra, 1994, pp. 65-75).  
The branding practice begins with a very universal form with no identity but finishes with 
a very distinctive and explicit form called a brand. It is evident that, brands do not 
originate as brands but can be created. For instance, John Pemberton in 1886 did not want 
to create a global product named Coca-Cola but a simple generic tonic.  
2.2.1 Brand Life Cycle 
Scholars in the branding spheres are still debating how to establish a "life cycle" for 
brands or if brands’ life cycle is an indicator of managing the brand. Research has shown 
that, because products have a life cycle, its rise and fall comes in a fast manner and this 
makes it observable. It is very easy to identify the stage of a product and how to recover 
the product if it is on the decline. A brand can have an acceptance from many consumers, 
and then fall out of favor, to be surpassed by a new and upgraded brand. The universal 
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recognition of the presence of a brand lifecycle is affected by the fact that branding 
process takes numerous years. In his opinion, Keller (2005), posits that, when brands are 
not carefully handled, they may follow the already established pattern from introduction to 
decline in a very swift manner. 
Carefully managed brands flourish virtually forever. Various scholarly works have 
revealed that numerous products that had prominence in the consumers’ mind decades past 
have maintained their prominence. These products are not easily overtaken by competitor 
products in the consumers’ mind. The consumer is extremely loyal to these products as 
they have given the consumer value for money. These products have the capacity to stay 
so long in the market, perhaps, managers of these brands used very carefully crafted 
marketing strategies and this makes it impossible for the products to show any sign of life 
cycle. These brands must continue to be significant in a dynamic marketing environment.  
In today’s competitive business atmosphere, while several brands remain leaders in their 
marketplaces after several decades, some brands do not live for a long time and the 
producers of these brands are aware of the nature of these brands. 
Brands may exist or extinct. Some brand-named goods may "die" from outmodedness or 
varying customer preferences, a brand can be recharged with fresh features and benefits. 
When a company comes up with a carefully crafted marketing strategies, its offerings can 
be made continuously appropriate to users and remain relevant virtually forever in the 
market.  
A product’s spot in its life may be established by matching the product’s merits with 
benchmarks of distinction, significance and relevance. A brand’s prominence is measured 
with benchmarks of reputation and awareness. These benchmarks are constantly connected 
with a brand's capability to generate income and returns for the owners, regardless of the 
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group, country of origin, notwithstanding how long the offering has existed (Keller, 2005). 
It is important for the manager of the brand to know the positon of the brand in its life 
cycle since this plays a vital role in every decision the manager makes.  
 
2.3 The Concept of Brand Revitalization 
Recovery of latent brand yields a lot of returns for the business once it is well crafted and 
done in the correct conditions. The business environment is occupied with subjective 
accomplished history of the creation and development of brands. Brands denote the 
scholarly and passionate relations that customers establish with a business, offering or an 
individual (Wansink and Huffman, 2001). The word brand is used commonly and in a 
subjective manner. The trick rests in our distinctive, personal clarifications, our 
comprehension, generally directed by ethnic perspective, interfaces we have engaged in 
and in relation to the item we are assessing, and our own peculiar notion of the universe.   
Numerous authors (Müller et al., 2013; Lehu, 2004; Keller, 1999) write on brand 
revitalization (BR), which principally comprises the idea of energizing the graphical 
features of a particular offering. By the preceding awareness, it is prudent to resolve that a 
modification in the customer’s comprehension of an offering is attained and therefore, a 
modification in the buyer and brand association is realized after brand revitalization. Babu, 
(2006), associates brand recovery with brand rejuvenation and deems it a type of restoring 
an offering, a procedure that also comprises the reinforcement of the offering’s 
uniqueness. In this study, BR will be defined as the “process that aims at keeping the 
brand fresh, vital and relevant in the contemporary market (Merrilees, 2005, pp. 201-210), 
by obtaining new sources of brand equity or by recapturing lost ones to achieve the 
intended positioning (Keller, 1999, pp. 102-124)”. 
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Brand rejuvenation is essential when a new player in the market may have occupied the 
category and the company is hustling to make profits from the existing product. A new 
alternative of the product or brand has to be presented and introduced into the market and 
so the company can recapture market share (Horwitz and Weinberger, 2005). The entire 
offering class could be diminishing, and an offering can be among numerous brands that 
use rejuvenation. It is prudent to empower the product while others are dormant since at 
this time, the character is mess free and the target audience receives your communication 
far clearly.  
Kapferer (2008) shapes and improves the definition of brand revitalization and articulate it 
into a whole. According to Kapferer (2008, p. 438), “brand revitalization, in the narrow 
sense, consists of recreating a consistent flow of sales, putting the brand back to life, on a 
growth slope again”. “When the brand is made up of many products, we shall see that this 
typically entails two parallel actions: maintaining a well-known product globally in its 
original design and form (to keep its franchise) and reinventing it for new and younger 
consumers (that is to say asking the question, what would this product be today, if we had 
to invent it from scratch for the needs of modern consumers?)” (Kapferer, 2008, p.438). 
In the opinion of Haig (2003), it is vital to authenticate the judiciousness of interceding 
with a specific brand, from a financial perspective, and also, the existing standing of the 
offering in the business environment and the offering’s prominence. Lehu (2004) opined 
that, managers of brands are mandated to identify the marks of brand maturity, precisely 
by devoting their time to the offering, prospective audience of consumers and the 
offering’s capacity to connect with customers.  
Furthermore, Lehu (2004) opined that, we can distinguish between critical and dormant 
marks of brand maturity, giving to their extent of impact, which involves three precise 
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principles: devoting their time to the offering, prospective audience of consumers and the 
offering’s capacity to connect with customers. In the area of the brand’s offer of products 
are placed severe and dormant signs of brand maturity, which are closely linked with 
research and development (i.e. sluggish introduction of new offering), the features of the 
product (i.e. the relationship between guaranteed and real-life outcomes) and with the 
competitive standing of a brand (i.e. continuous exhaustion of market share). The 
principles of targeted groups of users is made of all critical and dormant signs of brand 
aging, which have an association with the buyers (constant decline of customer loyalty). 
The last benchmark, that of the brand’s ability to communicate with its consumers, is 
comprised of all signs of aging, that impact advertising (i.e. outmoded, indistinct 
communication), corporate communication (i.e. the brand’s reputation reduces in the eyes 
of the target audience) and public relations of a brand (i.e. highly revealed damaging 
circumstances including the brand).  
Again, Lehu (2004) postulates that, by making use of the preceded defined approaches to 
establish the dormant and critical signs of brand aging, we can reasonably advance to 
determining components that are about to obtain a refreshing consequence on the said 
product. To accomplish the paramount and straightforward effects, these components 
should be integrated into one of complete brand revitalization approaches. Components of 
brand revitalization that influence the offering’s outward or visual phase are re-igniting the 
identity of the brand, brand repositioning, innovative advertising, stimulating of the visual 
aspects of the brand and the growth of the brand’s portfolio of products. 
The various approaches of brand revitalization may comprise of emotional branding, retro-
branding and storytelling. Storytelling, according to McLellan (2006), is one of the basic 
aspects of human intellect and imagination, and is an influential communication means 
that requests complete attention and, more often than not, the listener’s direct involvement. 
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Simmons (2006) claims that storytelling gives brands and their products a personality and 
a deeper meaning.  
Emotional branding “generates a connection between the consumer and the brand; it stems 
from the emotional and sensual levels and the end goal is a long lasting, deep and 
meaningful connection between the two” (Gobé, 2007, pp. 68). The essence of emotional 
branding, especially with service brands, is further buttressed by Morrison and Crane 
(2007). All of the elements of emotional branding are potentially present in the customer’s 
loyalty to a specific brand, which subsequently influences the visibility of the brand and 
the success of its revitalization. 
2.3.1 Methods of Brand Revitalization 
Even though a company would want to reposition itself in the business environment, the 
company must exactly and entirely illustrate the range and depth of customers’ 
understanding of the brand, the brand power, how the brand appeals to the target audience, 
and distinctiveness of brand affiliation and brand reactions held in consumers’ memory; 
and the nature of consumer-brand relationships. There must be a holistic evaluation of 
how the customer perceives the brand and how the customer responds to the marketing of 
the brand. Revitalization approaches evidently comprise a continuous process which on 
one end is about going back to energize some aspects of the brand and "reinvention" at the 
other end. Several revitalization approaches bring together features of both approaches. 
According to Lane, K. K. (2003), since there is an appreciation of the existing and 
anticipated understanding of the brand structures in place, the customer-based brand 
equity framework offers direction as to restoring the existing customer connections with 
the brand or invent new sources. Lane (2003) went ahead to propose the two possible 
approaches as indicated below;  
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1. Develop the depth or breadth of brand awareness, or both. This can be realized by 
improving consumer recollection and appreciation of the brand at the point of sale and use.  
2. Improve the power, favorability, and distinctiveness of brand connections making up 
the brand image. Further satisfactory reactions and superior brand loyalty can result when 
brand features benefits are improved.  
In the opinion of Lane (2003), diminished causes of brand equity can be restored and new 
ways of capturing consumer’s attention can be created by the same three central means 
through which sources of brand equity are formed. It starts with altering brand 
components, altering the backup marketing program, or capitalizing on new secondary 
relations. He further proposed the steps below as an approach to keep the brand fresh, vital 
and relevant in the contemporary market.   
a. Making Old Brands New  
Several once-strong brands decline away into irrelevance because their brand managers 
lose sight of the customer, and decide to fight the competitors rather. Managers of brands 
must take keen interest in the three ways customers bond with the company’s offering. 
Brand managers must understand how consumers identify, select, and use the brand. This 
is because, people buy one or more brands at one shopping experience. They rely on a 
small number (say 1 or 2), then buy extra if the offering is on sale. When advertisings 
suggest great figures consumers move their reference point to the greater number, and 
purchase extra.  
Because companies have profit ambitions, there is pressure on matured brands which 
pushes some companies to concentrate on the competitors and not paying attention to their 
consumers. In the midst of immense pressure, firms may decide to match the rivalry or 
improve the commitment of current consumers. Growing consumer allegiance has both 
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immediate and future paybacks, but firms must value the interaction between consumers 
and brand that speaks of the way consumers identify an offering. Consumers may have 
lost trust in the product, or the homes might have bought enough of the product and would 
want to exhaust the old stock before restocking. In a situation like this, selection may have 
an impact on how customers perceive the brand and how they use it and then how the 
brands are used may also have an impact on how the brands are perceived and how they 
are selected.    
b. Expanding Brand Awareness 
When a product declines, it is not usually a problem of brand awareness. This is because, 
shoppers are able to recognize or evoke the brand within a certain circumstances. The 
problem arises in a situation where buyers can evoke the brand in an extremely restricted 
manner. Therefore, one influential way of empowering a brand to get the attention of 
consumers is to increase the breadth of brand awareness, ensuring that customers do not 
ignore the product and that the brand only comes to mind for purchase or use only when 
the brand can meet a certain need of the consumer.  
c. New Uses that Revitalize Old Brands 
Companies who own matured brands are gradually exploring and crafting new techniques 
to educate consumers on alternative ways of using their offerings. For the purposes if 
increasing regularity of how consumers use their products, extra uses of the offering, for 
the same group of people for a particular need or for a different need will give the 
company an avenue to increase sales. 
d. Improving Brand Image 
It is important to vary the fundamental elements of brands even though varying cues that 
produce brand knowledge are perhaps the stress-free ways of generating new causes of 
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how customers bond with the brand. An innovative advertising campaign will be needed 
to increase the power, likeability, and distinctiveness brand links that make up how the 
consumer sees the brand. Any favorable connections that are won by the company must be 
boosted as part of the desire of moving away from the old brand image to a new and better 
one that can increase sales. Any unfavorable connections formed in the past must be 
annulled and new ones established. 
e. Repositioning the Brand 
In pursuit to reposition a brand, the firm is required to establish enough convincing 
differentiating features between their brand and competitor brands. This usually involves 
reminding customers of the benefits of an offering that they are not paying attention to.  
f. Changing Brand Elements 
At times, firms in order to keep their brands fresh, vital and relevant to their consumers 
must make changes to some aspects of their brands to reveal to the consumers that, the 
offering has been given a new life since the offering or the advertising campaign has been 
modified. It is very difficult to alter any aspect of the brand name. The package, label, and 
some features of the brand can be altered.  
g. Entering New Markets 
For a firm to decide on how to positon itself in the market environment, the firm must 
make clear, the specific target segment and how they want to compete in the market to 
establish a benchmark for competition. Not all market segments form the target audience 
for a brand. In different instances, companies have other offerings that are tailored to the 
segments which are using the current offering. The company can strategically turn this 
markets into a highly profit yielding markets for their brand. Successfully pursuing these 
other markets, however requires modifications or alteration in the advertising campaign, 
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particularly in publicity and the ultimate choice either to concentrate on a particular 
segment is dependent on the returns that the segment yields. 
 
2.4 The Concept of Brand Equity  
Among various scholars, the key dimensions for measuring customer-based brand equity 
namely brand awareness; brand associations (brand image); perceived quality and; brand 
loyalty were popularized by Aaker (1991) and Keller (1993). All these dimensions are 
described to afford a more comprehensive understanding of the concept of customer-based 
brand equity including the origin of branding and the role of branding from a marketing 
perspective.  
2.4.1 The Definition of Brand Equity  
The concept of brand equity (BE) remains a subject of interest among scholars and 
practitioners. Given the importance of the subject, scholarly contributions have never been 
lacking as evidenced in the works of Aaker (1991, 1996); Aaker & Keller (1990); 
Ailawadi et al., (2003); Ellen et al., (2006); Keller, (1993), and Netemeyer et al., (2004). 
The interest of marketing scholars has generally been to seek knowledge in BE 
measurement and what it means for the firm. The interest of managers is to be able to 
understand factors influencing purchase and consumption related decisions with regards to 
perceived brand equity and choice. According to Ailawadi et al., (2003), although the 
concept of brand equity has seen numerous scholarly contributions, there still remain 
varied viewpoints of the concept in terms of what constitute the dimensions of BE, the 
major influences on BE, and the perspective from which BE should be studied and 
measured. As is always the case several diverse explanations and ways of measuring brand 
equity have been offered by academics. Most of these definitions appear to be inspired by 
or emanate from Farquha’s (1989, pp. 24-33) definition which states that “brand equity is 
the added value with which a given brand endows a product”. As a business concept, BE 
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is useful as it provides the bedrock for gaining and sustaining competitive advantage. This 
is the case because a brand with high brand equity Kotler (2000) can lend itself to brand 
extensions, and withstand various competitive threats among other things.  
Although, there are several definitions, it is arguably the added value or equity that a brand 
generates that makes branding a useful subject of study. According to Srivastava and 
Shocker (1994, pp. 149-158) brand equity should be seen as “the incremental value a 
brand name gives a product”. Similar to Srivastava and Shocker (1994), Park and 
Srinivasan (1994) define brand equity by noting that a brand has a monetary role, which 
essentially is the value (brand equity) that the brand stems from its capability to produce a 
unique, favorable, and prominent meaning in the minds of a great amount of buyers. Clow 
and Baack (2005) brand equity comprises a set of features that make a brand inimitable in 
the market place, and permits the firm to sell their products at a premium price and 
preserve a superior market but a commodity which is not branded does not give this 
opportunity. Berry’s (2000) definition of brand equity holds some similarity of ideas to 
Keller’s (1993) definition as he describes brand equity as “the differential effect of brand 
awareness and meaning combined with customer response to the marketing of the brand”.  
Yoo et al., (2000) sees brand equity in terms of “the variance in consumer choice between 
a branded and unbranded product given a similar level of product attributes”. Extant 
literature also reveals a number of conceptualization of brand equity (Farquhar, 1989; 
Wood, 2000; Baker et al., 2005; Yoo et al., 2000; Berry, 2000; Keller, 1993). Among the 
various conceptualizations, the works of Aaker (1991) and Keller (1993) have received 
wider patronage in terms of providing the philosophical underpinnings, and the 
dimensions for discussing the concept of brand equity. In Aaker’s (1991) view, brand 
equity refers to “a set of brand assets and liabilities linked to a brand, its name and symbol 
that add to or subtract from the value provided by a product or service to a firm and or to 
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that firm’s customers. From this conceptualization, Aaker (1991) accordingly put forward 
four interrelated scopes of brand equity namely, brand awareness, brand loyalty, brand 
image, and perceived quality. Two years after Aaker’s conceptualization, Keller (1993) 
came up with the customer-based brand equity model (CBBE), which has gained 
popularity among scholars and practitioners (see: Wood, 2000; Baker et al., 2005; Yoo et 
al., 2000; and Berry, 2000). Keller (1993), opined that, CBBE is “the differential effect of 
brand knowledge on consumer response to the marketing of the brand”. Keller’s (1993) 
conceptualization of CBBE is useful as it can arguably be said to be informed by the 
popular marketing concept or philosophy.  
Following the understanding of the foregoing argument, the study deems it more 
appropriate to lean on the term CBBE in referring to “the differential knowledge” that 
consumers have of a given brand and how that knowledge influences their purchase and 
consumption behaviour. From the definition, brand knowledge comprises two constructs 
namely brand awareness and brand image. Brand awareness is typically assessed through 
various recognition and recall tests among actual and potential customers. Recognition 
describes the ability of consumers to confirm knowledge of a given brand when exposed 
to one or more elements or cues of the brand. For instance, a customer’s knowledge of a 
given brand may be tested by exposing the customer to the brand’s logo, name, jingles, 
tagline, or catch phrase among other brand related cues.  
Marketers may also undertake recall tests to complement recognition test. Recall describes the 
ability of the consumer to retrieve the brand from memory. The aim of most marketing 
communications effort is to get target customers to select their brands in a given product category 
or evoked set (Kotler, 2000). Another component of brand knowledge is brand image. Unlike 
brand awareness, the measurement of brand image can be challenging. This is because brand 
image is a function of the perceptions and attitudes of consumers about the brand in memory. A 
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brand’s image is influenced by marketer controlled variables and by other variables in the 
marketing environment.  
CBBE conceptualization thus reveals an appreciation that a brand’s inherent power 
emanates from what customers have learnt either through direct experience or through 
vicarious learning (Schiffman and Kanuk, 2007). It is useful to mention that, in this study, 
the term CBBE is used to describe brand equity in the context of marketing and it is used 
interchangeably with brand equity.  
 
