UNIVERSITY OF GHANA COLLEGE OF HUMANITIES ‘BEING EKKLĒSIA’ ACCORDING TO REVELATION 2:1 ̶ 3:22: AN EXEGETICAL AND THEOLOGICAL ANALYSIS BY NELSON MAWULI ZOTOO (10383630) THIS THESIS IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF MPHIL FOR THE STUDY OF RELIGIONS DEGREE DEPARTMENT FOR THE STUDY OF RELIGIONS JULY 2023 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ii DECLARATION This is to certify that this thesis is the result of research undertaken by Nelson Mawuli Zotoo under the supervision of Prof. Nicoletta Gatti and Rev. Dr. Alexander Salakpi towards the award of M. Phil Degree in the Study of Religions in the Department for the Study of Religions, University of Ghana (Legon). January 19, 2023 Nelson Mawuli Zotoo (Student) Date January 19, 2023 Prof. Nicoletta Gatti (Supervisor) Date January 19, 2023 Rev. Dr. Alexander Salakpi (Co-Supervisor) Date University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh iii ABSTRACT The Greek word evkklhsi,a (congregation, assembly, gathering, ‘church’) designates the community of the followers of Jesus, the extension of his humanity, the locus where it is possible to experience his presence (cf. Matt. 18:20). Christian communities in Ghana have experienced an exponential growth, but they are besieged with two main challenges namely, diversity and fragmentation, and apparent low impact on the Ghanaian society. Their diversity and fragmentation raised a hermeneutic challenge because all appeal to the New Testament to define their identity and mission. Furthermore, their apparent low impact on the morality of Ghanaian society questions their authenticity and relevance. Against this backdrop, the research examined the identity and mission of the evkklhsi,a through an exegetical and theological analysis of Rev. 2⸻3. Holladay’s Theological Conversation Model was the theoretical framework that guided the study. The literary unit was analysed using Rhetorical Criticism, following Kennedy’s Rhetorical Criticism model, to discover how the literary unit portrays the identity and mission of the evkklhsi,a, the rhetorical devices the author used to describe the features of the seven communities, and the perlocutionary effect of the text on its original readers. The research revealed that Rev. 2⸻3 portrayed the church as a spiritual entity created by God’s love (cf. 1:5; cf. Eph. 5:25) and designed to love God as well as love their fellow humans. She participates in the ‘world to come,’ lives in the horizon of the kingdom of God, and should embody its values, principles, and objectives. The evkklhsi,a as a ‘human’ entity is on a journey of continuous conversion (semper reformanda), to testify and imitate University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh iv the Risen Lord, who is the faithful witness (cf. 1:5) and the Lamb who was slain (5:6). Conforming to her Lord, the church will be also persecuted. To impact his readers, the author employed several rhetorical devises such as: recipient formular, graphon imperative, tade legei formular, descriptive phrases about Jesus Christ, knowledge formular, indictment formular, exhortative formular, proclamation formular, promise of victory formular. The perlocutionary effect of the literary unit on the original readers was to offer comfort, and encouragement in time of crisis; to exhort them to persevere during persecution (cf. 2:10; 3:10-12). It urges them to pursue brotherly love, as a defining characteristic of the community of Jesus (cf. 2:5) and resist false teaching (cf. 2:2-3, 14-16, 20-23). It enjoins the churches to live a Christ-centered life and spirituality (cf. 2:20). The study recommends further research to contextualize the findings of this research in specific Christian communities in Ghana; furthermore, there is the need to study the theme of the identity and mission in the entire book of Revelation. Finally, the Christian communities in Ghana should commit to effective Bible training of their leaders and membership, to refocus their identity and mission on what is essential, discipleship of Jesus (Matt. 28:18-20), instead of popularized doctrines that are not biblically founded. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh v DEDICATION I dedicate this work to my father, Mr. Vincent Yao Zotoo and my mother, Mrs. Philothea Mansa Soglo, both of blessed memory for giving birth to me and taking care of me. I am eternally grateful to the two of you and may God continue to give you peaceful rest in His bosom. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This thesis would not have been possible without the grace of God (cf. 1 Cor. 15: 8-9). As a result, I am extremely thankful to the Lord Jesus for enabling me by his grace and strength to start and complete this work. All the glory and praise to his name alone! I would also like to acknowledge some key people who have offered support, guidance and help at various stages of the thesis. My sincere gratitude and appreciation to my supervisors, Prof. Nicoletta Gatti and Rev. Dr. Alexander Salakpi, for their motherly and fatherly concern, and mentoring, along with their professionalism and guidance for the study. This work would not have been possible without your comments, corrections, guidance, and suggestions. I am also grateful to Rev. Prof. George Ossom-Batsa and Rev. Dr. Godfred Nsiah for their contribution to this research and my academic journey. My heartfelt thanks to the entire faculty and the administrative staff of the Department for the Study of Religions, University of Ghana (Legon), for their varied contributions and help. I also thank my colleagues for their encouragement, support, and companionship throughout the period of the program. Finally, I want to thank my best friend, Abigail Esinam Adade, for being with me throughout the time of this programme. Your encouragement, reminders, and prayers have brought me this far. God bless you richly for me. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh vii TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION ................................................................................................................ ii ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................................... iii DEDICATION .................................................................................................................... v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................... vi TABLE OF CONTENTS .................................................................................................. vii CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTORY ISSUES…………………………………………...1 1.1 Background of the Study .......................................................................................... 1 1.2 Statement of the Problem .......................................................................................... 8 1.3 Research Questions ................................................................................................... 8 1.4 Literature Review ...................................................................................................... 9 1.4.1 Composition of Revelation 2⸻3 ....................................................................... 9 1.4.2 Literary Genre of Revelation 2⸻3 .................................................................. 11 1.4.3 Function of Revelation 2⸻3 ............................................................................ 12 1.4.4 Method: Rhetorical Criticism........................................................................... 14 1.5 Theoretical Framework ........................................................................................... 19 1.6 Methodology ........................................................................................................... 22 1.7 Organization of the Research .................................................................................. 22 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh viii CHAPTER TWO: THE BACKGROUND ISSUES OF REVELATION 2⸻3…………..24 2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 24 2.2 The Rhetorical Situation ......................................................................................... 24 2.2.1 Overview of the Book of Revelation ............................................................... 25 2.2.2 The Nature of the Christian Community in Asia Minor .................................. 29 2.2.3 Relationship between Christian Community and Jewish Community ............ 31 2.2.4 Issues Affecting Christian Communities in the Greco-Roman World ............ 31 2.3 The Determination of the Rhetorical Unit .............................................................. 35 2.4 The Rhetorical Problem .......................................................................................... 38 2.5 The Rhetorical Species of the Text ......................................................................... 40 2.6 The Rhetorical Structure of the Text....................................................................... 42 2.7 Conclusion .............................................................................................................. 44 CHAPTER THREE: RHETORICAL ANALYSIS OF REVELATION 2:1-17…………46 3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 46 3.2 The Message to the Church in Ephesus (2:1-7) ...................................................... 46 3.2.1 Address (2:1a) .................................................................................................. 46 3.2.2 Self-Presentation of the Risen Lord (2:1b) ...................................................... 52 3.2.3 Judgement (2:2-4, 6) ........................................................................................ 53 3.2.4 Exhortation (2:5) .............................................................................................. 59 3.2.5 Appeal to Listen to the Spirit (2:7a)................................................................. 62 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ix 3.2.6 Promise (2:7b) .................................................................................................. 63 3.2.7 Summary .......................................................................................................... 65 3.3 The Message to the Church in Smyrna (2:8-11) ..................................................... 66 3.3.1 Address (2:8a) .................................................................................................. 66 3.3.2 Self-Presentation of the Risen Lord (2:8b) ...................................................... 67 3.3.3 Judgement (2:9) ............................................................................................... 69 3.3.4 Exhortation (2:10) ............................................................................................ 72 3.3.5 Promise (2:11b) ................................................................................................ 75 3.3.6 Summary .......................................................................................................... 75 3. 4 The Message to the Church in Pergamum ............................................................. 76 3.4.1 Address (2:12a) ................................................................................................ 76 3.4.2 Self-Presentation of the Risen Lord (2:12b) .................................................... 77 3.4.3 Judgement (2:13-15) ........................................................................................ 78 3.4.4 Exhortation (2:16) ............................................................................................ 82 3.3.5 Promise (2:17b) ................................................................................................ 83 3.3.6 Summary .......................................................................................................... 85 CHAPTER FOUR : RHETORICAL ANALYSIS OF REVELATION 2:18⸻3:22……..86 4.1 The Message to the Church in Thyatira (2:18-29) .................................................. 