Acta Ecologica Sinica xxx (xxxx) xxx Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Acta Ecologica Sinica journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/chnaes The perception of the locals on the impact of climate variability on non-timber forest products in Ghana Obed Asamoah a,*, Jones Abrefa Danquah b, Dastan Bamwesigye c, Nahanga Verter c, Emmanuel Acheampong d, Colin J. Macgregor d, Charles Mario Boateng e, Suvi Kuittinen a, Mark Appiah f, Ari Pappinen a a School of Forest Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, P.O. Box 111, Street address: Yliopistokatu 7, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland b Department of Geography and Regional Planning, Faculty of Social Sciences, College of Humanities and Legal Studies, University of Cape Coast, 033 Cape Coast, Ghana c College of Science & Engineering, James Cook University, PO Box 6811, Australia d Department of Forest and Wood Products Economics and Policy, Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology, Mendel University in Brno Zemědělská, 361300 Brno, Czechia e School of marine science, University of Ghana, Charles Mario Boateng, Ghana f CSIR College of Science and Technology (CCST), Ghana A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T Keywords: All biological products obtained from forests other than timber are considered non-timber forest products Climate change (NTFPs). NTFPs production levels in Ghana are affected by climate change. Over the past years, NTFPs have Non-timber forest products adversely affected by prolonged droughts and short rainfall in Ghana. In rural areas, where NTFP enhance Impact livelihoods for rural dwellers, this adversely affects their food security. This study aimed to determine how rural Perception Mindsponge locals dwellers in Ghana perceive the impact of annual variability in rainfall and temperature on their non-timber forest Ghana products. To better understand how residents perceive climate change’s effect on NTFPs, 732 residents were interviewed. Household information and perceptions regarding changes to the availability of NTFP (snails, mushrooms, honey, etc.) were recorded using structured and semi-structured questionnaires. As a result of the sharp rise in temperature and the decline in rainfall, combined with a prolonged drought, there has been a decline in the production levels of NTFPS in the forest areas of the country. The respondents reported a decline in the production levels of honey, snails, and mushrooms, as well as income generated. It is imperative that the Ghana government, through the Ghana forestry commission, educate rural dwellers about the importance of NTFP sustainable use and implement afforestation programs to help regenerate degraded forest areas that threaten some of the organisms required for the production of NTFPs. Embarking on afforestation programs will help improve the climatic conditions supporting the production of NTFPs. 1. Introduction (farming season), NTFPs play an important role in household food se- curity, nutrition, health, and income [5,6]. NTFPs are used in food, Any product derived from managed or natural wooded areas other medicine, barter, and market retail [46]. than timber is classified as non-timber forest products (NTFPs) [94]. Even more, NTFPs have cultural, religious, and social benefits for the These exclude timber but include flowers, barks of trees, roots of trees, locals [72,90,105]. As NTFP income generates income and serves as a tubers of shrubs, corms, leaves of trees, seeds of trees and shrubs, fruits, safety net, NTFPs will continue to provide positive benefits to rural saps, resins, honey, fungi, and other animal products [5,6,73]. A sig- families who are otherwise economically disadvantaged [3,48]. NTFP nificant portion of the livelihoods of Ghanaian forest fringe communities provides outside employment opportunities for those seeking outside is derived from forest resources (NTFPs) [4]. In the growing season employment in an unpredictable economic environment[71,91]. Rural * Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: obeda@uef.fi (O. Asamoah), jones.danquah@ucc.edu.gh (J.A. Danquah), xbamwesi@mendelu.cz (D. Bamwesigye), nahanga.verter@mendelu.cz (N. Verter), emmanuel.acheampong@my.jcu.edu.au (E. Acheampong), colin.macgregor@jcu.edu.au (C.J. Macgregor), CBoateng@ug.edu.gh (C.M. Boateng), suvi. kuittinen@uef.fi (S. Kuittinen), ari.pappinen@uef.fi (A. Pappinen). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chnaes.2023.07.004 Received 13 February 2023; Received in revised form 3 July 2023; Accepted 5 July 2023 1872-2032/© 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of Ecological Society of China. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Please cite this article as: Obed Asamoah et al., Acta Ecologica Sinica, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chnaes.2023.07.004 O. Asamoah et al. A c t a E c o l o g i c a S inica xxx (xxxx) xxx communities have to support themselves, relying on the income gener- forest itself, sustainable harvesting practices and conservation of NTFPs ated by NTFP [91]. are seen as crucial [82,83]. The local community may possess traditional In recent years, the global market for NTFP has grown nearly 20% knowledge and practices related to the sustainable management of annually, with an estimated value of nearly US$ 11 billion [46]. NTFPs that have been passed down through generations [49,80]. Although less than 50% of rural household income comes from NTFPs, Furthermore, local perceptions of NTFPs may include concerns about the importance of this contribution can be linked to its accessibility their sustainability and potential threats. Many local communities are during times of need [52,60,91]. Forest resources such as fruits, nuts, concerned about the declining abundance of certain species, the loss of mushrooms, vegetables, medicinal plants, fibres, and honey contribute traditional knowledge, and the need for appropriate management stra- between 30% and 50% to the income of rural dwellers in Nigeria, tegies to ensure the long-term viability of NTFPs [37]. To ensure sus- Cameroun, etc [71,102]. The nutritional and health values of NTFPs tainable management and conservation of NTFPs, it is essential to warrant concerns about their effective conservation and management understand local perceptions of these resources. By engaging local [96]. communities, respecting traditional knowledge, and incorporating their It cannot be overstated how essential NTFPs are to the economies of perspectives into decision-making processes, we can help ensure the developing countries such as Nigeria, Cameroon, Uganda, and the preservation of NTFPs and the well-being of local communities [31,34]. Democratic Republic of the Congo [41,79]. Some forest-dependent communities have NTFPs as their sole source of livelihood 1.2. Climate change and its effects on NTFPs [38,104,108]. It is estimated that approximately 1.5 million inhabitants in the Brazilian Amazon obtain a fraction of their revenue from the Much attention has been placed on the overexploitation of forest gathering and harvesting of NTFPs [42,113]. About 20% of the working resources as the major cause of the decline of NTFPs [88]. Meanwhile, population in Southern Ghana, where most tropical rain forests are climate alterations have affected the forest ecosystem of which NTFPs located, earns income from NTFPs [71]. Consequently, these rural forest are part. Climate change is happening at a fast pace due to anthropo- dwellers’ lives are intertwined with the resources available to them genic factors resulting in increased emissions of greenhouse gases [96]. The continuous flow of benefits from NTFPs depends on the con- (GHGs) which deplete the ozone layer (IPCC [56]). Within the last servation and sustainable management of forest resources. Several 50 years (1956 to 2005), the earth’s atmospheric temperature has research works have shown the benefits and marketable values of NTFPs increased by approximately 0.74 ◦C, and within the last century (1906 [8,54]. Other studies have investigated the feasibility of introducing to 2005), it has doubled [109,119]. Alteration of the world climate NTFPs on tree crop farms to expand their benefits to a wide range of negatively influences the ecosystem globally [92]. As a result, there are farmers [24,65,99]. other stressful effects, such as land use changes, over-dependence on It is impossible to underestimate the benefits NTFPs provide to forest resources, pollution, and disruption of natural systems. It has been communities and developing countries. However, deforestation, over- predicted that a rise in temperature of 1.5 to 2.5 ◦C may lead to the exploitation, and climate change are contributing to the decline in forest extinction of a third of the flora and fauna of the planet [55]. NTFP NTFPs production [32,74,76]. NTFPs’ sustainability depends on existing species may experience a shift in distribution due to climate change, climatic conditions and management strategies, whether in natural resulting in habitat alterations [47,103]. Temperature and precipitation forests or tree crop farms. The effects of climate change are having an patterns can impact the growth and survival of NTFP species, resulting adverse impact on the world’s ecosystems, and it is expected that the in a decline in their populations in some areas while they expand in magnitude of these impacts will increase as temperatures rise in the next others [69,114]. Local communities that rely on specific NTFPs for their century [78]. Climate change may hinder the adaptation of several livelihoods and cultural practices may be adversely affected [105,114]. species and ecosystems because other stresses, such as land-use changes, NTFP productivity and quality can be affected by climate change overexploitation of resources, pollution, and fragmentation, are com- [61]. The effects of extreme weather events, such as droughts, floods, pounding the effects of global warming and associated disturbances and heat waves, can negatively affect the growth, regeneration, and [78]. The forest ecosystem that NTFPs are a part of has been affected by overall productivity of NTFP species [117]. NTFP quality and medicinal climate change [39,69]. Yields of some NTFPs have declined in