Environmental Pollution 316 (2023) 120714
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect 
Environmental Pollution 
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/envpol 
Review 
Particulate plastics in drinking water and potential human health effects: 
Current knowledge for management of freshwater plastic materials 
in Africa☆ 
Prosper Naah Angnunavuri a,*, Francis Attiogbe a, Bismark Mensah b 
a School of Engineering, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Energy and Natural Resources, Sunyani, Ghana 
b School of Engineering, Department of Materials Engineering, University of Ghana, Legon, Ghana   
A R T I C L E  I N F O   A B S T R A C T   
Keywords: Plastic materials have contributed to the release of environmentally relevant particulate plastics which can be 
Plastic materials found almost everywhere and may be present in drinking water. Human exposure to these materials is diverse 
Environmental epidemiology and our understanding of their internalization in the human body is incipient. This review discusses the state of 
Toxicological hazards knowledge of particulate plastics exposure in drinking water and the potential risks of adverse health in the 
Drinking water 
Developing countries human body. Particulate plastics have problematized water systems worldwide, and about 4,000,000 fine 
Human health plastics may be ingested from drinking water annually by an individual. Testing methods for these materials in 
environmental media are presently inconsistent and standard protocols do not exist. Their potential ecotoxico-
logical consequences are recognised to be linked to their physicochemical diversity, biological transpositions, 
and cytological tolerance in living organisms. It is observed that toxicological endpoints are varied and lack 
properly defined modes of action. In particular, fine particulate plastics have been observed to translocate into 
body tissues and cells where they are capable of provoking endocrine disruption, genetic mutations, and cancer 
responses. We propose a reclassification of particulate plastics to cater for their biological deposition and 
attributable risks of adverse health. Environmental management of particulate plastics in many developing 
countries is weak and their potential releases into drinking water have received limited research. Given that large 
populations are exposed to fresh surface water and plastic packaged drinking water worldwide, and that the risk 
assessment pathways are unvalidated at the moment, we argue for developing countries to increase their capacity 
for the environmental monitoring and circular management of plastic materials. Large-scale epidemiological 
cohort studies and surrogate assessment pathways are also recommended to provide a better understanding of 
the hazard characterization of particulate plastics exposure.   
1. Introduction has become a serious threat to aquatic life, drinking water management, 
and public health security in general. Plastic waste accumulation and 
Plastic waste generation and mismanagement have dire conse- mismanagement of land, water, and air continue to pose developmental 
quences for human health and environmental sustainability. In many challenges for the provisioning of good drinking water for populations 
developing countries, waste rejection, and environmental emissions globally. The importance of drinking water is manifested in the amount 
have resulted in the accumulation of plastic materials in water systems of water in a fat-free body mass (Jequier and Constant, 2010). Ingestion 
resulting in pollution of the water and adjoining ecosystems. The exposure is the major pathway for many substances that enter the 
adoption of plastic materials such as polyethylene terephthalate (PET) human body. In many regions around the world, plastic packaged water 
and low/high-density polyethylene (L/HDPE) for food and water is the drinking water of choice for large populations (Angnunavuri et al., 
packaging in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) has contributed to large volumes 2022b; Chakraborty et al., 2022; Mbala-Kingebeni et al., 2021; Stoler, 
of discarded plastics in the region (Keough and Youngstedt, 2018). This 2017; Udoh et al., 2021). Packaged water is generally sourced from 
☆ This paper has been recommended for acceptance by Da Chen. 
* Corresponding author. University of Energy and Natural Resources, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, P.O. Box 214, Sunyani, Ghana. 
E-mail address: prosper.angnunavuri.stu@uenr.edu.gh (P.N. Angnunavuri).  
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2022.120714 
Received 3 August 2022; Received in revised form 16 November 2022; Accepted 19 November 2022   
Available online 21 November 2022
0269-7491/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
P.N. Angnunavuri et al.                                                                                                                                                                                    E  n  v i r  o n  m   e n  t a  l  P  o l l u  t i o  n  316 (2023) 120714
surface water, underground well/borehole water, and municipal sup- disinfection to process freshwater and deliver safe potable water to 
plies, while the package may be virgin or recycled. Freshwater systems, populations. Water treatment plants all over the world have been 
including groundwater wells, rivers and streams, remain significant challenged by the presence of particulate plastics in raw water, and the 
sources of potable water for the vast majority of rural communities in removal of particulate plastics in wastewater. An exploratory study 
Africa. conducted by Mintenig et al. (2019) confirmed the presence of partic-
The ultimate target for sustainable development goal (SDG) 6.1 is the ulate plastics in advanced water treatment systems with indications that 
universal supply of safely managed and affordable drinking water by all the particles could originate from abrasive weathering of plastic mate-
and for all by 2030 (United Nations, 2020). Presently, only about 30% of rials used in water purification. Plastic particles have also been sampled 
the population in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) drink from safe and from borehole and well drinking water (Mu et al., 2022; Oni and Sanni, 
improved water resources. On a regional basis, SSA continues to lag as 2022). Due to the inevitability of particulate plastics exposure in 
shown in Fig. 1 and it will take significant and ambitious efforts to meet drinking water and their uncertainties in human health risk character-
the SDG target. It is therefore important that issues of safe water man- ization, the scientific community continues to advance research that will 
agement are prioritized to protect public health and the general improve our understanding of particulate plastics exposure. Particulate 
well-being of people in this area. plastics are identified as an emerging environmental contaminant that 
Although plastic materials are environmentally persistent, they are will impact the integrity of global water resources but to what extent 
not stable and may undergo degradation, fragmentation, diminution, this, and the resulting impact on human and environemtnal health will 
depolymerization, and demineralization (Abbasi et al., 2019; Aria- be, is still being determined. What is certain is that global, regional and 
s-Andres et al., 2018; Bouwmeester et al., 2015; Filella, 2015; Gallo national initiatives must interplay to drastically reduce their release and 
et al., 2018; Gomiero et al., 2019; Hu et al., 2019; Markic et al., 2018; trophic accumulation. The subsequent narratives highlight the produc-
Rist and Hartmann, 2018). Various factors, including chemical, micro- tion and management of plastics and the impacts of particulate plastics 
bial, mechanical, and ultraviolet rays from the sun weaken the plastic on the environment and human health with a focus on Africa. 
