INSTITUTE FOR ENVIRONMENT AND SANITATION STUDIES UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON CEMETERIES AS SUSTAINABLE GREEN SPACES IN THE URBAN LANDSCAPE OF THE GREATER ACCRA METROPOLITAN AREA (GAMA) BY STELLA KWAMI 10083903 A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE INSTITUTE FOR ENVIRONMENT AND SANITATION STUDIES, UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON, IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT FOR THE AWARD OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE DECEMBER, 2021 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh https://www.google.com.gh/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ahUKEwjJl82g9crYAhWI7BQKHeFVCq0QjRwIBw&url=https://www.educartis.com.gh/courses/doctor-of-veterinary-medicine&psig=AOvVaw2_fiSIjrWmd28m6qK_zhFd&ust=1515588490088506 i DECLARATION University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ii ABSTRACT Cemeteries are primarily constructed as the final place of rest for the dead. The presence of plant cover in cemeteries and their sacred nature make them unique components of the urban landscape that need some protection. With mounting pressures on the urban space due to population growth, most urban cemeteries find themselves at the centre of cities and as a result face various abuses, although, they provide shade, perform other ecological functions, enhance the natural aesthetic beauty and promote healthier city life. The objective of the study was therefore to explore the potential of cemeteries as functional green spaces within the urban landscape by examining their physical features, the ecological status and socio-cultural attributes in the Greater Accra Metropolitan Area of Ghana. The study employed a mixed-methods approach involving on-the-spot observation, floral and social surveys, and key informant interviews. A total of 500 questionnaires were administered and 12 key informant interviews were conducted. Orthophotograph images of the cemeteries were analysed using Geographic Information Systems to obtain the land cover classification of the cemeteries. The quantitative data of the research was analysed with the aid of Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS), software version 20 (IBM). Descriptive statistics were used to analyse the perception on multi-use of cemeteries, acceptable uses of cemeteries, actual uses of cemeteries and chi-square statistics was used to test the relationship between perception about multi-use of cemeteries and other uses apart from burial. The qualitative data was analysed under the broad themes of tree management, other uses of cemeteries, and policy challenges regarding cemetery operations and management. Cemeteries were located in the majority of the Assemblies in GAMA. From the study, 48 cemeteries were identified in GAMA. Private families owned 69%, the public owned University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh iii 17%, 4% were commercial and 10 % owned by religious organizations. Ownership type can be traced to strong cultural and traditional beliefs. More than 50% of the cemeteries were walled, with the rest not walled. Activities observed in the cemeteries included construction, farming, commercial, residential and relaxation. Evidence of open defecation and cemeteries as waste dump sites were also observed. The findings of the research showed that, a total of 176 species from 62 families were identified. Out of which 71% naturally growing species, and 29% were introduced species. The land cover analysis showed that the area covered by each land cover type varied across cemeteries, with the highest tree cover found in the private family cemeteries. The belief that the dead must be protected from harsh weather conditions mainly accounts for vegetation in cemeteries. A total of 92% of the respondents perceived cemeteries as monofunctional places (burial purposes only), although 42% reported having used the cemeteries in other ways aside from burial. The study also showed that 7.4% of the respondents use the cemetery as toilet and waste dump sites. The location and distribution of cemeteries in GAMA make them green areas. The floral composition and vegetation cover of cemeteries make them good green areas in cities. For the cities to realise and benefit from the full potential of cemeteries as functional green spaces, traditional and cultural beliefs associated with cemeteries, particularly the ones linked to vegetation, should be blended with the formal management of cemeteries and city authorities must strive to direct multi-use of cemeteries in ways that complement the presence of vegetation in cemeteries. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh iv DEDICATION To my late Dad, Mr. Joseph Kwami and my father in-law, the late Mr. William Adufutse. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh v ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I thank Almighty God for His grace and direction throughout the course of my studies these last four years and especially for His favour throughout the research process. I like to express my gratitude to my Principal Supervisor Dr. Benjamin D. Ofori, Senior Research Fellow of the Institute for Environment and Sanitation Studies (IESS), University of Ghana, Legon for his coaching, encouragement and support. I am very grateful to my Co-Supervisors Dr. Ted Y. Annang and Dr. Jesse S. Ayivor all of IESS, University of Ghana, Legon, for their guidance, direction and encouragement through the process of producing this thesis. I wish to thank Dr. Philip-Neri Jayson Quashigah of IESS, University of Ghana, Legon for his direction and assistance especially with the Geographical Information System aspect of the study. I am grateful to the Bosch Foundation for funding this research through the Sustainable Cities Project. I am thankful to Prof. George Owusu, Dean of Social Studies and Faculty of the Pan African College for his support and for giving me the opportunity to be part of the Pan African College of sustainable cities. My gratitude goes to Dr. Carol Markwei and Ms. Elizabeth Affram for allowing me to use their office as my reading room. Many thanks to Dr. Patience Dzandza-Ocloo, Mrs. Gladys Schwinger and Ms. Rebecca Yandam, Ms. Gbeti Mawufemor for making my PhD journey worthwhile. My appreciation also goes to Mr. Emmanuel Yeboah, Mr. Anthony Adu-Gyamfi, Mr. Stephen Afriyie and Mr. Hayford Opoku for their assistance in locating the study areas and collecting data. I am grateful to Miss Vera Hanyabui for her assistance with the data entry. I will also wish to acknowledge Mr. Annang (Chief Sexton AMA), Mr. Otu (Sexton at Awudome Cemetery), Mr. Leh (Sexton, Osu Cemetery), Ms. Florence Kuukyi (Environmental Health Analyst, AMA), Mr. Douglas Tagoe (Ag. Regional Environmental Health Director, Greater Accra), Rosemary Gbadzida and Mr. Acquaye all of the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh vi Environmental Health Department who assisted me my in diverse ways during data collection. I cannot leave out my colleagues PhD, 2017 Cohort, IESS, the Fellows of Pan African College of Sustainable Cities and the team from the Global Change Institute, Mr. Frimpong and Mr. Mensah-Nyumutei, of the Institute for Environment and Sanitation Studies, for their tremendous support throughout my studies. To Mr. Prince Adufutse my dear husband and my children, Makayla and Liam, thank you for all your sacrifices. I am also grateful to my mums; Vicentia and Florence, for all their support and prayers. To my sisters Florence and Rejoice; my brothers Steve and Valentine, I say Ayeekoo for all your support. To all my family members and my friends, words cannot express how grateful I am to have you in my life I say thank you. God bless you all. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh vii TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION .............................................................................................................. i ABSTRACT ......................................................................................................................ii DEDICATION ................................................................................................................ iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENT............................................................................................... v TABLE OF CONTENTS ..............................................................................................vii LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................ xiv LIST OF FIGURES ....................................................................................................... xv LIST OF PLATES ........................................................................................................ xvi LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ................................................................................... xviii CHAPTER ONE .............................................................................................................. 1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Background to Study ................................................................................................ 1 1.2 Problem Statement ................................................................................................... 6 1.3 Objectives of the study ............................................................................................. 8 1.4 Justification for the study ....................................................................................... 11 1.5 Scope of study ........................................................................................................ 11 1.6 Limitations of the Study ......................................................................................... 12 CHAPTER TWO ........................................................................................................... 13 LITERATURE REVIEW, CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK AND STUDY PROPOSITIONS ........................................................................................................... 13 2.0 Chapter Introduction .............................................................................................. 13 2.1 Literature Review ................................................................................................... 13 2.1.1 Cemeteries, what are they? .............................................................................. 13 2.1.2 Origin and History of Cemeteries .................................................................... 14 2.1.3 Colonial influences and the origin of African cemeteries ............................... 15 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh viii 2.1.4 Characteristics of cemeteries ........................................................................... 16 2.1.5 Vegetation in cemeteries .................................................................................. 18 2.1.6 Management of vegetation in cemeteries ........................................................ 20 2.1.7 Urban green spaces .......................................................................................... 20 2.1.7.1 Sustainability of green spaces ....................................................................... 22 2.1.8 Cemeteries as green spaces .............................................................................. 22 2.1.8.1 Factors that promote greening in cemeteries ................................................ 23 2.1.9 Multi-use of cemeteries ................................................................................... 23 2..1.9.1 Factors that influence multi-use of cemeteries .................................................... 25 2.1.9.2 Perception about cemeteries and their other uses ................................................. 26 2.1.9.3 Inappropriate use of cemeteries and abuse ........................................................... 27 2.1.9.4 Acceptable uses of cemeteries .............................................................................. 