86 4.1.1 Address (2:18a) ................................................................................................ 86 4.1.2 Self- Presentation of the Risen Lord (2:18b) ................................................... 87 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh x 4.1.3 Judgement (2:19-20) ........................................................................................ 88 4.1.4 Exhortation (2:21-25) ....................................................................................... 91 4.1.5 Promise (2:26-28) ............................................................................................ 95 4.1.6 Summary .......................................................................................................... 98 4.2 The Message to the Church in Sardis ..................................................................... 98 4.2.1 Address (3:1a) .................................................................................................. 98 4.2.2 Self-Presentation of the Risen Lord (3:1b) ...................................................... 99 4.2.3 Judgement (3:1b, 4)........................................................................................ 101 4.2.4. Exhortation (3:2-4) ........................................................................................ 102 4.2.5 Promise (3:5) .................................................................................................. 105 4.2.6 Summary ........................................................................................................ 107 4.3 The Message to the Church in Philadelphia (3:7-13) ........................................... 108 4.3.1 Address (3:7a) ................................................................................................ 108 4.3.2 Self- Presentation of the Risen Lord (3:7b) ................................................... 108 4.3.3 Judgment (3:8-10) .......................................................................................... 110 4.3.4 Exhortation (3:11) .......................................................................................... 114 4.3.5 Promise (3:12) ................................................................................................ 115 4.3.6 Summary ........................................................................................................ 116 4.4 The Message to the Church in Laodicea (3:14-22) ............................................... 117 4.4.1 Address (3:14a) .............................................................................................. 117 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh xi 4.4.2 Self-Presentation of the Risen Lord (3: 14b) ................................................. 117 4.4.3 Judgement (3:15-17) ...................................................................................... 120 4.4.4 Exhortation (3: 18-20) .................................................................................... 122 4.4.5 Promise (3:21) ................................................................................................ 125 4.4.6 Summary ........................................................................................................ 126 4.5 The Ecclesiology of the Messages to the Seven Churches in Revelation 2⸻3 .... 126 4.5.1 Introduction .................................................................................................... 126 4.5.2 The Church is on a Journey of Continuing Conversion ................................. 127 4.5.3 The Church is Eschatological ........................................................................ 128 4.5.4 The Eschatological Church is a Persecuted Church....................................... 128 4.5.5 The Church is Loved by Jesus Christ ............................................................ 130 4.5.6 The Church is Defined by Love ..................................................................... 130 4.5.7 The Church’s Identity is not Defined by her Organizational Structure ......... 131 4.5.8 The Church is the Locus where God’s Presence is Experienced ................... 132 4.5.9 The Church is a Spiritual Entity ..................................................................... 132 4.6 Conclusion ............................................................................................................ 134 CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS……137 5.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 137 5.2 Summary ............................................................................................................... 137 5.3 Conclusion ............................................................................................................ 142 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh xii 5.3.1 How Revelation 2⸻3 Presents the Identity and Mission of the evkklhsi,a ..... 142 5.3.2 Rhetorical Devices Used to Describe the Characteristics of the evkklhsi,a .... 143 5.3.3 The Perlocutionary Effect of Revelation 2⸻3 on the Original Readers ....... 144 5.4 Recommendations ................................................................................................. 147 Bibliography ................................................................................................................... 149 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTORY ISSUES 1.1 Background to the Study The Greek term evkklhsi,a (congregation, assembly, gathering, ‘church’) occurs 114 times in the New Testament. It is derived from the compound verb ἐκκαλέω (to call out) and hence generally used to indicate a gathering of citizens called out from their homes into some public place; an assembly, etc. 1 However, in the New Testament, it is used to designate the community of the disciples of Jesus Christ,2 the extension of his humanity, the locus where it is possible to experience his presence (cf. Matt. 18:20).3 For this reason, Grudem defines the evkklhsi,a as a group of believers at all levels, ranging from a very small group meeting in a private home to the community of all true believers in the world.4 As the community of Jesus, she regards the Scripture, the Old Testament and the New Testament, as the standard of doctrine and practice. Following the mandate of the Risen Lord (cf. Matt. 28:18-20; Mark 16:15; Acts 1:8), the disciples of Jesus preached the gospel and found communities, which have spread to all the continents of the world today. Currently, Africa is one of the continents where these ‘churches’ are growing rapidly.5 In Ghana, for example, the 2021 Population and Housing 1 Colin Brown, ed., The New International Dictionary of New Testament Theology (Grand Rapids, MI: The Zondervan Corporation, 1975), 1: 291. 2 Ralph J. Korner, The Origin and Meaning of Ekklēsia in the Early Jesus Movement (Leiden: Brill, 2017), 1. 3 Nicoletta Gatti, …perché il «piccolo» diventi «fratello». La pedagogia del dialogo nel cap. 18 di Matteo (TG.T 146; Rome: Gregorian & Biblical Press, 2007), 189-191. 4 Wayne Grudem, Systematic Theology: An Introduction to Biblical Doctrine (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1994), 857. 5 Douglas Jacobsen, The World’s Christians: Who They Are, Where They Are, and How They Got There (Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011), 174. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2 Census reveals that 71.3% of Ghanaians are Christians, belonging to specific denominations.6 Also, the total number of churches registered by the Registrar General’s Department is sixteen thousand seven hundred and nineteen (16,719).7 It is evident from the information stated above that Ghana is repleted with many entities that are designated as churches and perceive themselves as communities of Jesus. The Ghanaian congregations, like any other entity, are besieged with many challenges. However, two of these problems are pressing; they include the diversity and fragmentation of the communities and their apparent low impact on the Ghanaian society. The diversity of the churches in Ghana is obvious in the striking differences in their orthodoxy and orthopraxy. Christian denominations differ in their history, the number and the definition of their sacraments, their days of worship, their organizational structures, and their perspective on morality. They have different approaches to biblical interpretation and, therefore, hold unique views on doctrines like baptism, salvation, eschatology, etc. Furthermore, they place different emphasis on apocalypticism, prophetism, Pentecostalism and prosperity preaching. Two specific examples of doctrinal diversity concerning the important issues of ‘salvation’ and ‘baptism’ are discussed below. The doctrine of salvation is one conflicting doctrinal area within the Ghanaian churches. On the one hand, some churches hold a universal view of salvation; they believe that the whole world will be saved8 because Jesus reconciled the whole world to God through the 6 Ghana Statistical Service, “Ghana 2021 Population and Housing Census: General Report 3C,” November 2021; https://www.statsghana.gov.gh/ (Accessed 5th February 2022). 7 Miss Evelyn Koko, The Principal Company Inspector at the Registrar Generals Department, provided the information to the researcher, Thursday, 3rd February 2022. 8 John R. Sachs, “Current Eschatology: Universal Salvation and the Problem of Hell,” Theological Studies 52 (1991): 4. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3 cross (cf. Col. 1:20). Christ Cosmopolitan Incorporated (CCI) is one of such churches. On the other hand, there are churches who hold an exclusive view of salvation. Christian exclusivism means that salvation from sin and eternal damnation is only possible for Christians, and therefore those outside Christianity are excluded from salvation.9 Thus, these churches maintain that the only way to be saved is through trust in Jesus and his death on the cross (cf. John 14:6). In addition, non-members of their specific denominations are often perceived as ‘unbelievers,’ depraved, lost, and headed for destruction. 10 The Lighthouse Church, Legon Interdenominational Church, and Action Chapel International are examples of churches who hold this view. Finally, there are churches who hold an inclusive view of salvation. This perspective maintains that salvation is possible outside the church even though it is mainly experienced through faith in Christ Jesus. 11 Accordingly, people in other religions can be saved if they live by the standards of Jesus (cf. Matt. 25:31-46). A proponent of this position is the Roman Catholic Church.12 Another doctrine on which these communities differ significantly is baptism. Some of the churches practise the baptism of infants. Their believe that baptism is a means to bestow saving grace on people13 and it is necessary for salvation; therefore, it should be available to all.14 They believe that baptism, like the other sacraments, works apart from the faith of the participants and incorporates the person into “the One Holy Catholic and Apostolic 9 Woodbridge O. Johnson, “Non-Christian Salvation,” Journal of Bible and Religion 31, no. 3 (July 1963): 216; https://www.jstor.org/stable/1460115. 10 Jacobsen, The World’s Christians, 57. 11 Johnson, “Non-Christian Salvation,” 217. 12 John Paul II, Catechism of the Catholic Church (Vatican City: Vatican Press, 1992), 847-848; Vatican Council II, “Ad gentes; Decree on the Church’s Missionary Activity,” in Vatican Concil II, ed. A. Flannery (Northport, NY: Costello, 1992), no. 7; Cf. the concept of 'Anonymous Christian'; Paul Imhof and Hubert Biallowons (eds.) Karl Rahner in Dialogue: Conversations and Interviews, 1965–1982 (Trans. by Harvey D. Egan (New York: Crossroad, 1989), 207. 13 Grudem, Systematic Theology, 971. 14 Grudem, System Theology, 971. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh https://archive.org/details/karlrahnerindial00rahn 4 Church.” 