Hindawi
Journal of Environmental and Public Health
Volume 2018, Article ID 5342624, 9 pages
https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/5342624
Research Article
Awareness of Environmental Change, Climate Variability,
and Their Role in Prevalence of Mosquitoes among Urban
Dwellers in Southern Ghana
Precious Agbeko Dzorgbe Mattah ,1,2 Godfred Futagbi,3 andMemunaMawusi Mattah4
1 Institute of Environment and Sanitation Studies (IESS), University of Ghana, Legon, Ghana
2Centre for Coastal Management (CCM), University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast, Ghana
3Department of Animal Biology and Conservation Science, University of Ghana, Legon, Ghana
4Department of Environment and Development Studies, Central University, Accra, Ghana
Correspondence should be addressed to Precious Agbeko Dzorgbe Mattah; pmattah@ucc.edu.gh
Received 29 July 2017; Revised 12 February 2018; Accepted 1 April 2018; Published 7 May 2018
Academic Editor: Suminori Akiba
Copyright © 2018 Precious Agbeko Dzorgbe Mattah et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons
Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is
properly cited.
This study evaluates the extent to which urban residents of Accra and Sekondi-Takoradi (all of southern Ghana) were aware of
environment and climate-related variability. A total of 150 questionnaires were given to adults of 40 years and above who lived in
the cities for at least 35 years. SPSS version 16 was used to process the data. Results show that all respondents in Accra Metropolitan
Area (AMA) and 96% of them in Sekondi-Takoradi Metropolitan Area (STMA) noted the deteriorating vegetation cover over
the cities. Similarly, 93% and 83% of them in AMA and STMA, respectively, observed that land use pattern of the two cities has
changed considerably. There was positive and statistically significant correlation between respondents’ educational attainment and
their awareness of changes in land use/land cover (𝑟 = 0.18, 𝑛 = 140, 𝑝 = 0.03). Also, 71% in AMA and 89% in STMA stated that
temperature of the cities had been increasing over the years. In all, 82.9% of the respondents mentioned that they had problemwith
the increasing population of mosquitoes. Respondents demonstrated ample knowledge of environment and climate variability and
should be engaged in preventing further environmental degradation. The top-down approach to environmental issues has failed;
the bottom-up approach to environmental maintenance is needed.
1. Introduction issues mostly experienced by poor urban households. Poor
living conditions in rapidly urbanized environments encour-
Rapid urbanization and climate variability are two important age the prevalence and proliferation of pathogens and vectors
phenomena affecting human development and well-being in that cause many debilitating and endemic diseases [2, 3].
the 21st century [1]. Whether separately or combined, these Climate variability, on the other hand, may be responsible for
phenomena pose devastating threats to all societies especially droughts, erratic rainfalls, floods, storm surges, temperature
those in less developed countries [1, 2]. Rapid urbanization rise, and sea level rise that often results in the destruction of
for example, has numerous environmental effects which are human habitats especially urban areas [1]. In fact, cities of
felt at different but interconnected scales. The scales range Africa are reportedly among the most vulnerable in terms
from those that affect the home to those that operate at of exposure, sensitivity, and capacity to respond to climate
regional or continental levels [2–4]. At the regional or con- variability-related disasters worldwide [11]. This is because of
tinental level, effects such as inducement of climate change their limited capacity to recover from such occurrences [1].
[5, 6], deterioration of water quality [7, 8], increase in air Studies have noticed positive correlation between urban
pollution [9], and the destruction of the natural habitat growth and environmental changes inAfrica [12–14]. Accord-
and ecosystems [10] have been noted. Among the effects ing to Linard et al. [15], the list of changes associated
associated with the home are the numerous health-related with urban growth is endless and include land use and
2 Journal of Environmental and Public Health
land cover changes, biogeochemical changes, and changes in 2. Methodology
hydrological cycles among others. However, most of these
studies were done in the form of land use and land cover 2.1. Study Areas. The study was conducted in Accra Met-
change using remotely sensed imageries and scarcely from ropolitan Area (AMA) and Sekondi-Takoradi Metropolitan
the perspective of local residents of the study areas. Though Area (STMA) of Ghana in 2013/2014 as part of a larger study
nascent in the climate change related sciences, the importance that was done to examine the impact of environment and
of local community residents’ (including urban dwellers) climate variability on certainmosquito species.The two areas
knowledge in environment-based fields such as agroforestry are the largest metropolitan areas along the coast of Ghana
and biodiversity, among others, cannot be underestimated and for that matter presented suitable settings for a study
[16]. Importantly, their observations and assessments provide on the interactions between environment, climate, disease
useful in situ information that may enhance local verification vectors, and human populations in the urbanmilieu. Figure 1
and validation of scientific models and satellite imageries. shows the location of the two cities.