material and eventually break its structural integrity. Consumer and 
non-consumer waste plastics breakdown into macro, then meso, micro 2. Plastic waste mismanagement 
and nano-sized particles which can alter the hydrogeochemistry as well 
as the microbiology of many water bodies (Fahrenfeld et al., 2019; 2.1. Plastics production and applications 
Horton, 2017; Koelmans et al., 2019; Lambert and Wagner, 2016; Piao 
et al., 2019; Triebskorn et al., 2019). In the present study, the term Plastics are versatile synthetic and semi-synthetic products with 
particulate plastics will be used to broadly refer to all environmentally multifarious applications (Horton and Dixon, 2018; Mintenig et al., 
and biologically relevant plastic particulates including microplastics, 2017) due to their lightweight, malleability, durability and low cost 
nanoplastics and sub-nanoplastics. In specific cases, fine particulate (Prata et al., 2019a), although some reinforced dense plastics are used in 
plastics will be used to describe only nano and subnanoplastic particles. marine applications (Cheremisinoff, 1997; Murphy, 1994; Thompson 
Generally, plastics are invasive materials with an indefinite life span, et al., 2009). The preferred input materials for conventional plastics 
that once produced require centuries or millennia to disintegrate, and manufacturing are petroleum and natural gas (Suchak and Irving, 2018). 
particulate plastics may enter the global food chain. Plastic materials in Renewable resources such as sugar, corn, and cassava have been used 
contact with water may introduce these minute plastic materials into the recently for the manufacture of biodegradable plastic materials 
water which can then be ingested and may cause potential adverse (Bowmer and Kershaw, 2010; Palm and Svensson Myrin, 2018). 
health effects. Water treatment plants continue to face technological Ultra-violet (UV) stabilizers, flame retardants, antioxidants, plasticizers, 
deficiencies in achieving 100% removal of particulate plastics in raw lubricants, rheology modifiers, heavy metals, intermediate products, 
water systems (Ding et al., 2020; Enfrin et al., 2019; Kirstein et al., 2020; and other chemicals may be added to confer specific properties to the 
Pivokonsky et al., 2018; Wang et al., 2020b). plastic polymer (Espinosa et al., 2016; Nar, 2019). Global annual 
In many developing countries, rural communities drink water throughput continues to rise, estimated at 450 million tons in 2020 
directly from freshwater systems without any depuration. On the other (Mafuta et al., 2021). In terms of production, Asia and the Pacific regions 
hand, municipal water supply systems rely on treatment programs such lead the pack (50%), followed by the North America Free Trade Area 
as filtration, ionization/deionization, and chemical/biological (NAFTA) (19%), and Europe (19%) (Barra et al., 2018; Geyer et al., 
Fig. 1. Global snapshot of the progress towards achieving SDG 6.1 (UNICEF, 2022; United Nations, 2022).  
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2017; Serranti and Bonifazi, 2019; Woldemar, 2019). The Middle East (Abdellatif et al., 2021; Babayemi et al., 2019; Okeke et al., 2022). On an 
and the Africa Continental Free-Trade Area (AfCFTA) altogether are economic upside, these dumps or landfills offer recycling value-chain 
estimated to produce some 7% (Geyer, 2020; World Wide Fund for opportunities to scarvengers to earn income by picking plastics which 
Nature, 2022). would otherwise have been burnt in the open. The inequalities in un-
Apart from some plastic pellets that are not stabilized, most plastic controlled plastic waste disposal globally are reflected in Fig. 3. 
materials are generally thermally stable, chemically inert and resistant Until recently, large volumes of plastic waste were diverted from 
to ultraviolet (UV) radiations (Espinosa et al., 2016), making them the landfills in developing countries and exported to China and other 
material of choice for a wide range of applications such as packaging, countries with advanced and large-scale recycling/recovery capabilities. 
building and construction, communication, industrial machinery, The decision by the Government of China to ban plastic importation 
entertainment, sports, transportation, furnishing, apparel, and agricul- from 2018 has not only posed a serious challenge to a worldwide 
ture. They are an important part of medical devices, they offer safe food recirculation of plastics but also imposed responsibility on plastic 
packaging, and deliver water (including potable and agricultural water) exporting nations and developing countries to explore domestic solu-
as well as offer sewerage services to billions of people around the world. tions for the treatment of waste plastics (Global Alliance for Incinerator 
As of 2016, the industries with the highest uptake of plastic products, Alternatives, 2019; Wang et al., 2020a; Wen et al., 2021). Other coun-
and the estimated industrial releases are shown in Fig. 2. tries, namely Malaysia, Taiwan, Thailand, Vietnam, and India, have also 
imposed similar bans and restrictions on the importation of plastic scrap 
2.2. Plastic waste generation and management in Africa as they attempt to protect their environments. The African continent 
boasts of the largest number of country-level regulations for single-use 
Worldwide, research into the production of biodegradable plastics is plastics than any other continent (United Nations Environmental Pro-
still a novelty, leading to the dumping and landfilling of mostly synthetic gramme, 2018), but the lack of verifiable data on plastic materials in the 
non-biodegradable plastic wastes. Between 2016 and 2050, an esti- continent may imply that Africa consumes and leaks more plastics than 
mated 12 billion metric tons of waste plastics are expected to be land- presently reported. 
filled or emitted into the natural environment and more than 5 trillion Lebreton and Andrady (2019) have pointed to increasing production 
particulate plastics in the oceans (Barra et al., 2018; Cox et al., 2019), and accumulation of plastic products and plastic wastes in the future on 
since only a small proportion of the annual production outlay is recir- the African continent due to an increasing population, inadequate local 
culated. It has been estimated that the number of plastic materials in the manufacturing and recycling capacity, and lax environmental conser-
oceans will outstrip that of fish by 2050 without the widespread uptake vation mechanisms (Abdellatif et al., 2021; Mavropoulos, 2019). A 
of circular engineering linkages (Barra et al., 2018; Hasselerharm, further incentive for plastic waste generation is the expected boom in 
2020). Waste plastics are a pervasive and persistent global challenge intra-continental trade as a result of the AfCFTA agreement (Bengoa 
with negative impacts on the environment, national and regional et al., 2022). Local production has been persistently lower than demand, 
economies, human welfare, and landscape aesthetics. making the continent a net importer of plastics and plastic raw materials 
Plastic wastes generation and management have been a challenge for (Babayemi et al., 2019). Between 1990 and 2017, it has been estimated 
developing nations in Africa to cost-effectively and efficiently manage that total imports of plastics amounted to about 172 metric tons in 33 
(Filho et al., 2019; Thompson et al., 2009; Zalasiewicz et al., 2019). African countries, the figure expected to double by 2030 (Akan et al., 
Globally, plastic wastes have been deemed to account for about 20% of 2021; Babayemi et al., 2019). On a regional level, imports into the 
municipal solid wastes (Barnes et al., 2009; Crawford and Quinn, 2017; continent are largely dominated by North Africa, with sparse contribu-
Ebere and Ngozi, 2019; Rocha-Santos and Duarte, 2019). The proportion tions from West Africa and South Africa (Babayemi et al., 2019). The 
of plastic litter in urban waste has been a source of concern for economic World Health Organization (WHO) has advocated for improving recy-
development and environmental sustainability in Africa. Data on plas- cling programmes, reducing littering, improving circular solutions, 
tics production is scarce but Africa is home to large quantities of dumped reducing the use of plastics, and decreasing waste inputs into the envi-
plastic wastes and plastic litter, with the propensity to infiltrate the ronment by industries as part of broader measures to reduce plastics 
different types of drinking water resources. In most parts of Africa, waste pollution (Marsden et al., 2019). 