27 2.1.10 Policy, legal framework, rules and regulation of cemeteries ......................... 28 2.1.11 Remote sensing methods in vegetation analysis in cemeteries...................... 31 2.2 Concepts and theories on green space development .............................................. 32 2.2.1 Place and the theory of Sense of Place ............................................................ 32 2.2.2 Place making theory......................................................................................... 34 2.2.3 Social-ecological systems theory ..................................................................... 35 2.2.4. The relationship between sense of place, place making and green spaces ..... 36 2.2.5 Integration of sense of place and social ecological model............................... 37 2.2.6. Conceptual Framework ................................................................................... 38 2.3 Study Proposition ................................................................................................... 39 CHAPTER THREE ....................................................................................................... 41 METHODOLOGY ........................................................................................................ 41 3.1 Description of the study area.................................................................................. 41 3.1.1 Location and size ............................................................................................. 42 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ix 3.2 Demography of GAMA ......................................................................................... 43 3.2.1 Population ........................................................................................................ 43 3.3 History, culture and belief system of the people .................................................... 43 3.4 Research design and methods ................................................................................ 44 3.4.1 Research Philosophy ........................................................................................ 44 3.5 Materials and methods ........................................................................................... 45 3.6 Objective 1: Mapping and characterisation of cemeteries ..................................... 45 3.7 Objective 2: Status and quality of vegetation in cemeteries .................................. 47 3.7.1 Criteria for site selection .................................................................................. 47 3.7.2 Vegetation/land cover analysis ........................................................................ 49 3.7.3 Image processing, classification and area of land class type ........................... 49 3.7.4 Accuracy assessment ....................................................................................... 51 3.7.5 Floristic composition in cemeteries/Plant inventory ....................................... 51 3.8 Objective 3: Perception of city dwellers on multi-use of cemeteries..................... 54 3.8.1 Sampling procedure ......................................................................................... 54 3.8.2 Inclusion and exclusion criteria for the study .................................................. 55 3.8.3 Ethical requirements ........................................................................................ 56 3.8.4 Community Entry ............................................................................................ 56 3.8.5 Pre-Test of questionnaire ................................................................................. 56 3.9 Objective 4: Extent of other use and abuse of cemeteries ..................................... 57 3.9.1 Observation ...................................................................................................... 57 3.10 Objective 5: Legal, regulatory and policy framework for operating and managing cemeteries ..................................................................................................................... 57 3.12 Key informant interviews ..................................................................................... 57 3.13 Data management and analysis methods.............................................................. 58 3.14 Challenges to data collection ............................................................................... 59 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh x CHAPTER FOUR.......................................................................................................... 60 RESULTS ....................................................................................................................... 60 4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 60 4.2 Mapping and Cemetery Characterisation ............................................................... 60 4.2.1 Location and distribution of cemeteries in Greater Accra Metropolitan Area (GAMA).................................................................................................................... 60 4.2.2 Pattern of distribution of cemeteries in assemblies ......................................... 62 4.2.3 Ownership of Cemetery ................................................................................... 63 4.2.4 Types of Cemetery ownership ......................................................................... 70 4.2.5 Ownership Pattern of Cemetery ....................................................................... 71 4.2.6 Demarcation of cemeteries .............................................................................. 72 4.2.7 Amenities observed in cemeteries ................................................................... 74 4.2.8 Total cemetery coverage area .......................................................................... 77 4.2.9 Activities observed in cemeteries .................................................................... 77 4.2.9.1 No activity observed in cemeteries ...................................................................... 77 4.2.9.2 Commercial activities ........................................................................................... 77 4.2.9.3 Cemeteries as residential facilities ....................................................................... 79 4.2.9.4 Cemeteries as waste dump site ............................................................................. 80 4.2.9.5 Farming activities ................................................................................................. 81 4.2.9.6 Construction activities .......................................................................................... 82 4.2.9.7 Cemetery as thoroughfare .................................................................................... 83 4.2.9.8 Car park/car wash ................................................................................................. 84 4.2.9.9 Home for some people ......................................................................................... 85 4.2.9.10 Recreational use of cemetery ............................................................................. 86 4.2.9.11 Summary of observed activities ......................................................................... 87 4.2.10 Observed inappropriate uses of cemeteries ................................................... 90 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh xi 4.3 Ecological significance of cemeteries .................................................................... 93 4.3.1 Vegetation analysis .......................................................................................... 93 4.3.2 Floral composition in cemeteries ................................................................... 100 4.3.2.1 Natural plants ..................................................................................................... 101 4.3.2.2 Introduced plants ................................................................................................ 101 4.3.2.3 Plant species and their ratings ............................................................................ 104 4.3.3 Cemetery vegetation management ................................................................. 104 4.4 Social and Cultural Perspectives .......................................................................... 108 4.4.1. Demographic characteristics ......................................................................... 108 4.4.2 Location of cemeteries within communities ......................................................... 111 4.4.3 Perception of respondents towards cemeteries .............................................. 112 4.4.3.1 Sense of place of cemeteries .............................................................................. 112 4.4.4 Perception on the multifunctional use cemeteries ......................................... 114 4.5 Actual use of cemetery ......................................................................................... 116 4.5.1 Reasons for not using cemetery in other ways aside burial ........................... 117 4.5.2. Self-reported use of cemeteries aside burial ................................................. 117 4.6 Inappropriate use of cemeteries ........................................................................... 118 4.6.1 Open defecation ............................................................................................. 118 4.6.2 Cemetery as waste dump site ......................................................................... 119 4.6.3 Use of cemetery as hideouts .......................................................................... 120 4.7 Relationship between perception of cemetery use and actual use of cemetery ... 121 4.8 Bivariate Analysis ................................................................................................ 121 4.8.1 Chi-squared test of association between perception on use of cemetery and actual use of cemetery............................................................................................. 121 4.8.2 Cemetery and other uses aside burial ............................................................ 122 4.9 Challenges governing cemetery operation and management ............................... 123 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh xii 4.9.1 Policy challenge ............................................................................................. 124 4.9.2 Fragmented responsibilities and roles in cemetery management ............ 124 4.9.3 Cemetery administration ................................................................................ 125 4.9.3.1 Land ownership and control ............................................................................... 125 4.9.3.2 Financial management........................................................................................ 126 4.9.3.3 Operations and supervisory challenges .............................................................. 126 4.9.4 Weak enforcement ......................................................................................... 127 4.9.5 Way forward .................................................................................................. 127 4.9.5.1 Public education and advocacy .......................................................................... 127 4.9.5.2 Enforcement of laws .......................................................................................... 128 4.9.5.3 Integration of culture and tradition into policies ................................................ 128 CHAPTER FIVE ......................................................................................................... 129 DISCUSSIONS ............................................................................................................. 129 5.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 129 5.2 Mapping and characterisation of cemeteries in GAMA ...................................... 