Ghana properties may also be affected by changes in temperature and precip- [2,8,93], and this change has prompted management and research itation regimes [29]. Climate change can disrupt traditional knowledge attention [7]. and practices related to the harvesting and management of NTFPs [49,101]. It is important to note that this may pose challenges for local 1.1. Locals’ perceptions of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) communities that rely on traditional ecological knowledge to sustain- ably use NTFPs. Climate change impacts on NTFPs must be recognised A community’s perception of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) and addressed to ensure their sustainable use and the well-being of the will vary depending on its cultural, socioeconomic, and environmental communities that depend on them [35,114]. Through adaptation stra- context [75,76,110]. The economic value of NTFPs is recognised by tegies, conservation efforts, and integrating traditional knowledge with many local communities. They view these products as essential sources scientific approaches, it is possible to mitigate climate change’s negative of income, livelihoods, and economic opportunities [85]. Evidence impacts on NTFPs and support the resilience of both ecosystems and shows that non-timber forest products can provide supplemental income local communities. for rural communities, particularly those living in or near forested areas [70]. NTFPs can provide locals with a means of diversifying their income 1.3. The perception of forest fringe communities to the effects of climate sources, reducing their reliance on agriculture or timber, and improving change on NTFPs their economic well-being [115]. Local cultures and traditions are often deeply ingrained in NTFPs [44,53]. It is possible to use NTFPs in rituals, Local communities possess a wealth of knowledge and perspectives ceremonies, traditional medicines, crafts, and other forms of cultural that can contribute to decision-making [45,120,121]. Over millennia, expression [33,98]. Due to their cultural heritage, locals may have a local communities whose livelihoods are directly tied to the environ- strong attachment to these products and may actively engage in the ment have developed a body of traditional knowledge to manage natural sustainable harvest and management of these products. resources efficiently and sustainably [66]. This socio-ecological knowl- NTFPs are essential in maintaining healthy forest ecosystems, and edge is in consonant with the traditions, value systems and norms of the many local communities recognise their ecological importance [85]. local communities. Moreover, traditional knowledge tends to influence Locals may perceive NTFPs as indicators of forest health and biodiver- the perception of the local communities about their immediate sur- sity. To ensure the long-term sustainability of both the products and the roundings and the natural environment (e.g., [20,118,122]). Within the 2 O. Asamoah et al. A c t a E c o l o g i c a S inica xxx (xxxx) xxx framework of Mindsponge Theory, the perceptions of local communities and the ecosystem as a whole [20,47]. Based on these observations and influence their behavioural outcome toward a social artefact or the experiences, local communities can provide invaluable information natural surroundings, particularly climate change impact on NTFPs regarding the timing, abundance, and quality of NTFP resources [20,82,83,95,122]. The concept of mindsponge (ecomindsponge) offers [36,103]. The understanding of forest fringe communities’ perceptions a comprehensive and effective approach to understanding the nature- of climate change and NTFP production will contribute to the devel- human relationship, information exchange and system interactions opment of trust between the local communities and forest managers. As [84]. The local pool of knowledge such as traditional norms, values and a result, this will facilitate a collaborative approach and the evolution of taboos concerning the management of natural resources particularly more effective sustainable management strategies to align with local NTFPs are disseminated and transmitted through social learning (e.g., communities’ needs and aspirations [124]. In addition, the information [18,25,86]). The mode of natural resource management is shared thus generated in the process will provide bases promoting “eco-surplus knowledge normally acquired through observation, imitation, story- culture” among the forest fringe communities ([82,83]). This is a more telling and folklore [14,18,21,22]. This local (or traditional) knowledge effective and sustainable management strategy that will protect NTFPs’ interacts in a web of associations within the social networks of the local resource base, support local livelihoods, and enhance the resilience of communities (see, [97,111]) and influences their subjective environ- forest ecosystems in the face of climate change. mental paradigm (e.g., [40,84,121]). Local knowledge is collective across generations and cumulative (e.g. [51,67]). It is acquired through 1.4. Objective of the study initiation into a group consciousness [112]. This knowledge influences local communities’ sphere of perception of climate change impacts on For the forest to continue to provide services in these current times, NTFPs.The knowledge about NTFPs is learnt and practically demon- forest management strategies must not ignore climate change. To strated through social interaction among the locals and it is typically maintain forest services under this climate change regime, local com- transmitted through oral history or tradition (e.g., [89]). munities must be involved in forest management [77,97]. However, the The perceptions of forest fringe communities regarding climate perception of locals regarding the effect of climate change on NTFPs has change and its impact on the production of NTFPs will invariably affect not received as much attention as it should have. It is, therefore, para- the exploitation and management practises of these forest resources (e. mount to assess the perception of the locals on climate change and its g., [66]). The forest ecosystem has been a food source and livelihood for impact NTFPs production. The objective of the study is, therefore, to local communities for generations [63]. Due to their traditional evaluate the perception of the locals on climate alteration and its effects ecological knowledge and expertise, they are highly in tune with climate on the production levels of NTFPs and its influence on the livelihoods of change and its impacts on NTFP production. The understanding of local people living in forest fringe communities. communities’ perceptions will provide invaluable insights into how climate change affects specific NTFP species, particularly their habitats Fig. 1. The Map of study sites showing the regions and selected communities. 3 O. Asamoah et al. A c t a E c o l o g i c a S inica xxx (xxxx) xxx 2. Methods and materials employed in the study w2 p 1 q 1 96 2( )( − ) ( . ) (0.5)(1 − 0.5) no = = = 600 (1) 2.1. Description of the region of study e2 0.032 Where no= sample size, W = Value for selected alpha level of 0.025 In this study, a total of five selected regions (namely, Western North, in each tail = 1.96 (the alpha level of 0.05 represents the level of risk Bono, Ahafo, Ashanti, and Eastern regions) (see Fig. 1) and four that the true margin of error may exceed the acceptable margin of error). ecological zones were examined in Ghana. We selected these regions (p)(q) = estimate of variance = 0.25. Where e = acceptable margin of since they contained relatively large areas of tropical rainforest. The error for proportion being estimated = 0.035 (error researcher is willing chief economic activities in the study are agriculture (farming), trade to accept). An anticipated non-response rate of 15% will be calculated and commerce, and services (hotels, auto mechanics, sawmills, banks, and added to the sample size: etc.). Upper canopy trees are evergreens and deciduous trees, while W2(p)(1− q) lower canopy trees are evergreens. It is the moist semi-deciduous forests 600Nfs e2= = = 706 (2) that contain the tallest trees, some of which can reach 50 to 60 m in 1 − anticipatedNon − response 1 − 0.15 height. A semi-equatorial climate characterises the study area, with Where Nfs total sample size. The total sample size (Nfs) (706) of the annual rainfall between 1500 and 1800 mm. (See Table 1.) study took into account the age, gender, educational level, occupation, Climates in these regions are tropical rainforests, characterised by the number of years respondents have lived in the community, the kind warm temperatures and heavy rain all year round. The peak rainfall of NTFPs they collect, whether they changes that have occurred in their months are May–June and September–October. A maximum tempera- collections to the NTFPs they gather. Mushrooms, snails, and honey ture of 31-33 ◦C is recorded during the hottest months (February or were the NTFPs we researched. A selection of these products was made March), while a minimum temperature of 19-21 ◦C is recorded during based on their anticipated importance in the trade of NTFPs in the study the coldest months (August). There are several species of trees found in areas. the study area, including Triplochiton scleroxylon (wawa), Antaris afri- cana (Kyenkyen), clorophora excels (Odum), Ceiba pentandra (Onyina), and others. 2.3. Survey methods and study approach To arrive at our objective, we conducted 706 interviews with a team 2.2. Sample design & data collection of interviewers to investigate the perceptions of locals in rural com- munities in five (5) Ghanaian regions (Ahafo, Ashanti, Bono, Eastern, The study population included residents of forest-adjacent districts, and Western-North). We developed a draft questionnaire in March 2022 communities, and villages within the selected regions. Various house- in Ghana after discussing it with a group of economists, market players, holds, market areas, and public centres within the districts, commu- locals and the forest commission of Ghana. In Ghana, the questionnaire nities, and villages in the regions were involved in the study. Individuals for the survey was reviewed by three lecturers, one from the School