collection, treatment and disposal systems are inadequate leading to 
80% of leakages of waste plastics into oceans, rivers, and land 
Fig. 2. Global Plastic demand and waste generation in 2016 (Geyer et al., 2017; Serranti and Bonifazi, 2019).  
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Fig. 3. Uncontrolled plastic waste disposal from a global perspective as of 2019 (Santander, 2021).  
3. Externalities of environmental particulate plastics emissions compromised by particulate plastics. The sources, fate and transport of 
these particulate plastics have been comprehensively reviewed (Ang-
Across the globe, the proliferation of plastic wastes is widespread and nunavuri et al., 2020; Pereao et al., 2020; Siegfried et al., 2017). 
a major contaminant of aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. Weak Ingestion of microplastics by freshwater fauna can lead to physical 
governance systems, litter-inducing social behaviours, lack of aware- blockage, internal energy depletion, inhibited growth, fertility impacts, 
ness, population density, urbanization, and scarce hydrological infor- starvation, and even death. Ecological toxicity consigned to notable 
mation about the consequences of plastics pollution have been additives and sorbed chemicals such as phthalates, polybrominated 
associated with the exponential surge of waste plastics in many devel- diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), persistent organic pollutants (POPs), poly-
oping countries. Plastics will continue to play a central role in the world cyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and halogenated flame retardants 
and society, but the utilization and mismanagement of waste plastics are (HFRs) have been well documented (Anbumani and Kakkar, 2018; Avio 
likely to pose existential threats to ecosystems and their services due in et al., 2017; Blackburn and Green, 2022; Cao et al., 2022; de Souza 
large part to plastic particulates (Barnes et al., 2009; Baztan et al., 2018; Machado et al., 2018). Plastic microfibers, filaments, and granules 
McKinney, 2019; Thompson et al., 2009). Barra et al. (2018) have provide avenues for the transfer of different microbial species across the 
posited that the current linear models of producing plastic materials are world, leading to the creation of foreign species in the ecologies of 
a principal driver for natural resource depletion, waste plastics accu- affected regions (Shen et al., 2019b). The diversity in particle sizes and 
mulation, environmental degradation, climate change, and human dimentions will play significant roles in hazard characterization (Kooi 
health impairment. Verster et al. (2017) have indicated that the risks of et al., 2021). As a first step towards global appreciation of the plastics 
particulate plastics may be more pronounced in developing countries problem, Rochman et al. (2013) have argued for the classification of 
where large populations depend on land and water resources for daily plastics as hazardous environmental materials to provide an imperative 
sustenance and general economic wellbeing. for their management. The impacts of particulate plastics on biota are 
Plastic wastes in general, and particulate plastics, in particular, are summarized by Science Advice for Policy by European Academies 
easily transported over long distances and become ubiquitous in their (SAPEA) (Science Advice for Policy by European Academies, 2017) as 
distribution on land, water and air (Barnes et al., 2009; Horton and shown in Fig. 4. 
Dixon, 2018; Mason et al., 2016; Shim et al., 2017; United Nations Scientists working with the International Union for the Conservation 
Environmental Programme, 2018; Vince and Hardesty, 2018). Land is of Nature have found plastic and plastic particle materials in endangered 
the primary host for most particulate plastics which are then moved into and vulnerable fauna such as the Hawaiian monkey, sea turtle, and fur 
aerial and aquatic systems. Migwi (2021) estimated that microplastics seal (Rochman et al., 2016). A wide range of aquatic organisms – 
contamination of Naivasha lake in Kenya was nearly 3 orders of including zooplankton, invertebrates, fishes, seabirds, and whales – are 
magnitude lower than the surrounding sediments of the lake. Water- exposed to particulate plastics through direct ingestion of water and 
borne particulate plastics are pervasive in anthropized locations, with indirectly as predators in food webs. Reports compiled by the United 
weak governance systems accounting for their abundance. Particulate Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) suggest that more than 
plastics are very buoyant and their distribution in air is modulated by 1million birds and over 100,000 marine animals die each year as a result 
atmospheric processes (Alfonso et al., 2021; Liu et al., 2019; Wright of plastics ingestion (Turpie et al., 2019; United Nations Environmental 
et al., 2020). Microplastics have been detected in remote locations Programme, 2018). Land-based plastics have been determined to 
(Allen et al., 2019; Zhang et al., 2019) and in glacial ice (Kanhai et al., negatively influence aesthetics, food production, and air quality. Plastic 
2020; Kelly et al., 2020; Peeken et al., 2018). Hitherto pristine envi- pollutants have been a major part of flood metrics in most developing 
ronments such as the French Pyreens (Allen et al., 2019), the Antartic countries as they easily accumulate in drainage systems and block 
sea ice (Kelly et al., 2020), the Arctic Central Basin (Kanhai et al., 2020; watercourses. 
Peeken et al., 2018) and the Alps (Bergmann et al., 2019) have been 
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Fig. 4. Impacts of particulate plastics on different levels of biological organizations (European Commission, 2019; Science Advice for Policy by European Acade-
mies, 2017). 