129 5.2.1 Cemetery Ownership ..................................................................................... 129 5.2.2 Location and distribution of Cemeteries ........................................................ 131 5.2.3 Cemetery boundary ........................................................................................ 133 5.3 Ecological significance of cemeteries .................................................................. 134 5.3.1 Vegetation in cemeteries ................................................................................ 134 5.3.2 Floristic composition in cemeteries ............................................................... 135 5.3.2.1 Traditional, cultural and spiritual factors influencing vegetation in cemeteries 136 5.3.2.2 Aesthetic factors ............................................................................................. 138 5.3.2.3 Food and medicinal factors ............................................................................ 138 5.3.2.4 Assessment of risk of extinction ........................................................................ 139 5.3.2.5 Management of vegetation in cemeteries ........................................................... 139 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh xiii 5.4 Socio-cultural attributes of cemeteries ................................................................. 140 5.4.1 Socio-demographic characteristics of respondents ........................................ 141 5.4.2 Perception of city dwellers on the multi-use of cemeteries ........................... 142 5.4.3 Acceptable use of cemeteries ......................................................................... 144 5.5 Extent of use and threats to vegetation within cemeteries ................................... 145 5.6 Policy, regulation and implementation of rules on cemetery operation and management ............................................................................................................... 148 5.7 Conclusion ........................................................................................................... 149 CHAPTER SIX ............................................................................................................ 150 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ............................... 150 6.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 150 6.2 Summary of study and key findings..................................................................... 150 6.3 Conclusion ........................................................................................................... 152 6.4 Recommendations ................................................................................................ 153 6.5 Future research ..................................................................................................... 155 REFERENCES............................................................................................................. 156 APPENDICES .............................................................................................................. 172 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh xiv LIST OF TABLES Table 3.1: Showing the land cover classes and their description ................................. 50 Table 4.1: A summary of cemeteries, location and observed activities ...................... 88 Table 4.1: A summary of cemeteries, location and observed activities (cont’d) ........ 89 Table 4.2: Area of land cover classes in the cemeteries .............................................. 98 Table 4.3: List of trees with highest occurrence in sampled cemeteries .................... 105 Table 4.4a: Demographic characteristics of the respondents ..................................... 109 Table 4.4b: Demographic characteristics of the respondents ..................................... 110 Table 4.4c: Demographic characteristics of the respondents ..................................... 111 Table 4.5: Frequency of respondent who had relatives buried in cemetery............... 111 Table 4.6: Perception on other uses of cemetery ....................................................... 114 Table 4.7: Perception on acceptable uses of cemetery ............................................... 115 Table 4.8: Use of cemetery ........................................................................................ 117 Table 4.9: Association between perception on use and actual use of cemeteries ...... 121 Table 4.10: Chi-square test of association between perception about use of cemetery and actual use of cemetery by respondent………………………………..122 Table 4.11: Chi-square test for site (cemetery) and use of cemetery ......................... 123 Table 4.12: Summary of themes and sub-themes from key-informant interviews .... 123 Table 4.13: Policies associated with cemetery siting, operation and management of cemeteries…………………………………………………………………………...124 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh xv LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2.1: Sustainable green space development ........................................................... 39 Figure 3.1: Map of the Greater Accra Metropolitan Area (GAMA) ............................... 42 Figure 3.2: Map of the selected cemeteries for field work ............................................. 48 Figure 4.1: Map showing the location and distribution of 48 identified cemeteries in GAMA ............................................................................................................................. 61 Figure 4.2: Graph showing number of cemeteries in respective Assemblies .................. 62 Figure 4.3: Ownership pattern of cemeteries in GAMA ................................................. 70 Figure 4.4: Ownership of cemetery among Municipal Assemblies................................. 71 Figure 4.5: Presence of boundary demarcation………………………………………..72 Figure 4.6: A summary of observed activities in the cemeteries ..................................... 87 Figure 4.7: Extent of abuse of cemeteries........................................................................ 90 Figure 4.8: Images of the land cover classes in indicated cemeteries ............................. 94 Figure 4.8: Images of the land cover classes in indicated cemeteries (cont’d) ............... 95 Figure 4.8: Images of the land cover classes in indicated cemeteries (cont’d) ............... 96 Figure 4.8: Images of the land cover classes in indicated cemeteries (cont’d) ............... 97 Figure 4.9: Proportion of each land cover class in cemeteries ........................................ 99 Figure 4.10: Bar chart on plant life forms in the sampled cemeteries ........................... 100 Figure 4.11: Concern about cemetery location .............................................................. 112 Figure 4.12: Respondents’ meaning assigned to cemeteries ......................................... 113 Figure 4.13: Respondent’s description of cemetery ...................................................... 114 Figure 4.14: perception of respondent on use of cemeteries for different purposes ...... 116 Figure 4.15: Reason for not using cemetery in other ways apart from burial ............... 117 Figure 4.16: Self-reported uses of cemeteries aside burial ........................................... 118 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh file:///C:/Users/Sefakor/Desktop/ADZOFA/My%202020/Thesis%20phd%202020/THESIS%20CORRECTION/THESIS%20DEFENSE/Correction%20of%20thesis/For%20submission/STELLA%20KWAMI%20-10083903-IESSfff.docx%23_Toc119486980 file:///C:/Users/Sefakor/Desktop/ADZOFA/My%202020/Thesis%20phd%202020/THESIS%20CORRECTION/THESIS%20DEFENSE/Correction%20of%20thesis/For%20submission/STELLA%20KWAMI%20-10083903-IESSfff.docx%23_Toc119486980 file:///C:/Users/Sefakor/Desktop/ADZOFA/My%202020/Thesis%20phd%202020/THESIS%20CORRECTION/THESIS%20DEFENSE/Correction%20of%20thesis/For%20submission/STELLA%20KWAMI%20-10083903-IESSfff.docx%23_Toc119486990 file:///C:/Users/Sefakor/Desktop/ADZOFA/My%202020/Thesis%20phd%202020/THESIS%20CORRECTION/THESIS%20DEFENSE/Correction%20of%20thesis/For%20submission/STELLA%20KWAMI%20-10083903-IESSfff.docx%23_Toc119486990 file:///C:/Users/Sefakor/Desktop/ADZOFA/My%202020/Thesis%20phd%202020/THESIS%20CORRECTION/THESIS%20DEFENSE/Correction%20of%20thesis/For%20submission/STELLA%20KWAMI%20-10083903-IESSfff.docx%23_Toc119487068 file:///C:/Users/Sefakor/Desktop/ADZOFA/My%202020/Thesis%20phd%202020/THESIS%20CORRECTION/THESIS%20DEFENSE/Correction%20of%20thesis/For%20submission/STELLA%20KWAMI%20-10083903-IESSfff.docx%23_Toc119487068 xvi LIST OF PLATES Plate 4.1: Gethsemane cemetery: A private commercial cemetery ................................. 63 Plate 4.2: Private Family cemetery/Stool cemetery ........................................................ 64 Plate 4.3: Weija Cemetery- A Private Family Cemetery ................................................. 65 Plate 4.4: Family managed public cemetery in Ashongman located within the Ga East Municipality……………………………………………………………………….66 Plate 4.5: Portion of Public cemetery Madina, in the La Nkwantanang Madina Municipal Assembly of GAMA………………………………………………………...67 Plate 4.6: A Private Religious Cemetery - La Wuogon Muslim Cemetery .................... 68 Plate 4.7: Military Cemetery located at La in La Dade Kotopon Municipality............... 69 Plate 4.8: Walled cemetery at Haatso, with a well-defined entrance. ............................. 73 Plate 4.9: Unwalled cemetery in the Kpone-Katamanso Municipal Assembly ............... 74 Plate 4.10: Seat for visitors in Gethsemane Cemetery..................................................... 75 Plate 4.11: Seat for visitors in La Public Cemetery ......................................................... 76 Plate 4.12: Waste disposal bin in the cemetery ............................................................... 76 Plate 4.13: Activities observed in cemetery..................................................................... 78 Plate 4.14: Part of Ashongman Cemetery ........................................................................ 79 Plate 4.15: Waste skip and waste in Ashongman Cemetery ............................................ 80 Plate 4.16: Part of the Ayawaso cemetery space under cropping .................................... 81 Plate 4.17: Agbogba Cemetery with heaps of sand probably for construction. ............... 82 Plate 4.18: Kwabenya Main Cemetery serving as a thoroughfare to others areas of the Kwabenya township………………………………………………………………...83 Plate 4.19: Haatso cemetery serving as a car park ........................................................... 84 Plate 4.20: Ashongman cemetery with a ‘home setting’ ................................................. 85 Plate 4.21a: An aerial view of the Madina Public Cemetery showing a football park within the cemetery……………………………………………………………………..86 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh file:///C:/Users/Sefakor/Desktop/ADZOFA/My%202020/Thesis%20phd%202020/THESIS%20CORRECTION/THESIS%20DEFENSE/Correction%20of%20thesis/For%20submission/STELLA%20KWAMI%20-10083903-IESSfff.docx%23_Toc119487035 xvii Plate 4.21b: Image of goal post indicating that part of the cemetery was being used as a football field………………………………………………………………………..86 Plate 4.22: Open defecation in cemetery ......................................................................... 91 Plate 4.23: Sections of Gbawe Cemetery as a waste dump site ...................................... 92 Plate 4.24: Antigonon leptopus, a climber which grew naturally in nature found in the Osu Cemetery………………………………………………………………………….101 Plate 4.25: Azadirachta indica (neem), a naturally growing invasive plant in the Osu Cemetery……………………………………………………………………………... 101 Plate 4.26: Decorative plants on graves in Osu Cemetery ............................................. 102 Plate 4.27: Food crops grown in the cemetery............................................................... 103 Plate 4.28: Tree management by burning in Agbogba Cemetery .................................. 