Local residents’ knowledge is considered as a place-based Accra Metropolitan Area (AMA) currently covers an
tool for ground truth of climate models in order to narrow approximate land surface area of 120 km2. It is located on
the geographic sensitivity of models [17–19]. According to latitude 5∘32󸀠󸀠N and longitude 0∘13󸀠󸀠W. With a population of
Stigter et al. [20] and Fernandez-Llamazares et al. [21], local over 1,848,614 million people, the population density is about
residents who have a long history of interaction with their 895.5 persons per kilometer with a growth rate of 4.4% as at
environments have good knowledge on weather and the 2010 [28]. Accra lieswithin the coastal savanna agroecological
climate variabilities of their areas. It therefore means that zone which has two rainfall seasons. The major rainy season
local residents need to reside in the area for a long period is between April and June and the minor season is from
of time to have good knowledge of the place. They therefore September to October.The average annual rainfall is 730mm
observe and are most often privy to changes relating to and rainfall in the capital is characterized by intensive but
their environment (physical, biological, and socioeconomic)
and the climate changes occurring. From literature, it has short storms which often lead to flooding especially in areas
been observed that changes in climate variables such as where drainage systems have been obstructed [29]. The
precipitation and temperature, just as used in scientific average annual temperature of AMA is 26.8
∘C. While March
∘
literature, have been used by local residents as indicators is the hottest month with 28 C, the coldest month is August
∘
of climate change [19]. Descriptions such as “rising tem- with 24.7 C on the average. The metropolis has three main
peratures” [22], “dry season temperature increase” [23], and vegetation types: (i) shrub land which is mainly found in
“sudden fluctuations in temperature” [24] were reportedly the western outskirts (Weija areas) and the northern part
used by local residents in certain jurisdictions to describe of the city towards Aburi and comprises dense clusters of
climate variability. These terms, which are derived mainly small trees and shrubs not more than 5m high, (ii) the
from opinions of local residents, are considered as local grassland, which is found around the edges of the shrubs,
observations in climate change [19]. Several years or decades characteristically short, not taller than one metre and typical
of interactions with their immediate environment provide of the type found underneath forest covers, and (iii) coastal
them with the ability to describe the changes occurring. lands made up of mangroves and grasses associated with
Increasingly, local residents have been recognized as stake- brackish water environment [29]. The general soil types in
holders whose knowledge can be tapped to enhance the Accra are the drift materials, alluvial and marine mottled
understanding of climate variability and its impact [25, clay, residual clays and gravels, and lateritic sandy clay soil
26]. This paper therefore dwelt strongly on the opinions of [29].
residents of two coastal urban areas of Ghana to determine if Sekondi-Takoradi Metropolitan Area (STMA) is located
they (the residents) were aware of changes occurring in their on latitude 4∘ 55󸀠󸀠N and longitude 1∘46󸀠󸀠Wand about 280 km
environment. west of Accra, the capital of Ghana. It is relatively small
Awareness of environmental changes induced by urban- in size (about 49.78 sq. km) compared to AMA, but the
ization and climate variability vary greatly from one society most developed (in terms of infrastructure) among the 17
to the other worldwide [27]. An understanding of public districts of the Western Region. The metropolis is home
perception about urban-induced environment and climate to 23.5% of the entire population (2.3 million people) of
variability may provide strategic directions for govern- the Western region [28]. According to the Ghana Statistical
ment policies and informed choices for communities. This Service [28], STMA is the third largest metropolis (in terms
paper examines the extent of awareness among residents of of population) in Ghana having a total of 559,548 people
Accra (AMA) and Sekondi-Takoradi (STMA) Metropolitan after Kumasi Metropolitan Area (pop. 2,035,064) and Accra
Areas of Ghana regarding land use, land cover change, MetropolitanArea (pop. 1,848,614). STMAhas amean annual
and climate variability and how these phenomena could rainfall of 2,350mm with an average daily temperature of
be linked to the prevalence of certain disease vectors 22∘C. Rainfall is of double maxima with the major rainy
such as mosquitoes in the cities. The study also sought season from April to June and the minor season between
to know whether the respondents could identify specific September and October. The vegetation is of the deciduous
weather and environmental events (in specific years) that forest type characterized by tall trees, interspersed with grass
point to an ongoing environmental change and climatic cover, shrubs, and soft woody species mainly along the coast
variability. [30].