4. Particulate plastics in fresh and drinking water Europe (Germany, England, Slovakia, Switzerland, France, Ireland, 
Italy), South America (Brazil, Ecuador, Cuba), North America (USA, 
Drinking water broadly refers to safe potable water systems and Mexico), Asia (China, India, Indonesia, Thailand), and the Middle East 
include groundwater, surface water, and tap/delivered water. Fresh- (Lebanon) by Mason et al. (2018) and Kosuth et al. (2018) detected 
water constitutes only 0.014% (about 200,000 cubic kilometres) of diverse fine particulate plastics in bottle water, tap water and beer. The 
global water reserves on earth (King and Brown, 2021). The quantity degradation of plastic materials containing drinking water has also been 
and quality of this limited resource is essential for the existence of the signalled as another source of particulate plastics in drinking water 
many lifeforms on earth and human development. The challenge how- (Huang et al., 2022b; Winkler et al., 2022). A recent study in Asia by 
ever is the capacity to meet the development needs of an ever expanding Tong et al. (2020) found 440 particlesL− 1 in tap water systems, mostly 
human population while preventing freshwater pollution/degradation, mini-micro grade and preponderated by polyethylene and poly-
over-exploitation and habitat/biodiversity loses. Freshwater has been an propylene materials. Using conventional water treatment plants, Piv-
important asset for drinking water management, sanitation and hygiene, okonsky et al. (2018) also found microplastics in raw and treated water, 
recreation, climate change mitigation through carbon sequestration, inferring that these particles have the propensity to evade filtration 
food and energy security, spirituality, warfare, flooding, and the systems and enter domestic water supply systems. A study conducted by 
outbreak of disease in man and animals. the University of Newcastle concluded that the average person consumes 
Significant loadings of plastic materials and particulate plastics have 1972 particulate plastics every week from food and beverages, and 1769 
been found in some of the world’s freshwater bodies due to wind or particles (or 88%) from drinking water alone (World Wide Fund for 
surface run-off (Bäuerlein et al., 2022; Hamid et al., 2018; Horton and Nature, 2019). Further quantitative exposure analysis of published 
Dixon, 2018; Koelmans et al., 2019; Pivokonsky et al., 2018; Wagner literature in the European Union estimated an annual intake of 3,569, 
et al., 2018). A critical review of microplastics contamination of fresh 000 particulate plastics per person per year from bottle water (Dano-
and drinking water resources ranks polyethylene, most commonly used poulos et al., 2020). Bottle aging, mechanical stress and exposure to 
for packaging, as the most abundant material in these systems (Koel- ultra violet rays from the sun have been shown to significantly influence 
mans et al., 2019). The study also found a predominance of fragmented the degradation of PET materials containing drinking water (Taheri 
and fibrous particles, attributable to anthropogenic activities in surface et al., 2023). Apart from the physical particles, plastic consumer pack-
water systems. Equivalent number of particulate plastics have been aging has been observed to introduce novel contaminants such as 
identified by Mason et al. (2018) and Piao et al. (2019) on wastewater phthalates and bisphenol-A into drinking water and food (Angnunavuri 
effluents and fresh water, instigating the need to increase scientific in- et al., 2022a; Asigri, 2018; Baranenko et al., 2021; Edwards et al., 2022; 
vestigations on microplastics in freshwater and drinking water re- Garcia-Fabila et al., 2020; Razali et al., 2021; Wang et al., 2021; Zaater 
sources. Field studies by Egessa et al. (2020), Weideman et al. (2019) et al., 2014). The infiltration of potentially toxic novel contaminants in 
and Biginagwa et al. (2016) have pointed to large scale urban influences drinking water supplies due to the presence of particulate plastics may 
in the distribution of microplastics in the Orange-Vaal river systems and go undetected. In the West African region, Wardrop et al. (2017) re-
Lake Victoria, compared to remote locations, and called for proper waste ported 28,000tons of waste water plastic materials per year given the 
management mechanisms to safeguard these water courses from large scale environmental emissions within the region. The few fresh-
anthropogenic pollution. Lake Victoria is a major tropical freshwater water bioassay studies in Africa reveal the contamination of aquatic 
body that is home to significant drinking water headworks in Kenya, specimen with particulate plastics (Akindele et al., 2019; Jeevanandam 
Burundi, Tanzania, Rwanda and Uganda. Recently, both lake Victoria et al., 2022), and the prevalence of microplastics in the surrounding 
and the Orange-Vaal river system have been determined to be contam- water (Dahms et al., 2020; Faulstich et al., 2022; Shabaka et al., 2022). 
inated with hazardous chemicals of plastic origin (Chirikona et al., 2015; Many developing nations lack advanced drinking water treatment 
Egessa et al., 2020; Onchiri et al., 2021). systems that can eliminate particulate plastics during water treatment. 
Global studies conducted in 18 countries across Africa (Uganda), Water treatment plants have acted as sources of contamination as well as 
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controls for particulate plastics during water treatment. Micro/granular complex and heterogeneous matrices like sub-micro and nano congeners 
filtration techniques such as ultrafiltration, nanofiltration, micro- (Gouin et al., 2022). Despite these uncertainties, the State of California 
filtration, reverse osmosis, and membrane bioreactors offer promising has listed particulate plastics in drinking water as part of its health and 
removal rates for particulate plastics than traditional filtration systems safety code to provide for their testing, reporting, interpretation, and 
(Barbier et al., 2022; Im et al., 2021; Oh et al., 2019; Wang et al., 2022; public disclosures (California State Water Board, 2020). 
Wang et al., 2020b). A systematic review of existing literature by 
Barchiesi et al. (2021) has suggested that combined systems involving 5.1. Physical and chemical properties of biological and health importance 
coagulation, flocculation, sedimentation, sand/activated carbon filtra-
tion and floatation were more effective than stand-alone systems and Size, surface chemistry, and surface topography/curvature have 
could remove up to 88% of source water particulate plastics (Mintenig been noted for the behaviour and toxicity of particulate plastics (Bakand 
et al., 2019; Pivokonsky et al., 2018; Wang et al., 2020b). These removal et al., 2012; de Souza Machado et al., 2018; Shen et al., 2019a; Staple-
efficiencies were based on predetermined quotients of the number of ton, 2019). Studies have suggested that the egestion of regular micro-
recovery particles in control samples. By spiking the samples, Lares et al. plastics is more likely than irregularly shaped microplastics (Šilhánková, 
(2019) was able to achieve 93% recovery for wastewater and sludge 2018). On a surface to mass basis, irregular particles possess higher 
samples. Testing capabilities that can adequately detect particulate surface to volume ratio than regular particles which may enhance their 
plastics for routine monitoring, and the regulatory regimes for miti- biochemical and physical interactions in living cells. Popat (2016) has 
gating plastic and particle pollution are presently inadequate. argued that due to the higher surface area to volume ratio and stronger 
The ubiquitous nature of plastic particle pollution means that their electrostatic properties, smaller particles tend to elicit bigger chemical 
potential impacts will not be limited to host environmental compart- and physical impacts on biological systems and the environment. Recent 
ments, but the biological consequences of intake may play an overriding developments also point to the fact that the hydrophilic potential of 
influence in toxigenic assessment. Plastic microparticles are present and particulate plastics may be more useful in particle removal than surface 
will be a persistent, environmental danger around the world, requiring charge ratio (Enfrin et al., 2021a; Enfrin et al., 2021b; Maliwan et al., 
strategic research and engineering methodologies to identify and miti- 2021). These physicochemical properties will be important in deter-
gate major sources of pollution and understand pathways for deposition mining the fate and transport of particulate plastics in drinking water 
and accumulation in biological matrices. Very few studies on the subject and in the human body. 