15 Churches that hold this view include the Roman Catholic Church, the Presbyterian Church, and the Methodist Church. However, some hold a different view. They argue that the baptism of infants is not supported by Scripture and contend that faith in Jesus Christ is a precondition for baptism. For this reason, they construe water baptism as a public testimony of one’s prior faith in Jesus Christ,16 and insist that candidates for ‘water baptism’ must have already experienced spiritual regeneration. Accordingly, children who are not matured enough to believe, cannot be baptized. They do not consider water baptism as a sacrament, and therefore refer to it as ‘ordinance.’17 These Christian communities include Legon Interdenominational Church, The Great Commission Church, Action Chapel International, Charismatic Evangelistic Ministry, Royal House Chapel, and Perez Chapel. This grave diversity among the Christian communities coupled with their fragmentation (16,719) breeds the problem of classification. Tsekpoe argues: that the problem of classification associated with Christian communities in Ghana stems from the fact that the Pentecostal-Charismatic scene has been changing constantly from its inception to the extent that many of the headings used to describe the phenomenon at a particular time become inapplicable due to the emergence of new Pentecostal waves.18 In addition, the emergence of Charismatic Renewal in some of the mainline churches makes it difficult to determine the specific category they belong. Because of this, it is 15 Grudem, System Theology, 971. 16 Koo Dong Yun, “Water Baptism and Spirit Baptism: Pentecostals and Lutherans in Dialogue,” Dialog 43, no. 4 (2004): 346; https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0012-2033.2004.00226. 17 Yun, “Water Baptism,” 346. 18 Christian Tsekpoe, “Navigating the Shades and Nexus of Ghanaian Pentecostalism(s): A Search for an Appropriate Metaphor,” Ghana Journal of Religion and Theology 10, no. 1 (2020): 12. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5 difficult to categorize these communities as the different classifications proposed by scholars testify. Omenyo and Atiemo propose a historical typology: Mainline Churches, African Independent Churches, Classical Pentecostal Churches, Neo-Pentecostal Churches/Charismatic Churches, Prophetic Churches.19 Larbi holds a different view and classifies them into six groups, namely African Independent Churches (Spiritual Churches), Classical Pentecostal Churches, Para-Church Movements, Charismatic Movements in the mainline Churches, Neo-Pentecostal Movements and Pentecostalist Prayer Camps or Prophet Healing Prayer Camps.20 Furthermore, Asamoah-Gyadu’s classification differs from that of Omenyo and Larbi. He classifies them into three categories: Spiritual Churches, Western Mission Related Pentecostal Denominations and Neo-Pentecostal Movement or Charismatic Churches.21 The diversity and fragmentation of the churches, with its resultant problem of classification, brings into sharp focus the issue of the precise identity and mission of the evkklhsi,a. Since all these churches claim to be followers of the Jesus, why are they so diverse and fragmented? Do all these churches in Ghana mirror the identity and mission of the biblical evkklhsi,a? If not, which of these churches embody the true identity and mission of the evkklhsi,a according to the Bible? 19 Cephas N. Omenyo and Abamfo O. Atiemo, “Claiming Religious Space: The Case of Neo-Prophetism in Ghana,” Ghana Bulletin of Theology 1 (2006): 55-68. 20 Emmanuel K. Larbi, Pentecostalism: The Eddies of Ghanaian Christianity (Accra: Centre for Pentecostal and Charismatic Studies, 2001), 66-87. 21 J. Kwabena Asamoah-Gyadu, African Charismatics: Current Developments within Independent Indigenous Pentecostalism in Ghana (Leiden: Brill, 2004), 18-29. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6 Besides, Ghanaian Christian communities are not only confronted with the problem of diversity and fragmentation but also the challenge of its apparent low impact on the society. It is important to note that the impact of a Christian community on society depends to a very large extent on her perspective on salvation. Churches that perceive salvation solely in terms of ‘saving the soul’ do not deem the transformation of society important.22 For this reason, they argue the church’s mission in the world is primarily eschatological. On the other hand, there are churches that consider salvation in terms of the transformation of each person and the whole person, as well as their society.23 As a consequence, they believe their mission includes contributing to societal transformation and have, therefore, contributed immensely to the development of Ghana in education, healthcare, moral development, and the peace of the nation.24 However, the prevalence of social and environmental problems in Ghana like bribery and corruption,25 ecological crises (‘galamsey’),26 teenage pregnancy,27 and apathy towards 22 Ben-Willie Kwaku Golo, “Redeemed from the Earth? Environmental Change and Salvation Theology in African Christianity,” Scriptura 111, no. 3 (2012): 350. 23 Golo, “Redeemed from the Earth?,” 350; Emmanuel K.E. Antwi, “Development of the ‘Whole’ Person and ‘for Every’ Person? Populorum Progressio and Development in Ghana,” in Religion and Sustainable Development: Ghanaian Perspectives, ed. G. Ossom-Batsa, N. Gatti and R. D. Ammah (Collana Grandi Opere; Vatican City: Urbaniana University Press, 2018), 193-210. 24 John Kwaku Opoku, Eric Manu, and Frimpong Wiafe, “Religion, Development and Development in Ghana: A Historical Perspective,” Global Journal of Arts, Humanities and Social Sciences 3, no. 12 (December 2015): 6. 25 A. Q. Q. Aboagye, “Corruption in Ghana: Evidence, Analysis of Corporate Procedures and Suggestions to Minimize its Incidence,” Review of Human Factor Studies Special Edition 11, no. 1 (June 2005): 35. 26 Kwame Ameyaw Domfeh, Albert Ahenkan and Justice Nyigmah Bawole, “Is Sustainable Development Achievable in Ghana? An Analysis of Ghana’s Development Policy Achievements and Challenges,” Int. J. Environment and Sustainable Development 11, no. 3 (2012): 306. 27 B. O. Ahinkorah, J. E. Hagan Jr., A-A Seidu, T. Hormenu, J. E. Otoo, E. Budu, and T. Schack, “Linking Female Adolescents’ Knowledge, Attitudes and Use of Contraceptives to Adolescent Pregnancy in Ghana: A Baseline Data for Developing Sexuality Education Programmes,” Healthcare 9, no. 272 (2021): 2; https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare 9030272. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 7 work 28 give the impression that there is a gap between the massive penetration of Christianity in Ghana and its impact on the Ghanaian society. This apparent gap makes the study of the identity and mission of the congregations in Ghana important since the influence of the church on the world depends on a proper understanding of her identity and mission.29 The challenges of diversity and fragmentation as well as the issue of the impact of the churches in Ghana make it crucial to revisit the Bible, because all churches appeal to various sections of the New Testament ⸻ which include the Gospels, the Acts of the Apostles, the Pauline Epistles, the Letter to the Hebrews, the General or Catholic Epistles, and the Apocalypse of John ⸻ to find out how these texts project their identity and mission.30 Among many possible texts, the research focuses on the Apocalypse of John. This choice was based on the plethora of literary evidence found in the book. Among the 114 occurrences of evkklhsi,a in the New Testament, 20 is found in the Apocalypse of John, which is the third highest compared to 22 in 1 Corinthians and 23 in Acts.31 Inside the book of Revelation, it is worth noting that Rev. 2⸻3 is the only literary unit in the New Testament where the term occurs 15 times. The frequency of the term in the Apocalypse of John is noteworthy because repetition connotes emphasis. 28Anthony Sumnaya Kumasey, Justice Nyigmah Bawole, and Farhad Hossain, “Organizational Commitment of Public Service Employees in Ghana: Do Codes of Ethics Matter?,” International Review of Administrative Sciences 83, no. 1 (2017): 60. 29 Elizabeth Schüssler Fiorenza, “The Church’s Religious Identity and its Social and Political Mission,” Theological Studies 43, no. 2 (1982): 197. 30 Mark Allan Powell, Introducing the New Testament: A Historical, Literary and Theological Survey (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2009), 48-49. 31 The frequency of the term in the rest of the New Testament books: Matthew-3x, Romans-5x, 2 Corinthians- 9x, Galatians-3x, Ephesians-9x, Philippians-2x, Colossians-4x, 1 Thessalonians-2x, 2 Thessalonians-2x, 1 Timothy-3x, Philemon-1x, Hebrews-2x, James-1x, 3 John-3x. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 8 However, what contradistinguishes the book of Revelation is not only the high occurrence of the term but its strategic position. Not only did the book begin and end with reference to seven ‘churches’ in Asia who are its recipients (cf. 1:4; 22:16), but also it contains seven ‘letters’ (2⸻3) addressed to seven communities explicitly called ‘churches,’ to deal with concrete challenges arising from their historical context.32 The frequency of the term evkklhsi,a in the Apocalypse of John, the use of the term as an inclusion, and the fact that the book was addressed to seven communities explicitly called evkklhsi,a make it suitable for studying the identity and mission of the church. 1.2 Statement of the Problem Against this backdrop, the study examined the identity and mission of the evkklhsi,a through an exegetical and theological analysis of Rev. 2⸻3. The aim is to ascertain the features of the first communities of Jesus which serve as a benchmark for contemporary congregations in Ghana, considering their fragmentation, and conflicting orthodoxy and orthopraxy. 1.3 Research Questions The thesis was guided by a main research question and two secondary questions. The main question is: How does Rev. 2⸻3 present the identity and mission of the evkklhsi,a? The two subsidiary questions are: 32 Paul J. Achtemeier, Joel B. Green and Marianne Meye Thompson, Introducing the New Testament: Its Literature and Theology (Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2001), 556. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 9 a) Which rhetorical devices did the writer use to describe the characteristics of the evkklhsi,a? b) What was the perlocutionary effect of Rev. 2⸻3 on the original readers? 1.4 Literature Review The literature review is divided into two main sections. The first part focuses on the composition, literary genre, and function of Rev. 2—3 while the second part concentrates on the method employed in the analysis of the text, which is rhetorical criticism. 1.4.1 Composition of Revelation 2⸻3 The composition of Rev. 2⸻3 is one of the subjects that has attracted scholarly debates. Spitta argues that the literary unit is organized into seven distinct letters that were originally crafted and later added to the body of Revelation to its destination.33 Charles agrees with Spitta and adds that Rev. 2⸻3 represents separate letters that likely circulated near the end of Vespasian’s reign and were later edited into the book of Revelation.34 He argues that the letters were significantly edited to align their themes and motifs with Rev. 4⸻22 by a redactor. Ramsay concurs partially with Spitta and Charles. He admits that the letters existed separately from the rest of the book of Revelation. Nevertheless, he contends that the 33 Robert L. Muse, “Revelation 2⸻3: A Critical Analysis of the Seven Prophetic Messages,” JETS 29, no. 2 (June 1986): 147. 34 R. H. Charles, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Revelation of St. John (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1920), 37-47. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 10 messages in Rev. 2⸻3 were written together35 in the form of epistles that may have been influenced by the Pauline corpus.36 These redaction arguments, nonetheless, have been rejected by modern commentators. Muse disparages the redaction proposition by noting that key ancient letter elements like personal salutation and closing are clearly missing in the form contained in Rev. 2⸻3.37 For this reason, they are not letters and therefore they never existed separately prior to the writing of the book of Revelation. He adds that the proponents of the redaction argument have failed to provide evidence for the existence of any such collection of letters. Consequently, he concludes that it is very unlikely that Rev. 2⸻3 ever existed as a separate literary unit.38 Beasley-Murray subscribes to Muse’s hypothesis and explains that the hypothetical pre- edited letter forms would have been too short to be sent to the communities in case they ever existed separately. 39 Hemer shares the views of Muse and Beasley-Murray, and maintains that the general trend of the historical-critical study of the literary unit is opposed to the assertion that the seven messages were produced separately from the rest of the book.40 The researcher aligns with scholars like Muse, Beasley-Murray, and Hemer who hold that Rev. 2⸻3 has always been part of the book of Revelation because of the thematic unity between literary unit under study and the rest of the Apocalypse (4⸻22).41 35 W. Ramsay, The Letters to the Seven Churches (Minneapolis: James Family, 1978), 38-39. 36 Ramsay, The Letters, 38-39. 37 Muse, “Revelation 2⸻3,” 148. 38 Muse, “Revelation 2⸻3,” 149. 39 G. R. Beasley-Murray, The Book of Revelation (London: Oliphants, 1974), 70-72. 40 C. H. Hemer, A Study of the Letters to the Seven Churches of Asia with Special Reference to their Local Background (Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1969), 16-17. 41 Hemer, A Study of the Letters, 16. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 11 1.4.2 Literary Genre of Revelation 2⸻3 Like the composition, various scholars have different views on the literary genre of Rev. 2—3. The seven short messages have generally been referred to by scholars as ‘letters.’42 This opinion was shared by several scholars because of the literary evidence e.g., the instruction to ‘write’ to the churches, the content of the writings, etc. 43 For example, Ramsay maintains that Rev. 2⸻3 contains literary epistles that mirror the traditional Christian epistolary genre.44 Accordingly, he argues that they were influenced by the Pauline epistles.45 However, this viewpoint was not accepted by some scholars. Hadon contends that the letters in Rev. 2—3 are hymns written in seven-strophes46 and adds that they had a strong prophetic tone, like Amos 1—2. While many scholars including Lohmeyer, Kraft, Ford, Fiorenza, Swete, and Muse rejected this hypothesis, Hadon’s prophetic perspective on the literary unit was accepted and developed by Swete, Ford and Muse. Swete argues that the syntagm ta,de le,gei (“thus says;” 2:1, 8, 12, 18; 3:1, 7, 14) eliminates the notion that the messages in Rev. 2—3 are basically letters and replaces it with the idea that the two chapters are pronouncements or judgements on the churches.47 As a result, they are like the prophetic oracle of judgment in the Old Testament. 42 Muse, “Revelation 2⸻3,” 147. 43 Muse, “Revelation 2⸻3,” 147. 44 Ramsay, “The Letters,” 38-39. 45 Ramsay, “The Letters,” 38-39. 46 Muse, “Revelation 2⸻3,” 151. 47 H. B. Swete, The Apocalypse of St. John (London: MacMillan, 1911), 24. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 12 Ford concurs with Hadon and Swete but adds a new dimension to the prophetic nature of the textual unit. He classified them as ‘literary prophecy.’48 Therefore, he indicates that the two chapters are not real letters, but prophetic messages symbolized by the number seven, and directed to the church in Asia Minor in the first Christian century.49 Muse supports the prophetic view of the messages in Rev. 2—3. Nevertheless, he classified the seven messages into two main categories namely, warning of judgement messages and promise of salvation messages.50 Aune holds a unique perspective on the form of the messages in Rev. 2—3. He contends that the seven messages constitute a mixed genre that was created by the author.51 As such they belong to the literary genre called the royal or imperial edict while their mode is that of the prophetic form of speech called the parenetic salvation-judgement oracle.52 From the discussion above, it can be concluded that the messages found in Rev. 2—3 do not belong to a single literary genre. They possess characteristics of both the epistolary tradition, the prophetic tradition, and royal decrees. 1.4.3 Function of Revelation 2⸻3 Another aspect of Rev. 2—3 that scholars disagree on is the function the literary unit plays in the Apocalypse. Popkes contends that the seven messages of Rev. 2—3 are John’s hermeneutical preparation and instruction for the Christian communities in Asia Minor regarding the 48 J. Massygbede Ford, Revelation (New York: Doubleday), 373. 49 Ford, Revelation, 373. 50 Muse, “Revelation 2⸻3,” 155. 51 D. E. Aune, “The Form and Function of the Proclamations to the Seven Churches” New Testament Studies 36, no. 2 (1990): 182-204. 52 Aune, “The Form and Function,” 182. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 13 ‘future’ apocalypse found in Rev. 4—22.53 He points out that the exhortation to listen to the messages is anchored in the apocalyptic and wisdom tradition of the Old Testament and links Rev. 2—3 to the synoptic parable tradition.54 Based on this assertion, he concludes that the text has an apocalyptic function. This view was, nonetheless, challenged by several scholars because it fails to take into consideration the prophetic character of the seven messages. Ford insists that the literary unit is prophetic in nature.55 As a result, its primary function is prophetic exhortation and critical evaluation. 56 Fee and Stuart concur with Ford and maintain that the combined tone of criticism, comfort and consolation, aimed at the churches themselves, seem to tie the messages more closely to prophetic or pastoral functions than apocalyptic or wisdom or parable traditions. 57 As such, the messages function as prophetic exhortations to the churches. Dodd agrees with the proponents of the prophetic function of the messages. He notes that the emphatic demand for repentance and or faithfulness sets the messages closer to the judgment tradition of the prophets.58 For this reason, even if the exhortation to listen sets the messages in the wisdom-parable tradition, it should be seen as a subordinate role in the messages, which serves a more fundamental prophetic motif. 53 Muse, “Revelation 2⸻3,” 160. 54 Muse, “Revelation 2⸻3,” 160. 55 Ford, Revelation, 375. 56 Ford, Revelation, 375. 57 G. D. Fee and D. Stuart, How to Read the Bible for All Its Worth (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1982), 208. 58 C. H. Dodd, The Parables of the Kingdom (New York: Scribners, 1961). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 14 However, Decker argues that the numerous allusions to various portions of the Old Testament in the messages found in Rev. 2—3 underscore their covenantal nature, which aims at encouraging the churches to remain faithful to Jesus, their covenant King.59 As a result, John emphasizes the covenant status of the churches with God to inspire them to be loyal to Jesus. He concludes that the messages in Rev. 2—3 have a pastoral motif.60 The review of literature above informed the researcher that the messages in Rev. 2—3 have two main functions in the book of Revelation. First, the literary unit functions as the hermeneutical preparation for God’s later revelation in Rev. 4—22. Secondly, the specific messages in the text understudy function as exhortations to these communities to remain faithful to Jesus through warning of judgment and promise of salvation, contingent on the peculiarities of each local church situation. This function aided the researcher in determining the method employed in analysing the text, which is rhetorical criticism since it focusses on the persuasive elements of a text as the next section explores. 1.4.4 Method: Rhetorical Criticism The study used rhetorical criticism to analyse the rhetorical features and the structural elements of the literary unit to reach an informed understanding of the text. The origin of rhetoric can be traced to Aristotle. Rhetoric was an efficacious means of persuasive communication among the Greeks.61 Subsequently, it was deemed inferior to 59 Timothy L. Decker, “Faithfulness to Christ as Covenant Fidelity: The Pastoral Purpose behind the Old Testament Allusions in the Seven Messages of Revelation 2—3,” Andrews University Seminary Studies 55, no. 2 (2017): 1. 60 Decker, “Faithfulness to Christ,” 1. 61 Patricia K. Tull, “Rhetorical Criticism and Intertextuality,” in To Each its Own Meaning: Introduction to Biblical Criticisms and their Application, ed. Stephen R. Haynes and Steven L. McKenzie (Westminster: John Knox Press, 1999), 156. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 15 scientific language because it was understood as describing the subjective stylistic qualities of language.62 Kennedy argues that Aristotle’s rhetoric describes human communication which is a common phenomenon although he uses peculiar examples from Greek city- state.63 For this reason, it is applicable to the study of speech or text in other parts of the world which have cultures that are diverse from Greek culture.64 Cathcart defines it as “the conscious use of language and other symbols by a communicator to impact or convince recipients to act, believe, or feel the way the communicator desires in challenging situations.”65 In the same vein, Kennedy explains rhetoric as the mark of a discourse that helps the speaker or writer to accomplish his purposes.66 Furthermore, Russell defines it as the ability to know how to convince on a topic or an issue.67 Kennedy identified three types of rhetoric based on the works of Aristotle which encompass judicial rhetoric, deliberative rhetoric, and epideictic rhetoric. 68 Judicial rhetoric is used when an author or speaker seeks to persuade an audience to make a judgment about events occurring in the past. 69 It is usually employed in defence and apologetic speeches. Deliberative rhetoric is used when a writer or speaker seeks to persuade his audience or readers to take some action in the future.70 It is employed in exhorting people to a particular course of action that is of interest to the author. Epideictic 62 Tull, “Rhetorical Criticism and Intertextuality,” 157. 63 George A. Kennedy, New Testament Interpretation through Rhetorical Criticism (Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 1984), 10. 64 Kennedy, New Testament Interpretation, 10. 65 Robert Cathcart, Post-Communication: Rhetorical Analysis and Evaluation, 2nd ed. (Indianapolis: Bobbs Merrill, 1981), 2. 66 Kennedy, New Testament Interpretation, 3. 67 Godfred Nsiah, “Living in an Eschatological Anticipation: An Exegetical Study of 1 Thess. 4:1-5:11” (PhD Thesis, University of Ghana, 2018), 20, http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh/handle/123456789/28967 68 Kennedy, New Testament Interpretation, 19. 69 Kennedy, New Testament Interpretation, 19. 70 Kennedy, New Testament Interpretation, 3. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 16 rhetoric is used when the speaker or writer seeks to persuade the audience to hold or reaffirm some point of view in the present by celebrating or denouncing some person or some quality.71 Epideictic rhetoric focusses on a change of attitude or deepening of values that are good and honourable. In the Bible, it focusses on belief or faith. These species are applicable to all discourse albeit they specifically refer to the circumstances of classical civic oratory. Rhetorical analysis has been defined by Cathcart as “a qualitative research method that is configured for systematically investigating and exploring symbolic acts and artefacts with the aim of understanding the rhetorical processes that make a message effective.” 