Journal of Environmental and Public Health 3
Brong Ahafo
GHANA
Ashanti Volta
Eastern
Greater Accra
Western
Central
Accra Metropolitan Area
Sekondi-Takoradi Metropolitan Area
AFRICA
Study Areas
NOT TO SCALE
0 3,875 7,750 15,500
(km)
Figure 1: Location of Accra and Sekondi-Takoradi Metropolitan Areas.
2.2. Data Collection. A semistructured questionnaire was two (2) kilometers from each other, were overlaid on maps of
developed and pretested on 20 randomly selected partici- the study areas using R software [32] and ArcGIS (ESRI, Red-
pants in the Cape Coast Metropolitan Area of Ghana. The lands, California).These points served as the sampling frame
pilot group was asked to comment on how comprehensible out of which 20% were randomly selected using the random
the individual questions were. The pretest led to some mod- sample of cases in SPSS version 16 (SPSS Inc. Chicago, USA).
ification of the questionnaire. The questionnaire was divided Respondents were selected from suburbs/communities near-
into six sections: background, vegetation, land use, weather, est to the presampled points. Because local residents must
rivers/streams/drainage, and presence of mosquitoes. The inhabit the area long enough to have good knowledge of
first section provided information on the background of the the changes that might have occurred in their environment
respondents including age, sex, marital status, highest level of [20, 21], criteria for selection of respondents were that they
education, employment, occupation, and the number of years should be males and females who attained a minimum of 40
that respondents had lived in the cities. The section on vege- years and must have continuously lived in the cities for not
tation requested a description of the vegetation coverage over less than 35 years. A total of 150 questionnaires were divided
the city from the respondents. It sought to know whether the equally between the two cities and given to those whomet the
respondents noticed changes in the vegetation and what con- sampling criteria.
tributed to the changes if they noticed changes. Issues on land
use pattern sought to find out the dominant land uses in the 2.3. Statistical Analysis. SPSS version 16 was used to capture,
city in the past and the present and whether the respondents clean, and analyze the data collected. Descriptive statistics
noticed changes that were occurring. Respondents having was mainly employed in the analysis of the data. Categorical
generally been living in the areas for more than three decades variables were measured as percentages, while continuous
were quizzed on their observations on the weather/climate variables were summarized using mean or median. Linear
patterns of the cities regarding temperature/heat and rainfall correlation was used to ascertain the association of respon-
as well as the perceived variations in these variables over dents’ educational attainment and their awareness of changes
the years. The state of rivers/streams and drainage patterns in land use/land cover. Z-test for proportions was used to
of the cities were brought into focus in order to ascertain compare proportions between the two cities. Sociodemo-
whether there were changes over the years.The section on the graphic variables and responses from study participants have
presence of mosquitoes was to enable respondents to provide been summarized and presented in frequency tables.
information on the prevalence of mosquitoes possibly as a
factor of environmental changes occurring in the cities. 2.4. Ethical Approval and Consent. The study protocol was
Sampling of respondents was fit into a larger sampling approved by the Ethical Review Board of the Noguchi
scheme as described in Mattah et al. [31], in which points, Memorial Institute of Medical research (NMIMR) of the
4 Journal of Environmental and Public Health
Table 1: Sociodemographic characteristics of the respondents.