of particulate plastics in packaged drinking water have been conducted Environmental plastics may alter the geochemistry of their hosts due 
in developing countries around the world. Studies that integrate large to their chemical composition and long-range transport behaviour. 
scale environmental samples to understand the transport of particulate Particulate plastics may sequester organic and inorganic chemicals, and 
plastics and their source apportionment in drinking water may transport many other toxic materials in their hosts (Ma et al., 2019; 
contribute significantly to new designs for drinking water treatment. Mohamed Nor, 2022; Oßmann et al., 2018; Prata et al., 2019b; 
Rocha-Santos and Duarte, 2019). Particulate plastics tend to exhibit low 
5. Potential human health risks to particulate plastics - water solubility and high octanol-water partitioning coefficients (log-
perceived or real Kow), giving them high proclivity for fatty tissue deposition (Keresztes 
et al., 2013) and affinity for lipophilic substances (Shan et al., 2020). 
Scientific reports continue to inventory the trophic fugacity of micro Plastic nanoparticles may also alter the biogeochemistry of living cells 
and nano particulate plastics and examine their toxicological modes of that may affect biochemical pathways. A molten plastic slurry in a closed 
action. However, their biological effect-actions through ingestion intake system is a complex soup of heavy metals, various pesticides, polycyclic 
in drinking water are still incipient and inconclusive. Could particulate aromatic hydrocarbons, polychlorinated biphenyls, fluoroalkyl sub-
plastics originating from drinking water provoke pernisious responses in stances and endocrine disrupting chemicals among others. There is ev-
human? Quantitative and qualitative studies have identified and idence that polymerization reactions during plastics production do not 
enumerated varying concentrations of particulate plastics in fresh sur- go to completion, leading to aging depolymerization of chemicals such 
face waters, tap water and packaged water (Ali, 2019; Di et al., 2019; as 1,3-butadiene, ethylene oxide, antimony trioxide, and vinyl chloride 
Ding et al., 2020; Kirstein et al., 2020; Lee et al., 2021; Mintenig et al., (Avio et al., 2017; Clunies-Ross, 2019; Halden, 2010; Klein, 2011; 
2019; Paredes et al., 2019; Pivokonsky et al., 2018; Schymanski et al., Strong, 2006). Plastic components including plasticizers, colorants, lu-
2018; Shen et al., 2020; Shruti et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2020b), but their bricants, foaming agents and flame retardants may also leach out in 
relationship with adverse human health has only been theorized. The solution or weather away under light stress (Hureiki and Mouneimne, 
World Health Organization has indicated that data inconsistencies in 2012; Marsden et al., 2019; Tukur et al., 2012). The toxins discharged by 
current literature, and the lack of standardization in testing methodol- plastic materials and particulate plastics can be ingested and absorbed 
ogies and data reporting, do not lend credence to any real hazard due to by humans resulting in systemic toxicity and genetic modifications 
particulate plastics in drinking water. The report by Marsden et al. especially in the infant and the unborn (Manikkam et al., 2013; Tour-
(2019) rather proposes for continued source water protection to prevent inho et al., 2019). 
the potential presence of particulate plastics and other contaminants of Endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) include organic and heavy 
concern in drinking water. metal compounds that are known to cause genetic mutations, cancer, 
Human exposure to particulate plastics may occur through ingestion, and reproductive impairments. They include a wide range of industrial 
dermal uptake, and inhalation (Revel et al., 2018). Following exposure, chemiclas such as benzotriazole UV stabilizers, bisphenol-A, haloalkyl 
and as exogenous materials, fine particulate plastics may trigger an in- substances, dioxins, flame retardants, phthalates, antimony, lead and 
flammatory response, as they resemble foreign bodies which immune cadmium which are used as ingredients in plastic materials (Chakra-
cells try to eliminate. The shear proportion of drinking water content in borty et al., 2022). EDCs have been isolated from Chinese, Japanese and 
the human body (Jequier and Constant, 2010) suggests that drinking German water systems and observed to show strong estrogenic and 
water may contribute to significant loading of particulate plastics in the endocrine disruption activity in vertebrates and invertebrates, and 
human body. High exposure frequencies through drinking even at low long-range transport behaviour (Benjamin et al., 2017; Espinosa et al., 
doses will bioaccumulate in the body, and can lead to unspecified and 2016; Manikkam et al., 2013). EDCs have also been shown to leach out 
unconsidered human existential threats due to their persistence. More from plastic materials, and either jointly or severally, may be associated 
significantly however, present human risk assessments that characterise with impaired fertility, delayed neurodevelopment in children, immune 
mechanistic trajectories and pharmacokinetic indications do not provide disorders, metabolic disorders, and hormonal cancers. Antimony 
adequate reliability and minimum recommended thresholds for the trioxide (Sb2O3) (ATO), an EDC suspected to cause human cancer 
6
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(Sundar and Chakravarty, 2010), is often added as an essential poly- hydrophilic particles in the cytoplasm and hydrophobic particles inter-
condensation catalyst during the manufacture of PET materials (Duh, calating within the lipid layer of the cell membrane. The mechanisms of 
2002; National Research Council, 2000; United States Environmental transport through formalised active and passive pathways, are still un-
Protection Agency, 2014; Westerhoff et al., 2008). A study conducted by clear. Xu et al. (2019b) mentioned phagocytosis, micropinocytosis, and 
Mortula and Ahmad (2013) detected significant quantities of antimony endocytosis as possible pathways for the uptake of fine particulate 
in PET bottle water in the United Arab Emirates, and associated the plastics by human cells. 