2.5 The Concept of Customer-Based Brand Equity  
Brands are arguably the most valuable assets in business hence, the enormous interest in 
brand equity studies. According to Keller and Lehmann (2003), Fayrene and Lee (2011), 
Hoeffler et al., (2002), Kapferer (1997), Cobb-Walgren et al. (1995), and Aaker and 
Jacobson (1994) brand equity (BE) tend to positively correlate with higher consumer 
preferences and purchase intensions, and stock returns. High brand equity also makes it 
less problematic for firms interested in pursuing brand extensions strategies; it allows the 
firm to withstand promotional pressures from competing brands, and also creates barriers 
against competition. Successful brand extension is made possible where a brand enjoys 
high brand equity (Fayrene and Lee, 201; Farquhar, 1989). Brand equity as a concept gained 
popularity in the 1980s according to Fayrene and Lee (2011) citing Barwise (1993) who noted that 
the term was used largely by advertising practitioners in the 1990s. The concept has since received 
growing interest and has been kept alive by scholars including Aaker (1991), Srivastava and 
Shocker (1991), and Keller (1993). Although literature abounds on the concept of BE there are still 
challenges regarding a common meaning, content and measurement of BE. This position is 
articulated in the works of Vazquez et al. (2002), Keller and Lehmann (2003) and Washburn & 
Plank (2002). The concept of brand equity which Keller (1993) conceptualize as customer-based 
brand equity (CBBE) is yet to achieve universality in terms of meaning, content, and 
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measurement. However, the term CBBE is generally used to mean the value that is added to a 
product by consumers’ relations and opinions of a given brand name (Fayrene and Lee, 2011; 
Chaudhuri, 1995; Winters, 1991).  
A content analysis of CBBE of the definitions from Keller (1993) and Shocker et al. 
(1994) leads one to say that CBBE refers to an evaluation of how a firm’s actual and 
potential consumers respond to, or will respond to a given brand name. Although the 
meaning of BE is not widely divergent among scholars, one can group scholarly works on 
the subject into: One, those who are influenced more from a marketing or customer-
oriented perspective (Fayrene and Lee, 2011, 2011; Farquhar, 1989; Keller, 1993; Cobb-
Walgren et al. 1995, Van Osselaer & Alba 2000), and two, those reflecting financial 
perspective (Farquhar et al. 1991, Simon & Sullivan 1993, Swait et al. 1993, Kapferer 
1997). The financial perspective is basically concerned with evaluating the assets of the 
business. Alternatively, the marketing or customer-oriented perspective of brand equity is 
not an entirely new idea, but gained its popularity through the writings of Keller (1993), 
Shocker et al. (1994) among others. These scholars have been largely influenced by the 
growing appreciation of the marketing concept or the customer-orientation philosophy to 
marketing. This thinking finds expression in Keller’s definition. Keller (1993, pp. 1-22), 
postulates that, CBBE “is the differential effect of brand knowledge on consumer response 
to the marketing of the brand”. Brand knowledge “is the full set of brand associations 
linked to the brand in long-term consumer memory”. CBBE thus refers to the peculiar 
responses of consumers that are generated towards a brand because of prior knowledge 
and associations to the brand. This study, will adopt Keller’s (1993) definition of CBBE.  
2.5.1 Brand Equity Perspectives  
Brand equity emanates from three different perspectives. These are the cognitive 
psychology perspective, the information economics perspective, and the financial markets 
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perspective (Baalbaki, 2012). The cognitive psychology perspective defines brand’s equity 
as the differential consumer response to a brand’s marketing mix that results from 
consumers’ associations to a brand (Aaker, 1991; Keller, 1993). The implication of this 
perspective is that brands for which consumers have more positive brand associations, or 
brands with higher brand equity, has the propensity to generate more positive marketing 
mix responses from consumers than brands with less favorable brand associations. 
Therefore, in terms of cognitive perspective, brand equity is the results of consumers’ 
responses to marketing activities, influenced by consumer brand associations (Anderson, 
2007).  
The second perspective of brand equity is the information economics perspective. In this 
perspective, brand equity is viewed as the increased utility that a brand name gives to a 
product (Erdem & Swait, 1998). The brand name gives signal to consumers of product 
quality, which is derived from perceived firm costs or investments, and this perceived 
quality reduces information costs for the consumer, thereby increasing utility. This 
perspective is important because it recognizes that businesses invest and experience costs 
in marketing their brands. The information economics perspective is therefore useful in the 
measurement of brand equity (Anderson, 2007). 
The financial markets perspective is the third perspective of brand equity. In this 
perspective, brand equity is defined as a financial measure of a firm’s market value minus 
its tangible assets value (Simon and Sullivan, 1993). The drawback to this approach is that 
it focuses solely on the brand as the only intangible asset without considering other 
intangible assets such as human capital. Another drawback of the information economics 
perspective is that, it gauges equity for company level products only and not a company’s 
product-level brands (Anderson, 2007).  
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Brand equity has evolved from three different perspectives as discussed above. However, 
it is generally classified into two broad categories which are the firm-based brand equity 
(FBBE), and the customer-based brand equity (CBBE) (Keller, 1993). The firm-based 
perspective describes the value of the brand for the firm, whiles the consumer-based 
perspective describes the value of the brand for the client. Given that brand equity 
influences and fetches value for multiple stakeholder groups, a third category of brand 
equity called employee-based brand equity (EBBE) has been recently proposed. King and 
Grace (2009, pp. 122-147) define employee-based brand equity as “the differential effect 
that brand knowledge has on an employee’s response to their work environment.” The 
researcher agrees with all these three perspectives of brand equity since they all in 
different ways describe what value is derived from the brand depending on your stand 
point. In-spite of the various categorization of brand equity described above, the term 
CBBE is generally used to denote to brand equity (Baalbaki, 2012; Rajasekar and Nalina, 
2008). 
2.5.2 Brand Equity Perspective of this Study  
This study adopts the CBBE standpoint and will not deliberate on FBBE and EBBE, as 
these two viewpoints do not relate to the objectives of the study. The reasoning in taking 
this stance is that the monetary worth of brand equity is the ultimate result of consumer 
reaction to a brand name. Unlike FBBE, CBBE on the other hand is the energetic potency 
of improved market share and success of the product since it relies on the awareness of the 
market (Baalbaki, 2012; Christodoulides et. al., 2006). Given that the financial-based 
viewpoint gauges the result of customer-based brand equity, the study deems it more 
convenient to first focus on CBBE (Baalbaki, 2012).  
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2.5.3 Measuring Customer-Based Brand Equity  
As an important asset to companies, brands must be measured for their value or equity. 
Brand equity measurement gauges the performance of the brand for the purposes of 
devising, modifying and or consolidating marketing strategies. Typically, the performance 
of a brand could be considered in terms of brand equity and customer equity according to 
Leone et al., (2006). In measuring brand equity scholars such as Keller and Lehmann, 
(2003); and Epstein and Westbrook, (2001) have suggested that brand equity measurement 
should be comprehensive and therefore must incorporate the customer perspective, the 
firm level perspective and also the financial market perspective. Others have argued for 
single perspectives, thus placing emphasis on the customer, the firm, or the financial 
markets as the units of measurement (Baker et al., 2005; Chen, 2001; Tong and Hawley, 
2009; Keller, 1993; Doyle, 2001; Kapferer; Kim et al., 2003; Simon and Sullivan, 1993; 
Aaker and Jacobson, 1994).  
2.5.4 Measuring Brand Equity at the Consumer-level  
In measuring brand equity at the consumer-level, Baker et al., (2005) pointed out the need 
to seek understanding of consumer behaviour in relation to a given product or brand. Thus, 
consumer-level measures are interested in gauging the cognitive, the affective and the 
conative aspects of consumer behaviour (Schiffman and Kanuk, 2007). Understanding 
brand equity at the consumer level in this regard requires an appreciation of the value of 
the brand in the eyes of the consumer (Keller, 1993; Yoo and Donthu, 2001).  
2.5.5 Measuring Brand Equity at the Company-Level  
In the measurement of company-level brand equity, marketers are interested in gauging 
the added value that accrues to the company because of having a branded product (Kim et 
al., 2003; Doyle, 2001; Farquhar et al., 1991). This is to say that the brand would not have 
gained added value if it were unbranded. Company-level measures of brand equity are 
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mostly concerned with issues regarding new product introduction and brand extensions, 
price premiums, effects of competitor pricing, distribution and channel advantages, 
promotional effectiveness and consumer responsiveness to advertising efforts (Hoeffler 
and Keller, 2003; Cobb-Walgren et al., 1995).  
2.5.6 The Financial Measure of Brand Equity  
A third measure of brand equity is the financial gauge where brands are seen essentially as 
assets that can be offered for sale in a given market at a price determined by forces of 
demand and supply. The value or the price is what is termed by financial market analysts 
as stock price which represents the monetary worth of the brand or asset. To Doyle (2001) 
therefore, brand equity signifies increasing market price and cash flow. The meaning of 
financial measure of brand equity is well articulated in Simon and Sullivan (1993, pp. 28-
52) who define brand equity as “the incremental cash flows which accrue to branded 
products over and above the cash flows which would result from the sale of unbranded 
products”.  
2.5.7 Customer Equity versus Brand Equity  
The worth of a consumer to the company (that is consumer equity) is conceptualized as the 
“sum of the profit from the sale of generic products and the additional worth from the sale 
of branded products – brand equity” (Ambler et al., 2002, pp. 13-25). According to 
Baalbaki (2012) citing Rust et al. (2000), customer equity is also the sum of the lifetime 
values of all customers which is also referred to as customer lifetime value (CLV). It is 
interesting to mention that both the concepts of customer equity and brand equity have the 
ability to generate value to the firm through repeat purchases and premium price charges 
(see Leone et al., 2006).  
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2.5.8 Models of Brand Equity Measurement  
Extant literature reveals a number of brand equity models (see: Berry, 2000; Srinivasan et 
al., 2005; Aaker, 1991; Keller, 1993) mainly focusing on the buyer (Aaker and 
Joachimsthaler, 2000) the company, and the employees (King and Grace, 2009) among 
other variations. From these models of brand equity, two main approaches have been 
identified namely the direct approach and the indirect approach.  
The indirect method to customer-based brand equity measurement according to Baalbaki 
(2012, p. 16), “assesses potential sources of customer-based brand equity by identifying 
and tracking customers brand knowledge structure”. The second approach to brand equity 
measurement which complements the indirect approach is the direct method which 
directly assesses customer-based brand equity by measuring the real effect of brand 
awareness on customer reaction to diverse marketing variables over a given period of 
time. A good instance of the direct method to brand equity dimension is the financial 
(market-outcome-based) measures which include: brand equity as a price premium 
measure (Holbrook, 1992; Randall et al., 1998), brand equity as a revenue premium 
(Ailawadi et al., 2003), and brand equity as a gauge of brand extendibility (Randall et al., 
1998). Recognizing the importance of financial (market-outcome-based) measures to 
brand equity measurement, Anderson (2007) sees brands as infinitely-lived or perpetual 
assets and describes brand equity in terms of the monetary value that a company gets from 
customer reaction to the marketing of a brand. Accordingly, Anderson (2007) proposed 
that brand equity should be measured as “total revenue minus total marketing cost, divided 
by periodic interest rate”. 
Another model on the subject of brand equity is by Netemeyer et al. (2004). In this model, 
four main tenets are named as including perceived quality, perceived value for cost, brand 
distinctiveness, and the readiness to pay premium value for the brand. Brand uniqueness is 
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considered an important tenet of the model because it has the potential to influence 
purchase intention and behaviour. The model also has secondary tenets of CBBE which 
includes brand awareness, familiarity, and popularity. Netemeyer et al. (2004) conducted 
some empirical investigations to test the model in terms of predictive validity regarding 
consumer purchase behaviour. The best predictor of future behaviour from the study is 
said to be perceived quality of the brand. The study could not differentiate perceived 
quality of the brand from elements such as perceived value for cost and brand uniqueness 
whose effect on purchase behaviour of consumers was found to be facilitated by consumer 
preparedness to pay a premium price for the brand.  
In the assessment of customer-based brand equity, several scholars have put forward or 
developed various scales to measure brand equity at diverse levels and in several 
perspectives. Lassar et al. (1995) used survey data to develop a 17-item scale; Vazquez et 
al. (2002) develop a 22-item scale. Other studies which have also developed measures of 
customer-based brand equity include Christodoulides et al., (2006), Yoo and Donthu 
(2001). Notwithstanding the various customer-based equity measures put forward in the 
extant literature, the conceptualization of customer-based brand equity with a four 
component item by Aaker (1991) and Keller (1993) seems to have gained general 
recognition as demonstrated by the many citations of these works in the scholarly 
community ( see: Aaker, 1996; Aaker and Joachimsthaler, 2000; Ailawadi et al., 2003; 
Ambler et al., 2002; Bendixen et al., 2004; Berry, 2000; Buil et al., 2008; Christodoulides 
& De Chernatony, 2010; Davis, 2002; Chen , 2001; Netemeyer et al., 2004; Pappu et al., 
2005; Rajasekar & Nalina, 2008).  
2.6 The Concept of Customer-Perceived Value  
Customer perceived value (CPV) acts as a trigger of customer satisfaction which 
eventually leads to CBBE. When a customer receives a great value of service, it results in 
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high satisfaction. Previous studies (Howat & Assaker, 2013; Tam, 2004; Yu et al., 2014,) 
posit that service quality pushes customers’ perceived value. If the customers devote less 
money, time and energy compared to the service quality they receive, then the customer 
will perceive a high perceived value of service. In other words, the better the service 
quality, the advanced the customers’ perceived value (Howat & Assaker, 2013; Tam, 
2004; Yu et al., 2014).  
Aaker (1992) explained that perceived quality provides value by providing a reason to 
buy, distinguishing the brand, luring channel member interest, being the basis for line 
extensions, and supporting a higher price. In other words, perceived quality is the 
consumer’s decision about a product’s overall distinction or dominance (Zeithaml, 1988). 
Perceived quality is included as an asset distinct from brand. It has become an important 
business thrust for many firms and can be the motivation for programs designed to gain 
customers’ loyalty.  
The concept of customer perceived value (CPV) is considered useful in this study because 
it can reasonably be assumed from marketing perspective that CBBE is enhanced or 
achieved where the customer perceives value in a given product or service (see: Kotler, 
2000; Woodruff, 1997; Kohli et al., 1993; Aaker, 1991; Zeithaml, 1988; Shapiro, 1988; 
Parasuraman et al., 1985).  
Customer value is defined as “the customer’s overall assessment of the utility of a product 
based on perceptions of what is received and what is given” (Zeithaml, 1988). It is worth 
mentioning that scholarly works on the concept of customer value have focused mostly on 
the perceived responsibility of customer value in consumption contexts. For example, 
Zeithaml (1988) provided some evidence highlighting the influential role of value in 
consumer purchase decision making process and behaviour. According to Zeithaml 
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(1988), consumer perceived value is a direct antecedent of a purchase decision and a direct 
consequence of perceived service quality. Customer perceived value is generally describes 
a trade-off between perceived quality and perceived psychological/monetary sacrifice. 
Perceived value is thus, a direct antecedent of consumer purchase intention (Dodds et. Al., 
1991; Monroe and Chapman, 1987; Teas and Agarwal, 2000).  
In contributing to the understanding of value, Woodruff (1997) laid out a customer value 
hierarchy model in which customer value was viewed as a hierarchically structured 
construct at levels of consumption goals, consequences, and attributes. In other words, 
customer value resides in every stage of customers’ expectancy-disconfirmation process. 
In terms of conceptualization, customer value describes the overall perception of the 
subjective merit regarding a product’s utility, considering all benefits and costs of 
consumption (Chen and Tsai, 2008; Lai, Griffin & Babin, 2009). From Kotler and Lee 
(2009), customer perceived value is measured as the difference between the total customer 
value and total customer costs. Typically total customer value may include bundle of 
product, service, personnel and image value. On the other hand total customer costs refer 
to bundle of monetary, time, energy, and psychic costs.  
According to Uddin and Akhter (2012), customers usually estimate the expected perceived 
value in a typical exchange situation. Thus, companies need to understand the expectation 
of customers because perceived value relates to customer satisfaction and behavioral 
intentions for repurchase. The factors affecting customer value include competencies, 
communication, promotional investments, and relational investments. Scholars have also 
observed the predictive role of perceived value in service quality and customer satisfaction 
(Hutchinson et al., 2009). Customer expectations and perceived performance of a product 
or service have been mentioned in the marketing literature as important predictors of 
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perceived value on customer overall satisfaction (Lapierre, 2000; Chen, 2008; Chen and 
Tsai, 2008; Wu and Liang, 2009).  
Achieving CBBE therefore requires an understanding of the drivers of customer-perceived 
value (Aaker, 1991; Keller, 1993; Lichtenthal et al., 1997).  
2.6.1 Theoretical Issues of Perceived Value  
The conceptual domain of customer-perceived value is discussed below under various 
subheadings.  
a. Domain of Perceived Value  
Regarding the domain of perceived value, Mazumdar (1993) is of the view that, today’s 
value-conscious customers are neither impressed by the best product nor persuaded by the 
lowest price alone. In its place, customer buying decisions are often directed by a cautious 
valuation of what paybacks they attain in exchange for the prices they pay to buy and use 
the product.” Based on this knowledge scholars define customer-perceived value in terms 
of the difference between the rewards and costs as perceived by customers with regard to 
their expectations of needs and wants (see: Narver and Slater, 1990; Day, 1990; Zeithaml, 
1988; Ravald and Gronroos, 1996; Berry and Yadav, 1996; Slater, 1997). Sacrifices 
simply relates to both financial and non-financial costs that a customer incur in order to 
preserve a link with a seller. Non-financial expenses relates to the time, effort, and the 
energy expanded by the customer in order to create association with the seller. Non-
financial costs are particularly deemed significant as many customers according to 
Carothers and Adams (1991) tend to count time rather than money as the most valued 
asset. 
  