72 Kennedy also insist that Rhetorical criticism involves the examination of the final form of a text with reference to the author’s goal and how the audience of his time would understand it.73 He maintains that although the method can be engaged for varied reasons its main goal is to understand the effect of texts on the readers.74 Tate, who concurs with Kennedy, explain it as a form of literary criticism that focuses on the communication between an author and a reader through an analysis of the strategies employed by an author to influence a reader’s view or shape a reader’s response.75 Scholars, both in Old Testament and the New Testament studies, have employed rhetorical analysis in their exegesis since its inception including Muilenburg, Trible, Lundbom, Kirby, DeSilva, and Kennedy. Trible anchored her use of this method on Muilenburg’s 71 Kennedy, New Testament Interpretation, 3. 72 Cathcart, Post-Communication, 4. 73 Kennedy, New Testament Interpretation, 33. 74 Kennedy, New Testament Interpretation, 33. 75 W. Randolph Tate, Biblical Interpretation: An Integrated Approach, 3rd ed. (Peabody: Hendrickson Publications, 2008), 286. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 17 proposition that effective communication of meaning depends on proper articulation of form and content.76 She applied the method to the study of Job. In her view, rhetorical criticism primarily focuses on an intrinsic reading of the text. As a result, she emphasizes an attentive reading of the text with emphasis on their form and content. Trible argues that in the use of rhetorical analysis, the interpreter must pay attention to the beginning and ending of the text as well as features such as the repetition of words, phrases, and sentences; types of discourse whether narrative, epistle, or apocalyptic, design, portrayal of characters, syntax, and particles among others.77 The method has also been employed to study the Apocalypse of John by scholars including Kirby and DeSilva since its goal synchronizes with the nature of the book. Kennedy contends that the New Testament authors communicated their message with the view of convincing their audience to believe it.78 In view of this, they are rhetorical, and can be studied using rhetorical criticism. He applied the three species of rhetoric to the study of texts in the gospels and the Pauline corpus. He delineates a method for doing rhetorical analysis which consist of six steps.79 The first step involves the determination of the rhetorical unit of the text to be examined. This includes setting the boundaries of the text: where the text begins and ends. It is also called the delimitation of the text. 76 Phyllis Trible, Rhetorical Criticism: Context, Method, and the Book of Jonah (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1994). 77 Nsiah, “Living in an Eschatological Anticipation,’’ 37. 78 Kennedy, New Testament Interpretation, 3. 79 Kennedy, New Testament Interpretation, 33-38. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 18 The second step entails defining the rhetorical situation of the literary unit. It focusses on what was happening at the time the author composed the text. There are four universal factors in any rhetorical situation: the speaker or writer, the audience, the discourse and the occasion or context in which the work is composed or delivered. All these factors make the communication effective and must be carefully investigated in the interpretative process. The third step is the identification of the rhetorical problem, namely the overarching problem in the context that the author seeks to address by the speech or text. Out of the many rhetorical situations, the speaker may focus on one main rhetorical problem that may be particularly visible in the discourse. Step four deals with determining the type or species (judicial, deliberative, or epideictic) of rhetoric employed by a text. The rhetorical species help the exegete to establish the emphasis of a work and the intent of the author. The fifth stage involves considering the arrangement of material in the text in terms of its subdivisions, persuasive effect of the parts, their coordination, devices of style, etc. It consists of the actual analysis of the various compositional structural elements of the text: the words, phrases, clauses, key expressions, and grammar using the appropriate tools for biblical research. The goal is to identify the rhetorical functions of these elements and how they contribute to achieving the author’s persuasive purpose. The sixth step encompasses a review of the process of analysis by looking back over the entire unit and reviewing its success in addressing the rhetorical situation and what the implications may be for the speaker or audience. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 19 From the discussion above, it can be concluded that texts are written to elicit specific responses from their readers.80 Towards this end, authors use specific rhetorical devices which must be examined to discover the intended meaning of a text. In view of this, the research employed rhetorical criticism in studying Rev. 2⸻3 since it is persuasive in nature. The writer seeks to persuade the communities to take specific actions (deliberative rhetoric) or hold or reaffirm a particular point of view (epideictic rhetoric). 1.5 Theoretical Framework The research was guided by Holladay’s Theological Conversation model. He asserts that theology in a general sense is a conversation about God based on an ongoing conversation humans have with God.81 It has three main dimensions namely, having a theology, doing a theology, and living a theology. The process of formulating our theological beliefs fall under the second dimension, which is doing theology. This process is called theological reflection. According to Holladay: Christian theological reflection results when interpreters, either an individual believer or a community of believers, engage in conversation with a sacred text and tradition, broadly construed, in order to make sense of, and give formal expression to, their experience and understanding of “God at work in Christ” within a specific context.82 In view of this, he argues that theological sense-making involves the interplay of several distinct elements. The components include the text, tradition, context or setting, interpreter, and catalyst. 80 Kennedy, New Testament Interpretation, 33. 81 Carl R. Holladay, Critical Introduction to the New Testament: Interpreting the Message and Meaning of Jesus Christ (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 2005), 13. 82 Holladay, Critical Introduction, 19. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 20 Holladay defines a text as a written document that has come to be regarded as uniquely normative by a community of faith.83 In this regard, the text in the Christian domain refers to both the Tanak and the New Testament. He notes that tradition refers to the re-readings of the text by successive communities.84 He maintains, however, that it may also extend beyond the text. Examples include the Talmud, which is a collection of rabbinic interpretations of the Jewish scriptures, commentaries, articles, sermons, books, stories, and liturgies. Holladay posits that the context of theological reflection can be construed either broadly or narrowly. The broad characterization of the context refers to all the elements that define a given society: time and place as well as the political, social, economic, and religious circumstances. 85 He points out that a narrow characterization of context connotes a recognizable social setting that is usually defined by an institutional structure.86 Examples include the family, government, economy, education, and religion. He argues that context influences theological reflection in two main ways. First, it determines the kind of theological reflection that is carried out. Second, it gives a unique identity to the theological-sense-making done in it. The catalyst refers to what triggers or provokes the theological sense-making. He argues that both crises and good experiences can be the catalyst that sparks theological reflection. However, Jesus Christ is the ‘chief catalyst’ in Christian theological reflection, whose 83 Holladay, Critical Introduction, 14. 84 Holladay, Critical Introduction, 15. 85 Holladay, Critical Introduction, 16. 86 Holladay, Critical Introduction, 16. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 21 special mission is to understand how God has been revealed and experienced in the world through Jesus Christ.87 Holladay posits that the centre of theological reflection is the ‘I-Thou’ dialogue that takes place between the believer and God. It is the believer who desires to understand how God is present and active in the world through the person of Jesus Christ and communicate it in contemporary language. He maintains that the interpreter plays a very creative role in the process, because it is the interpreter who engages in theological sense-making by bringing all the other elements together and casts them into profound theological language.88 He contends, in view of the above, that a theological reflection carries the ‘stamp’ of the interpreter. The interpreter’s image is reflected in the theology because it passes through his or her faith.89 In conclusion, this model emphasizes the essential elements needed for a meaningful theological reflection namely: text, tradition, context, or setting, interpreter and catalyst; their interaction plays a crucial role in theological reflection. Thus, the need to effectively engage them to arrive at an informed understanding of the text. Considering the above, the researcher finds the model appropriate because it allows for a detailed analysis of the historical context, grammatical and linguistic components, rhetorical devices in the text; to explore how they contributed to shape the identity and mission of the church in Rev. 2⸻3. 87 Holladay, Critical Introduction, 22. 88 Holladay, Critical Introduction, 17. 89 Holladay, Critical Introduction, 17. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 22 1.6 Methodology Holladay’s theological conversation model guided the research. As a result, the study proceeded in two steps namely, analysis of the text and theological synthesis. The analysis of the text employed the six-step method proposed by Kennedy90 to discover the perlocutionary effect of the text on the original readers. To reach this aim, the researcher investigated the rhetorical devices the author used to describe the characteristic of the evkklhsi,a. The second step is the theological synthesis. The purpose is the identification of the characteristics (identity and mission) of the evkklhsi,a in the literary unit. 1.7 Organization of the Research The study is organized into five chapters. The first chapter addressed all the introductory issues of the research including the background to the study, statement of the problem, research questions, literature review, theoretical framework, methodology and organization of the chapters. Chapter two to chapter four focused on the exegetical and theological analysis of Rev. 2⸻3. Chapter two elaborated the determination of the rhetorical unit, the discussion of the rhetorical situation and the rhetorical problem, determination of the rhetorical species, and the discussion of the rhetorical structure of the text. Chapter three dealt with the actual analysis of Rev. 2:1-17, which comprises the messages to the churches in Ephesus, Smyrna, and Pergamum. It examined the verbal systems used 90 Kennedy, New Testament Interpretation, 33-38. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 23 in the composition of the literary unit, the syntax, the grammar, the rhetorical devices, and expressions employed by the author in communicating his message as well as their pragmatic effect on the hearers. The fourth chapter provides the actual analysis of Rev. 2:18⸻3:22, the messages to the churches in Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia, and Laodicea. It also highlights the key features of the evkklhsi,a with reference to its identity and mission and concludes with a reflection on contemporary Christian communities in Ghana. Chapter five presents a summary of the study, a conclusion of the findings of the research, and recommendations for further study of the text and for contemporary Christian communities in Ghana. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 24 CHAPTER TWO THE BACKGROUND ISSUES OF REVELATION 2⸻3 2.1 Introduction This chapter investigates the background issues of Rev. 2―3 following the steps proposed by Kennedy for Rhetorical Criticism. They include the analysis of the rhetorical situation, the determination of the rhetorical unit, the identification of the rhetorical problem, the discussion of the rhetorical species of the text understudy, and the rhetorical structure that guides the analyses of the text. This chapter is, therefore, a preparation towards the actual analysis of the text and contributes significantly to the understanding of the rhetorical elements of the text and how they help shape the identity and mission of the seven communities in the book of Revelation. 2.2 The Rhetorical Situation The rhetorical situation focusses on the specific context of a literary unit; it examines the persons, events, and relations involved in a particular discourse as well as the time and place. 91 Against this backdrop, this section discusses the overview of the book of Revelation, the nature of the Christian communities that received the book, their relationship with the Jewish community, and issues affecting their life. 91 Kennedy, New Testament Interpretation, 35. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 25 2.2.1 Overview of the Book of Revelation This section discusses the authorship, the historical background, and the structure of the book. Although the book of Revelation specifically identifies its author as ‘John’ (cf. 1:1, 4, 9), different scholars hold unique perspectives on his identity. While some scholars assert that ‘John’ was the apostle of Jesus Christ and the author of the fourth gospel, others hold that he was an elder in the early church. Furthermore, some hold that he was a prophet in one of the churches mentioned in the book of Revelation while others still think ‘John’ is a pseudonym for an unknown figure. The proponents of the first hypothesis maintain that the author of the book is an apostle,92 John the son of Zebedee.93 This view originates from comments made by church fathers in the second and third centuries like Justin Martyr (ca. 165), Irenaeus (ca. 200) and Clement of Alexandria (ca. 215).94 Some modern scholars find this position convincing for the following reasons. First, it was held by the early church consisting of people who lived in the churches addressed; for example, it is believed that Justin lived in the church in Ephesus while Irenaeus sojourned in Smyrna.95 Accordingly, the apostolic authorship might be the preserved tradition about the author in those congregations. However, it is worth noting that the writer does not claim apostolic authority (cf. 21:14) and has a Hellenistic background: for example, the love for the city (cf. 17―18; 20―21) and the description of 92 Gonzalo Rojas-Flores, “The Book of Revelation and the First Years of Nero’s Reign,” Biblica 85, no. 3 (2004): 375, https://www.jstor.org/stable/42614530. 93 Rojas-Flores, “The Book of Revelation,” 375. 94 Craig R. Koester, Revelation: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary, ed. John J. Collins (The Anchor Yale Bible Commentary, 38A; New Haven: Yale University Press, 2014), 66. 95 Koester, Revelation, 66. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 26 the temple (cf. 21:21b-22; 3:12). Second, the adherents who hold that the fourth gospel was written by John insist that there are theological and literary similarities between the book of Revelation and the fourth gospel.96 The second hypothesis contends that the name ‘John’ as indicated in the book is a pseudonym. It originates from the early church because some of the people objected to the content of the book and they intended to discredit it by proffering that it was written under a false name.97 A more relevant reason in favour of this hypothesis is the literary genre of the book, apocalyptic, which usually indicates pseudonymous authors.98 For example, while Jewish apocalypses like Daniel, 1 Enoch, 4 Ezra, and 2 Baruch are written under the names of figures from Israel’s history, Christian apocalypses such as the Apocalypse of Peter (second century) and Apocalypse of Paul (fourth century) were ascribed to apostles.99 Therefore, the book of Revelation was written in the name of John the apostle to give it apostolic authority.100 The third hypothesis postulates that the Apocalypse of John was written by an elder called John. The proponents argue that the book was not written by John the beloved disciple (John 20: 20-24) but by ‘the elder’ who wrote 1 and 2 John.101 These hypotheses notwithstanding, there is a fourth view that maintains that the identity of the author must be ascertained mainly from the book itself: the author introduced himself 96 Leon Morris, Revelation (Tyndale New Testament Commentaries; Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1987), 27-35. 97 For example, St. Augustine notes that his spirit cannot bear with the book. 98 Achtemeier, Green, and Thompson, Introducing the New Testament, 585. 99 Achtemeier, Green, and Thompson, Introducing the New Testament, 585. 100 Koester, Revelation, 66. 101 Hugo Méndez, “Did the Johannine Community Exist?,” Journal for the Study of the New Testament 42, no. 3 (2020): 360-366; doi/pdf/10.1177/0142064X19890490. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 27 as John (1:1, 4, 9); he was a Christian prophet (1:3; 22:18-19) who was active among the prophets in Asia Minor (22:9-10). He is also acquainted with the Jewish Scriptures because he quotes or alludes to them 500 times in 440 verses and has knowledge of Hebrew (9:11; 16:16). In addition, he does not compromise regarding eating food sacrificed to Greco- Roman deities (2:14, 20). The researcher finds this last hypothesis more convincing since it is based on evidence from the book itself and it is confirmed also by the scholarly view on the date of composition. Although Koester argues that the book of Revelation is best situated between 80-100 CE,102 several commentators date it more precisely at the latter years of the reign of the Roman Emperor Domitian (81-96 CE).103 In this period, Asia Minor was colonized by Rome and thus marked by imperial rule104 which led to the worship of the emperors; prayers to the emperor, sacrifices for him, and expected intercession on behalf of the empire by the emperor.105 The imperial cult is believed to have started with Augustus in the late first century BCE, who granted divine status to the ruling emperor, and sometimes to members of his family, in death and even in life.106 Consequently, cities competed to gain the Roman Senate’s approval to build temples for the emperor or his family for which they were granted the title neokoros, or “temple warden of the imperial cult.”107 During the reign of Domitian, the city of Ephesus built the temple of Sebastoi and, therefore, became the first city to receive the title of neokoros. Pergamum followed a 102 Koester, Revelation, 79. 103 Achtemeier, Green, and Thompson, Introducing the New Testament, 572. 104 S. R. F. Price, Rituals and Power: The Roman Imperial Cult in Asia Minor (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), 250-65. 105 Powell, Introducing the New Testament, 532. 106 Price, Rituals and Power, 250-65. 107 Price, Rituals and Power, 250-65. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 28 decade later.108 By the end of the first century, the imperial cult was present in each of the seven cities addressed in the book of Revelation, either with a temple or an altar. The emperor was also connected with the gods and sometimes presented as a god himself. In view of this, many of the coins in use carried the portrait of the emperor, often depicted as Zeus, Apollo, or Hercules.109 According to Winter, “the imperial cult temples and their precincts were strategically located in the public domain; in or near the agora, the place where inhabitants engaged… in commercial, cultural, judicial, administrative activities.”110 Although participation in the imperial cults was not strictly imposed, lack of participation made life difficult because it was a significant part of civic life in Asia Minor.111 Also, failure to participate connotes lack of commitment both to the empire and to the protective powers of the imperial leader.112 Further, the region was characterized by a proliferation of cults that honoured gods and goddesses which were believed to oversee governance, education, family life, commerce, and worship,113 and a constellation of deities were associated with the seven cities named in Revelation, although one or two may be dominant in the city. For example, the goddess Artemis was associated with the city of Ephesus114 while the mother goddess, Cybele, was 108 Steven J. Friesen 2001, Imperial Cults and the Apocalypse of John: Reading Revelation in the Ruins (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), 46. 109 Adela Yarbro Collins, “The Book of Revelation,” in The Encyclopaedia of Apocalypticism: The Origins of Apocalypticism in Judaism and Christianity, ed. John J. Collins (New York: Continuum, 2000), 1: 397. 110 Bruce W. Winter, Divine Honours for the Caesars: The First Christians’ Responses (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2015), 11. 111 Yarbro Collins, “The Book of Revelation,” 397. 112 Wes Howard-Brook and Anthony Gwyther, Unveiling Empire: Reading Revelation Then and Now (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis, 1999), 103. 113 Steven J. Friesen, “Revelation, Realia, and Religion,” HTR 88 (1995): 299. 114 Morna D. Hooker, “Artemis of Ephesus,” The Journal of Theological Studies 64, no. 1 (April 2013): 37. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 29 associated with Smyrna.115 The author agrees with this specific date since internal evidence supports the presence of the imperial cult (cf. 13:4-8, 15-16; 14:9-11; 15:2; 16:2; 19:20; 20:4). Finally, concerning the structure of the book, it is generally divided by scholars into three sections. They include introduction (Chap. 1), letters to seven churches (Chaps. 2⸻3) and visions of the future (Chaps. 4⸻22).116 The study focusses on the second section: the ‘letters’ to the seven churches (Chaps. 2⸻3). 2.2.2 The Nature of the Christian Community in Asia Minor The book of Revelation was written to specific Christian communities located in Asia Minor (cf. 1:4; 2:1, 8, 12). Internal evidence suggests that the Christian communities were constituted by people from different ethnicities (5:9; 7:9), both Jews and Gentiles even though the Gentiles were the majority.117 The Christian communities had some common beliefs and practices.118 They believe that God is eternal, just and the creator of the world (1:8; 4:11; 6:10; 15:3-4); that Jesus is the anointed Messiah of God who witnessed about God’s kingdom and was crucified to redeem all people (5:9-10; 7:14; 11:8, 15).119 Furthermore, they hold that Jesus is now alive (1:5, 17-18) and will return (22:20). Koester posits that evidence in the book suggests that the communities apparently met as house churches on the first day of the week for worship, which is characterized by prayers 115 W. M. Ramsay, “Newly Discovered Sites near Smyrna,” The Journal of Hellenic Studies 1 (1880): 63, https://www.jstor.org/stable/623614. 116 Robert L. Thomas, Revelation 1⸻7: An Exegetical Commentary (Chicago: Moody Press, 1992), 11. 117 Koester, Revelation, 87. 118 Koester, Revelation, 112. 119 Koester, Revelation, 112. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 30 of thanksgiving, intercession, hymns of praise (cf. 5:8-10; 8:3-4; 15:3-4) and the reading of Scripture (1:3).120 The disciples were also expected to obey “the commandments of God” (12:17), which include worshiping God, staying away from idolatry, and avoiding practices like sorcery, murder, theft, sexual immorality, and deception (9:20-21; 19:10; 21:8, 27; 22:9, 15).121 In addition to the beliefs and practices of the communities, they were expected to live as witnesses of the kingdom of God. According to Koester, witnessing in the book of Revelation connotes living out one’s faith, especially in situations where there is uncertainty or disagreement.122 Nonetheless, the risk of witnessing is evident in the fate of Antipas and others who were slain because of their parrhesia (cf. 2:13; 6:9; 13:8). Thus, steadfastness can provoke conflict and subsequently death. It is important to note that the members of the communities had different perception of the Christian identity and relationship with society, often in contrast with the radical position of John.123 Although these communities have common beliefs and practices, there were also subgroups that developed their own sense of identity; the groups include the Nicolaitans (2:6, 15), those who subscribe to the doctrine of Balaam (2:14) and the followers of Jezebel (2:20).124 120 Koester, Revelation, 86. 121 Koester, Revelation, 86. 122 Koester, Revelation, 87. 123 Paul Trebilco, The Early Christians in Ephesus from Paul to Ignatius (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2004), 335-42. 124 Powell, Introducing the New Testament, 533-534. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 31 2.2.3 Relationship between the Christian Community and the Jewish Community One of the groups of people in Asia Minor that the Christian communities interacted with were the Jews. Although the Jews preserved a greater sense of distinctiveness, they also integrated well into the Greco-Roman society.125 The Jewish communities possessed their own sacred scriptures, worshiped the God of Israel, and rejected the polytheistic religions that were prevalent in their environment.126 They worship in the synagogues and were forbidden from consuming food dedicated to pagan deities by Jewish tradition. Circumcision, kosher cuisine, and Sabbath observance 127 distinguished them from the popular traditions in Greco-Roman cities. However, they spoke Greek, took part in various trades and commerce,128 engaged in professional organizations with non-Jewish members, and some had Roman citizenship. The Christian communities addressed by Revelation shared certain features of Jewish identity since Christianity evolved from the Jewish religion. They worshipped the Israelite God, believed in the Jewish Scriptures, and observed God’s commandments listed in the Torah.129 In spite of this, the book attests to tension between the two communities which climaxed in active persecution of the disciples (3:8-9). 2.2.4 The Issues Affecting the Christian Community in the Greco-Roman World Roman occupation of Asia Minor posed three categories of challenges for the Christian communities addressed in the book of Revelation namely; conflict with outsiders, 125 John M. G. Barclay, Jews in the Mediterranean Diaspora from Alexander to Trajan (323BCE- 117CE) (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clarke, 1996), 259-81, 320-35. 126 Koester, Revelation, 92. 127 Koester, Revelation, 92. 128 Koester, Revelation, 92 129 Koester, Revelation, 92. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 32 assimilation, and complacency.130 It is worth noting that different scholars prioritize one dimension over the others; while some scholars emphasize Roman oppression, others underscore disputes within the Christian community.131 This notwithstanding, Koester’s classification provides an adequate understanding of the issues facing the churches in the Apocalypse of John. 2.2.4.1 Conflict with Outsiders Koester notes that some of the Christian communities experienced persecution, which was local and sporadic but had the capacity to destroy their faith.132 It is noteworthy that the persecution originated from both Jews and Gentiles (cf. 2:9; 6:9-10). For example, the church in Philadelphia experienced conflict in the form of verbal harassment from Jews who were members of a local synagogue. 133 The tension might derive from certain Christological claims being made by the churches which might seem blasphemous to Jews.134 It is also likely that the Jewish Christians were pressured to deny the name of Jesus to continue to be part of the Jewish community (cf. 3:8-9). However, the greater level of persecution came from the Roman authorities. 135 For example, the church in Smyrna was persecuted by the Roman authorities due to the church’s rejection of Roman polytheism and the proclamation of Jesus as Lord.136 The presence of persecution is further supported by the execution of Antipas, who was a witness of Jesus Christ in the church in Pergamum (2:13). In the visions of 4–22, the imperial power 130 Koester, Revelation, 96. 131 Koester, Revelation, 96. 132 Koester, Revelation, 96. 133 Koester, Revelation, 97. 134 Koester, Revelation, 97. 135 Koester, Revelation, 97. 136 Koester, Revelation, 98. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 33 is portrayed as a beast that kills the disciples and Roman Empire as ‘Babylon,’ the whore, who drinks the blood of the believers (17:6; 18:24). 2.2.4.2 Assimilation and Greco-Roman Religions Assimilation refers to the degree to which the Christians adopted non-Christian behaviours while remaining committed to their own faith.137 According to Collins, this adaptation was significant because it allowed Christians to retain positive social and business relationships with non-Christians.138 One of the key issues the early community had to deal with was the question of consuming food that has been sacrificed to the gods. Although John rejected the practice, the Nicolaitans and the adherents of the doctrine of Balaam and Jezebel practiced it (cf. 2:6, 14-15, 20).139 Christians encounter meat offered to idols at different times and on different occasions such as religious festivals which involve sacrifices, private meals of families or associations where people are invited to dine in honour of a god,140 and meals shared by members of trade and professional associations in events that honour various gods and deified emperors. In addition, sacrificial meat that was not consumed by worshipers was sold alongside meat from other sources in public markets (cf. 1 Cor. 8; 10:23-33). It is worth noting that refusing to join in such meals could make life socially and financially difficult for the Christians (13:16-17). Because of this, some may wish to partake in private dinners to retain relationships with family, friends, and business associates, despite the risk 137 Koester, Revelation, 99. 138 Adela Yarbro Collins, Crisis and Catharsis (Philadelphia: The Westminster Press, 1984), 88. 139 Koester, Revelation, 96. 140 Wendell Lee Willis, Idol Meat in Corinth: The Pauline Argument in 1 Corinthians 8 and 10 (SBLDS 68; Chico, CA: Scholars, 1985), 40-42. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 34 of appearing to worship other gods.141 Nevertheless, John firmly opposed the consumption of food offered to a Greco-Roman deity because he associates idolatry with demonic power (2:20, 24; 9:20). 2.2.4.3 Complacency and Wealth The attitude of complacency that emerges from prosperity is another issue facing the Christian communities.142 The situation in the Laodicean church is a classic example; its members were wealthy and prosperous, but the congregation’s faith commitment had waned (3:17). The prosperity of some of the Christian communities depended on trade in items including metal and leather goods, textiles, wine, grain, and slaves in the Roman empire because of imperial rule.143 Trade in the Roman empire was supported by the good road system and assurance of safety on the sea.144 For this reason, Rome is celebrated for its ability to provide unprecedented prosperity through trade. Interestingly, John was highly critical of the prosperity of the Laodiceans because they use dishonest and self-serving means to acquire wealth, since the wealthy had special privileges or favours in the Roman empire.145 Furthermore, the quest for riches undermines the Christian community’s cohesiveness by prioritizing trade-based connections above faith- 141 Koester, Revelation, 99. 142 J. Nelson Kraybill, Imperial Cult and Commerce in John’s Apocalypse (JSNT Sup 132; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1996), 25-31. 143 Achtemeier, Green, and Thompson, Introducing the New Testament, 566. 144 Koester, Revelation, 102. 145 Koester, Revelation, 102. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 35 based relationships, and it also draws people into participating in the imperial cult and idolatry.146 2.3 The Determination of the Rhetorical Unit The rhetorical unit denotes the text’s borders and literary traits that distinguish it as a literary unit.147 It marks the beginning and the end of a literary unit. It is worth noting that scholars unanimously agree that the literary unit under consideration ends in chapter 3:22. This agreement stems from the fact that 4:1 begins the second section of the book (4―22) which primarily constitute future visions that are apocalyptic in outlook.148 This vision motif is evident in the repetition of the phrase “after these things I looked” (meta. tau/ta ei=don), which shows a shift from one vision to another. They are found in 5:1 (“then I saw”), 6:1 (“now I watched”), 7:1, 9 (“after this I saw”), 10:1 (“then I saw”), 13:1, 11 (“and I saw”), 14:1 (“then I looked”), 15:1 (“then I saw”), 18:1 (“after this I saw”), 20:1 (“then I saw”), and 21:1 (“then I saw”). This apocalyptic nature of the visions differentiates this section of the book from Rev. 2―3. However, scholars hold three main views on the beginning of the rhetorical unit. The first perspective states that the literary unit begins from 2:4. One of the proponents of this view is Brown. He observes that Rev. 1:4―3:22 forms one literary unit which can be identified 146 Koester, Revelation, 103. 147 Kennedy, New Testament Interpretation, 33. 148 They are universal and dualistic in perspective, portray a dissatisfaction with the present and divine sovereignty (a violent God), focus on the unseen world and the future (world to come), indicate eschatological timetable (eschaton, end-time conflict, tribulation) and highly symbolic. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 36 as letters to the seven churches,149 and maintains that 1:4-5a constitutes an epistolary introductory formula that begins the letters to the seven Christian communities (2―3).150 Scholars like Koester and Osborne propose that the literary unit begins from 1:9 and ends in 3:22. Osborne observes that 1:9―3:22 constitute the first major section of the Apocalypse and centres on the churches that are addressed in the book. 151 Koester opines that the Apocalypse of John consists of six vision cycles that are sandwiched by a prologue and an epilogue.152 He posits that the first vision constitutes 1:9―3:22 of which the text understudy is a part. He indicates that the first cycle encompasses a vision of the glorified Christ, who commands John to write to seven churches. The cycle concludes with a vision of Christ standing and knocking at a closed door (3:20-22), which serves as a preparation for the next cycle of visions where John saw God’s heavenly throne room through an open door (4:1- 2).153 In view of this, he concludes that Rev. 1:9―3:22 forms a single literary unit. The third perspective holds that Rev. 2:1―3:22 form a single literary unit. This hypothesis is held by scholars like Mounce, Aune and DeSilva. Mounce maintains that the letters to the seven churches of Asia form a distinct unit.154 The researcher aligns with the third hypothesis because of the presence of a plethora of literary features that make the unit unique. 149 Raymond E. Brown, An Introduction to the New Testament (New Haven - London: Yale University Press, 2016), 276-277. 150 Brown, An Introduction to the New Testament, 276-277. 151 Grant R. Osborne, Revelation (Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament; Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2002), 77. 152 Koester, Revelation, 112. 153 Koester, Revelation, 112. 