Characteristics Variables AMA (%) STMA (%)
Gender Male 27 26
Female 23 24
Single (never married) 6.1 2.7
Married 32.7 40.1
Marital status Cohabitation 2 2
Separated 1.4 2.7
Divorced 5.4 1.4
Widowed 3.4 0
No education 15.4 12.8
Level of education Primary 16.8 15.4
Secondary 16.1 17.4
Tertiary 2 4
Employment No 36.7 33.3
Yes 14.3 15.7
40–44 2 3.3
45–49 11 7.3
50–54 12 8
Age group 55–59 8.7 10.7
60–64 6 6.7
65–69 4 6
70+ 6 8
35–39 13.3 10.7
40–44 8 10
45–49 10.7 9.3
Number of years living in the city (year group) 50–54 7.3 6
55–59 4.7 6
60–64 2 2.7
65–69 2 1.3
70+ 2 4
𝑁 = 150 75 75
University of Ghana, Legon. Written informed consent was respondents from the two cities were in the age group of
sought and obtained from the respondents after the written 50–54, while a minimum proportion of 5.3% were within
information was read out at the beginning of the interview. 40–44 age group, also from the two cities. Respondents from
AMA had a mean age of 56.6 (±11.5) years, while those
3. Results from STMA had a mean age of 58.3 (±10.9) years. Majority
(24%) of the respondents had been living in AMA and STMA
3.1. Characteristics of Respondents. Most of the 150 respon- (combined) for the past 35–39 years, while 3.3% had lived
dents were males (53%) with the proportion of male respon- in the cities for 65–69 years (Table 1). The mean duration of
dents in AMA and STMA being 27% and 26%, respectively stay in the two cities combined was 46 years (median = 45,
(Table 1). Also, 33% and 40% were married and resident interquartile range (25th–75th) = 39–54). ForAMA, themean
in STMA and AMA, respectively. Two percent (2%) apiece duration of stay in the city by the respondents was 44.6 years
of the respondents from AMA and STMA were cohabiting, (median = 43, interquartile range (25th–75th) = 37–50) and
while 5.4% and 1.4% of them were divorced in AMA and that of STMA was 48.5 (median = 47.5, interquartile range
STMA, respectively. In theAMA sample, 15.4% of the respon- (25th–75th) = 40–55).
dents had no education, while 16.8% and 16.1% attained
primary and secondary education, respectively, and only 2% 3.2. Respondents’ Views on Environmental Changes. Respon-
of them obtained tertiary education. A proportion of 12.8% dents, who had lived in the cities for at least 35 years,
respondents had no education, while those who had primary, noticed various environmental changes occurring in the
secondary, and tertiary education were 15.4%, 17.4%, and two cities. Environmental changes identified included a
4%, respectively, in the STMA sample. The mean age of all remarkable increase in built-up areas resulting in land
respondents was 57.6 (±11.2) years. Put together, 20% of the use/land cover changes and destruction of streams/rivers.
Journal of Environmental and Public Health 5
Table 2: Perceived environmental changes in Accra (AMA) and observed abundant grass/shrubs in most of AMA. The dom-
Sekondi-Takoradi Metropolitan Area (STMA). inant tree species available was Azadirachta indica popularly
called neem tree.There were few houses and numerous farm-
Affected environmental features Proportion of respondents ing activities in the metropolis. Respondents from STMA
AMA (%) STMA (%) observed vast forest cover, numerous coconut trees, intense
Land use/ land cover 93 83 farming activities, and few houses.The decade of 1971 to 1980
Vegetation 100 96 witnessed some increase in housing facilities and farming
Streams/rivers 75 81 activities, yet abundant grasslands were available in AMA.
Ability to remember places which However, for STMA in the same spate of time forest depletion
were vegetated in the past 77 86 started, housing facilities increased in the midst of faming
activities. The rest of the decades (1981–1990; 1991–2000; and
𝑁 = 150 75 75 2001–2010) saw rapid expansion of the cities as shown by
the increase in housing facilities and especially the rise in
uncoordinated buildings, depletion of the forests, reduction
From the data, 93% and 83% of the respondents from AMA in farming activities, and the rise of slums or shanty towns.
and STMA, respectively, observed changes in land use/land
cover patterns in the cities. There was a weak positive 3.3. Respondents’ Views on Weather/Climate Variability.