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b. Scope of Customer-Perceived Value  
The significance of understanding the potential sources of customer value cannot be 
overemphasized (Woodruff, 1997; Slater, 1997; Day, 1990; Zeithaml, 1988). This 
notwithstanding, scholarly contribution by Woodruff (1997) has expressed concern about 
the underdevelopment of the sources from which customers may perceive value. Lapierre 
(2000) observe that, the attention of extant literature usually discusses customer value by 
looking at the attribute of product or service offerings and its usage. The nature of today’s 
competition however meant that, marketers need to pursue innovative strategies in order to 
deliver unique value to customers.  
In the pursuit of innovative strategies therefore, marketers are expected to go beyond the 
boundaries of product-based and process-based sources of customer value creation to limit 
imitation by competitors. Innovation in customer value creation can for instance, come in 
the area of relational value-based drivers (Ravald and Grönroos, 1996). The need to create 
customer value through relationships has also been given currency by Sharma and Sheth 
(1997). Notwithstanding the importance of relational sources of customer value creation, 
gaining competitive advantage in the market place would require firms to develop and 
offer more comprehensive sources of value such as in the area of the product, services, 
intermediaries, and ideas.  
From the foregoing debate, it is clear that customer value preposition is a complex 
phenomenon which requires managers to accordingly develop value strategy along the 
lines of product, service and relationship (Lapierre, 2000; Sheth and Sharma, 199; 
Woodruff, 1997; Ravald and Grönroos, 1996; Mazumdar, 1993; Zeithaml, 1988). It is 
useful to add that as a concept, customer value drivers vary for different customers and 
across industries and therefore marketers need to pursue different strategies for different 
market situations. This thinking is critical as it conforms to the dictates of the market 
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orientation philosophy which requires marketing organizations to be driven by customer 
needs (Day, 1990; Kohli and Jaworski, 1990; Narver and Slater, 1990). 
c. Drivers of Customer-Perceived Value  
A number of key drivers of customer-perceived value have been recognized in the extant 
literature (Zeithaml, 1988; Angleitner et al., 1986; Lapierre, 2000; Woodruff, 1997; Slater, 
1997). According to Lapierre (2000), these drivers (benefits) are product, service and 
affiliation related. Product related drivers have to do with mainly product quality, product 
customization and alternative solutions. For the service related drivers, we can talk of 
alertness, suppleness, dependability and practical competence. Seller’s image, trust, and 
seller solidarity with customers are the key drivers that are service related. It is important 
to note however that customer’s frame of reference largely affects their assessment of 
value. It has also been observed that different customer groups or segments have different 
criteria for assessing value for a given brand and across industries.  
2.6.2 Some Key Issues in Perceived Value Framework  
As a concept, customers perceive value has generated different points of view in scholarly 
community (Lapierre, 2000 Lapierre, 2000; Woodruff, 1997; Slater, 1997, 1997; Zeithaml, 
1988). However, there are two eminent characteristics in the discussion of customer value. 
One relates to the use of the product or brand in question and secondly, it is subjectively 
perceived by customers and cannot therefore be objectively determined by the marketer 
(Roig et al., 2006). This means that the perception of value, which is inherent in the use of 
the product or brand comes from the customer only. Typically, customer perception of 
value is gauged by assessing the differences between the perceived benefits (utility 
derived from the product, services or relationship) and the perceived sacrifices or costs 
(Roig et al., 2006; Teas and Agarwal, 2000; Zeithaml, 1988).  
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Roig et al. (2006) identify two key approaches to perceived value when it comes to 
conceptualizing and the determination of the dimensions of the concept. In the first 
approach, scholars including Cronin et al. (2000) usually describe perceived value as 
consisting of two-sides namely; the benefits received by the customer which is represented 
by economic, social, and relational factors and, the sacrifices that the customer has to 
make in order to acquire and or consume the brand or product. Sacrifices are measured in 
terms of price, time, effort, risk and convenience required to obtain and or consume the 
brand or product in question (Dodds et al., 1991). Being a purely subjective concept, customer 
perceived value needs to be largely considered as a personal construct (Parasuraman et al., 1985). 
This is the case because, value that is perceived by a consumer in a given product tend to emanate 
from the differences between benefits derived and sacrifices made (Roig et al, 2006; Teas and 
Agarwal, 2000; Zeithaml, 1988). Citing Zeithaml (1988), Roig et al. (2006) observed that, “the 
benefits component, or what a consumer receives from the purchase, would include the perceived 
quality of the service and a series of psychological benefits.” Marketers have continuously focused 
on delivering service quality as it can offer unique basis for harnessing the benefits of 
differentiation and competitive advantage (Roig et al, 2006, pp. 266–283; Parasuraman and 
Grewal, 2000, pp. 168-174; Berry, 1995, pp. 236-245; Richheld and Sasser, 1990, pp. 105-111). 
The implication for a two-side perceived value means that, marketers can create value for 
customers by increasing the benefits derived from the product and or reducing the sacrifices 
associated with the acquisition and consumption of the product in question (Roig et al., 2006; 
Dodds et al., 1991)). The second view of perceived value from extant literature sees the concept as 
a multidimensional construct (Sanchez et al., 2006; Roig et al., 2006; Sweeney and Soutar, 2001). 
According to Roig et al., (2006), the key dimensions or values are two, namely: (i) the functional 
dimension which primarily focuses on how the individual measures value from rational and 
economic point of view. A typical item under this perceived value dimension is brand quality from 
the customer’s perspective and (ii) the affective dimension which relates to the individual 
customer’s emotional and social behavior in a given purchase and consumption setting. 
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Accordingly, the affective dimension can be measured in terms of the customer’s feelings and also 
the social impact of the purchase (Roig et al., 2006; Sweeney and Soutar, 2001). Contributing to 
the multidimensionality of perceived value, scholar such as Sheth et al. (1991) put forward a five-
key dimension of perceived value which they listed as including, the social, the emotional, the 
functional, the conditional and the epistemic dimensions. Roig et al., (2006) provided explanations 
to these dimensions as follows:  
(a) Functional value: - this measures the perception of a given product or brand in terms 
of its functionality or the utility to the customer.  
(b) Emotional value: - this measures the perception of a given product or brand in terms 
of the effect or feelings or emotions that are ignited in the consumers as a result of 
exposure, purchase and or consumption of the said product or brand (Schiffman and 
Kanuk, 2007).  
(c) Social value: - this measures the perception of the individual in terms of what 
members of his or her social environment thinks of his acquisition and or purchase of a 
given brand or product. The concerns or psychological puzzle of the consumer usually has 
to do with whether the acquisition and or consumption of a particular brand or product will 
elicit favorable responses or ridicule from his or her social environment.  
(d) Epistemic value: - this measures the perception of the individual consumer in terms of 
the products’ capability to shock, provoke interest or please the craving for understanding 
(Roig et al., 2006).  
(e) Conditional value: - according to Sheth et al., (1991), uncertain value describes or 
refers to imaginary or situational elements such as sickness or precise social 
circumstances. Just like other scholars, De Ruyter et al. (1997) put forward a thorough 
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method in the gauging of perceived value. Here, value measurement considers both the 
cognitive response (value for money) as well as the affective component. These two 
components yields three specific dimensions called the emotional, functional, and logical 
dimensions. As explained earlier, emotional dimension simply is the customer’s affective 
appraisal of a given service encounter. The functional element deals with the practical 
aspects of the service encounter. With regard to the logical dimension, quality and the 
price are the main considerations. The logical dimension can also be described in terms of 
the popular catch phrase called “value for money” consideration.  
According to Sweeney and Soutar (2001), epistemic and conditional dimensions as put 
forward by Sheth et al. (1991) are not relevant measures of value and were thus reduced 
from the original five dimensions to three namely functional value, social value and 
emotional value. To this end Sweeney and Soutar (2001) established a measurement scale 
called the PERVAL which is made up of the items described below:  
Functional dimension involve factors including price (value for money), perceived product 
or service quality, and adaptability, which refers to flexibility and realism of the product. 
The other two dimensions of the PERVAL are the social and emotional dimensions which 
also describe the set of intangibles elements that affect the association between the 
customer and the service provider (Roig, 2006). 
 
2.7 Conceptual Framework 
The proposed conceptual framework studies the connection between brand revitalization 
and consumer-based brand equity mediated with customer perceived value. The model is 
presented in Figure 1.1. The rest of the sections are used to explain the association 
between the variables of the model. 
  
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Figure 1.1: Conceptual Framework for the Study 
 
 
Customer Perceived Value 
 
 
 
 
Customer Based Brand Equity 
 
Brand Awareness 
  B rand Revitalization  Brand Association/Image 
        Perceived Brand Quality 
 
 Brand Loyalty 
 
The overall model for the study and the hypotheses (H1-H4 and H5 a, b, c, & d) to be tested 
are presented in Figure 1.1, and explained in the sections that follow. The model assumes 
that BR practices are directly related to CBBE, but could also be indirectly mediated 
through CPV. Consequently, brand revitalization and how it influences the variables of 
CBBE are discoursed below. 
2.7.1 Brand Revitalization and Brand Awareness  
Recovery of latent brand yields a lot of returns for the business once it is well crafted and 
done in the correct conditions. Brands denote the scholarly and passionate relations that 
customers establish with a business, offering or an individual (Wansink and Huffman, 
2001). BR is defined as the “process that aims at keeping the brand fresh, vital and 
relevant in the contemporary market (Merrilees, 2005), by obtaining new sources of brand 
equity or by recapturing lost ones to achieve the intended positioning (Keller, 1999, pp. 
102-124)”. 
Other numerous authors (Müller et al., 2013; Lehu, 2004; Keller, 1999) write on brand 
revitalization (BR), which principally comprises the idea of energizing the graphical 
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features of a particular offering. By the preceding awareness, it is prudent to resolve that a 
modification in the customer’s comprehension of an offering is attained and therefore, a 
modification in the buyer and brand association is realized after brand revitalization. Babu, 
(2006), associates brand recovery with brand rejuvenation and deems it a type of restoring 
an offering, a procedure that also comprises the reinforcement of the offering’s 
uniqueness.  
Brand rejuvenation is essential when a new player in the market may have occupied the 
category and the company is hustling to make profits from the existing product. A new 
alternative of the product or brand has to be presented and introduced into the market and 
so the company can recapture market share (Horwitz and Weinberger, 2005).  
From the above, it is clear that, brand revitalization is not done only when the brand is 
dead but even when new players come into the market with a similar brand and the old 
brand is no longer doing very well, the brand has to be made fresh, vital and relevant in 
the contemporary market in order to obtain new sources of brand equity or recapture lost 
ones to achieve the intended position as opined by Merrilees, (2005) and Keller, (1999). 
According to Aaker (1991) brand awareness describes “the ability of a potential buyer to 
recognize or recall that a brand is a member of a certain product category”. Brand 
awareness can thus be described as consumers’ capability to categorize or identify the 
brand. In more specific terms, awareness is conceptualized and measured in terms of recall 
and recognition (Aaker, 1991; Keller, 1993), top-of mind, brand supremacy, brand 
awareness and brand opinion (Aaker, 1996) of a given brand as having certain associations 
that are in consumer’s memory. According to Kotler and Lee (2005), these associations 
may be activated by such brand elements like brand name, symbol, logo, package among 
many other marketing stimuli.  
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The importance of brand awareness as a crucial component in the composition of CBBE 
cannot be overemphasized (see Aaker 1991; Agarwal and Rao, 1996; Krishnan, 1996). 
This study therefore proposes that: 
H1: Brand revitalization positively influences Brand Awareness 
2.7.2 Brand Revitalization and Brand Association/Image  
Recovery of latent brand yields a lot of returns for the business once it is well crafted and 
done in the correct conditions. Brands denote the scholarly and passionate relations that 
customers establish with a business, offering or an individual (Wansink and Huffman, 
2001). BR is defined as the “process that aims at keeping the brand fresh, vital and 
relevant in the contemporary market (Merrilees, 2005, pp. 201-210), by obtaining new 
sources of brand equity or by recapturing lost ones to achieve the intended positioning 
(Keller, 1999, pp. 102-124)”. 
Other numerous authors (Müller et al., 2013; 2009; Lehu, 2004; Keller, 1999) write on 
brand revitalization (BR), which principally comprises the idea of energizing the graphical 
features of a particular offering. By the preceding awareness, it is prudent to resolve that a 
modification in the customer’s comprehension of an offering is attained and therefore, a 
modification in the buyer and brand association is realized after brand revitalization. Babu, 
(2006), associates brand recovery with brand rejuvenation and deems it a type of restoring 
an offering, a procedure that also comprises the reinforcement of the offering’s 
uniqueness.  
Brand rejuvenation is essential when a new player in the market may have occupied the 
category and the company is hustling to make profits from the existing product. A new 
alternative of the product or brand has to be presented and introduced into the market and 
so the company can recapture market share (Horwitz and Weinberger, 2005).  
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From the above, it is clear that, brand revitalization is not done only when the brand is 
dead but even when new players come into the market with a similar brand and the old 
brand is no longer doing very well, the brand has to be made fresh, vital and relevant in 
the contemporary market in order to obtain new sources of brand equity or recapture lost 
ones to achieve the intended position as opined by Merrilees, (2005) and Keller, (1999). 
Marketing management is essentially about satisfying consumers by understanding the 
reasons for their purchase and consumption related behavior (Schiffman and Kanuk, 2007; 
Aaker, 1991). Because consumer behavior is influenced by multiple set of factors, 
marketers often consider the image of their brands as crucial for marketplace success. The 
brand’s image is thus dependent on the various associations that are linked to the brand in 
consumers’ memory. These associations are simply the totality of what the brand means to 
consumers. Brand association is considered useful as it generates effect or feelings or 
certain emotional states that can provide actual and potential customers with reasons for 
purchase among other consumption related behaviors. Brand association is thus seen in 
terms of the totality of brand-related thoughts, feelings, perceptions, images, experiences, 
beliefs, and attitudes. The importance of brand association as a concept therefore, lies in 
its linkage with consumer purchase decision and brand loyalty.  
This knowledge is what led Aaker (1992, pp. 27-32) to consider brand association as “the 
most accepted aspect of brand equity”. It is also important to add that marketers see brand 
associations basically in terms of anything that is linked in memory to a given brand either 
through direct experience and or through vicarious learning (Pappu et al., 2005; Schiffman 
and Kanuk, 2007). This point is buttressed by Pappu et al., (2005) who reiterated that 
brand association tend to be stronger where the consumer has many experience or 
exposures to communications, and when a network of other links supports it. Brand 
associations thus represent what a brand is to customers (Aaker, 1991) that are stored in 
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their memories in a form of a schema (Schiffman and Kanuk, 2007). Keller and Lehmann 
(2003) has also pointed out that to achieve brand equity; managers need to ensure that 
consumers perceive the brand as unique, strong, and favorable. This study therefore 
proposes that: 
H2: Brand revitalization has a positively significant effect on Brand Association/Image 
2.7.3 Brand Revitalization and Perceived Brand Quality  
Recovery of latent brand yields a lot of returns for the business once it is well crafted and 
done in the correct conditions. Brands denote the scholarly and passionate relations that 
customers establish with a business, offering or an individual (Wansink and Huffman, 
2001). BR is defined as the “process that aims at keeping the brand fresh, vital and 
relevant in the contemporary market (Merrilees, 2005, pp. 201-210), by obtaining new 
sources of brand equity or by recapturing lost ones to achieve the intended positioning 
(Keller, 1999, pp. 102-124)”. 
Other numerous authors (Müller et al., 2013; Lehu, 2004; Keller, 1999) write on brand 
revitalization (BR), which principally comprises the idea of energizing the graphical 
features of a particular offering. By the preceding awareness, it is prudent to resolve that a 
modification in the customer’s comprehension of an offering is attained and therefore, a 
modification in the buyer and brand association is realized after brand revitalization. Babu, 
(2006), associates brand recovery with brand rejuvenation and deems it a type of restoring 
an offering, a procedure that also comprises the reinforcement of the offering’s 
uniqueness.  
Brand rejuvenation is essential when a new player in the market may have occupied the 
category and the company is hustling to make profits from the existing product. A new 
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alternative of the product or brand has to be presented and introduced into the market and 
so the company can recapture market share (Horwitz and Weinberger, 2005).  
From the above, it is clear that, brand revitalization is not done only when the brand is 
dead but even when new players come into the market with a similar brand and the old 
brand is no longer doing very well, the brand has to be made fresh, vital and relevant in 
the contemporary market in order to obtain new sources of brand equity or recapture lost 
ones to achieve the intended position as opined by Merrilees, (2005) and Keller, (1999). 
Based on the dictates of customer orientation philosophy to marketing, customer perceived 
quality has severally been identified as one of the key dimensions of CBBE (see Aaker 
1991, 1996; Kamakura and Russell, 1993; Feldwick 1996). It is useful to mention that 
quality issues must be practically seen from the spectacles of the customer or the target 
market if an organization is aimed at increasing CBBE for competitive and marketing 
advantages (Lai et al., 2009; Zeithaml, 1988). Extant literature suggests that quality is a 
multi-dimensional construct that depends on several factors and subject to consumer’s 
judgement. In other words, the consumer is the final arbiter in quality issues and therefore 
marketing effort must necessarily aim at satisfying the customer (Zeithaml, 1988). This is 
to say that perceived quality is not necessarily the actual quality of the product but the 
consumer’s subjective evaluation of a given brand or product. Similarly, Pappu et al., 
(2005) reasoned that perceived quality of a brand is a measure of value as it provides 
customers with reasons to buy one product over the other. In the discussion of CBBE 
therefore, quality issues need to focus on the customer. This is because the concept of 
quality is essentially as a matter of perception based on attributes or cues important to the 
customer (Acebrón and Dopico, 2000). Thus, this study suggests that: 
H3: Brand revitalization has a positively significant effect on Perceived Brand Quality  
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2.7.4 Brand Revitalization and Brand Loyalty 
Recovery of latent brand yields a lot of returns for the business once it is well crafted and 
done in the correct conditions. Brands denote the scholarly and passionate relations that 
customers establish with a business, offering or an individual (Wansink and Huffman, 
2001). BR is defined as the “process that aims at keeping the brand fresh, vital and 
relevant in the contemporary market (Merrilees, 2005, pp. 201-210), by obtaining new 
sources of brand equity or by recapturing lost ones to achieve the intended positioning 
(Keller, 1999, pp. 102-124)”. 
Other numerous authors (Müller et al., 2013; Lehu, 2004; Keller, 1999) write on brand 
revitalization (BR), which principally comprises the idea of energizing the graphical 
features of a particular offering. By the preceding awareness, it is prudent to resolve that a 
modification in the customer’s comprehension of an offering is attained and therefore, a 
modification in the buyer and brand association is realized after brand revitalization. Babu, 
(2006), associates brand recovery with brand rejuvenation and deems it a type of restoring 
an offering, a procedure that also comprises the reinforcement of the offering’s 
uniqueness.  
Brand rejuvenation is essential when a new player in the market may have occupied the 
category and the company is hustling to make profits from the existing product. A new 
alternative of the product or brand has to be presented and introduced into the market and 
so the company can recapture market share (Horwitz and Weinberger, 2005).  
From the above, it is clear that, brand revitalization is not done only when the brand is 
dead but even when new players come into the market with a similar brand and the old 
brand is no longer doing very well, the brand has to be made fresh, vital and relevant in 
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the contemporary market in order to obtain new sources of brand equity or recapture lost 
ones to achieve the intended position as opined by Merrilees, (2005) and Keller, (1999). 
To Aaker (1991, p. 15) brand loyalty is “the attachment that a consumer has to a brand”. 
Thus, customer loyalty describes the attitude of repurchase from the same company. 
Similarly, Keller, (2009) conceptualize loyalty in terms of the commitment to re-patronize 
a preferred brand or product of a company. Customer loyalty is thus expressed in terms of 
systematic purchases of same brand by a particular customer or group of customers. It has 
been noted by Uddin (2012) that loyalty has a sentimental issue and a relative attitude. The 
sentimental component relates to the consumer’s psychological reaction and passion in 
terms of the purchase and use of a given product or service. This sentimental behavior can 
equally be equated to customer retention (see: Gustafsson and Johnson, 2002). An 
insightful description of loyalty is captured in Uddin, (2012, pp. 242-256) where “loyalty 
is a function of biased psychological process with respect to one or more available 
alternative brands that is expressed over time by an individual or a group to repurchase 
such brands”. Customer loyalty is accordingly measured by looking at the “effectiveness 
of the relationship between repurchase intentions and relative attitude.  
According to Fayrene and Lee (2011), loyalty is an essential element of brand equity. In a 
highly competitive market, customer loyalty holds the key to success. Loyalty describes 
the level of connection that a customer has towards a brand (Aaker, 1991; Gremler & 
Brown, 1996). According to Oliver et al. (1997, pp. 311-336) brand loyalty describes “a 
deeply held commitment to rebuy or patronize a preferred product/service consistently in 
the future, thereby causing repetitive same-brand or same brand set purchasing despite 
situational influences and marketing efforts having the potential to cause switching 
behavior”. Loyalty is often measured in terms of the frequency or the repeated purchases 
of a given product or service that a consumer undertakes over a given period of time. 
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Loyalty is thus seen in terms of repeated purchases (Keller, 1998; Pappu et al., 2005), or 
customers commitment to repeat purchase (Oliver et al., 1997).  
According to Aaker (1996) a brand’s ability to command premium price is a key indicator 
of loyalty. Brands that enjoy high loyalty from customers tend to enjoy high consumer 
awareness and rank high in consumer evoked set. From the foregoing, it is useful to 
mention that there are two key perspectives of brand loyalty namely, the attitudinal and 
behavioral perspectives (see: Yoo and Donthu, 2001; Pappu et al., 2005). From the 
attitudinal perspective, brand loyalty simply describes consumers’ tendency to be loyal to 
a particular brand which is manifested by “the intention to buy the brand as a primary 
choice”. The definition of brand loyalty from the behavioral perspective is concerned with 
the consumer’s actual loyalty to the brand as reflected in purchase choices. This research 
therefore recommends that: 
H4: Brand revitalization positively influences Brand Loyalty. 
2.7.5 The mediating role of Customer perceived value  
Perceived value is defined as ‘‘the consumer’s general appraisal of the usefulness of a 
product (or service) founded on insights of the trade off and the benefit’’ (Zeithaml, 1988), 
i.e. a trade-off between perceived paybacks and perceived expenses. Holbrook (1999) 
recommends a typology of significance built on three scopes: self-oriented vs. other-
oriented, active vs. reactive, and extrinsic vs. intrinsic. Contemporary scholarly works 
propose that perceived value may be a better forecaster of re-buy intents than either 
satisfaction or quality (Cronin et al., 2000; Oh, 2000). Perceived value can be examined 
with either a self-reported, unidimensional measure (Gale, 1994) or a multidimensional 
scale (Petrick & Backman, 2002; Sheth, Newman, & Gross, 1991). However, the 
legitimacy of unidimensional measure is always criticized due to its hypothesis that 
consumers have a shared meaning of value (Chen & Chen 2010). Differently, 
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multidimensional scale can overcome the validity problem by operationalizing perceived 
value by, for example, a five-dimensional construct consisting of social, emotional, 
functional, epistemic, and conditional responses (Sheth et al., 1991). SERV-PERVAL 
scale proposed by Petrick and Backman (2002) is another example which includes five 
dimensions: i.e. quality, monetary price, non-monetary price, reputation, and emotional 
response. Preceding studies have suggested that perceived quality and monetary price are 
two central antecedents of perceived value (Duman & Mattila, 2005), and perceived value 
is a significant antecedent to satisfaction and behavioral intentions (Cronin et al., 2000; 
Dodds, Monroe, & Grewal, 1991; McDougall & Levesque, 2000). According to Kotler 
and Lee (2005), customer perceived value is measured as the variance between the total 
customer value and total customer cost. Perceived value does act as a mediating variable 
in the overall association between perceived service quality and customer satisfaction. The 
mediating variable can be clearly measured when a formerly substantial effect of predictor 
variables is reduced to non-significant or reduced in terms of effect size after the inclusion 
of mediator variables into the analysis (Baron and Kenny, 1986). In the opinion of Aker 
(1991) perceived quality delivers worth by providing a reason to buy, distinguishing the 
brand, enticing channel member interest, being the basis for line extensions, and assisting 
a higher price. It is therefore hypothesized that: 
H5: Customer Perceived Value mediates the association between BR and CBBE. This 
therefore leads to the development of the following sub-hypothesis for the independent 
variable of BR and the dependent variables of CBBE (brand awareness, brand 
image/association, perceived brand quality & brand loyalty). 
H5a: The relationship between brand revitalization and brand awareness is mediated by 
customer perceived value. 
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H5b: The relationship between brand revitalization and brand image/association is mediated 
by customer perceived value. 
H5c: The relationship between brand revitalization and perceived brand quality is mediated 
by customer perceived value. 
H5d: The relationship between brand revitalization and brand loyalty is mediated by 
customer perceived value. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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CHAPTER THREE 
CONTEXT OF THE STUDY 
3.0 Introduction  
This chapter provides an explanation of the setting in which the study was undertaken. It 
gives a brief overview of manufacturing industry in Ghana and how it has developed over 
the years. It details some challenges and regulatory changes within the industry and how it 
has affected the industry. It further gave an account of fast moving consumer goods 
(FMCGs) industry in Ghana and looked at the company profile of Nestlé international and 
narrowed it down to Nestlé Ghana Limited. 
 