concentrations with incubation temperature and time. Other metals and Intracellular uptake of nanoplastics results in direct interaction of 
their congeners of plastic origin such as arsenic, aluminium, barium, these particles with organelles, and genetic material with the potential 
chromium, mercury, cadmium, titanium, tin, lead, bromium, and cobalt for changes in gene expression, inflammation, and altered biochemical 
have been identified in drinking water samples and may be linked with responses. Nano and sub-nanoplastics, which can possess both negative 
various medical conditions that could affect human life (Okeke et al., and positive charges, are readily absorbed and may accumulate in the 
2022). brain, kidney, heart, and liver with potential adverse repercussions for 
the proper functioning of the central nervous system and reproductive 
5.2. Effects of plastisphere system (Bakand et al., 2012; Enyoh et al., 2019; Pinto da Costa et al., 
2019; Waring et al., 2018). Pauly et al. (1998) confirmed the lodging of 
Due to their surface properties, particulate plastics can transport microplastic fibers in human lung tissue, suggesting that fine particulate 
microorganisms that may change the microbial ecology of biosystems. plastics may play a role in the aetiology and prognosis of lung cancer. 
This plastisphere may include a novel community of microbes, including Studies by Khaliq et al. (2011) suggest that plastic dust was more likely 
harmful types, which can trigger various disease conditions, and gene to evoke pulmonary dysfunction in plastic factory workers than in un-
transfers (Shen et al., 2019b; United Nations Environmental Pro- exposed persons. Qin et al. (2022) have observed that chlorinated 
gramme, 2016). Fine particulate plastics may modulate immune re- polystyrene particles were responsible for marked cytotoxic responses in 
sponses in healthy individuals by interfering with their natural bioflora. human gastric epithelial cells GES-1. If these observations are validated 
The ability of particulate plastics to carry microorganisms may make in upscaled experiments, then current drinking water treatment tech-
them the vector for pathogenic species and antibiotic-resistant bacteria nologies that employ chlorination for disinfection may require 
(Blackburn and Green, 2022). Toxicological hazards relating to reingineering. 
inflammation and oxidative stress have been shown to be more perva- Laboratory studies using fine polystyrene particulate plastics deter-
sive in ecotoxicological studies (Coffin et al., 2022a), and some associ- mined the internalization of these particles in human foreskin HS27 cells 
ation between particulate plastics and impaired immunity has been leading to DNA damage and formation of micronuclei and nuclear buds 
suggested (Tagorti and Kaya, 2022). Zhang et al. (2022) investigated the (Poma et al., 2019). The tendency for fine particulate plastics to 
relationship between particulate plastics and Severe Acute Respiratory aggregate or agglomerate in cells (Gopinath et al., 2021; Xu et al., 
Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) pseudovirus using in vitro 2019a), unlike conventionally engineered nanomaterials (EFSA Scien-
studies and observed an enhanced binding of the virus with the particles, tific Committee, 2021), may modulate gene expression, genotoxicity, 
and increased infectivity of human cells. Such developments will be cellular inflammation and incidences of stroke. Particulate plastics 
useful in understanding the emergence, characterization and manage- presently do not fulfil standard dispersion protocols for nanomaterials 
ment of novel disease conditions such as Coronavirus Disease-2019 and this technical gap may impair the validity of risk assessment results. 
(COVID-19). Evidence about the presence of particulate plastics in the human body 
are specified in Table 1. The data shows the recency of the works and the 
5.3. Evidence of particulate plastics in the human body and health diversity in data reporting. 
implications Cellular fine particulate plastics (cytoplastics) may leach out toxic 
heavy metals and organic polymeric chemical contaminants that can be 
Quantitative and qualitative causality from in vitro studies, model detrimental to host tissues and cells (Andrady, 2011; Brennecke et al., 
animal bioassays and human post-mortem investigations have provided 2016; Koelmans et al., 2014; Koelmans et al., 2013; Lu et al., 2018; 
some insights into the hazards that fine particulate plastics may induce Polidoro et al., 2022; Sedlak et al., 2017). Alimentary properties such as 
in biological systems. Nano and subnano-plastics are small enough to sorptive capacities of the gut, digestion efficiency, and local chemical 
penetrate deep into organs and cells with unknown consequences (Brun gradients will modulate the exchange of chemicals between entrained 
et al., 2014; EFSA, 2016; European Commission’s Scientific Advice particulate plastics in food and water and cellular systems in the body. 
Mechanism, 2018). Research is still ongoing to account for the total The proposition of a passive sampling theory by Koelmans et al. (2022) 
biological diversity of particulate plastics in the human body (Dano- may instigate discussions on particle-mediated malnutrition in in-
poulos et al., 2022; Leslie et al., 2022; Yee et al., 2021; Yuan et al., dividuals that are exposed to high levels of particulate plastics. In animal 
2022), but their presence in human breast milk (Ragusa et al., 2022) models, in vitro studies have confirmed biochemical dysfunctions in iron 
may pose far reaching consequences for the growth and development of uptake in chicken exposed to microplastics (Waring et al., 2018). 
breast-fed infants than presently known. The various pathways for 
biological uptake and the potential health effects of fine particulate Table 1 
plastics, ranging from physical obstruction in body channels to their Evidence of particulate plastics in human.  
internalization and participation in biochemical or molecular processes No. Human Specimen Maximum Concentration or Reference 
have been detailed by Koelmans et al. (2022). Pathways that illustrate particle size 
distinct adverse outcomes have been investigated by Thornton Hampton 1 Blood 7.1 μg/mL Leslie et al. (2022) 
et al. (2022) and observed not to be clearly defined. 2 Lungs 3.96 particles/g Jenner et al. (2022) 
Once particulate plastics are translocated into body organs, espe- 3 Breast milk 2.75 g/mL Ragusa et al. (2022) 
cially the gut system, paracellular persorption and endocytosis may 4 Cirrhotic liver 3.4 particles/g Horvatits et al. (2022) 
occur (California State Water Board, 2020; Liu et al., 2021a). Paul et al. 5 Broncho-alveolar 9.18 particles/100 mL Baeza-Martinez et al. 