107 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh file:///C:/Users/Sefakor/Desktop/ADZOFA/My%202020/Thesis%20phd%202020/THESIS%20CORRECTION/THESIS%20DEFENSE/Correction%20of%20thesis/For%20submission/STELLA%20KWAMI%20-10083903-IESSfff.docx%23_Toc119487077 file:///C:/Users/Sefakor/Desktop/ADZOFA/My%202020/Thesis%20phd%202020/THESIS%20CORRECTION/THESIS%20DEFENSE/Correction%20of%20thesis/For%20submission/STELLA%20KWAMI%20-10083903-IESSfff.docx%23_Toc119487077 file:///C:/Users/Sefakor/Desktop/ADZOFA/My%202020/Thesis%20phd%202020/THESIS%20CORRECTION/THESIS%20DEFENSE/Correction%20of%20thesis/For%20submission/STELLA%20KWAMI%20-10083903-IESSfff.docx%23_Toc119487078 file:///C:/Users/Sefakor/Desktop/ADZOFA/My%202020/Thesis%20phd%202020/THESIS%20CORRECTION/THESIS%20DEFENSE/Correction%20of%20thesis/For%20submission/STELLA%20KWAMI%20-10083903-IESSfff.docx%23_Toc119487078 xviii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AbWMA Ablekuma West Municipal Assembly CBAS College of Basic and Applied Sciences FAO Food and Agricultural Organisation FROGGIE Forest Reserves of Ghana Geographic Information Exhibitor GAMA Greater Accra Metropolitan Area GARCC Greater Accra Regional Coordinating Council GIS Geographical Information Systems GPS Global Positioning System IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature LUSPA Land Use and Spatial Planning Authority MA Municipal Assembly MEA Millennium Ecosystem Assessment MLGRD Ministry of Local Government and Rural Development MMDA Metropolitan, Municipal and District Assemblies MOFFA Mortuary and Funeral Facility Agency MOH Ministry of Health PHC Population and Housing Census SDG Sustainable Development Goal UN United Nations UNESCO United Nation Educational Scientific and Cultural Organisation WHO World Health Organisation University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background to Study Humans are responsible for the destruction of biodiversity and for making ecosystems disappear (Roe, et al.,2019). Similarly, the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA) reports that more than 60% of the world’s ecosystems are being destroyed or utilised in a manner that does not guarantee their future (Reid et al., 2005). In cities worldwide, the urban ecosystem is being disturbed through the impact of human activities of high emissions, poor waste management among others (United Nations, 2018). As more people migrate to cities and populations increase, the pressure on land and demand for natural resources increase (Holden & Otsuka, 2014; Addo-Fordwuor, 2014). Large spans of vegetation are lost in the process and city dwellers find themselves having little or no contact with nature. Indeed, most cities are experiencing reduced contact with nature. This is what Verschuuren et al., (2010) and Warber et al., (2015) describe as ‘nature deficit disorder’ which has detrimental effects on city life. McDonald and Beatley, (2021) report that, the world’s population is expected to rise to about 9.8 billion in 2050 which means a corresponding increase in demand for space for housing and other infrastructure in cities worldwide. These increases could result in huge pressure on land and its associated resources (Neema, et al., 2013; Swensen et al., 2016). It is therefore, paramount to pay attention to the interactions between city dwellers and their environment and amongst indigenous residents of cities and migrants. This is consistent with the focus of Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 11; building safe, resilient, and sustainable cities by 2030. The associated indicator of SDG 11, indicators 11.4 and 11.7, are focused specifically on protecting cultural heritage and green spaces University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2 for all, especially women, children, and the vulnerable in the world (United Nations, 2018) In the same vein, SDG 15 focuses on how terrestrial ecosystems are used sustainably, protected, restored and promoted. It also looks at how forests are managed sustainably. Furthermore, SDG 15 is concerned with how desertification, degradation and loss of biodiversity can be stopped (Tisdell, 2021). Green spaces in urban settings are relevant in sustaining terrestrial ecosystems and urban spaces (Wang et al., 2019). Georgi & Dimitriou, (2010) assert that, many modern cities do not have enough green space even though green spaces present an excellent opportunity for connecting with nature within the urban space (de la Barrera et al., 2016). Research has established that urbanisation and rapid population growth are the main reasons for the destruction of vegetation, including green spaces (Liu et al., 2015; Mensah, 2014; Lai et al., 2020). Mensah, (2014) pointed out that lack or weak enforcement regimes, difficulty in identifying who owns and controls these spaces, lack of maintenance, weak collaboration among institutions associated with green spaces, and citizens' attitudes are some of the critical factors responsible for the devegetation of city landscapes. It is also reported that most governments' local authorities have little or no control over lands associated with tradition, culture, and religion (World Bank, 2016). This poses more problems in the protection and conservation of religious and cultural green spaces. Globally, it is recognised that every city requires green spaces because they form part of the overall composition of vegetation in cities and enhance the quality of life in cities by contributing to the economic, social and environmental well-being (Russo & Cirella, 2018; Arvanitidis, 2007; Kothencz et al., 2017). They have great potential for solving most urban problems of intense heat, air pollution from industries and heavy traffic (Derkzen, 2017; Chaytor et al., 2014; Pervaiz et al., 2018). Cities with enough greenery provide dwellers with a better chance of a healthier and improved quality of life (Oduro- University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3 Ofori et al., 2014; Mensah, 2014; Russo & Cirella, 2018). Examples of green spaces include tree lots, lawns, parks, backyard gardens, urban forests, sacred groves and cemeteries (Nero, 2017). Thus, green spaces basically cover all natural environments. Many studies provide evidence to support the fact that nature is linked to the health and wellbeing of humans ( Hartig, et al., 2014; Sandifer et al., 2015; Pretty, 2004 ). Nature has reportedly been cited for positively impacting human health and speeding up healing processes in some instances. Indirectly, nature promotes social cohesion and interactions among people (Jennings & Bamkole, 2019). According to Sandifer et al. (2015), reduced contact with nature negatively affects health, wellbeing and also does not encourage protective behaviour towards nature. Cemeteries are part of the urban green space (Nordh & Evensen, 2018). In a UNESCO conference held in June 2010, Kiss and Bassa reported that cemeteries were part of ‘protected natural territories’, thus forming part of UNESCO's World Heritage Composition (Pecsek, 2015). Cemeteries (burial sites) and sacred groves form part of protected areas (Nganso, et al., 2012). There have been several studies on cemeteries worldwide, including those that identify cemeteries as green spaces with cultural properties or as cultural landscapes with recreational, economic and spiritual uses (Nordh & Evensen, 2018; Quinton & Duinker, 2019; Cheng, 2013). Even though most cemeteries in urban areas are seen as green spaces, they are not accorded the same attributes as other green spaces (Nordh & Evensen, 2018). In fact, Nordh and Evensen, (2018) noted that urban cemeteries were seen only partially as green spaces by city planning and development authorities in Norway. Similarly, Anna and Ewa, (2020) state that, although cemeteries are communal, they are not regarded as such by cities authorities. The confusion in categorising cemeteries as green spaces adds to how University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4 cemeteries are perceived and used, especially in city spaces. Nordh and Evensen, (2018) conclude that, huge populations and increasing green space needs of cities call for decisions from city authorities on how urban cemeteries can be placed to perform their multi-functional role successfully. It is well documented that some cemeteries serve as recreational or leisure centres (Nordh & Evensen, 2018) and people take time off to relax. In the United States of America, the Lafayette aerial cemetery is a typical cemetery used for recreational purposes. The cemetery is visited by many tourists from all over the world. Huge amounts of money are generated annually through these tours (Tomašević, 2018). Similar cemeteries can be found in the United Kingdom (UK), like the Highgate Cemetery. This cemetery contains numerous war graves and the graves of significant people like the grave of Karl Max (Tomašević, 2018). Other cemeteries which serve as great recreational places include the Pere Lachaise cemetery in Paris, which has existed since the 1880s, the Mount Auburn Cemetery and the Assistens Cemetery located in Copenhagen (Al-Akl et al., 2018). For Al-Akl et al., (2018), these cemeteries and others of similar features have served and continue to serve as spaces for social interactions. Some cemeteries are more open to recreational activities than others. A study by Grabalov, (2018) on three cemeteries in the city of Malmo, Sweden; the Gamla Kyrkogarden, S:t Pauli Kyrkogarden and Ostra Kyrkogarden showed jogging, walking, walking dogs, cycling and visiting graves as the typical activities that take place in all three cemeteries. Of the three, however, it was only S:t Pauli Kyrkogarden that allowed picnics. Many factors may be responsible for allowing or disallowing activities in cemeteries. Prominent among these factors is tradition and culture (Goh & Ching, 2020). According to Goh and Ching, (2020), the use of cemeteries for recreation has not been University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5 fully adopted in Asia but it is worth noting that the younger Asian is more open to the notion of cemeteries as recreation places than the older generation. Cemeteries hold historical and cultural value to many cities. Examples include the Green- Wood Cemetery in Brooklyn, New York in the United States of America and the Ostra Kyrkogarden in Malmo, Sweden (Rae, 2021). The tourism value and potential for tourism development of cemeteries is well established and documented. Pecsek (2015) notes in her work on ‘City Cemeteries as Cultural Attractions’ that, people showed more interest in cemeteries' cultural and natural components than in dark tourism. This is important in the promotion of cemeteries as tourists’ sites. Cemeteries are homes to many animal species. Indeed, the works of Tryjanowski et al., (2017) indicates that just like parks, cemeteries made suitable homes for some important bird species. To the African, the acceptable and dignified way of interring the dead was through burial (Leuta, 2019), making cemeteries important parts of societies in Africa. Cemeteries, therefore, hold a more religious, cultural and traditional meaning in Africa. In South Africa, for example, burying the dead and the one year after burial celebration where the tomb is unveiled still hold strong culturally (Leuta & Greene, 2011). Their study also showed that South Africans were neither open to alternate body disposal methods nor multi-use of cemeteries. In Nigeria, studies on cemeteries try to address several issues ranging from the origin and types of cemeteries, burial and health concerns about cemeteries in River State and the neglect of cemeteries (Adeboye, 2016; Douglas, 2013; Onwuanyi et al., 2017). Despite these positives and benefits derived from cemeteries as green spaces, cemeteries have also been linked to some negative social behaviours such as crime and abode of homeless people (Wolch, et al., 2014; Lapatha et al., 2019; Swensen, et.al. 2016). Grave University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6 looting and indiscriminate waste disposal have also been reported in several news items. City dwellers experience green spaces differently (Chaytor et al., 2014). Thus, an examination of these different experiences is critical. How these spaces are regarded, used, perceived and managed are influenced by many factors, including the location of the landscape, accessibility, their appearance or physical characteristics, the meaning and the attachment people have for them (Chaytor et al., 2014). Russo and Cirella, (2018) for example, concludes that people are more likely to use green spaces they perceive as secured and beautiful. Spaces that are deemed dangerous, according to Russo & Cirella, (2018) are avoided at all cost. A major concern is whether cemeteries should be put to multiple uses (Nordh & Swensen, 2018). Another concern is how people can protect these cemeteries and how cemeteries can be used sustainably. These concerns are even more legitimate in cities where the population is vast and there are competing needs for land and natural resources (Nordh & Swensen, 2018). Very few studies have looked at cemetery locations, distribution, and contributions to cities' greenery in Ghana. Again, few studies have looked at the acceptable and unacceptable uses of these cemeteries. Therefore, this study seeks to examine the physical characteristics, ecological significance and socio-cultural attributes of urban cemeteries as a potential for greening urban spaces within the Greater Accra Metropolitan Area (GAMA). 