3.1 The history of manufacturing in Ghana 
The drive to increase the quota of the industrial sectors to Gross Domestic Product from 
10% in 1960 to 14% in 1970 brought the creation of more industries in 1957, after Ghana 
gained independence (Clark N.L., 1994). The effort to bring about this change hit some 
challenges like devaluation of the cedi and shortage of hard-currency to import raw 
materials (Ibid). The move for industrialization was to stimulate capital and rigorous 
manufacturing which originated in the middle of the 1960s with the creation of the 
Akosombo Dam. The Dam was created to enhance the activities of VALCO to produce 
more for export and local consumption. Due to the dependence of the Akosombo Dam on 
climate, a drought hit the country in 1983 to 1985 which resulted in the shutdown of the 
VALCO. There was also devaluation of the country’s currency in 1983 making it 
expensive and uneconomical to import raw materials for production (Clark N.L., 1994). 
During the 1990s, a lot of companies in the country were closed down due this phenomena 
creating unemployment in the country and making the country unattractive for foreign 
natives to invest in the country’s industrial sector i.e. affecting direct capital inflows. The 
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economic recovery program adopted by the government was a grim and impossible for the 
country to support the local industries to revive their business (Adu-Boanyah et al., 2013). 
Governments around the world seek the welfare of the people in their country, the 
government of Ghana in 1986, inaugurated the Ghana Insurance College (GIC) to assist in 
creating new enterprises. 
 
3.2 Fast Moving Consumer Goods (FMCGs) 
Fast moving consumer goods are typically non-durable products that are consumed over a 
short period of time after which they would need to be replaced. Dewhirst and Davis 
(2005), these types of products are usually frequently purchased and are low priced, thus, 
requiring mass distribution and marketing communication focusing on their functional and 
psychological benefits. After consulting with two experienced marketers of fast moving 
consumer goods, namely, Darrel de Wet and David Earle, who have both held senior 
marketing management positions with leading fast moving consumer goods companies, it 
was agreed that typical fast moving consumer goods would include, for example, food, 
beverages, stationery, batteries, camera film, vitamin supplements, headache tablets, 
shaving blades, toiletries and alcohol. It is imperative that these types of products are 
extensively distributed such that they are always available to the consumer as and when 
required. Since consumers allocate a minimum amount of time to the decision-making 
process when contemplating the purchase of convenience products, they are not afraid to 
switch brands if their preferred brands are not available. To counter the brand-switching of 
consumers, it is important to devise consumer promotions that are innovative and 
effectively involve the end-user so that brand insistence is encouraged. Additionally, the 
packaging of fast moving consumer goods should capture the attention of the consumer 
and convey the correct image of the product and the brand. Some manufacturers, for 
example, Colgate and Heinz have been very successful in achieving the brand leader status 
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in the United States for the toothpaste and baked beans categories, respectively. 
Consumers have become so familiar with these brand names and the values that they 
project that toothpaste and baked beans are often referred to as Colgate and Heinz, 
respectively, that is, the brand is used to refer to the product category (Ratnatunga and 
Ewing 2005).  
 
3.3 Nestle Ghana Limited Company Profile and History 
Henri Nestlé, a pharmacist, in 1860s produced a food for children who were incapable of 
breastfeeding. His first achievement was a premature infant who could not accept his 
mother’s milk or any of the usual alternatives. Consumers swiftly acknowledged the value 
of the new product, after Henri’s new formula save the baby’s life, and soon, Farine 
Lacteé Henri Nestlé was sold in most of the European countries.   
Nestlé S.A. is a Swiss transnational food and drink company headquartered 
in Vevey, Vaud, Switzerland. It has been the largest food company in the world, measured 
by revenues and other metrics, for 2014, 2015, and 2016.  It ranked No. 72 on the Fortune 
Global 500 in 2014 and No. 33 on the 2016 edition of the Forbes Global 2000 list of 
largest public companies. 
Nestlé's products include baby food, medical food, bottled water, breakfast cereals, coffee 
and tea, confectionery, dairy products, ice cream, frozen food, pet foods, and snacks. 
Twenty-nine of Nestlé's brands have annual sales of over 1 billion (about US$1.1 billion) 
including Nespresso, Nescafé, Kit Kat, Smarties, Nesquik, Stouffer's, Vittel, and Maggi. 
Nestlé has 447 factories, operates in 194 countries, and employs around 339,000 people. It 
is one of the main shareholders of L'Oreal, the world's largest cosmetics company. 
Nestlé Ghana Limited commenced operations in Ghana in 1957 under the transaction 
name of Nestlé Products (GH) Limited and imported some of Nestlé products such as milk 
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and chocolates. In 1968, it was incorporated as Food Specialties (GH) Limited to produce 
and sell popular local Nestlé brands. In 1987, the name of the company was changed to 
Nestlé Ghana Limited. In 1971 the production of Ideal Milk and Milo commenced at the 
Tema factory. The factory has since been further expanded and now also produces 
Carnation milks, Chocolim, Chocomilo, Cerevita, Cerelac and Nescafé 3 in 1. These 
products are not only produced for Ghana but also exported across West Africa. In 2003, 
Nestlé Ghana Limited invested in a new warehouse, the Central Distribution center, 
located next to the factory in Tema. The company also runs sales offices with warehouses 
in Kumasi, Takoradi, Koforidua and Tamale. The commercial activity of Nestlé Ghana 
Limited is a direct contribution to the Ghanaian economy. For all these and other 
endeavors, Nestlé Ghana Limited has been recognized by Government and other bodies as 
a responsible citizen.  
In Country Location 
33 Motorway Extension, North Dzorwulu, Accra, Greater Accra Region. 
Telephone: +233 (0)302 500701 
Telefax: +233 (0)302 501195 /501196 
Services and Products  
Marketing well-known brands such as: Ideal Full Cream Evaporated Milk, Carnation 
Filled Milk, Carnation Tea Creamer, Milo, Chocomilo, Chocolim, Cerevita Porridges, 
Cerelac Maize/Milk and Cerelac Wheat/Milk. Nestlé Ghana also imports and distributes 
brands such as: Nido Milk Powder, Lactogen Infant Formula, NAN Infant Formula, 
Nescafe Soluble Coffee, and Maggi Bouillon's and Cold Sauces and under the brand 
Maggi Bouillons, Seasoning Powders such as Nkrakra Pa and Cold Sauces like Ketchup, 
AROME and MAYONNAISE. 
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Business Objective 
Nestlé's business objective is to manufacture and market the Company's products in such a 
way as to create value that can be sustained over the long term for shareholders, 
employees, consumers, and business partners. 
In Ghana its objective is to be “the number one company not only in business terms and 
the highest profit making business but also the best employer, the most socially 
responsible citizen and ethically sound company.” 
Strategic pillars: 
Innovation & renovation; Operational efficiency; whenever, wherever, however; 
Consumer communication. “The priority is to excel in four core competences. 
Innovation & renovation drives nutrition, health and wellness and places our brands ahead 
of the competition. Operational efficiency creates gaps with our competitors through our 
focus on excellence in operational performance. Whenever, wherever, however ensures 
our products are always available, whilst consumer communication keeps consumers 
abreast of the innovation and renovation and builds our brands’ reputations. But Consumer 
communication is two-way: it also informs our innovation and renovation and thus the 
cycle begins again, with consumer-relevant innovation and research.” 
Competitive advantages: 
Unmatched product and brand portfolio; Unmatched R&D capability; unmatched 
geographic presence; people, culture, values and attitude. 
Growth drivers: 
Emerging markets and popularly positioned products; Nutrition, Health and Wellness; 
Out-of-home leadership; Premiumisation. 
  
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Emerging markets and popularly positioned products: 
“We are well placed to benefit from the projected population increase in the developing 
world (estimated to grow by 3.3 billion between 2000 and 2050) as well as rising incomes. 
We are also successfully targeting CHF 1.3 trillion of sales made in the traditional grocery 
trade in the ten largest emerging countries. Indeed we expect at least to double our sales in 
emerging markets in the next ten years (in constant currencies). Our Popularly Positioned 
Products (PPP) appeal to the lower income segment (the world has 2.8 billion consumers 
earning less than US$ 10 a day) by offering relevant and good quality nutritious products, 
particularly beverages, dairy, culinary and confectionery, at price points that enable these 
consumers to buy them on a daily basis. In so doing, they help deliver a balanced 
nutritional diet for consumers, profitable growth for Nestlé, and contribute to the 
economies of emerging countries and their people. PPP accounted for about 6% of our 
food and beverage sales and achieved organic growth of 27.4% in 2008. Our PPP strategy 
is built on a low-cost business model that relies on local sourcing, local manufacture and 
local distribution to take cost out of all areas of the business. We train micro-distributors, 
often financed by our micro-loans, and provide vending carts that can reach market stalls 
and small shops that account for much of the retail space in emerging countries. In this 
way, PPP are a source of income for street traders and individual distributors.” 
Ownership of Business 
Nestle Ghana Ltd Accra: 76%  
Government acting through the National Investment Bank (24%) 
Product Development 
Nestlé Ghana Limited has its factory located in Tema. Some few years ago, expansion 
works were done at the Tema Factory. This was necessitated by increased in production to 
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meet demand. The Nestlé Group has made a commitment to invest in Africa to build an 
economically empowered industry.  Nestlé started its operations in Ghana in 1957 with the 
trade of milk and chocolates. In 1968, it began local manufacturing and today employs 
1813 people. The Tema factory was inaugurated in 1971, with the production of Ideal 
Milk and Milo. The factory has since expanded to produce Carnation Milk, Chocolim, 
Chocomilo, Cerelac and Nescafé 3-in 1. These products are not only produced for Ghana 
but also exported across Central and West Africa. The company recently launched the 
Milo 800g format which offers another choice to the consumer.  
Over a period of 3 years, Nestlé has invested CHF 38 million (equivalent to 125 million 
Ghana Cedis) in expansion capacities in the Tema Factory. In 2012, the company invested 
in a new water treatment plant. 
The Tema factory significantly reduced its water usage from 5.64 cubic meters per tonne 
of product in 2010 to 3.97 cubic meters per tonne of product in April 2014.   
The Company has invested a further CHF1.1 million in 2014 in a pre-treatment system to 
further improve the effluent quality and to ensure that at least 30% of the waste water is 
reused for non-core activities. All of these actions are in line with Nestlé’s commitments 
to water and environmental sustainability. 
Through its Tema Factory, the company has consistently over the years provided a wide 
range of healthy food options to the Ghanaian consumer. 
Through research and development Nestlé has fortified its CERELAC and MAGGI 
products with iron, to help address the issue of micronutrient deficiency which is prevalent 
in our sub-region. This is one example of the company’s Creating Shared Value approach. 
Nestlé also manufactures through the local sourcing of grains. Through the Nestlé Grains 
Quality Improvement Project, farmers are trained on best farming methods to increase 
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their yield for higher income and to also provide good quality grain for home consumption 
thereby reducing the incidence of microtoxins in the grains due to bad farming practices.  
Nestlé continues to assure the general public of its commitment to Nutrition, Health & 
Wellness and of its commitment in promoting local industry and manufacturing in Ghana 
without compromising on safety, compliance and consumer satisfaction. 
  
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CHAPTER FOUR 
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 
4.0 Introduction  
This chapter gives a detailed description of the various methods employed in conducting 
the research. It discusses the process in which the study was carried out in order to arrive 
at conclusions for the research based on the set objectives of the study. Diverse 
methodological issues ranging from the philosophy underpinning the study, research 
approach and strategy, to data gathering and analysis techniques used are all discussed in 
detail in this chapter.  
 