lavage fluid (2022) 
(2022) have estimated the cellular uptake of fine particulate plastics 6 Sputum 567 particles/10 mL Huang et al. (2022a) 
using modelled human intestinal and liver cells and observed increasing 7 Placenta ~10 μm Ragusa et al. (2021) 
uptake with decreasing particle size, with broad implications for intra- 8 Feces 10.19 μg/g feces Wibowo et al. (2021) 
cellular homeostasis and membrane toxicity. They also observed local- 9 Feces 41.8 particles/g feces Yan et al. (2021) 
ized deposition of particles in the cells, with distinct differentiation for 10 Infant feces 82,000 ng/g feces Zhang et al. (2021)  
7
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Polystyrene particles have shown metabolic adaptations that mimic the 2016). Accra, the national capital and the most populous and urbanized 
symptoms of azoxymethane (a colorectal carcinogen) exposure (Bona- city in Ghana, alone is deemed to produce an estimated 270,000 tons of 
nomi et al., 2022), and they also tend to rapidly cross placental mem- various plastic waste annually, half of which is uncollected and ends up 
branes and bioaccumulate in fetal tissues (Fournier et al., 2020). The on aquatic and terrestrial biomes (Solheim and Jensen, 2019). Major 
relationship between exposure to particulate plastics and adverse birth freshwater river systems such as the Densu river which serve the 
outcomes is vague. Pathways for neurotoxicity have also been suggested drinking water needs of vast populations in Accra have been contami-
(Prüst et al., 2020). nated with microplastics, raising concerns about the engineering capa-
Karbalaei et al. (2018) have attempted a description of human bilities of drinking water treatment headworks in dealing with plastic 
toxicological impacts and constructed the possible endpoints of toxicity materials and their adjuvants (Blankson et al., 2022). Similar results 
for human exposure to include increased mucus production, cardio- have been reported in other hotsposts such as Nigeria, Senegal, 
vascular disease, asthma, and cancer (Karbalaei et al., 2018). Further- Cameroun, Mozambique, Tanzania, Kenya and South Africa (Okeke 
more, Jeong and Choi (2019), and Kontrick (2018) have noted that toxic et al., 2022; World Wide Fund for Nature, 2022). These plastics and their 
effects leading to mortality, reproductive failure, energy depletion, and by-products may be potential sources of contamination of drinking 
growth retardation are mainly due to oxidative stress posed by particle water. 
exposure (Schirinzi et al., 2017). Human health risk assessment for Research into particulate plastics in Africa is generally very sparse 
particulate plastics is imperative considering the broad responses these and mainly consigned to marine systems with limited information on 
materials can elicit in the human body. The inconsistent, unsystematic, drinking water (Aragaw, 2021). The bulk of current research is man-
uncoordinated and unvalidated procedures at present however are likely ifested in Europe, Asia, the Middle East and the Americas as shown in 
to incorrectly estimate the bias associated with such measurements. Fig. 5. 
Further research is needed to validate pathways that can meaningfully Particulate plastics maybe nonpoint source pollutants on land and in 
and systematically provide estimates that are reliable and unambiguous. water. Verster et al. (2017) have opined that microplastics-infested 
agricultural land and drinking water may pose public health chal-
5.4. Future research needs for human health risk assessment lenges to the general population. In many developing countries, many 
rural and peri-urban communities drink directly from surface water 
Human health risk assessments of particulate plastics in drinking resources such as riverine systems and streams. These open natural 
water are still very novel and insufficient, and further research is needed systems are also exposed to and influenced by anthropogenic activities 
to characterise their safety. For instance, there is a controversy over an that introduce particulate plastics contamination. In recent times, 
appropriate fit-for-purpose dose unitization (whether count, weight, or L/HDPE and PET packaged water serve the potable water needs for large 
size distribution) that should be used for dose-response estimations populations in Africa (Dzodzomenyo et al., 2017; Guzmán and Stoler, 
(Coffin et al., 2022a; Koelmans et al., 2022; Kooi et al., 2021; Mohamed 2018; Wardrop et al., 2017). Ibeto et al. (2021) sampled low numbers of 
Nor et al., 2021; Senathirajah et al., 2021) and whether current polyethylene, polycinyl chloride, polyethylene terephthalate, and poly 
analytical techniques are competent at estimating micro, sub-micro and dimethyl siloxane microplastics in plastic packaged drinking water in 
nano concentrations in environmental media and biological specimen Nigeria using scanning electron microscopy tandem energy-dispersive 
(Caldwell et al., 2022; Caputo et al., 2021; Coffin et al., 2022b). Beside X-ray diffractive spectroscopy, and 11 μm filter paper. Although the 
the problem of estimating actual doses, reference doses and cancer slope method employed in this study had the propensity of losing micro-
factors (pathway unit risks) are also lacking. Whether these factors can plastics quantification, the results re-inforced the need to broaden the 
be validly estimated for such complex structures as particulate plastics is scope of water safety plans in developing countries. Unfortunately, there 
also a question of time. The physical and chemical diversity of different are no national standards or guidelines for evaluating environmental 
particles is another source of uncertainty (Coffin et al., 2022a; Koelmans pollution of particulate plastics, and health risk assessments of fresh and 
et al., 2022; Kooi et al., 2021). However, the biological behaviour of potable water particulate plastics are very rudimentary. In the face of 
particles has been studied, although with limited scope. The sheer the uncertainties regarding the quantification of particulate plastics and 
physical size of micro, sub-micro and nano particles means that they can the lack of risk factors for hazard characterization, it is important to 
be carried in potable water, posing the risk of ingestion and dermal reinforce source water protection programs that avoid ground and sur-
absorption. Following uptake, they become bioavailable and may be face water plastic pollution. 
absorbed. In order to provide for their risk characterization, it may be 
relevant to differentiate between environmental particulate plastics in 7. Future of plastics in Africa 
the general notation of primary and secondary microplastics, nano-
plastics and sub-nanoplastics; systemic particulate plastics that will The demand for packaging plastics has spearheaded the growth in 
reside in biological systems and tissues upon uptake; and cytoplastics the plastics market in Africa and an upsurge in waste plastics, especially 
that may be consigned to cellular system or translocate between the cell single-use plastic materials. Largely, waste management programs have 
and the system. been motivated by aesthetic concerns and not a predilection for resource 
valorisation (Akindele et al., 2019; Nel et al., 2021). Plastic materials are 
6. Particulate plastics in fresh and drinking water in sub- indispensable, at least not until sustainable alternatives are available. 