1.2 Problem Statement Many cities are faced with inadequate green spaces (Colding, et al., 2020). This green space inadequacy requires that cities find other ways to meet their green space needs. Urban cemeteries have the potential to meet this green space in cities because of their high biodiversity value (Yılmaz, et al., 2018). There have been some studies on cemeteries and University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 7 their role in conservation and biodiversity protection (Nowińska, et al.,2020; Löki, et al.,2019; Löki, et al.,2020; Kowarik et al., 2016). However, cemeteries are overlooked with regards to planning and management of green spaces (Długoński et al., 2022; Rae, 2021; Grabalov & Nordh, 2021). There is therefore, limited knowledge on the full potential of cemeteries as green spaces (Al- Akl et al., 2018). This makes it difficult to acknowledge the ecosystem service they provide and their contribution as green spaces. Few studies like Quinton et al., (2019), Glover et al., (2010), and Jones, (2011) have conducted studies on cemeteries, their role as green spaces and the meaning and value people assign to them. Contemporary researchers in cemetery studies, such as Nordh & Evensen (2018), Quinton and Duinker, (2019) and Swensen et al. (2016) point out the need to study the use of cemeteries aside being a place for interring the dead. These researchers are also interested in the attitude of cities towards cemeteries as green spaces. They want to know how the values of these spaces have changed in cities and how these influences the uses they are put to currently (Masterson, et al., 2019). According to Al- Akl et al. (2018), it is essential to also find out how people feel and interact with urban cemeteries. All these have implications on the sustainability of green spaces and life in cities. It also has implications on meeting Sustainable Development Goal 11 (SDG 11), which makes the protection of cultural and natural heritage a priority in making cities safe, resilient and inclusive (United Nations, 2018). At the same time, the current uses of some cemeteries have raised concerns about sustainability, loss of cultural values and safety in the cemeteries (Quinton & Duinker, 2019; Skar et al., 2018; Swensen, et al., 2016). In Ghana, studies on cemeteries have been limited mainly to burial rites and assessing old cemetery sites for other uses and the design of monuments for the dead (Ansah-Asiedu, 2016; Nero, et al., 2016). Amoako-Gyampah, (2022), Balakrishnan, (2022), and Kweipeh, University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 8 (2020) can be described as emerging studies with their focus varying from public health social politics, mortuary politics, use and management of cemeteries. Very little is known about cemeteries and their role as green spaces in Ghana. Additionally, there is limited knowledge about cemeteries in the Greater Accra Metropolitan Area of Ghana (GAMA), their locations, distribution, management and particularly their role as green spaces. The whole of Greater Accra Region continues to experience rapid expansion with the Accra Metropolis experiencing increases in the built-up environment from 55% to 84% and decreases in green spaces from 41% to 15% in almost three decades (Puplampu, & Boafo, 2021). The result is that, the natural environment particularly green spaces face the risk of extinction within the Greater Accra Metropolitan Area (Akubia, et al., 2020). To add to this, there have been reported cases of encroachment of cemetery spaces, the desecration of graves, and other antisocial behaviours which can affect the sustainability of cemeteries in GAMA. The loss of cemetery lands not only results in the reduction of available burial and memorial places, it also means a loss of culture, heritage and history, biodiversity and ecosystem services provided by them (Niţă et al., 2014). Against this backdrop, this study aimed to explore the potential of using cemeteries in the greening of cities by examining physical characteristics, their ecological significance, and their socio-cultural features in GAMA. 1.3 Objectives of the study The main objective of the study is to explore the potential of cemeteries as functional green spaces by examining the physical characteristics, ecological status, and socio- cultural attributes / properties of the cemeteries in the Greater Accra Metropolitan Area (GAMA) and explore their capacity as greening tools. The study will add to existing knowledge and inform policy on the potential of cemeteries as green areas in cities. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 9 1.3.1 Specific Objectives The specific objectives of this study were to: i. Map and characterise cemeteries in GAMA. ii. Determine the status and quality of vegetation in the cemeteries. iii. Examine the perceptions of city dwellers on the multi-use of cemeteries. iv. Establish the extent of use and threats to vegetation of cemeteries within GAMA. v. Examine the legal, regulatory and policy framework for operating cemeteries. The objectives above were addressed using the following questions as indicated below; To map and characterise the cemeteries in GAMA were determined using the questions below. • Where are the cemeteries located? • What are the sizes of the cemeteries? • In which municipalities can they be found? • Who owns these cemeteries? • How are they managed? • What are the patterns of distribution of the cemeteries? • What are the factors that account for the distribution pattern of the cemeteries? The second objective, which was to determine the status and quality of vegetation in the cemeteries, was addressed using these questions. • What are the vegetation classes within the cemeteries? • What area does each of the vegetation classes cover? • What types of plant species are found in the cemeteries? • What are the main plant life forms of the species found in the cemeteries? • What are the families to which these plants belong? University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 10 • What is their nature in the habitat in which they are found? • What is their International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) rating? • What are the star ratings of these plants (where available)? • What are the uses of the plants found in the cemeteries? The objective of examining the perception of city dwellers on the use of cemeteries was addressed with the following questions were asked. • What is the perception about the other uses of cemeteries apart from burying the dead? • What is the perception about the possible multi-use of cemeteries for greening cities? • What uses are considered acceptable or allowable? • What meanings and descriptions are assigned to cemeteries in GAMA? • What is the association between perception about cemetery and the use of cemeteries in GAMA? To establish the extent of use and threats to vegetation of cemeteries in GAMA, the underlisted questions were posed. • What are the self -reported uses of cemeteries in GAMA? • Do demographic characteristics influence use of cemeteries? • Does type of cemetery influence multi-use of cemeteries? • What are the factors that influence multi-use of cemeteries? To examine the policy and regulation governing cemeteries use and management, the following questioned were asked. • What are the legal and policy framework under which cemeteries operate in GAMA? University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 11 • Which institutions are responsible for ensuring cemeteries are operated and managed within the legal framework? • What are the challenges of policy implementation with regards to cemetery governance? 1.4 Justification for the study There have been emerging interests in studies on unusual green spaces and what they mean for cities and sustainability. Greening of cities is important in promoting sustainability and quality of life in cities worldwide (Cooke et al., 2019). Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) 11 and 15 directly deal with sustainability of cities. The targets of these SDGs are to promote the safe, lasting and ultimately, sustainable environment for healthy living. Cemeteries as green spaces present unique opportunities for cities to achieve their required green space needs as well as preserve their culture and religion. Cemeteries as green spaces, also contribute to the economic, social, cultural and spiritual needs of many cities. In GAMA, essential the whole of Ghana, studies on cemeteries hardly draw links between sense of place, green spaces, and city greening. This study thus, hope to bridge the knowledge gap between people and their interaction with such spaces and how these interactions are influenced or guided by the emotions and perceptions of people towards these places. 1.5 Scope of study The study examined the potential of urban cemeteries in greening cities in GAMA. Cemeteries rather than other green spaces were chosen due to their specific role as a place for disposing off the dead in a sanitised and dignified manner. Cemeteries also have rich biodiversity that when used properly will be instrumental in providing the green space University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 12 environment that GAMA needs. Interactions between people and cemeteries are quite complex producing tensions and conflicts in certain instances. Urban cemeteries in GAMA for that matter, present an interesting case due to the fact that urban centers struggle with rapid population growth, scarcity of land and diminishing cultural and traditional influences in urban communities in Ghana. 1.6 Limitations of the Study This study is focused on landscapes associated with culture, religion and taboos in the Greater Accra Metropolitan Area of Ghana. The first limitation of this study is that there was no generally agreed or official list of cemeteries present in GAMA. Thus, the total number of cemeteries could not be verified with any official data leading to possible biases as there could be either present or recently lost cemeteries that may not have been captured in the study. Secondly, the strong traditional and cultural practices associated with cemeteries made access to some cemeteries difficult, thus preventing the discovery of certain issues. Another limitation of the study was the sensitive nature of cemeteries. Issues of death and burial made some respondents uncomfortable discussing their thoughts, experiences and beliefs about cemeteries. The grief and pain associated with losing a loved one also made it quite difficult for some respondents to share their experiences freely. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 13 CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW, CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK AND STUDY PROPOSITIONS 2.0 Chapter Introduction This chapter unpacks among others what cemeteries are, the ownership types, ecological benefits and their multi-functional role in city spaces. Furthermore, it contains a theoretical review which integrates the theory of sense of place and the social ecological theory to explain the interaction between people and cemeteries in cities and its influence on use. 2.1 Literature Review 2.1.1 Cemeteries, what are they? Rugg, (2020) states that the word cemetery is the generally accepted term used in referring to places where the remains of humans are interred. Thus, cemeteries were created/established as a place where people who have died can be respectfully laid to rest. It is also described as place of record of the past (Cheng, 2013). Cemeteries shed light on the past and the people who existed before. There is usually some reverence and fear attached to cemeteries due to their primary role of being the home of the dead (Swensen et al., 2016). They are characterized as ‘memorial’, places of ‘pain’ or ‘sadness’, ‘spiritual’ and ‘hallowed’ places. (Al-Akl, et al.,2018; Uslu, 2010; Nordh & Swensen, 2018; Woodthorpe, 2011). According to Rugg, (2000) however, not all places where burials occur are considered cemeteries. She argues that for a burial site to be considered a cemetery, who owns and operates the sites and the primary aim for setting aside the site or land are important questions to consider. In other words, qualifying a burial site as a cemetery is dependent University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 14 on who owns, who manages the site and whether the site has been earmarked to serve as a place for burying the dead. Consequently, a burial place can only be said to be a cemetery if it has specifically been set aside as a cemetery and used for that purpose. 2.1.2 Origin and History of Cemeteries The word cemetery originates from a Greek term which means ‘to lay to rest’ according to Rugg, (2020) and is also known in Latin as ‘dormitoriitn’ meaning ‘place of sleep’ (Beyenka, 1951). Cemeteries therefore refer to places of rest for the dead. Cemeteries hold an important place in life and its historical accounts can be traced back to the late 1880s (Rugg, 2006). It was believed that cemeteries were established away from human settlements for public health reasons. Before this period, burials were mainly in churchyards and private yards or family backyards. Early accounts of the global history of cemeteries paint a picture of the evolution of burial grounds from the control or affiliation of the church (churchyards) to public burial grounds owned by the state or municipality, with the current ownership structure emerging from this narrative (Rugg, 2000; Greene, 2002). Today, three main institutions namely, the church, the state, and private entities own, operate and manage cemeteries across the world. Johnson, (2008) asserts that, cemeteries were created to protect the living from diseases believed to be caused by dead bodies. At the time, the causes of diseases were still not known. Thus, cemeteries were established at the time as a response to public health concerns of decomposing bodies spreading diseases to the living. Other accounts of how cemeteries were established state that the control and management of burial by the church was taken over by city authorities because of public health reasons and also because some people revolted against the authority of the church (Queiroz & University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 15 Rugg, 2003). For those who were not Christians, public burial sites (cemeteries) were necessary to meet their needs of burial places in the event of death as they did not want to be buried in Christian cemeteries. This historical account holds for most western countries and has slight similarities to Africa’s experience. 2.1.3 Colonial influences and the origin of African cemeteries In many African countries, cemeteries continue to hold important places in the socio- cultural lives of the people. Thus, the African will choose burial over any other method of body disposal. The practice of burial in cemeteries, according to Greene, (2002) was influenced by both religion and formal governance. It is noted that, prior to the 19th century, burial occurred mainly in the homes of the deceased (Balakrishnan, 2019; Greene, 2002). In addition, the African strongly believed in ancestral spirits, so the dead had to be buried in a respectable manner and close to the living. Africans also believed that the spirit of the ancestors could step in and assist the living through life and therefore, they must be close to the living (Greene, 2002). This accounts for the motivation people had in burying the dead particularly in close proximity to the living. Historical accounts of cemeteries from Nigeria and Ghana, highlight the role of the colonial masters in the evolution of cemeteries. According to Onwuzuruigbo, (2014) and Balakrishnan, (2019) creating a common burial place for all people was through coercion, as acceptance was enforced through laws and fines. The colonial authorities were concerned about sanitation and health issues emanating from the handling of the dead at the time. They also wanted records about their people who died. The then Gold Coast therefore enacted the Cemeteries Ordinance Act of 1888. (Dake & Fuseini, 2018). An account by Greene, (2002) on how public cemeteries originated in the Anlo area of Ghana, indicated similar experiences of burial at homes or in houses. The acceptable norm at the time was burial at home. The report also indicates that, burial at the outskirt of towns University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 16 occurred only in cases where the person was perceived to have died a bad death. These burial sites, usually described as scary/cursed or unholy places, were typically in forests with thick vegetation and people avoided these places which were usually left undisturbed. The link between burial at home and public health concerns was therefore established by the colonialist who then used compulsion and punitive measures including fines to get people to discontinue burying the dead at home. Other historical accounts on the origin of cemeteries or public burial places in Africa were traced to the introduction of the Christian religion. Greene, (2002) indicates that newly converted Christians expressed their desire to be buried in public burial grounds with other Christians. The above narrations bring out two distinct accounts on the origin of cemeteries in Africa. What is clear from these accounts is that, for Africans, burial of the dead was the major practice even in the past and colonization brought with it public burial places. 2.1.4 Characteristics of cemeteries The accounts on the origin of the public burial ground further brought about issues of cemetery ownership types in Africa. These are whether cemeteries are owned by religious institutions, the state, the assemblies or the families. As was found by Eriksson, (2010) in a study in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, cemeteries are owned either by the municipality, family or religious institutions, that is, the Ismailis and the Hindus. The Ghana case appears to be similar to that of Tanzania. Cemetery ownership in Ghana and Tanzania are mainly the state, religious institutions, private individuals and families. Rugg, (1998) asserts that, cemeteries are typically burial sites owned by municipal authorities, large in size and located at the periphery of towns and cities. Cemetery ownership can be put under public or private ownership (Rugg, 2000; Rae, 2021). What University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 17 connotes a private or public cemetery ownership differs from country to country (Rae, 2021). For example, in South Africa, cemeteries are owned and managed by the state (Leuta, 2019). In Ethiopia, Santime, (2019) notes that religious and municipal authorities own public cemeteries in urban communities, while clans own cemeteries in rural communities and private cemeteries are owned by families. The type of cemetery ownership influences the management system employed in the cemetery, an assertion consistent with that of Rugg, (2020). Rugg states that, ‘cemetery systems’ are run by either the municipal authorities, religious leaders or private cemetery owners. Studies on cemetery management globally have found out that management varies from country to country. For instance, a comparison between the management of the cemeteries in the United States of America (USA) and Europe indicates that the US employs more private and commercial management, whilst countries Europe gravitate towards municipal management (Rae, 2021). In essence, cemetery management and operations are dependent on who owns a cemetery. Cemeteries were mainly sited at the outskirts of towns and villages in the past. This feature of cemeteries has changed over time with population increases. There was a conscious effort in those days to protect people from the potentially harmful effects of contact with dead bodies (Greene, 2002). Since these cemeteries were on the outskirts of towns and cities, it was easy to allocate large acres of land for them (Rugg, 2000). However, the practice of allocating vast plots of land for cemeteries is no longer possible, especially in urban communities, due to the enormous demand for land and natural resources. Currently, cemeteries are located at the core of many cities and towns through urbanisation and development. This has resulted in blending human settlement and cemeteries (Anna & Ewa, 2020). What is observed now is an integration of cemeteries within predominantly urban communities. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 18 2.1.5 Vegetation in cemeteries Cemeteries until recently have been one of the most revered places in human society and this has always made them good biodiversity conservation sites (Löki et al., 2019). Plants form a massive component of cemeteries worldwide (Nowińska et al., 2020). The presence of vegetation in cemeteries makes them unique spaces. In a historical account of the development and evolution of cemeteries by Johnson, (2008), it was reported that trees were cultivated mainly at the borders or edges of cemeteries to conceal graves from the living. The trees hid the graves and made the loss of their loved ones easier to bear. Vegetation in cemeteries can either result from nature or the cultivation of plants (Yılmaz et al., 2018). Whether through nature or by cultivation, cemeteries have proven to be places where vegetation has thrived. Even the smallest cemeteries are composed of rich vegetation (Quinton & Duinker, 2019; Kowarik, et al., 2016). In their study, Clayden et al. (2009) provide a typical example from England, the Woodland Burial Ground, where the practice since the 1990s is to plant trees on graves instead of erecting monuments. Basically, factors that promote greening in cemeteries include nature, human activities where people intentionally cultivate plants in cemeteries. Cemeteries are also greened for aesthetic reasons (Löki et al., 2019; Yılmaz et al.,2018). Researchers have always been interested in the vegetation found in cemeteries because of their conservation and other values (Löki et al., 2019; Quinton & Duinker, 2019; Nowińska, et al., 2020). In their work, Löki et al. (2019) used orchids to measure the conservational worth of cemeteries in Turkey. They found out that there were more native trees in rural cemeteries than urban ones. Their results also show that the type of management used in urban cemeteries affected vegetation classes which could either be herbs, shrubs or trees in the cemetery. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 19 Quinton and Duinker (2019), compared cemeteries and parks and noted that cemeteries and parks had as many things in common as differences. They both contain rich vegetation, concerns about the two were similar and rules governing their operation and use were also identical. They concluded that, the kind and degree of maintenance affected the type of vegetation found in cemeteries just as in the parks (Quinton & Duinker, 2019). In effect, cemeteries can take the place of parks especially in urban areas where green spaces are inadequate and sometimes unavailable. The plants, especially trees, provide shade for visitors to the cemeteries, as well as other ecosystem services such as food, cooling, purification of air, habitat for other organisms (Al-Akl et al., 2018), and are in themselves a source of biodiversity and a conservation medium (Nordh & Swensen, 2018). They also have the potential to serve as a good refuge for plants that are facing extinction (Yılmaz et al., 2018). In the same breath, the presence of trees in cemeteries could cut off the noise and distraction from cities and provide a serene and peaceful atmosphere. This property of trees in cemeteries contributes to the cemetery's ‘sense of place’ (Quinton et al., 2019). Apart from trees, the vegetation of cemeteries is also composed of shrubs and herbs. However, Forman, (2008), notes that city cemeteries do not have enough shrubs. This could be because of the primary role of cemeteries as burial grounds. Graves take part of the space in cemeteries. Sometimes the plants are in the way and become a source of concern for cemetery managers. The presence of vegetation in cemeteries has both positive and negative impacts on cemeteries and society. As Quinton et al. (2019) found out, trees sometimes destroy monuments or gravestones and could be a good hiding place for miscreants who commit crimes under their cover (Paraschiv, 2013). Furthermore, some plants, usually non-native University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 20 species in cemeteries produce detrimental effects like allergic reactions in humans (Quinton & Duinker, 2019). The presence of vegetation in cemeteries requires proper management for the benefits to outweigh the adverse effects mentioned above. 2.1.6 Management of vegetation in cemeteries Trees make up a critical part of the floral composition in cemeteries. According to Goh and Ching (2020), vegetation makes cemeteries places with rich flora, history, and culture. Their management is vital to their ecological property and the ecosystem services they provide. The management of vegetation in cemeteries appears to come second to protecting grave stones and epitaphs on graves. Quinton et al. (2019) found out that in the East Coast of Canada, cemetery managers were more focused on preserving history and, therefore, protecting monuments found in the cemetery than maintaining and planting trees. Sometimes, cemetery managers use chemicals to control vegetation (Löki et al., 2019). The chemicals are sprayed on the plants in the cemeteries leading to the plants wilting and dying. The use of chemicals destroys or kills other living organisms in the cemeteries particularly micro-organisms. Hence, vegetation in cemeteries must be managed sustainably to control unintended effects on other organisms. The balance between cemetery management and cemetery vegetation management is critical to protect the conservation property of cemeteries. 2.1.7 Urban green spaces Urban green spaces encompass any vegetation or wetland found in urban area Examples include parks, tree lots, wetlands and street trees. (Taylor & Hochuli, 2017). Green spaces have become one of the main ways city dwellers keep in touch with nature (Russo & Cirella, 2018). An essential part of urban life is the presence of green spaces. The mental and physical well-being of humans is enhanced with green spaces (Cooke, University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 21 2020). They can reduce the impact of climate change (Lahoti, et al., 2020). They have the ability to reduce extreme heat, flooding and pollution within urban environments (Kabisch & Haase, 2014). They form part of a larger network known as green infrastructure. Urban green infrastructure is made up of a network of green spaces, water bodies and other natural landscapes within urban area (Pauleit et al., 2019). Urban green spaces provide environmental benefits to city dwellers through their ecosystem services. They also provide social benefits such as a place of play and exercise, meditation, and even a place where cultural and religious or traditional practices are performed (Jennings, et al., 2016). Consequently, green spaces are essential in building sustainable cities (Russo & Cirella, 2018). Studies show that green spaces allow people to connect and relate. Therefore, green spaces are classified as tools that promote ‘social cohesion’ and ‘inclusion’ (Jennings et al., 2016). Kazmierczak and James, (2007) believe that green spaces allow individuals to connect and become involved in societies in four ways. Firstly, green spaces are public goods owned by all. Secondly, green spaces create a platform for people to engage. Thirdly, green spaces allow for relaxation and reduces strain on the brain. Finally, in urban communities, green spaces make voluntary engagement easy and possible. Green spaces also provide a sense of belongingness (Hosseini, et al., 2021). To sum it all, Hosseini, et al. (2021) assert that a city's ability to be sustainable is hinged on the amount of green spaces available. Therefore, it is unsurprising that the current global focus of many cities is achieving sustainability using green spaces. Countries that have succeeded in this quest are the ones that took both the physical and social dimensions of green spaces into consideration (Jennings & Bamkole, 2019). There is evidence that green spaces are essential to urban life, and effort must be made to promote and protect them. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 22 2.1.7.1 Sustainability of green spaces Green spaces are important for life in cities. In many cities, including Ghana, studies continue to highlight the steady loss of green spaces to other land uses (Mensah, 2014; Puplampu & Boafo, 2021). The presence of green spaces in urban areas is seen as an indicator of sustainability. The challenge of many cities however, is to ensure that green spaces continue to exist so that they can perform their role in ensuring that cities are sustainable and livable. For the purposes of this study, sustainable green spaces are green spaces that are present in the now and will continue to exist in the future. In the city space, it is critical to ensure that green spaces are sustainable. In other words, sustainable green spaces refer to green spaces that promote life in the present and will continue to promote life into the future. Thus, green space sustainability involves sustainable use of green spaces for present benefits as well as future benefits to humans or use that guarantees future use and benefits. Sustainable green spaces should be available, accessible, distributed equitably, safe and secure. Size and adequate vegetation are also important components of sustainable green spaces (Taylor & Hochuli, 2017; Kothencz et al., 2017). According to Stessens et al., (2020), quietness, spaciousness, maintenance, facilities, safety are essential quality of green spaces. The qualities outlined promote the use of green spaces and must be preserved to ensure green spaces sustainability. 2.1.8 Cemeteries as green spaces Many studies have established an association between cemeteries and green spaces (Nordh & Evensen,2018; Swensen et al., 2016; Skar et al., 2018; Rae, 2021). Quinton and Duinker (2019) classify cemeteries as novel green spaces. The link between cemeteries and green spaces was established around the 19th century (Johnson, 2008). Cemeteries contain enormous vegetation and serve as habitat for numerous organisms hence, their University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 23 classification as green spaces (Rae, 2021; Nordh et al., 2017; Quinton & Duinker, 2019). As places for interning the dead, cemeteries also serve humans through cultural, spiritual and religious functions (Nordh & Swensen, 2018). The vegetation in cemeteries and the multi-use of cemeteries make them green spaces with their key role as burial places. 2.1.8.1 Factors that promote greening in cemeteries Most cemeteries contain vegetation. There have numerous studies on the presence and the beneficial effects of vegetation in cemeteries (Quinton & Duinker, 2019; Löki et al., 2019; Anna & Ewa, 2020). Ownership type influences management style and the nature and quantity of vegetation in cemeteries (Rugg,2020). For example, Villaseñor & Escobar, (2019) note that park like cemeteries contain enormous vegetation because they are managed to mirror traditional parks. The location of the cemetery also promotes vegetation in cemeteries (Anna & Ewa, 2020). Other practices like cultivating plants in remembrance of the dead also contributes to vegetation in cemeteries (Quinton & Duinker, 2019). 2.1.9 Multi-use of cemeteries Cemeteries as places of burial of the dead are also considered places of history, culture, memorial, business, politics and green space (Woodthorpe, 2011; Anna & Ewa, 2020). Woodthorpe, (2011) classifies cemeteries as ‘emotional’, ‘commercial’ and ‘community’ spaces. He further notes that, the commercial significance of cemeteries is closely associated with the evolution of the traditional cemetery to lawn and memorial parks from the late 1880s to the 1990s. Cemeteries are no longer places of fear and pain but rather a place for business and beauty. Findings concerning the use of cemeteries indicated that cemeteries were being put to many uses. Examples include Highgate and Kensal Green Cemeteries located in London University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 24 in the United Kingdom. They are used for recreational activities like walking and jogging (Skår et al., 2018). Cheng, (2013) indicates that the use of cemeteries as parks started even as early as the 1880s. The practice was also common in the United States in cemeteries such as Mt. Auburn, close to Boston (Cheng, 2013). In their writeup, Harnik and Merolli, (2010) talk about the changes in the way cemeteries are used. They give the example of Wyuka Cemetery in Nebraska used for theatrical performances. People visited this cemetery to watch Shakespearean plays. All these provide evidence that cemeteries have evolved from places for burial or memorial to places of tourist interests, relaxation, places of economic benefit, and places where food and medicinal plants can be found. What is significant about the changes experienced with cemeteries is that the transformations experienced within cemeteries originated from cemetery managers and sextons of various cemeteries across the world (Harnik & Merolli, 2010). It is reported that, these managers and workers felt that the cemeteries had more to offer than just being a place for interring the dead (Cheng, 2013; Harnik & Merolli, 2010). This is an essential property of cemeteries, mainly in city spaces where land is scarce and expensive. The idea that the home of the dead can be used in multiple ways makes cemeteries unique. Indeed, contemporary researchers believe that cemeteries are as crucial to the living as the dead. They are classified as green spaces and considered an integral part of the green infrastructure of cities (Nordh & Evensen, 2018; Quinton & Duinker, 2019). The diversity in use of cemeteries sometimes results in disagreements or disputes (Woodthorpe, 2011). Woodthorpe, (2011) reinforces the view that some strains or complications come from the multi-functional use of cemeteries, although the multi-purpose potential of cemeteries can guarantee their sustainability. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 25 Cemeteries are grouped under green spaces with multiple functions which are either social, ecological or economic (McClymont & Sinnett, 2021). Studies on cemeteries as green spaces have focused on their multi-functionality, with many researchers highlighting their recreational functions. The works of Rugg, (2000) and Deering, (2012) are of interest to this study. Their works explored cemeteries by looking at the functions and meanings assigned to them. Understanding the meaning and functions of cemeteries can be described as ‘placemaking’, which develops into a sense of place. Even though researchers have shown that cemeteries are important green spaces, they have rarely looked at cemeteries through the lenses of sense of place. It is well established from literature that people ascribe different meanings to cemeteries (Nordh & Evensen, 2018; Yılmaz et al., 2018). People's different meanings and values on cemeteries make them complex spaces. This complexity is further compounded by the changes in their usage over time (Grabalov, 2018; Nordh & Swensen, 2018). How people feel about death has also contributed to the way cemeteries are used. (Evensen et al., 2017). Masterson et al. (2017) assert that knowledge about how people relate to cemeteries helps in understanding why cemeteries are used the way they are used. It also helps in identifying the factors to be considered if changes are to be made to the way cemeteries are used in order for them to become relevant agents in greening cities. 2..1.9.1 Factors that influence multi-use of cemeteries There has been a number of studies into why people use cemeteries the way they do. One such study is by Swensen, (2018), who found out that the location and design of a cemetery directs the way it is used. Another factor which influences the multi-use of cemeteries is the type of cemetery and the kind of use being proposed (Quinton & Duinker, 2019). In most western countries multi-use of cemeteries for recreation, research and sun baths are common (Evensen et al., 2017; Nordh & Evensen, 2018; Quinton & University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 26 Duinker, 2019). Generally, studies on cemeteries in Africa are few. Studies on the multi- use of cemeteries in Africa are even fewer (Eriksson, 2010). That is not to say the multi- use of cemeteries does not occur in Africa. Literature on the multi-use of cemeteries is well documented in most western countries. However, cemetery studies in African countries have not focused much on how cemeteries are used aside from burial and its related practices. 2.1.9.2 Perception about cemeteries and their other uses People's perceptions of cemeteries are diverse and subjective (Oliveira & Mell, 2019). This is because of the multiple roles of cemeteries in the life of humans. Studies on perceptions regarding cemeteries are mixed with some research focusing on respondents' perceptions of the restorative ability of cemeteries spaces (Lai, et al., 2020). Swensen et al. (2016) perceive cemeteries as special because they possess cultural, spiritual, historical, recreational properties and are considered sacred by many. Another group looked at how people perceive cemeteries and the qualities they prefer in cemeteries (Al- Akl et al., 2018). Others explored the perceived safety of cemeteries. It came to light in one study for example that, people perceive cemeteries as unsafe places with poor lighting, use of illicit drugs and unmaintained greenery (Quinton & Duinker, 2019). Additional studies looked at the perception on the multi-use of cemeteries (Cheng, 2013; Swensen, 2018; Evensen, et al., 2017). While others like (Leuta, 2019) have looked at the perception of multi-use of cemeteries at the institutional level. The take-home from all these studies is that, perception about cemeteries varies from person to person. For instance, many people still perceive other uses of cemeteries aside from burial as inappropriate (Rae, 2021). Promoting other uses of cemeteries require information and rules on what is appropriate in cemeteries and what will be allowed or accepted as University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 27 complementary to their use as burial grounds. In addition, cultural context is crucial in how cemeteries are perceived. 2.1.9.3 Inappropriate use of cemeteries and abuse A significant concern about the use of cemeteries aside burial, is the appropriateness of other uses. Inappropriate uses of cemeteries include use as hideouts for criminals and drug users (Skår et al., 2018; Rae, 2021). Likewise, Evensen, et al. (2017) found out that some cemeteries in Norway were places where people use alcohol and drugs, leaving in their wake dangerous waste materials that could cause harm to other users. Other inappropriate uses found by Rae, (2021) were sunbathing in the nude in the cemetery and the use of cemeteries by the homeless as a place of abode (Evensen, et al., 2017). One other worrying occurrence is the indiscriminate waste disposal in cemeteries, neglect of cemeteries resulting in bushy and unkept spaces (Tudor, et al., 2013). All the above, coupled with the lack of good lighting and proper maintenance, make cemeteries unsafe places in urban areas (Quinton & Duinker, 2019). 2.1.9.4 Acceptable uses of cemeteries People have expectations on how cemeteries should be used. Some would argue that it is not appropriate for certain activities to be undertaken in the cemetery. A case in point is the open day organised in 2016 by the City of London Cemetery and Crematorium. Whilst it was reported that the open day was a success, some people were not happy with the cemetery manager. They felt that it was disrespectful to visit the cemetery for reasons other than to bury the dead (Woodthorpe, 2011). The reality is that cemeteries are used in diverse ways aside from burial. Some uses are considered acceptable and other uses are not considered acceptable. Acceptable uses mean activities permitted or agreed upon by society or supervisory authority to be carried out in University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 28 cemeteries (Quinton & Duinker, 2019). In other words, they are activities that can take place in cemeteries without restrictions. On the other hand, unacceptable uses mean activities that are not permitted to be carried out in cemeteries. For example, in the Green- Wood Cemetery located in New York City, USA, recreational activities such as jogging, dog walking and cycling are not permitted (Rae, 2021). Rugg, (2000) notes that the cemetery is not only for the dead but also for the living, thus requiring some restrictions on how it should be used. In the study by Goh and Ching, (2020), respondents perceived cemeteries as places for learning about culture, heritage, history and designs in cemeteries. In the same study, they found out that respondents perceive the use of cemeteries for recreational or social purposes as not acceptable. In similar studies, Evensen et al., 2017 and Swensen et al., 2016 found out that some activities were seen to be acceptable in cemeteries whilst others were considered not acceptable. Cemeteries require proper regulations to benefit both the living and the dead. There are rules on the use and activities that are allowed in most cemeteries. These rules make the conversion of cemetery lands to other uses an almost impossible task. 2.1.10 Policy, legal framework, rules and regulation of cemeteries Like any other space created by humans, cemeteries are governed by specific rules and regulations. Policies and regulations exist to govern cemetery management and operation in many places. Rugg, (2020) asserts that having rules and regulations are essential for the proper disposal of human remains and for effective management of cemeteries. Aside from the sanitised burial of the dead, cemeteries need the right legal and regulatory framework to operate due to their complex nature as social, environmental, religious, cultural and economic places. For instance, where cemeteries are placed or where a cemetery exists can become a source of conflict and disagreement (Bennett & Davies, University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 29 2015). The disagreements usually arise when leadership at the community and the regional levels do not agree on the place to site the said cemetery (Bennett & Davies, 2015). Other times, the use of cemetery aside burial has resulted in conflict situations, as Leuta (2019) notes. Another angle to evaluate is land ownership. Cemetery lands must be appropriately acquired and the proper compensation paid to avoid conflicts (Bennett & Davies, 2015). People are also sometimes apprehensive and reluctant to acquire properties close to cemeteries. Bennett and Davies (2015) conclude that cemetery locations are influenced by the cost and availability of land, the spiritual or cultural properties of cemeteries, and consensus from the planning and development processes. It is evident from the above that, apart from planning, community involvement and compatibility of land use are vital in siting cemeteries. Thus, the planning, siting and operation of cemeteries can therefore not be seen as an ordinary task. Until recently, the planning of most cemeteries has solely been for burial only rather than their contributions to green infrastructure as is seen in America, the United Kingdom and South Africa (Koonce, 2011; McClymont & Sinnett, 2021; Leuta, 2019). Now, with the incorporation of the green properties of cemeteries, policies on cemeteries must be all- encompassing with attention to cultural and religious contexts (Lai et al., 2020). The general practice globally is to have municipal, city authority or local governing bodies as institutions to implement policies and plans for cemeteries (Capels & Senville,2006). However, city authorities play no role as the regulator in some cases. Religious bodies are in charge of regulating, operating, and managing cemeteries as noted by McClymont and Sinnett (2021) in some cemeteries in England. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 30 In Ghana, various rules and regulations govern the siting, operation, and management of the cemeteries. The earliest policy associated with cemeteries was the Cemetery Ordinance Act of 1888 (Dake & Fuseini, 2018). According to Bonetti, (2019), the Cemetery Ordinance Act of 1888 also distinguished public cemeteries from private cemeteries. The Health and Institution Facilities Act (829), under which the Mortuary and Funeral Facility Agency (MOFFA) was established in 2011, provides standards for storing, disposal of dead bodies, and other funeral services (Government of Ghana, 2011). Under this Act, all facilities associated with the storage or disposal of dead bodies, including cemeteries, must obtain a special license before operating. The Act is operationalized by the Ministry of Health (MOH). Before this Act, the Mortuary and Funeral Facility of 1998 (Act 563) was passed to provide guidelines for managing human remains through to their disposal under the supervision of the Ministry of Health (Government of Ghana, 1998). Another framework regulating the siting of cemeteries is the Zoning and Planning Guidelines of 2011. This is used to guide the siting of cemeteries and other related spaces for death and funeral services (Land Use and Spatial Planning Authority, 2011). At the assembly level, bye-laws exist for the day-to-day operation and management of cemeteries. For instance, the Accra Metropolitan Assembly’s bye-law of 2017, with backing from the Local Government Act (936), authorizes the Assembly as the implementing bodies to issue permits to operate private, religious, and family cemeteries. These permits are to be renewed annually. The Public Health Department of the Assembly is the supervisory body tasked to ensure burial is done safely and sanitised. The Assembly is also mandated to control the entire burial space, from the planning of cemeteries, allocation of graves, width and depth of graves, the dimensions for any gravestones or epitaphs and the general tidiness in cemeteries (Local Government Bulletin, 2019). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 31 Similarly, the Ablekuma West Municipal Assembly (AbWMA), also established under the Local Government Act (936), section 181, controls the operation and management of cemeteries. The Assembly issues permit to private, religious and family cemetery managers. Akin to AMA, the Assembly is mandated to control all aspects of the burial space. The Environmental Health and Sanitation