4.1 Research Philosophy and Paradigms  
Research philosophy is the development of knowledge in a particular field and the nature 
in which that knowledge is propounded. Proctor (2005) stress that research philosophies 
are the basis on which every academic study is grounded. Saunders, Thornhill and Lewis 
(2007) are of the view that research philosophy is a signal of how the researcher views the 
world and that the conjectures made will drive the strategy and methods for the research. 
Therefore, one cannot overlook research philosophy as doing so will have an adverse 
effects on the quality of work that will be produced. Saunders et al. (2007) placed research 
philosophies into three main perspectives: epistemology, ontology and axiology. Malhotra 
and Birks (2006) define research paradigms as “a set of assumptions consisting of agreed-
upon knowledge, criteria of judgment, problem fields, and ways to consider them”. In his 
opinion, Kuhn (1970) define paradigms as “a set of beliefs, values and techniques which is 
shared by members of a scientific community, and which acts as a guide or map, dictating 
the kinds of problems scientists should address and the types of explanations that are 
acceptable to them”. Saunders et al (2007, pp. 310-352) define a paradigm as “a way of 
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examining social phenomena from which particular understandings of these phenomena 
can be gained and explanations attempted”. Accordingly, paradigms serve as an aid in the 
clarification and summarization of epistemologies and ontologies (Burrell & Morgan, 
1979).  
Epistemology has to do with what is acceptable, adequate and legitimate knowledge 
within a field of study and the researcher is distant or independent from what is being 
studied (Saunders et al., 2007; Blakie, 2010). Under this perspective are positivist, realist 
and interpretivist philosophies (Saunders et al., 2007). Positivist, according to Remenyi et 
al. (1998, p.32) involves “working with an observable social reality and that the end 
product of such research can be law-like generalizations similar to those produced by the 
physical and natural scientists”. Ontological perspectives relate to the nature of reality 
based on the assumptions researchers make and their commitment to certain views 
(Saunders et al., 2007) as well as types of social phenomena that exist and conditions 
under which they exist and how they relate (Blaikie, 2010). Saunders et al. (2007, pp. 310-
352) group ontological perspectives as “Objectivism (that social entities exist in reality 
external to social actors), Subjectivism (that social phenomena are created from the 
perceptions and consequent actions of social actors) and Pragmatism”. On the other hand 
axiology is concerned with “studying judgment about value” (Saunders et al., 2007, pp. 
310-352) and in this perspective Heron (1997) posit that one’s values guides all human 
actions. Downward and Mearman (2007), Beverland and Lindgreen (2010), and Jernigan 
(2010) point out that, amongst the several existing philosophical views, the major 
paradigms that dominate and reflect the most theoretical guidelines in social science 
research are critical realism, interpretivism, positivism, realism and relativism approaches. 
Malhotra and Birks (2006) also acknowledge that empiricism (source of all knowledge is 
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based on experience) and more specifically positivism are the most dominant perspectives 
in the development of new theories in marketing research.  
Positivism, as described earlier, shares the view that consumer and marketing studies 
should be ‘scientific’ in the manner of the natural sciences (Malhotra & Birks, 2006). The 
positivistic approach is established on a conviction that the study of human behavior 
should be conducted in the same way as studies conducted in the natural sciences (Collis 
& Hussey, 2003). This approach attempts to establish causal links and relationships 
between the different elements (or variables) under study and relate them to a specific 
concept or practice (Neville, 2007). This, therefore, makes the researcher independent of 
the study, thus becoming less biased. Realism views that there is truth, which is very 
independent from the human mind (Saunders et al., 2007). Bickerton (2000) holds that 
social phenomena is understood through the development and testing of hypothesis to 
establish relationships between variables. This is similar to the positivist approach as it 
also “assumes a scientific approach to knowledge development” (Saunders et al., 2007, pp. 
310).  
 
4.2 Research Purpose  
Robson (2002) indicates that the main purpose for conducting research is exploratory, 
explanatory and descriptive. Malhotra and Birks (2006) categorizes research purpose into 
exploratory design and conclusive design. Social sciences research however also classifies 
research purpose as exploratory, descriptive and explanatory (Saunders et al., 2007). 
Descriptive research attempts to systematically describe a situation, problem, or 
phenomena by providing facts about living conditions or a depiction of people’s attitudes 
towards issues (Kumar, 2011). Bhattacherjee (2012), indicates that research is directed at 
making careful observations and detailed documentation of a phenomenon of interest. The 
researcher of this perspective observes and vividly describes the observations made, which 
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is expressed either quantitatively or qualitatively (Babbie, 2004). Boateng (2014) indicates 
that, in systematically describing a situation or phenomena, it is usually as the question 
“what”. 
Exploratory research is undertaken purposely to explore an area where little knowledge 
has been acquired and usually a small scale study is undertaken to find out the possibilities 
of carrying out a detailed one (Kumar, 2011). According to Bhattacherjee (2012), 
exploratory studies are mostly carried out to: “(1) scope out the magnitude or extent of a 
particular phenomenon, problem, or behaviour, (2) generate some initial ideas (or 
“hunches”) about that phenomenon, or (3) test the feasibility of undertaking a more 
extensive study regarding that phenomenon. It serves as a valuable effort in discovering 
“what is happening; to seek insights to ask questions and to assess phenomena in new 
light” (Robson, 2002). Saunders et al. (2007) posit that it has advantages of being 
“flexible” and “adaptable” to change. On the other hand, explanatory research seeks to 
find cause and effects by establishing relationships between variables (Malhotra & Birks, 
2006). It endeavors to “connect the dots” in research, by detecting instrumental factors and 
consequences of the target phenomenon (Bhattacherjee, 2012). Explanatory research seeks 
to find or clarify how and why a relationship exist between two facets of a situation 
(Kumar, 2011). Inherently it uses an independent variable and dependent variables, which 
are manipulated in one way or the other and measured to deduce causality (Malhotra & 
Birks, 2006). This study therefore adopts an explanatory approach based on the above 
discussions to investigate the impact of brand revitalization (BR) on consumer-based 
brand equity (CBBE) mediated by customer perceived value (CPV).  
4.3 Research Approach  
Researchers over the years have discussed two general approaches that are widely used in 
business and management research describing them as quantitative and qualitative 
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research (Khotari, 2004; Dezin & Lincoln, 2000, pp. 1-28; Kumar, 2011). Saunders et al. 
(2007) as well as Creswell (2014) groups research approaches into mono, multi and mixed 
methods. They argue that mono methods uses a single data collection technique 
conducting the study whilst a multi method would employ more than one data gathering 
procedure from quantitative or qualitative research but not a combination of the two. 
However, the mixed method employs a combination of the both quantitative and 
qualitative approaches to make an enquiry. Kumar (2011) describes quantitative research 
approach as a structured enquiry where objectives and questions that are planned to ask 
respondents are predetermined. Qualitative approach conversely, is more often used to 
explore the nature of an issue or phenomena and allows for the flexibility to describe the 
situation (Cooper & Schindler, 2006). Researchers such as Saunders et al. (2007) from the 
above perspectives describe quantitative and qualitative studies as deductive and inductive 
approaches respectively. The major differences may also lie in the number of respondents 
from which data is collected and analyzed. These research approaches (qualitative, 
quantitative and mixed methods) are further delineated below.  
Qualitative Approach  
Qualitative research has been defined by Malhotra and Birks (2006) as “an unstructured, 
primarily exploratory design based on small samples, intended to provide insight and 
understanding”. This, they postulate, is made up of various approaches that can be flexibly 
used in order to allow respondents to “reflect upon and express their views or observe their 
behavior”. Such an approach aims at determining underlying motives and desires through 
the use of in-depth interviews (Kothari, 2004) and is most important in behavioral sciences 
in discovering underlying motives of human behavior (Saunders et al., 2007). According 
to Amarantunga et al. (2002) it involves having a close interaction with a small purposive 
sample over a lengthy time period. Arguments by Malhotra and Birks (2006) and 
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MacDonald and Headlam (2008), stand that qualitative research’s effort is to increase 
understanding of the essential motives and drives for actions and establishes how people 
interpret their experiences and the world around them generating ideas and/or hypotheses.  
Quantitative Approach  
This research approach is based on the measurement of amount or quantity (Kothari, 
2004) using numeric data such as scores and metrics and is amenable to statistical analysis 
such as regression and correlational analysis (Bhattacherjee, 2012). According to Creswell 
(2014), it is a method of testing objective philosophies through the investigation of the 
association between variables. It is more structured as it uses statistics to confirm or 
contradict conclusions or hypotheses drawn from theories on previous research (Kumar, 
2011; Boateng, 2014). Kumar (2011) further states that it “helps you to quantify the 
magnitude of an association or relationship, provide an indication of the confidence you 
can place in your findings and help you to isolate the effect of different variables”. It is 
predominantly used in instances where data collection tools such as questionnaires are 
used in the research process (Saunders et al., 2007). In literature, quantitative research is 
mostly associated with positivism or empirism paradigm (Smith, 1983). A quantitative 
approach will therefore be testing the relationships among variables using statistical data 
collection tools and analysis techniques from which deductions will be made to either 
accept or reject hypotheses based on theory. Although it employs a larger sample sizes 
some critics have argued that generalizations does not apply to all issues and that it lacks 
in-depth understanding to situations (Yin, 2003). 
Mixed Method Approach  
Generally, the term mixed method is used to refer to research, which employs both the 
qualitative and quantitative approaches (Saunders et al., 2007). Although scholars have the 
option of choosing between qualitative and quantitative approaches, Bhattacherjee (2012) 
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states that it is an approach that leads to generating unique insights in the scientific 
community. This is emphasized by Creswell (2014), in that the overall quality is greater 
than studies that employ a single approach in its investigations. Teddlie and Tashakkori 
(2003) argue that it is essential when it provides greater opportunities in answering 
research questions and allows for better evaluations on the extent to which results can be 
reliable and inferences be generated from. Boateng (2014) and Creswell (2009) indicate 
that the mixed methods approach can take three major forms, which are sequential, 
concurrent and transformative. Saunders et al. (2007) points that mixed method approach 
uses both the quantitative and qualitative simultaneously or in a sequential manner but 
does not combine them.  
From the above discussions, this study adopted a mixed method in addressing the 
objectives of the study. Thus, a qualitative data was acquired through an in-depth 
interview with an experienced sales team member of Nestle Ghana Limited. An interview 
guide was used in this regard. This exercise provided data in addressing the first objective 
of the study. Furthermore, a quantitative approach was used to address the second and 
third objectives of the study. In the bid to establish the impact of brand revitalization and 
customer perceived value on consumer-based brand equity, a mixed approach is deemed 
more suitable as we need a qualitative data from Nestle Ghana Limited to answer few 
questions and to set the tone for the research and quantitative data from the consumers 
through administering questionnaire.  
 
4.4 Research Strategy  
Research strategy is the procedures followed in order to gain understanding and provide 
answers to the research questions being asked. Saunders et al. (2007) indicates that there is 
no one best research strategy. Although some of the approaches belong to the inductive or 
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the deductive approach (Saunders et al., 2007) each of the strategies can be employed in 
exploratory, explanatory and descriptive research (Yin, 2003). Some major research 
strategies include the case study, experiment and survey.  
Case study 
The case study as defined by Robson (2002) is “a strategy for doing research which 
involves an empirical investigation of a particular contemporary phenomenon within its 
real life context using multiple sources of evidence”. The issue of context in this manner is 
also highlighted by Yin (2003) noting that, in a case study, the confines within which the 
phenomenon is being studied and its context are not very clear. According to Morris and 
Wood (1991), it is essential when the researcher wishes to gain in-depth understanding of 
the research setting and procedures being enacted. It has the capabilities of providing 
answers to questions of ‘why?’, ‘what?’ and ‘how?’ and can be in the form of a single case 
or multiple cases (Saunders et al., 2007).  
Experiment  
The purpose of experiment, according to Hakim (2000), is to study casual relationships to 
find out if a variation in one independent variable causes a modification in another 
dependent variable. It provides a logical and systematic means of providing an answer to 
the question “What will happen if this is done when certain variables are carefully 
controlled or manipulated?” (Kothari, 2004). According to Bhattacherjee (2012), it is one 
of the most rigorous strategies employed in research and best for conducting explanatory 
studies. Saunders et al. (2007) indicates that more often experiments are carried out in 
laboratories rather than in the field and is more expensive to conduct.  
  
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Survey  
This is a deductive approach which is used to answer the questions of “who”, “what”, 
“how much” and “how many” using a huge quantity of data from a “sizable” population 
(Saunders et al., 2007). They indicate that it permits you to gather quantitative data, which 
can be analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics. Survey research uses 
standardized questionnaires to gather data about people and their preferences in a 
systematic manner and has inherent strengths compared to other research techniques 
(Bhattacherjee, 2012). Survey strategy is best used when the study population of interest is 
very large and cannot be observed directly. Babbie (2004) indicates that it reflects the 
views of a larger populace using cautiously developed structured questionnaires to draw 
data from them in a similar manner. Malhotra and Birks (2006) indicate that, though it 
most often uses questionnaires, other data collection instruments such as structured 
observations and interviews can be employed. In view of these arguments, the study 
employed a survey strategy as it seeks to gain direct responses from a cross-section of 
Nestlé Ghana Limited consumers on their views on how brand revitalization mediated by 
customer perceived value impacts on their response to the marketing of the brand (CBBE).  
 
4.5 Research Design  
Research design is “the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a 
manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in 
procedure” (Selltiz, Deutsch & Cook, 1962). Saunders et al. (2009) purports that the 
“general plan” as to how you will answer your research objectives is what the research 
plan is about. It is basically about turning the research questions into a viable research 
project as indicated by Robson (2002). Maholtra and Birks (2006) connotes that the 
research design is the overall framework or blueprint, which serves as a guide giving 
details as to the processes necessary to obtain information to provide solutions to 
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marketing research issues. Thus, the research design lays the foundation for carrying out a 
project (Kothari, 2004). According to Bhattacherjee (2012), research design is a 
“comprehensive plan for data collection in an empirical research project”. Bhattacherjee 
(2012) further indicates that it is an empirical process aimed at providing answers to 
specific research questions or testing hypotheses using at least three main procedures: (1) 
data collection process; (2) the instrument development process; and (3) the sampling 
process. Saunders et al. (2007) also stress that it must specify the sources from which data 
will be collected and consideration given to constraints that will be inevitable such as data 
access, time, location and funds. A marketing research study needs a good research design, 
which will ensure it is conducted effectively and efficiently.  
 
4.6 Research Design Adopted  
From the various discussions held in the previous sections and grounded on Gill and 
Johnson (1997), the research clearly adopted a positivist approach using a methodology 
that was well structured with data collected on a qualitative and quantitative (mixed) basis 
and analyzed statistically. A review of existing literature helped in the formulation of 
research hypotheses, which were tested empirically to establish the relationship that exists 
between the dependent and independent variables. The study was explanatory in nature 
which sought to give clarification to a phenomena subject to the research situation by 
seeking to understand customers’ perception and how brand revitalization mediated by 
customer perceived value impacts on their response to the marketing of the brand (CBBE). 
A survey strategy was adopted (Saunders et al., 2007) in order to test the relationships 
between various latent variables and their importance of perception of brand revitalization 
and consumer-based brand equity. An interview guide was used to collect data from an 
experienced sales team member of Nestle Ghana and the findings were presented 
qualitatively to set the stage for quantitative data analysis. Structured questionnaires were 
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used in collecting information from respondents, which helped in providing statistical 
evidence of the impact of brand revitalization on consumer-based brand equity. A cross 
sectional time horizon was adopted as it studied a specific phenomenon at a particular 
period (Saunders et al., 2007) employing the survey strategy (Easterby-Smith et al., 2002; 
Robson, 2002). In addition, survey strategy has been mostly employed by scholars using 
cross-sectional time horizon in their studies such as Wu (2011), and Chahal and Bala 
(2012).  
 
4.7 Data Sources and Data Collection Techniques  
To undertake a research there is the need to obtain the right and required data. Data could 
sometimes be existing whereas in other cases data may not be available (Kumar, 2011). 
Saunders et al. (2007) indicate that, basically, there exists two main sources of data for 
conducting research, which are primary and secondary data. According to Maholtra and 
Birks (2007), primary data originates from the researcher for specific purposes of 
addressing a particular problem while secondary data consists of data gathered for other 
purposes than the current issue at hand. There are various ways of gathering primary data 
(Kumar, 2011). These include, but are not limited to, observation, questionnaires, and 
semi-structured, in-depth and group interviews (Saunders et al., 2007). Data collected 
from census, government and organizational publications, journals, magazines, 
newspapers, personal records among others constitute secondary data, which is 
information collected for purposes other than what is at stake (Kothari, 2004). This study 
adopted primary sources for data collection as it was deemed essential in obtaining direct 
responses on consumers’ views on the impact of brand revitalization on consumer-based 
brand equity and how this relationship is mediated by customer perceived value.  
Structured questionnaire was used, employing the survey strategy. Questionnaires were 
self-administered as the researcher sought to collect data that would be used to test the 
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relationship between variables using quantitative techniques. The use of questionnaires 
was found to be more affordable as collection of data involved a large sample size. 
Saunders et al. (2007) stress that the use of structured questionnaires with its standardized 
nature makes it easier to collect data as compared to other alternatives. The questionnaire 
was essential as each respondent was made to answer to the same set of questions making 
it an efficient way of gathering responses from a large sample prior to analyzing it 
quantitatively (Saunders et al., 2007). Another advantage of using the questionnaire is the 
fact that it is easy and simple to tabulate and analyze (Peterson, 2000). In order to 
minimize errors, misinterpretation and misconstruction it was pretested for reliability as 
stressed by Mitchel (1996). This was important as Saunders et al. (2007) opined that 
respondents may consistently interpret a question in a way that may be very far from what 
the researcher actually means.  
 