Saharan Africa Viable economic management of plastic streams are vital in ensuring 
that waste plastics are diverted from ecological systems. Plastic pollu-
Due to the stagnation of Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) in achieving the tion is inextricably linked to poor end-of-life management and the lack 
targets of SDG 6.1, it is imperative to consider water security and source of a plastics circular economy. 
water protection throughout the region. The SSA is estimated to produce Adequate management programs that prioritise macroplastics man-
some 17 million tons of plastic waste annually (Ayeleru et al., 2020; Ike agement, the environment and ecological pollution due to particulate 
et al., 2018). With limited capacity for recycling, material recovery and plastics, and the hazardous chemicals of plastic origin, may require 
reuse, significant proportions of this waste is released into the envi- novel approaches to achieve net zero pollution targets. Lightweight 
ronment. Nigeria and Ghana have been noted as some of the high plastic ban instruments are widespread in Africa but poor policing 
emitters within the region (Dumbili and Henderson, 2020; Miezah et al., mechanisms of the policies, and strong pro-plastic lobbying groups have 
2015). In Ghana for instance, waste composition studies have estimated led to the bans being moribund. Mechanical recycling technology, which 
nearly 13,000tons of waste emissions per day with the plastics fraction is being phased out in most developed countries, is common in most 
constituting some 15% (Miezah et al., 2015; Seshie, 2015; Tawiah et al., African nations. On the other hand, chemical recycling is still very novel 
8
P.N. Angnunavuri et al.                                                                                                                                                                                    E  n  v i r  o n  m   e n  t a  l  P  o l l u  t i o  n  316 (2023) 120714
Fig. 5. Global representation of drinking water particulate plastics research (Gambino et al., 2022).  
in Africa but may provide useful chemicals and alternative sources of solution may lie in Simon and Schulte (2017) proposition to negotiate a 
energy to improve fuel economies, and feedstock for other industrial continent-wide convention that tackles plastic pollution where it origi-
applications (Rai et al., 2021; Wang and El-Sepelgy, 2021). This will nates, foster innovation for more sustainable plastics, and support 
complement mechanical processes to optimise end-of-life management countries to enhance their domestic waste collection and recycling 
options. The use of prodegradant catalysts have been championed across systems, and circular economy initiatives. 
the continent to improve the degradability of plastics. Degradation of 
these materials is dependent on temperature and luminous intensity, 8. Concluding remarks and recommendations 
and may lead to the emission and accumulation of particulate plastics. 
Biocomposite materials that are sensitive to microbial degradation The presence of particulate plastics in drinking water has been well 
are less developed but may also prove useful in avoiding the environ- documented in the limited literature worldwide. Uncertainties do exist 
mental and ecological dangers posed by synthetic plastics (Ahmadita- in testing methodologies, data reporting and risk assessments. Particle 
batabaei et al., 2021; Liu et al., 2021b). Completely degradable diversity, dose-response estimation and lack of exposure thresholds, and 
bioplastics are the most likely green alternative if long term protection is uncertainties in toxicological hazards have impaired the risk assessment 
to be guaranteed. However, these technologies are quiet virgin in an framework for internalized particulate plastics. The current review 
African context. Recent laboratory scale experiments may prove useful identifies that research into drinking water particulate plastics is a new 
in the abstraction of particulate plastics during water treatment. For scientific discipline that may prove useful in establishing total ingestion 
instance, magnetized techniques have been proposed by Shi et al. (2022) exposure. The diversity in biological modes of action and transport 
although significant optimisation of the procedures will be required for behaviour of particulate plastics is an important attribute for risk 
scale-up. Photo-mediated degradation of particles has also been characterization. We recommend the need to consider a holistic and a 
explored by Ariza-Tarazona et al. (2020) and Acuña-Bedoya et al. more comprehensive approach for the evaluation of particulate plastics 
(2021), as well as nanomembrane filters (Yang et al., 2022) and elec- exposure in drinking water and other environmental matrices using 
trocoagulation mechanisms (Shen et al., 2022) to better effects. These quality-assured processes. At the continental level, we propose an Afri-
developments are very promising, and collaboration among scientists, can framework that commits to a circular plastics program by consid-
and increased funding for research and development are required to ering: improvements in waste separation and collection, improvements 
design and scale up. in recycling rates and increasing demand for recycled products, 
It is important that African countries identify areas of research and increasing penetration of bioplastics, advocating for the manufacturing 
industrial collaboration considering the fact that plastics pollution is of cleaner packaging through product re-engineering, advocating for re- 
transboundary and aquatic pollution affects all mankind. The exigencies useable plastics rather than disposables, and transitioning towards 
of transboundary plastics pollution of terrestrial, aquatic and atmo- completely biologically degradable plastic substitutes. 
spheric systems and their externalities on human health, ecological 
systems, biodiversity, and climate will require regional and interna-
tional cooperation, and interdisciplinary approaches. The African 
9
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Credit author statement Bakand, S., Hayes, A., Dechsakulthorn, F., 2012. Nanoparticles: a review of particle 
toxicology following inhalation exposure. Inhal. Toxicol. 24, 125–135. 
Baranenko, D., Boulkrane, M.S., Borisova, I., Astafyeva, B., Lu, W., Abd El-Aty, A., 2021. 
Prosper Naah Angnunavuri: Conceptualization, Methodology, Translocation of phthalates from food packaging materials into minced beef. Front. 
Writing- Original draft preparation Francis Attiogbe: Writing- Original Nutr. 8, 1–8. 
draft preparation. Bismark Mensah: Writing- Reviewing and Editing. Barbier, J.-S., Dris, R., Lecarpentier, C., Raymond, V., Delabre, K., Thibert, S., et al., 
2022. Microplastic occurrence after conventional and nanofiltration processes at 
drinking water treatment plants: preliminary results. Frontiers in Water 4. 
Declaration of competing interest Barchiesi, M., Chiavola, A., Di Marcantonio, C., Boni, M.R., 2021. Presence and fate of 
microplastics in the water sources: focus on the role of wastewater and drinking 
water treatment plants. J. Water Proc. Eng. 40. 
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interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence fragmentation of plastic debris in global environments. Phil. Trans. Biol. Sci. 364, 
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Barra, R.O., Leonard, S.A., Wharley, C., Bierbaum, R., 2018. Plastics and the Circular 
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Data availability Facility, Washington DC.  
Bäuerlein, P.S., Hofman-Caris, R.C., Pieke, E.N., Ter Laak, T.L., 2022. Fate of 
No data was used for the research described in the article. microplastics in the drinking water production. Water Res. 221, 118790. Baztan, J., Bergmann, M., Carrasco, A., Fossi, C., Jorgensen, B., Miguelez, A., et al., 2018. 
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