but statistically significant correlation between respondents’ Table 4 summarizes the views of the respondents on envi-
educational attainment and their awareness of changes in ronmental temperature and amount of rainfall. Most respon-
land use/land cover (r = 0.18, n = 140, p = 0.03). dents, 71% in AMA and 89% in STMA observed that temper-
Also, all respondents (100%) in AMA and 96% of them ature of the cities has consistently been increasing over the
in STMA noticed changes in the vegetation cover of the years. Overall, 79.5% of the respondents perceived that tem-
cities (Table 2). For example, forest/conservation areas and perature over the cities has been increasing. Twenty percent
agricultural/farmlands dwindled over the years according (20%) of the respondents from AMA and 7% from STMA
to the respondents, while residential areas and commercial thought that environmental temperature had fluctuated over
land uses such as markets/shops and office buildings, among the years, while a very small proportion (1.3% from AMA
others, have increased within the same spate of time. Higher and 1.4% in STMA) felt that environmental temperature
proportions of respondents, 77% from AMA and 86% from has consistently been reducing over the years. Comparing
STMA, remembered parts of the metropolis which had been the decades from 1960 to 2010, the general perception of
covered with vegetation but were cleared for other land the respondents was that environmental temperature had
uses. There was no statistical significant difference at p < been rising progressively from warm weather in the 1960s
0.05 between the proportion of respondents in AMA who to an extremely warm one in the decade of 2000 to 2010.
remembered areas which had earlier been covered with Warmer weather periods have even been experienced after
vegetation and that of STMA in a Z-test for independent 2010. From 1982, respondents began to feel the pinch of
proportions, Z-score = −0.765, p = 0.45, two tailed. A temperature increase. Specific years of extremewarmweather
similar test indicated no significant association at p < 0.05 experienced by the respondentswere in 1983 and 2013.Thirty-
between gender and respondents’ ability to remember areas seven percent (37.1%) and 28.4% of the respondents from
that had earlier been coveredwith vegetation but were cleared AMAmentioned 1983 and 2013, respectively. In STMA, 51.1%
for other land uses, Z-score = 0.43, p value = 0.67, two mentioned 1983, while 14.9% mentioned 2013 as years of
tailed. Respondents recalled that suburbs, such as Alajo in extreme warmer temperatures.
AMA and Kwesimintsim in STMA, were farming areas for Overall, about 70% of the respondents thought that the
some residents in the past especially in 1960s but they are amount of rainfall in the cities had consistently been decreas-
now part of the urban sprawl. Table 2 further shows that ing over the years (Table 4). In AMA, 22% of the respondents
75% and 81% of the respondents from AMA and STMA, felt that the amount of rainfall had fluctuated, while about
respectively, noticed changes in streams/rivers and other 17% of their counterparts in STMA also felt likewise. Though
water bodies in the two metropolitan areas. According to some found it difficult to mention a particular year in which
the respondents, siltation and acute pollution were the two they felt rainfall was extremely high, about 60% and 71%
important phenomena affecting streams/rivers of the cities. of the respondents in AMA and STMA, respectively, could
In their views, poor waste management and lack of waste recall certain specific years. When asked to mention the
treatment measures by residents and municipal authorities years, the list was long, starting from 1963 and included 2010
have contributed to extreme pollution along water courses which is very recent. On the other hand, 40% and 47% of
in the two metropolitan areas. From the respondents’ per- the respondents fromAMA and STMA, respectively, recalled
spective rapid urbanization with its concomitant issues of specific years with extremely low rainfall. Prominent among
housing and infrastructural development was the main cause the list of years with low rainfall included 1983 mentioned by
of degradation in the vegetative cover as well as land use and 61.5% of those who could recall specific years of drought from
land cover changes in the cities. AMA and 50% of them from STMA.
Table 3 summarizes the observations of the respondents
as far as environmental changes were concerned, on decadal 3.4. Respondents’ Views on Prevalence of Mosquitoes. Gen-
basis. Starting from the decade of 1961 to 1970, respondents erally, respondents had problems with the abundance of
6 Journal of Environmental and Public Health
Table 3: Indicators of vegetation cover and land use/land cover changes in Accra (AMA) and Sekondi-Takoradi Metropolitan Area (STMA).