4.8 Questionnaire Design and Administration  
The questionnaire used in conducting the study was developed based on Saunders et al. 
(2007) who gives guidance on how to develop questionnaires for a survey, taking research 
questions and objectives into critical consideration. The early stages involved a careful 
blend of the relevant literature applicable to the ebb and flow of the study from which 
certain ideas in the current study model resulted from. The consequent activity involved 
developing new construct variables and their estimations in light of the literature that 
supports and underpins these ideas and variables. Thus, a first draft of the questionnaire 
was outlined after which a pre-test was conducted which comprised of thirty (30) 
consumers of Nestle Ghana Limited products. The pre-test was based on Fink (2003) cited 
in Saunders et al. (2007) who recommends that a base of ten (10) individuals for pre-
testing is satisfactory. The pre-test was completed with spotlight on the content, phrasing, 
groupings and difficulty of the questions in order to conclude on the applicability, 
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appropriateness and unwavering quality of the questions, and to take out uncertainty after 
which last amendments and the supervisor’s input were made by stating and clarifying the 
items measured.  
In all, the questionnaire was designed in two parts. The first part of the questionnaire 
captures the demographic characteristics of the respondents (gender, age, education) and 
other information, which were relevant to the study. The second segment, which has three 
categories, focused on the variables under the conceptual framework: brand revitalization; 
customer perceived value; and dimensions of consumer-based brand equity. In regard to 
the constructs within the research framework, consumer-based brand equity was measured 
with four items from Keller (2008), Aaker (1991), Lehmann, Keller and Farley (2008), 
and Tong and Hawley (2009). Overall, a total of 29 items were used and measured using a 
5-point Likert scale with “1” being “strongly disagree” and “5” as “strongly agree”.  
Data was collected within the Accra Metropolis by contacting those who were using any 
of the identified brands in the questionnaire seeking their consent to help fill the 
questionnaire. Places such as Churches, University of Ghana, Offices and Supermarkets 
were contacted and the questionnaires given to carefully identified respondents to 
complete.  
 
4.9 Population, Sample and Sampling Technique  
The set of cases from which the sample used in a study is drawn is called the population 
(Saunders et al., 2009). Maholtra and Birks (2006) indicate that the target population is 
made up of those people who possess the information needed to make inferences in a 
research. Kumar (2011) stress the need to clearly identify those who constitute the study 
population in order to select appropriate respondents to provide the needed information. 
Specifically identifying and defining the study population therefore makes the data 
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obtained very reliable for making judgments in a study. Attewell and Rule (1991) suggests 
that using theoretical sampling could be credible as sometimes the true population may not 
be reasonable enough. Using theoretical sampling helps in purposely selecting cases that 
have relevant information for the study.  
The population of the study was identified as those people who use brands from Nestle 
Ghana Limited within the Accra Metropolis. Accra was selected because from the 
researcher’s observation over the last five years, Nestle Ghana Limited’s products are 
widely used in Accra. Also, because there are a lot of middle income earners in Accra who 
are able to purchase this product, it will be easier to elicit the appropriate responses from 
the respondents. 
Sampling is a key element of any research work (Malhotra & Birks, 2006). This study, 
unlike some other studies which had smaller interest groups serving as the target, thus the 
likelihood to obtain data from the entire population being high, has a very large population 
therefore there was the need to employ sampling techniques. Malhotra and Birks (2006), 
Saunders et al., (2007), and Kumar (2011) indicate that, generally, there are two major 
sampling techniques, namely, nonprobability and probability sampling methods. 
According to Saunders et al. (2007) probability sampling techniques are more often 
associated with survey and experimental studies; whereas the non-probability sampling 
techniques relates more to case study researches, and are used in quantitative research in 
scenarios where the population is large. Probability sampling involves giving each element 
within the target population the equal chance of being selected (Kumar, 2011). Probability 
sampling techniques, as indicated by Kumar (2011), is imperative as it allows each case to 
be selected without the consideration of the researcher’s personal preferences. Saunders et 
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al. (2007) associates this sampling procedure with survey-based strategies giving five 
main techniques: simple random; systematic; stratified random; cluster; and multi-stage.  
In non-probability sampling, the chance of sample cases being equally selected is quiet 
lean as there is no basis for estimating the probability that an element within the sample 
will be included (Kothari, 2004). The researcher in this situation deliberately selects cases 
that will be involved in the study. Malhotra and Birks (2006) posits that non  probability 
sampling procedures rely, to an extent, on personal judgments indicating it may not be 
entirely representative of the populace; however, generalizations could still be made from 
it. Some classifications of non-probability sampling include; quota sampling, purposive 
sampling, snowball sampling, and convenience sampling procedures. According to 
Malhotra and Birks (2006), quota sampling is a technique that involves a two-stage 
restricted judgmental sampling. They indicate that initial stages involve the development 
of control categories or quotas of the population cases, for example based on gender and 
elements selected based on some level of judgment or convenience. Purposive sampling 
techniques’ primary concern is the use of judgments to select who can provide the best of 
information that will help achieve the objectives of the study (Kumar, 2011). Convenience 
sampling consists of selecting randomly those cases that are easiest to acquire for your 
sample (Saunders et al., 2007) with snowballing being used when the identification of 
members of the population is difficult to obtain (Saunders et al., 2007), with subsequent 
samples obtained through referrals (Malhotra and Birks, 2006). Non-probability sampling 
was used in this study to select samples as the population was large and data was being 
collected from users of specific Nestlé Ghana Limited brands within the Accra Metropolis. 
Determination of sample size for research purposes involves various qualitative and 
quantitative techniques (Malhotra and Birks, 2006). The use of quantitative techniques in 
selecting samples that are as large as possible is recommended by researchers such as Hair 
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et al. (2009), Gray (2009), and Burns (2000). A sample size of at least 100 and over is 
considered reasonable enough in conducting a quantitative study (Hair et al., 2009). 
Academic scholars share the view that the larger the sample size for the study, the more 
accurate the data will be in reflecting the true situation at hand. Saunders et al. (2007) 
indicate that the larger the sample size, the lower the probability error in generalizing the 
results to the population. Based on these discussions as well as recommendations, and for 
the sake of achieving accuracy, it was deemed important to use a large sample size for the 
survey, thus 240 respondents were considered. 
4.10 The Kind of Nestlé Products Used for the Research and Why? 
In all, the researcher used five (5) Nestlé Ghana Limited products for the research which 
are Ideal Milk, Nestlé Nido, Nescafé, Cerelac, and Maggi. 
Ideal Milk is one of the first products of Nestlé that was produced in Ghana.  In 1971 the 
production of Ideal Milk started at the Tema Factory in 1971. Nestlé Nido is another brand 
of Nestlé Ghana that sells well in Ghana and it is also produced at the Tema factory. In 
2014, the Tema factory was expanded to produce Nescafé 3 in 1 and Cerelac. Maggi is an 
international brand of seasonings, instant soups, and noodles. Nestlé Ghana does not 
produce Maggi. Maggi is imported from Nigeria and Ivory Coast.  
From the researcher’s observation over the past five years, Nestlé Ghana Limited has been 
revitalizing their products and this made research into the impact of brand revitalization on 
the firm’s products plausible and highly attractive. A one-on-one interview sections were 
held with wholesalers and retailers during which the researcher chose two FMCG for 
consideration (Nestlé and Unilever). It was revealed from the one-on-one interview with 
various wholesalers and retailers that, Nestlé products have undergone various forms of 
revitalization over the years. This revealed to the researcher that, the wholesalers and 
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retailers have observed that, between Nestlé and Unilever, Nestlé is seen to aim at keeping 
its brand fresh, vital and relevant in the contemporary market to obtain new sources of 
brand equity or to recapture lost ones to achieve the intended positioning. 
To be more convinced that Nestlé does more of brand revitalization than Unilever, the 
researcher conducted a one-on-one interview with an experienced sales team member from 
Nestlé Ghana Limited. 
According to the experienced sales team member, as a company which cherishes its 
consumers, Nestlé always want to keep its brands fresh, vital, and relevant to its 
consumers and so it can offer the expected satisfaction to its consumers. He further 
explained that, to achieve the above, Nestlé Ghana Limited introduced different versions 
of Ideal Milk (original, balance and dairy diet), Cerelac (fruits, wheat, rice, millet, and 
maize), Maggi (shrimp, beef, chicken, and ketchup), and Nescafe (three-in-one) since 
consumer tastes and preferences have changed and they needed variety. According to him, 
because a competitor, PROMASIDOR, started selling one of their brands called 
COWBELL COFFEE which is made of coffee, milk and sugar in the Ghanaian market, 
consumers who used to buy Nescafe stopped buying it since once you buy COWBELL 
COFFEE  there was no need to buy milk and sugar before preparing a beverage. All you 
need is water (hot or cold). Nestle quickly responded to this by introducing their 
NESCAFE THREE-IN-ONE made of coffee, milk and sugar and so they can recapture 
their Nescafe consumers who defected because of PROMASIDOR’s COWBELL 
COFFEE. 
Finally, through research and development Nestle have fortified Cerelac and Maggi 
products with iron to help address the issue of micronutrient deficiency which is prevalent 
in Ghana and the West African sub-region.  
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  The findings above convinced the researcher and compelled the researcher to use only 
Nestlé to be able to arrive at the desired results of assessing the value that is added to a 
product by consumers’ relations and opinions of a given brand name or an evaluation of 
how a firm’s actual and potential consumers respond to, or will respond to a given brand 
name. 
4.11 Mode and Instrumentation for Data Analysis  
A deductive approach was used in the analysis of data for the study as the hypotheses, 
which were tested, were based on the review of existing literature on topics such as brand 
revitalization, branding, customer perceived value and consumer-based brand equity. 
Consumers who buy Nestlé Ghana Limited brands within the Accra Metropolis were the 
unit of analysis, which is in accordance with literature. This is especially so for brand 
equity as the “power of a brand lies in the heart and mind of the consumer”, thus in 
marketing and branding are best reflected from the perspective of consumers. Statistical 
Package for Social Sciences (SPSS), version 20 and Amos version 22 were the analytical 
tools used in the analysis of data. The data was initially screened for any errors in giving 
responses such as wrong input, and issues of out of range scores were corrected.  
A combination of descriptive statistics and multivariate data analysis techniques such as 
confirmatory factor analysis and multiple regression models were employed in the study. 
Firstly, descriptive statistics were used to measure the central tendency such as mean. 
Confirmatory factor analysis was further conducted to verify reliabilities between the 
variables in the framework. Multiple regression analysis was subsequently used to test and 
establish the relationships between the constructs in the framework in order to achieve the 
stated objectives of the study. The multiple regression analysis was used and the 
independent variables, Differentiation (DF), Relevance (RL), variables under brand equity 
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Perceived quality (PQ), Brand Awareness (BA), Brand Image (BI), and Brand Loyalty 
(BL) and Customer Perceived Value (CPV) were measured. Multiple regression, as 
indicated by Saunders et al. (2007, pp. 310-352), was used to “assess the strength of a 
relationship between one dependent and two or more independent variables”. Malhotra 
and Birks (2006) also indicate that it is used to test connections that exist between two or 
more autonomous variables and an interval-scaled dependent variable as it will determine 
how well a set of variables will be able to predict an outcome. The prime aim of multiple 
regression is to make a prediction about the dependent variable based on its covariance 
with all the concerned independent variables (Kothari, 2004), thus it was deemed 
appropriate to use this analysis technique for the survey.  
 
4.12 Validity and Reliability  
Reliability, according to Malhotra and Birks (2006), is the degree to which a dimension 
will replicate unswerving results if the procedures involved are repeated. Moser and. 
Pallant (2011) indicates it is the degree to which a scale will be independent of random 
errors. Easterby-Smith et al. (2002) indicates it can be evaluated by asking whether the 
measures yield the same outcomes on other occasions; similar observations can be reached 
by other observers; and if there is transparency in how sense was made from the raw data. 
The most generally used approaches in assessment of reliability, according to Malhotra 
and Birks (2006), include internal consistency and test-retest. Kumar (2011) found 
external consistency (test-retest and parallel forms of the same test) a measure of 
reliability. Internal consistency is the level to which the items making up the scales are 
evaluating the same core elements and test-retest is a reliability test that calculates the 
relationship between two scores using correlation after the administration of scales to the 
same groups of people at varying time intervals (Maholtra & Birks, 2006). The split-half 
technique is an internal consistency procedure, which is designed to correlate half of the 
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items with that of other items (Kumar, 2011). Cronbach’s alpha is the most widely used 
indicator of reliability and is considered by Ghauri and Gronhaug (2005) as a 
measurement of inter-correlations between the several items representing constructs. Hair 
et al. (2009) indicates that, to be able to reveal a suitable reliability, the calculated value 
for Cronbach alpha should not be anything less than 0.70 margin although this could 
decrease to 0.6 in exploratory studies. In order to test and confirm the degree of reliability 
for the instrument used in conducting the research Cronbach alpha was then employed.  
Basically, validity has to do with the ability of an instrument to measure what it is 
designed to measure (Kumar, 2011). This according to Kerlinger (1973), it can be simply 
defined by asking the question: “Are we measuring what we think we are measuring?” 
Against this, Kothari (2004) indicates that the validity is the most vital benchmark for 
which an instrument measures what it is supposed to measure. Validity is a very 
significant measure, which assesses the value of a study by verifying and clarifying the 
quality of the data and findings (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2007). According to Kumar 
(2011), there are three types of validity: face and content validity; concurrent and 
predictive validity; and construct validity. The study instrument was examined using the 
face and content validity procedure. The items or questions asked must relate logically to 
the study objectives. This link is termed as face validity and assessing the items within the 
instrument in this note is content validity (Kumar, 2011). Kothari (2004) notes that it is the 
degree to which the instrument of measurement adequately covers the issues under study. 
Based on standards set by academic scholars who stress that the use of simple face validity 
test by asking for the views of people on the study (Ghauri & Gronhaug, 2005) and 
conducting pre-tests for content validity as postulated by Hair et al. (2009). The 
questionnaire was appraised by the supervisor and pre-tested at the University of Ghana by 
students as indicated previously.  
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4.13 Ethical Considerations  
In all professions, ethical guidance is of high value. Kumar (2011) indicates that over the 
years ethical codes have evolved in order to accommodate the dynamic ethos, values, 
needs and expectations. On this premise, the consent of all respondents were respectively 
sought with the aims and objectives of the study clarified to them. Ethical considerations 
were made a priority as participants were encouraged to willingly part-take in the study. 
Confidentiality was assured as the personal information of respondents were not revealed 
in the study since it was for academic purposes. 
 
 
 
 
  
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CHAPTER FIVE 
DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS 
5.0 Introduction  
In the preceding chapter, the various techniques employed in conducting the study were 
discoursed. This chapter will go on to discuss the result of collected data and presents the 
empirical results collected through self-administered questionnaires within the Accra 
Metropolis. The demographic profiles of the respondents based on age, gender, 
educational level and type of brand they purchase and use most often from Nestlé Ghana 
Limited were dealt with in the early sections of this chapter. Users of Nestlé Ghana 
Limited brands within the Accra metropolis were the targeted respondents for this study. 
This chapter also discussed results of reliability of scales items and descriptive statistics. 
Finally, the chapter presents outcomes on multiple regression data analysis (SEM) 
conducted to establish the connection between the dependent and independent variables of 
the study.   
In order to confirm or refute the stated definition of brand revitalization, “the process that 
aims at keeping the brand fresh, vital and relevant in the contemporary market (Merrilees, 
2005, pp. 201-210), by obtaining new sources of brand equity or by recapturing lost ones 
to achieve the intended positioning (Keller, 1999, pp. 102-124)”, which guided this 
research, an in-depth interview was conducted with an experienced sales team member of 
Nestlé Ghana Limited. The findings were presented qualitatively to set the stage for 
quantitative data analysis.   
 
 
 
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5.1 Presentation of Qualitative Data 
Below is a qualitative presentation of the in-depth interview with an experienced sales 
team member of Nestlé Ghana Limited who has in-depth knowledge of how the various 
brands have behaved over the years.  
Researcher: Has any of your brands experienced decline?  
Nestlé Rep: Yes.  
Researcher: Which of the brands experienced the decline? 
Nestlé Rep: Brands like Ideal Milk, Cerelac, Maggi, Nido, and Nescafe. 
Researcher: How did you determine that decline was taking place? 
Nestlé Rep: We determined there was a decline because at a point, there was a decline in 
sales for brands like Ideal Milk, Maggi, Cerelac, and Nescafe with associated decline in 
market share. In addition to these two factors, there was increased customer complaints 
about lack of variety of brands. Again, consumers had become more health conscious and 
will buy only food that poses no challenges to their health. Additionally, competitor 
actions backed by new technological capabilities gave them an advantage to offer variety 
and better brands. Furthermore, through research and development the company 
discovered that, brands such as Cerelac and Maggi lacked iron and this resulted in 
prevalence of micronutrient deficiency in Ghana and the West African sub-region. 
Researcher: Did Nestle attempt to revitalize or rejuvenate the brands to recover sales and 
market share? 
Nestlé Rep: Yes. We at Nestle Ghana Limited are serious about what we do and we 
always keep our eyes closely on our brands since the consumer is very important to us. We 
revitalized some of our brands like Nescafe, Maggi, Ideal Milk, and Cerelac due to the 
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reasons stated above (decline in sales, decline in market share, and lack of some 
nutritional content and increased customer complaints about lack of variety).   
Researcher: What were some of the strategies used to revitalize these brands? 
Nestlé Rep: As a company which cherishes its consumers, we always want to keep our 
brands fresh, vital, and relevant to our consumers and so we can offer the expected 
satisfaction to our consumers. According to the experienced sales team member, Nestlé 
Ghana Limited introduced different versions of Ideal Milk (original, balance and dairy 
diet), Cerelac (fruits, wheat, rice, millet, and maize), Maggi (shrimp, beef, chicken, and 
ketchup), and Nescafe (three-in-one) since consumer tastes and preferences have changed 
and they needed variety. According to him, because a competitor, PROMASIDOR started 
selling one of their brands called COWBELL COFFEE which is made of coffee, milk and 
sugar in the Ghanaian market, consumers who used to buy Nescafe stopped buying it since 
once you buy COWBELL COFFEE  there was no need to buy milk and sugar before 
preparing a beverage. All you need is water (hot or cold). Nestle quickly responded to this 
by introducing their NESCAFE THREE-IN-ONE made of coffee, milk and sugar and so 
they can recapture their Nescafe consumers who defected because of PROMASIDOR’s 
COWBELL COFFEE. 
Finally, through research and development Nestle have fortified Cerelac and Maggi 
products with iron to help address the issue of micronutrient deficiency which is prevalent 
in Ghana and the West African sub-region.  
The above solutions were offered in order to make the brands relevant to consumers as 
postulated by (Merrilees, 2005) and to also obtain new sources of brand equity or 
recapture lost ones to achieve the intended positioning (Keller, 1999)”. 
 