154 Robert H. Mounce, The New International Commentary on the New Testament: The Book of Revelation, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids, Michigan: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co.,1998), 73. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 37 First, the messages consist of stereotypical features that distinguish the literary unit from the other sections in the book.155 They include: an address, a self-presentation of the Risen Lord, a judgement section, an exhortation, an appeal to listen to the Spirit, and a promise.156 Second, the literary unit contains repetitive expressions within these six stereotypical features that distinguish it. In the address section, the author repeats the phrase “to the angel of the church in Ephesus write” (tw/| avgge,lw| th/j evn VEfe,sw| evkklhsi,aj gra,yon ) in all the seven messages (2:8a,12a,18a; 3:1a,7a,14a). The only variation in this phrase is the name of the city in which the Christian community is located. Also, the author introduces an ‘and’ (kai,) at the beginning of the second message through to the last message. Thus, the author indicates a continuation of the messages with the last being the message to the church in Laodicea (3:14a). Therefore, the unity of the literary unit is underscored. Further, the author repeats the syntagm ‘thus says’ (ta,de le,gei) in the self-presentation of the Risen Lord (2:1b, 12b, 18b; 3:1b, 7b, 14b), the knowledge formular “I know your works” (oi=da ta. e;rga sou) and the indictment formular “but I have this against you” (avlla. e;cw kata. sou/) in the judgement section (2:2-4, 9, 13-15, 19-20; 3:1c, 8, 15), the entire hearing formular “he who has an ear, let him hear what the Spirit says to the churches” (~O e;cwn ou=j avkousa,tw ti, to. pneu/ma le,gei tai/j evkklhsi,aij) in the appeal to listen to the Spirit (2:7a, 11a, 17a, 29; 3:6, 13, 22) and the overcomer formular “to him who overcomes” (tw/| nikw/nti) in the promise section (2:7b, 11b, 17b, 26; 3:5, 12, 21). 155 Aune, “The Form and Function,” 184. 156 Aune, “The Form and Function,” 184. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 38 Finally, the literary unit focuses on specific situations in seven Christian communities that the book was written to. While the visions in 4―22 are cosmic in scope, as is characteristic of apocalyptic literature, the literary unit deals with the specific state of the recipients of the book and the issues confronting them. Against this backdrop, the researcher concludes that Rev. 2:1―3:22 can be considered a literary unit. 2.4 The Rhetorical Problem Apocalyptic literature is defined by the study group of Society of Biblical Literature as a genre of revelatory literature with a narrative framework, in which a revelation is mediated by an otherworldly being to a human recipient, disclosing a transcendent reality which is both temporal, insofar as it envisages eschatological salvation, and spatial insofar as it involves another, supernatural world.157 However, Hellholm argues that this definition is incomplete because it fails to underscore the crisis which usually marks the production of apocalyptic literature. Considering this, he argues that the definition will be complete if “intended for a group in crisis with the purpose of exhortation and/or consolation by means of divine authority”158 is added to it. In view of the ending provided, Hellholm seeks to emphasise the fact that apocalyptic literature usually originates from contexts marked by persecution and suffering which many other scholars attest to. Collins is one of the scholars that agrees with Hellholm that Jewish apocalypses generally provide exhortation and consolation in a crisis. He, however, adds that not all apocalypses are written to a group in crises.159 For example, 4 Ezra is an apocalypse even though it was 157 John J. Collins, The Apocalyptic Imagination: An Introduction to Jewish Apocalyptic Literature, 2nd ed., (The Biblical Resource Series; Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1998), 5. 158 David Hellholm, “The Problem of Apocalyptic Genre and the Apocalypse of John,” Semeia 36 (1986): 27; Cf, Collins, The Apocalyptic Imagination, 41. 159 Collins, The Apocalyptic Imagination, 41. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 39 written to instruct and refute a heretical party.160 It can, therefore, be concluded that apocalyptic literature serves different purposes. Regarding the literary unit, there is scholarly agreement that the author addressed different issues. Brown argues that persecution is not the only issue addressed in the literary unit. He notes that the unit also deals with the issues of complacency as a response to persecution and false teaching, which includes eating meat offered to idols.161 Achtemeier, Green and Thompson concur with Brown that comfort and assurance in a time of crisis does not exhaust the function of the literary unit and adds that the section was written to call the churches to faithfulness in the presence of threats like laxness, self-sufficiency, syncretism, and materialism.162 Powell admits the multi-function of the unit by pointing out that the unit was written to …inspire confidence in those whose obedience to God may prove costly, stir up indignation toward those who defy God and promote injustice, provoke repentance on the part of those who have been overly accommodating, and inspire praise for God from those who realize the Lord of history is worthy of their trust.163 Considering the discussion above, the researcher concludes that the letters were written to address two main issues. The first is the problem of persecution and suffering resulting from the presence of the imperial cult. Thus, the author writes to offer comfort, assurance, and consolation for the Christian communities. Second, the author writes to elicit their faithfulness to God and Jesus in a Hellenistic-Roman world that is characterized by complacency, false teaching, laxness, self-sufficiency, syncretism, and materialistic 160 Collins, The Apocalyptic Imagination, 41. 161 Brown, An Introduction to the New Testament, 279. 162 Achtemeier, Green and Thompson, Introducing the New Testament, 565. 163 Powell, Introducing the New Testament, 534. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 40 lifestyle. Accordingly, he calls them to a life of witness devoid of the accommodation of Roman culture. In the larger context, the literary unit serves as a hermeneutical preparation for the future revelations in 4–22. The book is structured like many Pauline epistles in the New Testament where the first part focusses on doctrinal issues and the second part provides instructions that are consistent with the doctrine. An example is the epistle to the Ephesians where the first three chapters concentrate on doctrine and the remaining three chapters focus on instructions in light of the doctrine. In the book of Revelation, the author reverses this order. The instructions or the practical part comes first (2:1―3:22), followed by the doctrinal part (4―22), which elaborates on the motivations for obeying the instructions. In view of this, the literary unit contributes to the understanding of the rest of the book. 2.5 The Rhetorical Species of the Text The type of rhetoric used by an author in any given discourse plays a key role in the interpretation of the author’s message. The species of rhetoric employed in a work, in fact, determines the work’s primary focus and hence the author’s intention. Aristotle identified three species or types of rhetoric namely, deliberative, judicial, and epideictic rhetoric.164 Kennedy, however, indicates that one of the species usually dominates a discourse which underscores the overarching purpose in the speech or writing of an author.165 The seven messages are deliberative in nature. The use of deliberative rhetoric seeks to guide the congregations addressed to take courses of action in their immediate or near- 164 Kennedy, New Testament Interpretation, 19. 165 Kennedy, New Testament Interpretation, 19. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 41 immediate futures.166 For example, the church in Ephesus was invited to remember how the community was formerly characterized by love and return to their first conduct (“do the works you did at first” cf. 2:5); the church in Smyrna was instructed to remain steadfast in their witness even to the point of death despite an imminent increase in hostile opposition (cf. 2:10), and the church in Pergamum and Thyatira were commanded to stop tolerating the false teachers among them (cf. 2:14–16, 20–23). Moreover, the author sought to elicit conversion by indicating considerable consequences, in the form of warnings and promises, if the actions are not taken, which is common with deliberative rhetoric.167 The refusal of the churches to act as the Risen Lord directs will lead to negative consequences (cf. 2:5b, 16, 22–23; 3:3b, 16b, 18b) while embracing the recommended course of action will lead to positive outcomes (cf. 2:7b, 10b, 11b, 17b, 26–28; 3:4b–5, 9b, 12, 18a, 18c, 20–21).168 The writing style of the seven messages also display significant affinities with epideictic rhetoric. When a speaker or writer seeks to persuade his or her audience to hold or reaffirm a current point of view, such as when he celebrates or condemns a person or quality, epideictic rhetoric is used.169 The focus of epideictic rhetoric is a shift in attitude or a deepening of values such as the honourable and the good, or, in the Christian context, belief or faith.170 This rhetorical effect is accomplished by employing the elements of praise or blame. For this reason, the Risen Lord calls these communities to persevere in the face of 166 John T. Kirby, “The Rhetorical Situations of Revelation 1–3,” NTS 34, no. 2 (April 1988): 200. 167 David A. DeSilva, “Rhetorical Features of the Book of Revelation,” in The Oxford Handbook of the Book of Revelation, ed. Craig R. Koester (New York: Oxford University Press, 2020), 71. 168 DeSilva, “Rhetorical Features,” 71. 169 Kennedy, New Testament Interpretation, 20. 170 Kennedy, New Testament Interpretation, 20. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 42 persecution and suffering, as well as remain faithful in times of infiltrating Roman culture by praising and/or blaming each of them.171 The praise motif is emphasized by the knowledge formular “I know your works” (oi=da ta. e;rga sou), while the blame motif is underscored by the indictment formular “but I have this against you” (avlla. e;cw kata. sou/), which describes the specific indictment on a particular community. However, it is important to note that there are differences in emphasis on either blame or praise in the letter to the various churches. The elements of praise and blame are present in five of the messages: they include Ephesus, Pergamum, Thyatira, Sardis, and Laodicea while two of the messages emphasize primarily the praise motif; the messages to the church of Smyrna and Philadelphia. The messages also embody judicial rhetoric; it is used when an author attempts to persuade the audience to make a verdict on past events.172 As a result, the messages have a judicial tone, as they deal with a review of the churches’ previous conduct.173 In view of the discussion, the researcher deems that the messages to the seven churches employ deliberative, epideictic, and judicial rhetoric. However, the dominant species used are deliberative and epideictic rhetoric. 2.6 The Rhetorical Structure of the Text There is no disagreement among scholars on the internal division of the text under consideration because the author addressed different Christian communities in distinct 171 Robert M. Royalty, “The Rhetoric of Revelation,” SBL Seminar Papers 133, no. 36 (1997): 611. 172 Kennedy, New Testament Interpretation, 19. 173 Kirby, “The Rhetorical Situations,” 200. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 43 geographical locations clearly identified in the incipit of each letter. Therefore, the text is divided as follows: a. The Proclamation to the church in Ephesus (2:1-7) b. The Proclamation to the church in Smyrna (2:8-11) c. The Proclamation to the church in Pergamum (2