Decade AMA STMA
Vegetation/land use/land cover Vegetation/land use/land cover
(i) Abundant grass/ shrubs
(ii) Numerous neem trees (i) Vast forest cover
1961–1970 (Azadirachta indica) (ii) Numerous coconut trees
(iii) Farming activities (iii) Few houses
(iv) Few houses (iv) Farming activities
(i) Increase in housing (i) Forest depletion begun
1971–1980 (ii) Farming activities (ii) Increase in housing
(iii) Abundant grass/shrubs (iii) Farming activities
(i) Increase in housing
1981–1990 (ii) Rising of slums (i) Forest depletion increased
(iii) Farming activities (ii) Uncoordinated building
(i) Uncoordinated building/rising of
1991–2000 shanty towns (i) Forest depletion worsen
(ii) A few farming activities (ii) Extinction of coconut trees
(i) Uncoordinated building
2001–2010 (ii) Decrease in vegetation (i) Uncoordinated building
(iii) Increasing commercial activities (ii) Rapid expansion of built-up areas
Table 4: Respondents views on environmental weather/climate variability.
Characteristics Variable AMA (%) STMA (%)
Temperature has remained constant over the years 8 2.7
Temperature Temperature has fluctuated over the years 20 6.8
Temperature has consistently been increasing over the years 70.7 89.2
Temperature has consistently been decreasing over the years 1.3 1.4
Amount of rainfall has remained unchanged over the years 5.5 4.3
Rainfall Amount of rainfall has fluctuated over the years 21.9 17.1
Amount of rainfall has consistently been increasing over the years 5.5 8.6
Amount of rainfall has consistently been decreasing over the years 67.1 70
𝑁 = 150 75 75
mosquitoes. Overall, 82.9% of the respondents mentioned Accra. They were of the view that floods leave pockets of
that they had problem with the increase in the population stagnant water bodies which serve as breeding grounds of
of mosquitoes. As high as 96.7% in AMA and 77.3% in mosquitoes. Respondents felt that excessive heat during the
STMA had problem with the proliferation of mosquitoes. dry season enable them to spend more time outside their
The problems include mosquito frequent bites, noise with rooms especially in the evenings and this expose them to
all the nuisance, and diseases especially malaria. Progres- mosquito bites.
sively higher proportions of the respondents claimed that
mosquitoes were not widespread in the decade of 1961–1970 4. Discussion
to being extremely abundant in the decade of 2001–2010
(Table 5). About 30.2% of the respondents thought that It is established that rapid urbanization enhances envi-
mosquitoes were not widespread within the decade of ronmental change, and climate variability, phenomena that
1961–1970, while by 2001–2010, 34.9% of the respondents felt threaten the very existence of societies especially those in
that mosquitoes were extremely pervasive. They associated less developed countries [1]. Poor urban households are most
mosquito breeding with the environment. In explaining their vulnerable to the effects of environmental degradation [2].
assertion, respondents indicated that general lack of care for Being aware of changes occurring in an environment provide
the environment, coupled with human-induced changes such the impetus towork at curtailing any negative effects thatmay
as the destruction of vegetation and construction activities, emerge out of the change. This study sought to understand
and climate variability were the cause of mosquito prob- public perception on urban-induced environmental change
lems being experienced. According to them, indiscriminate and climate variability and whether participants could link
dumping of refuse, poor sanitation, and choked drains in identified weather and environmental events to the preva-
the various metropolitan areas were contributing to the pro- lence of diseases and disease vectors such as mosquitoes.
liferation of mosquitoes. Respondents associated prevalence The results of this study provide insight into residents’
of mosquitoes to the perennial floods in the cities especially consciousness of environmental change, weather/climate,
Journal of Environmental and Public Health 7
Table 5: Respondents’ views on abundance of mosquitoes in the past decades.
Decade Extremely Very abundant (%) Abundant (%) Somehow Not abundant Do not know Not applicableabundant (%) abundant (%) (%) (%) (%)
1961–1970 12.3 3.8 5.7 6.6 30.2 19.8 21.7
1971–1980 3.8 20.8 7.5 36.8 6.6 19 5.5
1981–1990 0.0 10.4 52.8 17.9 2.8 16.0 0.0
1991–2000 0.9 38.7 19.8 21.7 3.8 15.1 0.0
2001–2010 34.9 17.0 6.6 10.4 17.0 14.1 0.0
N = 150.
and prevalence of mosquitoes in AMA and STMA of Ghana. Accra and Takoradi has been projected to rise by 1.7–2.0∘C.