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5.2 Demographic Profile of Respondents (Quantitative Data)  
The study looked at Nestlé Ghana Limited consumers who responded to the 
questionnaires’ data. This was done by profiling then according to gender, age, 
educational qualification and the brands they frequently buy and use. The demographic 
data attained from the research is illustrated in Table 5.1 below. 
With regards to the respondents’ gender, male respondents surpassed females, with 67.5 
percent for males and 32.5 percent for females. It therefore can be deduced that, there was 
a fair representation of gender. It was discovered from the study that, those over the age of 
36 years with 8.3 percent were the lowest number in an age group, followed by 
respondents between the ages of 18-21 with 9.2 percent. Respondents between the age 
group of 27-31 proceeded with 22.1 percent. This was ensued by respondents between the 
age group of 32-36 and 22-26 with 26.3 and 34.2 percent respectively. 
Table 5.1: Respondents' Demographic Profile 
Profile  Measurement  Frequency  Percentage  
Gender Male  162 67.5 
Female 78 32.5 
Age 18-21 22 9.2 
22-26 82 34.2 
27-31 53 22.1 
32-36 63 26.3 
Over 36 20 8.3 
Education  SHS 42 17.5 
Diploma 13 5.4 
HND 41 17.1 
Bachelor Degree 92 38.3 
Master Degree 52 21.7 
PHD - - 
Brands  Ideal Milk 105 43.8 
Nestlé Nido 18 7.5 
Nescafe 44 18.3 
Cerelac 41 17.1 
Maggi 32 13.3 
N=240    
Source: filed survey (2017) 
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Regarding the educational level of the respondents, majority of them were either pursuing 
or had Bachelor’s degree representing 38.3 percent. Respondents who were either 
pursuing or had Masters represented 21.7 percent of the respondents. 17.1 percent of the 
respondents either were pursuing or had Higher National Diploma (HND). Those 
respondents who are Senior High School (SHS) students or had completed SHS and 
Diploma in various fields represent 17.5 percent and 5.4 percent respectively. None of the 
respondents was either pursuing PHD or had PHD.  
The explanation above shows that, the sample had the ability to comprehend the subject at 
hand and offer answers that were accurate for the study. 
Furthermore, respondents were asked to indicate the type of brands they often buy and use 
for Nestle Ghana Limited. Majority of the respondents (43.8%) frequently buy and use 
Ideal Milk. This was ensued by users of Nescafe which recorded 18.3%, Cerelac 17.1%, 
Maggi 13.3% and Nestle Nido 7.5%.    
 
5.3 Descriptive Statistics 
Prior to any additional analysis, scholars have suggested over the years, the need to subject 
data collected in studies comprising human participants to descriptive analysis (Malhotra 
& Birks, 2007). In this regard, the study went on to conduct a descriptive analysis of the 
data gathered and presented it in means as shown below in Table 5.2. A scale of 1-5 was 
used for the questionnaire with 5 as strongly agreed, 4 as agreed, 3 as neutral, 2 as 
disagree and 1 as strongly disagree. The extent to which users of Nestlé brands agreed or 
disagreed with the statements in the questionnaire are denoted by the mean values. From 
the study, the lowest means were being registered by “I respect and admire people who 
use this brand” and “The brand gives me value for money” with scores of 3.53 and 3.64 
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respectively. “This brand has very unique brand image compared to competing brands” 
(4.49) and “This brand is well known” (4.40) respectively are the highest scaled items.  
  
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Table 5.2: Variables 
Variables Code No. Mean 
My brand has been modified DF1 240 4.03 
The brand stands out among competing brands DF2 240 4.13 
The brand stands for something unique after it was revitalized DF3 240 3.73 
The brand now comes with versions that attract new users DF4 240 4.01 
The brand is relevant to me RL1 240 4.10 
The brand is relevant to my family and/or friends RL2 240 3.93 
My brand is a good one for me RL3 240 4.10 
This brand fits my lifestyle RL4 240 3.80 
My brand has improved features and benefits RL5 240 4.00 
I trust the quality of the products from this brand after revitalization PQ1 240 4.05 
Products from my brand are consistent in quality PQ2 240 4.18 
My bran's products are very reliable PQ3 240 4.25 
Products from the brand are very reliable PQ4 240 4.04 
Some characteristics of this brand come to my mind quickly BA1 240 4.12 
I can recognize this brand quickly among other competing brands BA2 240  4.35           
I am familiar with this brand BA3 240 4.40 
This brand is well-known BA4 240 4.42 
This brand has very unique brand image compared to competing BI1 240 
4.49 
brands 
I respect and admire people who use this brand BI2 240 3.53 
I like the brand image of this brand BI3 240 3.80 
I like and trust the company which makes this brands BI4 240 3.96 
I consider myself to be loyal to this brand BL1 240 4.07 
This brand always comes as my first choice BL2 240 4.18 
This brand would be my best choice BL3 240 4.17 
I would love to recommend this brand to my friends BL4 240 4.25 
The brand gives me value for money CPV1 240 3.64 
I will always buy this brand CPV2 240 3.91 
I get the desired benefit from this product CPV3 240 4.29 
I consider the benefits more important & valuable than monetary CPV4 240 
3.97 
cost of this brand 
Source: Field Survey (2017) 
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5.4 Analysis and Results of Structural Equation Modelling 
The hypotheses formulated from the conceptual framework were tested using Structural 
Equation Modelling (SEM). As approved by Anderson and Gerbing (1988), a two stage 
model was adopted in this study. This was done in line with Hair et al. (2010) who 
indicated that the accuracy of represented reliability of each construct used is best directed 
in two stages in order to elude any interactions between the measurement model and the 
structural model. 
5.4.1 Confirmatory Factor Analysis  
The table below gives a summary of the Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) conducted 
to test the multidimensionality of the variables. All the factor loadings were within the 
acceptable range and satisfied the CFA condition of 0.50 threshold as indicated by Hair et 
al. (2010). In conducting CFA, R2 must not be less than 0.20 as it is an indication of high 
level of error (Hooper, Coughlan, & Mullen, 2008). The t-values were all within 
satisfactory levels.  
  
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Table 5.3: Initial Factor Loadings 
Constructs Variable Β CR α 
Differentiation  DF1 .354 .652 .648 
 DF2 .671   
 DF3 .590   
 DF4 .626   
Relevance RL1 .744 .793 .772 
 RL2 .572   
 RL3 .782   
 RL4 .762   
 RL5 .400   
Perceived Quality PQ1 .594 .769 .763 
 PQ2 .858   
 PQ3 .745   
 PQ4 .467   
Brand Awareness BA1 .603 .868 .862 
 BA2 .849   
 BA3 .871   
 BA4 .815   
Brand Image BI1 .386 .782 .743 
 BI2 .795   
 BI3 .703   
 BI4 .825   
Brand Loyalty  BL1 .883 .929 .927 
 BL2 .914   
 BL3 .893   
 BL4 .810   
Customer Perceived Value CPV1 .600 .685 .655 
 CPV2 .814   
 CPV3 .297   
 CPV4 .621   
Source: Field Survey (2017) 
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According to Werts et al. (1974), the construct reliability is represented by CR in the table 
above. In some instances is known as the composite reliability or internal consistency. 
Chin (1998) stress that, it is a measurement of the constructs uni-dimensionality and is 
seen as a better gauge of Cronbach’s Alpha. The values of the CR attained after the CFA 
were: differentiation 0.65; Relevance 0.79; perceived quality 0.77; brand awareness 0.87; 
brand image 0.78; brand loyalty 0.93 and finally customer perceived value 0.69.  
A report on the Cronbach alpha is seen in table 5.3 above differentiation 0.65; Relevance 
0.77; perceived quality 0.76; brand awareness 0.86; brand image 0.74; brand loyalty 0.93 
and finally customer perceived value 0.66. The values attained were all within the 
acceptable range but some of the constructs recorded a Cronbach alpha value of 0.65 
which is not closer to 1. The coefficient for Cronbach’s alpha reliability test usually ranges 
between 0 and 1 with the closer the coefficient is to 1 the greater the internal consistency 
of the items in the scale (Gliem & Gliem, 2003).  
In this situation, an improvement in the model was done by deleting some of the construct 
with very low loadings to get a higher loadings to make the model more fit. Below in table 
5.5 are those items which were deleted to make the model more fit for the study. 
 
 
  
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Table 5.4: Stage Improvement of the model 
Stage  Modification Items CMIN/ GFI CFI NFI PCLOS RMSE
deleted  df E A 
One 1st  3.276 .747 .806 .746 .000 .098 
Measurement 
model 
Two 2st DF1,2,3&4, 1.956 .954 .974 .950 .143 .063 
Measurement RL1,2&5,P
model Q1&4, 
BA1&4, 
BI2&3,BL3
&4,CPV1&4 
Source: Field Survey (2017) 
 
The values of the CR attained after the deletion were: Relevance 0.80; perceived quality 
0.78; brand awareness 0.87; brand image 0.82; brand loyalty 0.93 and finally customer 
perceived value 0.71. The range of the values were between 0.71 and 0.93 which were 
high enough to confirm the reliability of all the constructs. Evidence of uni-dimensionality 
was clear indicating that all constructs were now appropriate for the study. A report on the 
Cronbach alpha is seen in table 5.5 above shows the following; relevance 0.81; perceived 
quality 0.76; brand awareness 0.86; brand image 0.74; brand loyalty 0.93 and finally 
customer perceived value 0.70. It can be confirmed that, the values attained after the 
deletion of some of the variables were all within the acceptable range and thus indicated a 
very strong internal consistency. The coefficient for Cronbach’s alpha reliability test 
usually ranges between 0 and 1 with the closer the coefficient is to 1 the greater the 
internal consistency of the items in the scale (Gliem & Gliem, 2003). Based on these 
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results from the factor loadings table, it has been confirmed that there is convergent and 
discriminant validity (Fornell & Larcker, 1981).  
It can be seen that, the coefficient for Cronbach’s alpha below are closer to 1 and this 
shows greater internal consistency and makes the model more fit. 
Table 5.5: Final Factor Loadings 
Constructs  Variables Β  CR α  
Brand Revitalization  RL3 .818 0.510 0.804 .811 
 RL4 .758    
Perceived Quality PQ2 .805 0.544 0.777 .763 
 PQ3 .542    
Brand Awareness BA2 .421 0.628 0.869 .862 
 BA3 .903    
Brand Image BI1 .919 0.610 0.824 .743 
 BI4 .776    
Brand Loyalty  BL1 .264 0.767 0.929 .927 
 BL2 .869    
Customer Perceived CPV2 .858 0.550 0.707  .703  
Value 
 CPV3 .878    
Source: Field Survey (2017) 
5.4.2 Measurement Fit 
Bagozzi and Yi (1988) indicate that the measurement model allows for the analysis of 
casual interactions between variables in a structural model. The initial stage of the analysis 
in the study was performed through specifying the casual relationships between the 
dependent and independent variables of the study. This was mainly conducted to 
determine the reliability of the uni-dimensionality of the composite and latent variables. In 
so doing, it ensured that the items used achieved their objective of empirically determining 
a single dimension. The measurement model is presented in the table below. 
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Table 5.6: Measurement Fit 
Measurement model fit Indices for the Proposed   
Model  
Goodness-of-fit Indices  Benchmark  Value  
Absolute goodness of fit measure    
Chi-spuare (CMIN) P≥ 0.05 0.000 
Chi-square/degree of freedom  ≤ 2 1.96 
Absolute badness of fit measure     
Root mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) ≤0.08 0.06 
Incremental fit measure    
Normed Fit Index (NFI) ≥0.90 0.95 
Comparative Fit Index (CFI) ≥0.90 0.97 
Tucker Lewis Index (TLI) ≥0.90 0.96 
Parsimony fit measure    
Parsimony Comparative of Fit Index (PCFI) ≥0.50 0.58 
Parsimony Normed of Fit Index (PNFI) ≥0.50 0.56 
Source: Filed Survey (2017) 
The fitness model of the study was tested as reported in Table 5.4 above. In confirming the 
fitness of the model, using at least three fit indices has been recommended as crucial. Very 
popular indicators for use in structural equation modelling which are absolute, incremental 
and parsimonious measures were demonstrated by Hair et al. (2010) and Holmes-Smith 
(2006) and these measures were adequately used in the study. From The measurement fit 
table, it is indicated that, the various indicators in the fitness model were satisfied 
accordingly and the model fits appropriately. The Chi-square value of 0.000 indicates that, 
it was statistically significant at P≥ 0.05. The Root Mean Square Error of Approximation 
(RMSEA) was deployed to test the fitness of the model. A RMSEA value of 0.06 was 
obtained after the model was tested for fitness. This further validates the fitness of the 
model since it was within the satisfactory range of 0.80 or less (Byrne, 2010). 
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The importance of incremental fit measure which provides a comparison between the 
proposed and null models was indicated by Hair et al. (2010). Normed Fit Index (NFI) 
with a value of 0.95 is the first incremental measure reported on the table. In the opinion 
of Hair et al. (2010), this is almost a perfect fit. To support the NFI was the Comparative 
Fit Index (CFI) which was further reported on the table as the NFI does not control for the 
degrees of freedom. The value for CFI obtained was 0.97 which was acceptable as it falls 
within 0.90 or more of fitness. A value of 0.96 was obtained for the Tucker-Lewis Index 
(TLI). This is well within the acceptable range of 0.90 or more. All the indicators for the 
incremental fit measurements verified that, the model was fit. Finally, Parsimonious’ fit 
indices was performed to test the level at which the model achieved fitness for each of the 
estimated coefficients. Hair et al. (2010) indicates that in this measure, the closer the 
values are to 1 the better the fitness of the model. Values of 0.58 and 0.56 were obtained 
which indicated that the models were certified to be fit. 
Table 5.7 below shows the squares of the correlations of the individual constructs were 
less than the Average Variance Extracted (AVE), indicating its support for discriminatory 
validity. Several studies have validated this approach and certified that, in the assessment 
of the discriminant validity, each construct’s AVE’s must be compared with the squared 
correlations between each pair of the variables. Segars (1997) and Anderson and Gerbing 
(1988) indicate that AVEs which are greater than any squared correlation suggests 
discriminant validity has been achieved. 
 
 
 
 
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Table 5.7: Final Correlation Matrix 
Items 1 2 3 4 5 6 
Brand 
0.714 
Revitalization       
Perceived 
0.714 0.738 
Quality     
Brand 
0.721 0.639 0.792 
Awareness    
Brand Image 0.681 0.745 0.755 0.781 
  
Brand Loyalty 0.769 0.682 0.696 0.635 0.876 
 
Customer 
0.551 0.545 0.354 0.365 0.751 0.742 
Perceived Value 
Means  3.9458 4.2167 4.3208 4.2271 4.1271 4.1021 
St. D .70354 .61784 .54666 .61493 .75400 1.77470 
Note: Average Variances extracted (AVE) are on the diagonal; squared correlations are off-diagonal. The AVEs 
for each construct are far greater than the corresponding inter-construct square correlations, thereby supporting 
discriminant validity. 
Source: Field Survey (2017) 
5.4.3 Structural Model  
The structural model test was the second face of the SEM analysis that was conducted. 
According to Arbuckle (2005), a structural model is an aspect of modelling which shows 
how underlying variables interact and relate with each other. Structural models as posited 
by Byne (2010), determines the assessment of hypothesized relationships between the 
latent variables, which enable the hypotheses of the study to be tested statistically. The 
results obtained for the second stage of the Structural Equation Modelling are presented in 
Table 5.6 below and indicates that all values achieved fell within the acceptable range.  
 
 
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Analysis of Hypothesized Relationships between Brand Revitalization and Consumer-
Based Brand Equity  
The study at this point examined the relationship between brand revitalization which 
affects the constructs of CBBE. A hypothesis of H1-H4 was formulated on the conceptual 
framework. The findings are presented below in Table 5.8. 
Table 5. 8: Hypothesized Paths 
Independent Dependent 
β S.E. P Outcome 
Variable   Variable 
BRAND PERCEIVED 
→ .506 .046 *** Supported 
REVITALIZATION  QUALITY 
BRAND BRAND 
→ .469 .040 *** Supported 
REVITALIZATION AWARENESS 
BRAND BRAND 
→ .477 .047 *** Supported 
REVITALIZATION IMAGE 
BRAND BRAND 
→ .661 .054 *** Supported 
REVITALIZATION LOYALTY 
Source: Field Survey (2017) 
The highest relationship found after the analysis was between brand loyalty and brand 
revitalization with a β value of 0.66 (p = 0.000), which was statistically significant. Brand 
revitalization also had a statistically significant effect on perceived quality with an estimate 
of 0.51 (p = 0.000). This was followed by brand image with 0.48 (p = 0.000). Brand 
awareness had the least significant relationship with brand revitalization with a β value of 
0.47 (p = 0.000). This reveals that, hypothesis H1-H4 are all accepted since brand 
revitalization had a significant positive relationship with all the constructs of CBBE 
(perceived quality, brand awareness, brand image and brand loyalty). 
 
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TEST FOR MEDIATION  
Table 5.9: Structural Model 
Relationship Direct Direct P-value (Indirect Effect) 
without With 
Mediator Mediator 
Brand Revitalization →Customer 
Perceived Value→Perceived .506*** .574*** .036(0.002) (partial mediation) 
Quality 
Brand Revitalization →Customer 
Perceived Value→Brand .469*** .516*** .024(0.047) (partial mediation) 
Awareness 
Brand Revitalization →Customer 
.477*** .591*** .010(0.065) (no mediation) 
Perceived Value→Brand Image 
Brand Revitalization →Customer 
.661*** .548*** .023(0.066) (no mediation)  
Perceived Value→Brand Loyalty 
Source: Field Survey (2017) 
Separate structural models were ran to explore the causal relationships between the 
independent variable (brand revitalization) and the dependent variable (perceived brand 
quality, brand awareness, brand image, brand loyalty), as well as to determine the 
mediating effect of customer perceived value between them (Köhler et al, 2011). On the 
basis of the results from testing the initial structural model, as shown in Table 5.8, the 
direct effects of brand revitalization on perceived brand quality, brand awareness, brand 
image, brand loyalty (Hypothesis 1-4) are supported by the significant path coefficients 
estimated in the model (β = 0.506, 0.469, 0.477, 0.661 respectively; P<0.05). Also, with 
regard to the mediating role of customer perceived value, a bootstrap analysis with 240 
resamples was used to test for the mediation in the second structural model. The findings, 
as shown in Table 5.9, indicate that customer perceived value partially mediates both paths 
from brand revitalization to perceived quality and brand awareness with a significant 
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indirect effect (P=0.002 and 0.047). Hence, Hypotheses H5a and H5b are supported. 
However, the indirect paths between brand revitalization and consumer-based brand equity 
(brand image and brand loyalty) were found to be insignificant with P = 0.065, and 0.066 
respectively.  Thus, Hypotheses H5c and H5d are not supported. 
Overall, these results suggest that brand revitalization has a direct significant impact on 
consumer-based brand equity (perceived brand quality, brand awareness, brand image, 
brand loyalty) while that of brand revitalization on brand image and brand loyalty partially 
mediates through customer perceived value. 
 