Majority of the respondents had attained some form of These observations have also been made by Environmental
education. Of the 150 respondents, almost one-third (32.2%) Protection Agency [40] and Asante and Amuakwa-Mensah
of the respondents had primary education, while another [41]. Rising temperature may lead to increase in health-
one-third (33.5%) had secondary education and 6% obtained related problems such as meningitis, as well as higher use
tertiary level of education. The data has also shown a weak of energy by the residents of urban areas [42]. Also, decline
positive but significant correlation between level of education in rainfall of the urban areas may lead to increase in dust
and perception of respondents regarding changes in land over the cities leading to the prevalence of respiratory diseases
use/land cover in the cities. This is not surprising because [43].
educational attainment is seen as one important factor for High mosquito prevalence was observed by the respon-
environmental consciousness [33]. In fact majority of the dents. This according to the respondents has increased from
respondents observed changes in vegetation cover, land use, the decades of 1960s to the present. This was corroborated by
and land cover as well as temperature and rainfall variability studies like Fobil et al. [44] and Stoler et al. [45]. Studies have
over the cities. also shown that urban dwellers through their activities have
Rapid replacement of vegetation with housing and com- created suitable breeding habitats formosquitoes [44, 46, 47].
mercial infrastructure reminiscent of what was reported by Though rapid urbanization and its associated pollution is
the respondents may render the cities to be prone to the supposed to eliminate certain species of mosquito such as
vagaries of weather/climate-related factors [1]. Atmospheric Anopheles species [48, 49], other species have proliferated
temperature may increase causing heat islands and heat profusely in especially in polluted cities of Africa [50]. As the
waves, and torrential rainfall and storms may also result in cities expand so are the breeding places for mosquitoes [46].
floods. Niang et al. [34] projected that African cities may be The fact that respondents could link the poor environmental
seriously affected by urban heat islands as a result of climate maintenance to the proliferation of mosquitoes means that
and environmental variability. From the results, what was they were aware of some important consequences of their
associated with vegetation, land use/land cover change was actions and this can be taken advantage of in environmen-
the unregulated nature of the built-up areas. This is charac- tal health education. The government of Ghana instituted
teristic of the current rapid urbanization being experienced monthly clean ups in the cities of the country, especially on
mainly in the developing world especially in Africa through the first Saturday of every month; however, many residents
rural-urban migration [35]. Chin [36] described this sort do not comply with the policy and hence turn-out for the
of urbanization in Africa as “Second Phase,” an assertion clean-up is always very low. This means that, in spite of the
supported by Leao et al. [37]. According to Leao et al. [37], this widespread awareness of environmental changes among city
“Second Phase” of urban growth is characterized by limited dwellers, their commitment to cleaning the environment was
mobility and lower standard of living of the population. low and this needs to be addressed. There is the need for
From the perspectives of the majority of the respondents stringent enforcement of laws of sanitation in urban areas of
(79.5%), atmospheric temperature has been rising, whereas Ghana.
rainfall has been on the decline within the same period.
Though data was not readily available for analysis to con- 5. Conclusion
firm or disagree with the assertions from the respondents
regarding rising temperature and dwindling rainfall, many The study revealed high level of environmental consciousness
authors had already established these assertions. The World among the respondents. They were not only aware of the
Bank [38], for example, stated that rainfall in southern Ghana changes in terms of vegetation loss, increases in environ-
was mostly high in the 1960s.This however decreased to very mental temperature, and reduction in the rainfall pattern
low levels in the late 1970s and in the early 1980s and still but also clearly understood the factors which contributed
continue to decline. Cameron [39] confirmed the findings to the changes being observed. Interestingly, they could
of World Bank and further stated that temperatures in link the changes to the proliferation of mosquitoes. With
southern Ghana and all other parts of the country have been the high level of consciousness among the communities on
rising, while rainfall is declining. Using various scenarios, environmental changes and the factors contributing to the
the World Bank especially discovered that temperature in changes, it is hereby proposed that city authorities should
8 Journal of Environmental and Public Health
explore the use of community-led efforts in maintaining Trends and Explanation held in Vienna, IAHS Publ. no. 203,
the environment. This means empowering the communities 1991.
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Godfred Futagbi andMemunaMawusiMattah are coauthors. and food security in Africa. Poster presentation at the OpenMeeting of the Global Environmental Change Research Commu-
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The authors are very grateful to the staff of the Directorate terns in Peri-UrbanGhana,” Journal of SustainableDevelopment,
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