5.5 Discussion of Results  
Brand revitalization (BR) “is the process that has the objective of keeping the brand fresh, 
vital and relevant in the contemporary market (Merrilees, 2005, pp. 201-210), by obtaining 
new sources of brand equity or by recapturing lost ones to achieve the intended 
positioning (Keller, 1999, pp. 102-124)”. 
Keller defines CBBE and maintains that, the supremacy of a brand is based on what the 
customer have learned, sensed, realized, and heard about it over time, that is, exist in their 
minds. Therefore, Keller (1993, pp. 1-22) posits that, CBBE is “the differential effect of 
brand knowledge on consumer response to the marketing of the brand”. Generally, 
consumer-based brand equity is equated to brand equity (Rajasekar and Nalina, 2008). 
The study revealed that, brand revitalization could have a positively major relationship on 
consumer-based brand equity and brand revitalization could directly lead to consumer-
based brand equity although customer perceived value partially mediates the relationship 
between BR and CBBE. The results postulate that, if firms want to gain equity for their 
brands and ultimately achieve customer loyalty, they (firms) must always keep their brand 
fresh, vital and relevant. By taking advantage of fresh, vital and relevant brands in the 
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market place amidst fierce competition, firms can achieve CBBE whose ultimate is brand 
loyalty.  
The effect of brand revitalization on consumer-based brand equity (brand awareness, 
perceived brand quality, brand image/association and brand resonance/loyalty) was what 
the first hypothesis sort to confirm or otherwise. The study through structural equation 
modelling revealed that, brand revitalization has a direct positive significant relationship 
with CBBE. This confirms suggestion by Mizik & Jacobson, (2008) that, the 
differentiation of a brand is of little value except the consumer sees the brand to be 
relevant thus conceptualizing that brand equity should include the facet of its 
appropriateness. Keller (2003) also buttressed this point by suggesting that, without 
personal relevance, brands cannot attract or keep consumers, especially in great numbers.  
The second hypothesis which allows for partial mediation of customer perceived value as 
an indirect path for brand revitalization (relevance) to achieve CBBE was partially 
accepted as the most appropriate way firms should deploy. This is because, the direct 
relationship between BR and CBBE was significant. This confirms suggestion by 
Sirdeshmukh et al. (2002) that, prior empirical research has identified perceived value as a 
major determinant of customer loyalty in the retailing services.   
 
 
 
  
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CHAPTER SIX 
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 
6.0 Introduction  
In the previous chapter, results of quantitative data analysis and a discussion of the study 
results were presented. A summary of the major findings of the study, conclusions in line 
with the study objectives, and implications for further studies and management are 
presented in the concluding chapter. 
 
6.1 Summary of the Study 
In this study, the impact of brand revitalization on consumer-based brand equity was 
probed. In detail, it queried the extent to which brand revitalization mediated by customer 
perceived value leads to consumer-based brand equity for Nestlé Ghana Limited brands in 
the Accra Metropolis. It therefore looked at the relationship between brand revitalization 
and customer perceived value and how this leads to consumer-based brand equity.  
The study conducted a review of preceding literature on brand revitalization, customer 
perceived value, branding and brand equity (AMA, 2016; Merrilees, 2005; Zhang and 
Sun, 2009; Keller, 1999; Müller et al., 2013; Lehu, 2004; Keller, 2003; Bojei & Hoo, 
2012; Stahl et al., 2012) in pursuit of the objectives of the study as outlined in the first 
chapter, from which some major factors of brand revitalization affecting consumer-based 
brand equity were drawn. A conceptual framework for the study was developed using 
these factors in their bid to predict consumer-based brand equity of Nestlé Ghana Limited 
brands thus articulating hypotheses valid for the study.  
The study adopted a mixed method in addressing the objectives of the study. Thus, a 
qualitative data was acquired through an in-depth interview with an experienced sales 
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team member of Nestlé Ghana Limited. This exercise provided data in addressing the first 
objective of the study. Furthermore, a quantitative approach was used to address the 
second and third objectives of the study. In the bid to establish the impact of brand 
revitalization and customer perceived value on consumer-based brand equity, a mixed 
approach was deemed more suitable as we needed a qualitative data from Nestlé Ghana 
Limited to answer few questions which helped to confirm the definition of brand 
revitalization as put forward by Merrilees, (2005) and Keller, (1999), to set the tone for the 
research and quantitative data from the consumers through administering questionnaire.  
The study framework and study objectives formed the basis for the questionnaire 
development. A non-probability sampling techniques was use to select a total of two 
hundred and forty (240) respondents within the Accra Metropolis as the study sample due 
to the large nature of the population (Kothari, 2004). An analysis of data was done using 
descriptive statistics, confirmatory factor analysis and structural equation modelling as 
quantitative data allows for numerical demonstration and operation of data for the purpose 
of gaining explanations of a phenomenon as depicted by the data. It also helped in the test 
of hypotheses and generalizing the study results. 
 
6.2 Summary of Major Findings 
This section discusses the finding from the data analysis based on the study objectives.  
The Case for Brand Revitalization by Nestlé Ghana Limited  
Re: Nestlé’s brands used in this research established the following: 
1. Changes in consumer taste and preferences. 
2. Emergence of competitors which reduced sales and market share. 
3. Through research and development the company discovered that, brands such as 
Cerelac and Maggi lack iron and this resulted in prevalent of micronutrient 
deficiency in Ghana and the sub-region. 
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Nestlé’s Solutions 
According to the experienced sales team member, Nestlé Ghana Limited introduced 
different versions of Ideal Milk (original, balance and dairy diet), Cerelac (fruits, wheat, 
rice, millet, and maize), Maggi (shrimp, beef, chicken, and ketchup), and Nescafe (three-
in-one) since consumer tastes and preferences have changed and they needed variety. 
According to him, because a competitor, PROMASIDOR started distributing one of their 
brands called COWBELL COFFEE which is a combination of coffee, milk and sugar in 
the Ghanaian market, consumers who used to buy Nescafe stopped buying it since there 
was no need to buy milk and sugar before preparing a beverage. Nestle quickly responded 
to this by introducing their Nescafe three-in-one and so they can recapture their Nescafe 
consumers who defected because of PROMASIDOR’s COWBELL COFFEE. 
Finally, through research and development Nestle have fortified Cerelac and Maggi 
products with iron to help address the issue of micronutrient deficiency which is prevalent 
in Ghana and the sub-region.  
The solutions offered by Nestle Ghana Limited above confirms the stated definition of 
brand revitalization (“brand revitalization (BR) is the process that aims at keeping the 
brand fresh, vital and relevant in the contemporary market (Merrilees, 2005, pp. 201-210), 
by obtaining new sources of brand equity or by recapturing lost ones to achieve the 
intended positioning Keller, 1999, pp. 102-124”) which guided this research.   
Objective 1: To establish the rationale for brand revitalization by Nestle Ghana Limited. 
From the qualitative data presented from an in-depth interview with an experienced sales 
team member of Nestle Ghana Limited in chapter five, it is clear that, Nestle Ghana 
Limited needed to revitalize some of their brands to make them fresh, vital and relevant to 
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their consumers (Merrilees 2005). This was as a result of changes in consumer tastes and 
preferences, emergence of competitors, and lack of iron in Cerelac and Maggi.  
Once consumer tastes and preferences have changed, they will not spend money on the old 
brands as they used to do in the past since consumers always will buy brands that are 
relevant to them. Contemporary consumers have become very health conscious and are 
now very interested in buying brands that will not pose any challenge to their health.  
Again, the emergence of competitors who sell similar but improved brands will win a part 
of your customers and this will obviously affect your sales. Consumers are always looking 
out for variety and so they can make a choice at any time. It is always disastrous for a firm 
to have limited versions of a brand.  
Finally, since Cerelac and Maggi lacked iron which results in micronutrient deficiency, 
consumers will not get the needed result from consuming it and with time, consumers will 
not buy the brand. Micronutrient deficiency is a lack of essential vitamins and minerals 
required in small amounts by the body for proper growth and development. Micronutrients 
include, but are not limited to: Vitamins A, B, C and D, Calcium. This means that, these 
brands will not be relevant to the consumers since they do not contain the needed vitamins 
for growth. 
Nestle Ghana Limited needed to as a matter of urgency revitalize these brands to make 
them fresh, vital and relevant to the consumers as posited by (Merrilees 2005).  
Objective 2: To evaluate the direct relationship between brand revitalization (BR) and 
consumer-based brand equity (CBBE). 
From the study, relevance and differentiation are the main determinants of consumer-
based brand equity among Nestlé Ghana Limited consumers as revealed by the first 
objective. This goes to buttress what Stahl et al. (2012) found in their study. According to 
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them, relevance has an impact on customer acquisition and retention. Keller’s definition of 
relevance also explains why companies must keep their brands closely connected to the 
consumers and make the consumers see the need to buy and use their brands in the midst 
of keen competition where competitors offer similar brands. Keller (2003) defines 
relevance as “the measure of the appropriateness of a brand to consumers”. Without 
personal relevance, brands cannot attract or keep consumers, especially in great numbers. 
Aside relevance, consumers also want brands that are unique and distinguished from 
competing brands. In his opinion, Kapferer (1991) indicated that, uniqueness is 
characterized as the extent to which the buyer sees that a brand is particular from its rivals. 
Keller (2008) also indicated that differentiation is the extent to which a brand is perceived 
as distinct or unique. In their findings Stahl et al. (2012) show that firms have increased 
profits based on differentiation of their brands. 
Objective 3: To determine the meditating effect of customer perceived value on brand 
revitalization and consumer-based brand equity. 
The result from the analyses shows that, customer perceived value partially mediates the 
relationship between BR and CBBE. This means that, customer perceived value to some 
extent plays a role in consumer decision making to either be loyal or not to a particular 
brand. Since the consumers pay for the brands they buy, they will always expect to get 
value for what the pay. According to Kotler and Lee (2005), customer perceived value is 
measured as the difference between the total customer value and total customer cost. It is 
therefore important for companies to create value for their customers since in the opinion 
of Cronin et al. (2000) and Oh (2000), recent research lessons propose that perceived 
value may be a better predictor of repurchase intentions than either satisfaction or quality.  
  
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6.3 Conclusions 
From the various analyses and discussions, the study established that, brand revitalization 
in stimulating customer perceived value has influence on consumer-based brand equity. 
This is basically rational since a firm’s ability to put together innovative brands giving 
them unique attributes in terms of appealing to different customers groups with different 
versions of the same brand as well as creative advertisements to create brand awareness 
can influence brand equity by battling for the hearts and minds of consumers in a fiercely 
competitive business environment. The study further established customer perceived value 
is very effective in influencing consumer-based brand equity with the competition 
becoming more intense and keen each day among FMCG firms as they tend to invest so 
much in brand revitalization and innovation to keep their brands fresh, vital, and relevant 
to the consumer. It is also very vital for Nestlé Ghana Limited to create brand awareness 
for its brands to enable customers to register their brands as top of the mind brands. This 
goes on to establish the need for Nestlé Ghana Limited to critically evaluate brand 
revitalization and its effects on the consumer in light of the continuous competition.  
 
6.4 Implications for Management and Practice 
From the study, it is clear that, companies are able to win the loyalty (which is the ultimate 
measure of CBBE) of their consumers when their brands are closely connected to the 
consumers and make the consumers see the need to buy and use their brands in the heart of 
ardent competition where competitors offer similar brands. This means that, companies 
must invest in their brands and make them appropriate, fresh, vital and relevant to the 
consumers as posited by Merrilees (2005) and so they can achieve CBBE. 
By relating the findings from the study to brand revitalization, managers can improve 
strength of their brands by investing and making the brand fresh, vital and relevant in the 
contemporary market where they operate. Relevance can be achieved when different 
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versions of the brands are made available to the consumers and the needed vitamins are 
contained in it. The consumers then see the need to buy and use the brands. 
For a company to gain market share, maintain it or improve it, its consumers must be loyal 
to it and continuously buy its brands. For customers to be loyal to a brand, the equity level 
of the brand must be high. Brand managers must therefore be creative enough to make 
brands relevant and create marketing activities that increase brand awareness, brand 
association, perceived quality and ultimately, brand loyalty which when achieved, compels 
the consumer to stay with the brand even if competitors offer a similar brand at a lower 
price. This will help the company to acquire its market share, maintain it and even 
improve on it. 
 
6.5 Theoretical Implications  
Principally, establishing the effect of brand revitalization on consumer-based brand equity 
with the mediating role of customer perceived value in the FMCG industry with specific 
lessons from Nestlé Ghana Limited was the aim of study. Previous literature in the 
research area has been improved as empirical results from the study were significant. 
Results show that, brand revitalization has a strong relationship with consumer-based 
brand equity. This becomes for important when mediated with customer perceived value. 
Contextually, the study contributes on brand revitalization, customer perceived value and 
consumer-based brand equity. 
From the findings of the study, well selected brand revitalization activities drive customer 
perceived value which leads to consumer-based brand equity. This provides practical 
grounds to claims in literature. This comes as a result of the fact that, consumers are loyal 
to brands and are willing to continuously buy the brands that are fresh, vital and relevant 
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to them. The study further incorporated the constructs of brand revitalization and its effect 
on consumer-based brand equity.  
 
6.6 Study Limitations and Future Research Implications  
The study took place in the Accra Metropolis taking responses from only users of Nestlé 
Ghana Limited brands because from the researcher’s observation over the last five years, 
Nestle Ghana Limited’s products are widely used in Accra. Also, because there are a lot of 
middle class income earners in Accra who are able to purchase these products, it will be 
easier to elicit the appropriate responses from the respondents. 
Another limitation is the respondents’ ability to falsify the respond on the questionnaire. 
This will defeat the purpose of the research since the findings from the research will not be 
a true reflection of what really the issues are. 
The framework could also be applied to other industries to authenticate its applicability. 
Qualitative studies could also be considered for further studies as quantitative studies have 
their own limitations. Although quantitative studies employ a larger sample sizes some 
critics have argued that generalizations does not apply to all issues and that it lacks in-
depth understanding to situations (Yin, 2003). 
 
 
 
 
 
  
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APPENDICES 
Appendix 1: Questionnaire 
UNIVERSITY OF GHANA BUSINESS SCHOOL 
DEPARTMENT OF MARKETING & ENTREPRENUERSHIP 
 
THE IMPACT OF BRAND REVITALIZATION ON CONSUMER-BASED BRAND 
EQUITY: EVIDENCE FROM NESTLE GHANA LIMITED  
Please take a few minutes to fill out this questionnaire by ticking (√) where appropriate. 
Information provided will be treated confidentially and used for academic purposes only.  
Section A: Background Information  
1. Gender: Male [ ] Female [ ]  
2. Age: 18 – 21 [ ] 22 - 26 [ ] 27 – 31 [ ] 32 – 36 [ ] Over 36 [ ]  
3. Education: SHS [ ] Diploma [ ] HND [ ] Bachelor degree [ ] Master degree [√] PHD [ ]  
4. Please tick (√) the brand or brands you frequently purchase and use from Nestle 
Ghana Limited which has or have been modified 1. Ideal Milk ( ) 2. Nestle Nido (  ) 3. 
Nescafé ( )  
4. Cerelac ( ) 5. Maggi (  ) 
Section B  
Please kindly indicate (by ticking √) your level of agreement or disagreement with the 
following statement, ranking from the lowest 1 – Strongly Disagree (SD), 2 – Disagree 
(D), 3 – Neutral (N), 4 – Agree (A), and to the highest 5- Strongly Agree (SA) 
  (SD) (D) (N) (A) (SA) 
Brand Revitalization    1 2 3 4   5 
 Differentiation       
DF1 My brand has been modified       
DF2 The brand stands out among competing brands        
DF3 The brand stands for something unique after it      
was revitalized.  
 
DF4 The brand now comes with versions that attract      
new users 
 Relevance      
RL1 The brand is relevant to me       
RL2 The brand is relevant to my family and/or close      
friends 
RL3 My brand is a good one for me      
RL4 This brand fits my lifestyle       
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RL5 My brand has improved features and benefits       
 
  (SD) (D) (N) (A) (SA) 
Customer-Based Brand Equity   1 2 3 4   5 
 Perceived Quality      
PQ1 I trust the quality of products from this brand after      
revitalization   
PQ2 Products from my brand are consistent in quality       
PQ3 My brand’s products are very reliable       
PQ4 Products from the brand are very durable       
 Brand Awareness      
BA1 Some characteristics of this brand come to my      
mind quickly  
BA2 I can recognize this brand quickly among other      
competing brands  
BA3 I am familiar with this brand       
BA4 This brand is well-known       
 Brand Image      
BI1 This brand has very unique brand image,      
compared to competing brands  
BI2 I respect and admire people who use this brand       
BI3 I like the brand image of this brand       
BI4 I like and trust the company which makes this      
brand(s)   
 Brand Loyalty       
BL1 I consider myself to be loyal to this brand       
BL2 This brand always comes as my first choice       
BL3 This brand would be my best choice.       
BL4 I would love to recommend this brand to my      
friends  
 Customer Perceived Value      
CPV1 The brand gives me value for money      
CPV2 I will always buy this brand       
CPV3 I get the desired benefit from this product       
CPV4 I consider the benefits more important & valuable      
than monetary costs of this brand 
 
  
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Appendix 2: Interview Guide  
 
UNIVERSITY OF GHANA BUSINESS SCHOOL 
DEPARTMENT OF MARKETING & ENTREPRENUERSHIP 
 
THE IMPACT OF BRAND REVITALIZATION ON CONSUMER-BASED BRAND 
EQUITY; EVIDENCE FROM NESTLE GHANA LIMITED  
 
INTERVIEW GUIDE  
1. Has any of your brands experienced decline?  
2. Which of the brands experienced the decline? 
3. How did you determine that decline was taking place? 
4. Did Nestle attempt to revitalize or rejuvenate the brands to recover sales and 
market share? 
5. What were some of the strategies used to revitalize these brands? 
  
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