of who met these criteria were excluded from the study (Individuals who forest science at the University of Eastern Finland, one from the Uni- are not Ghanaians, who have not lived in the district for a long period versity of Cape Coast Ghana, and one from the Forest Research Institute (2 years or above), and children under 18). We selected the districts of Ghana. To ensure language and conceptual clarity, these faculty within the study area based on their proximity to forest reserves. Also, members assisted in formulating and adjusting the wording. A well- communities in the districts were selected based on the number of re- formulated timetable (From April 2022 to June 2022) was developed serves and how close they are to the forest (reserved and off-reserve). An for the data collection with the various regions, districts and local integrated mixed-methods approach was applied to the study, which communities to be visited for the locals to be interviewed. A focus group included qualitative and quantitative components. An essential char- discussion was conducted in June 2022 in the vicinity of the study areas acteristic of qualitative research is that it incorporates individual opin- to obtain feedback from NTFP collectors, marketers, and farmers. The ions, expressions, and subjective interpretations of the research topic. A in-person interviews were conducted from May to June 2022 in the quantitative approach, on the other hand, involves using numbers to selected communities in the regions. After all, data collection, data describe data or variables, establish relationships between variables, cleaning, data quality check and data management were done between and determine whether two variables are significantly different. To July and August 2022 with the assistance of one of the lecturers at the achieve viable results, both approaches were merged in this case. University of cape coast in Ghana in the research team. For the purpose of calculating sample size, Cochran’s formulas and procedures were used [30]. 2.4. Data analysis Table 1 We categorised interviewees into three distinct classes based on their Socio-demographic characteristics of participants. involvement with the value chain of NTFPs (collectors, buyers, and Socio-demographic Frequency Percentage consumers) to investigate perceptions about climate change and its Variables impact on NTFPs. Descriptive statistics were analysed using SPSS Sta- Age 18–20 5 0.7 tistics 20.0 (IBM, New York, USA). Tables and graphs were created to 21–29 115 16.3 display descriptive statistics related to sociodemographics, common 30–39 63 8.9 NTFPs, the perceptions of the locals on climate change, and factors 40–49 95 13.5 related to NTFP collection. To evaluate the impact of climate change on 50–55 298 42.2 60 or older 130 18.4 the forest, we reviewed secondary data from government resources and Total 706 100.0 published literature. We paid particular attention to patterns of tem- Level of Education High School degree 60 8.5 perature and rainfall. High School, no degree 237 33.6 Primary school only 368 52.1 Some Graduate Level Courses 41 5.8 3. Results Total 706 100.0 Gender Female 208 29.5 During the study, a higher proportion of males responded to the Male 498 70.5 interviews because men are the heads of families and are responsible for Total 706 100.0 most of the activities involved in gathering and hunting NFPS. Most 4 O. Asamoah et al. A c t a E c o l o g i c a S inica xxx (xxxx) xxx women were also observed to be shy when answering most of the According to the decadal mean rainfall ratios for Ghana, the current questions. Of the respondent, 208 female respondents (29.5%) and 498 climate from 2005 to 2014 is the driest ever, where a significant period male respondents (70.5%) participated in the survey. The age group that of wet weather occurred in the 1960s [1].There is no doubt that NTFP had the high number in the survey were the ages between 21 and 29,115 production levels have significantly decreased. According to a local, he responded (16.3%), whiles 18–20, 5 responded (0.7%) the least, and this used to collect a large number of snails and mushrooms. At one point, was the reason that the time of the data collection was school section the earnings from NTFPs were used to pay for his children’s tuition, but time, so most of the age class were in school. It was observed that a high now it is challenging to obtain mushrooms, snails and honey. As a result number of the locals only had primary education, with few who had of the application of insecticides on the land to control weeds, pest and some graduate courses. Of the total respondent, 368 (52.1%) had only diseases in the farms, the insect that supports the production of mush- primary education, while only 41(5.1%) completed the graduate level. rooms and honey are dead, which malfunction the production process. This high primary level could be attributed to financial constraints in sponsoring their education. 3.3. Perception of farmers and hunters in forest communities to changes in climate 3.1. Type of NTFPs to be collected from the forest by the response As shown in Fig. 4, honey production is estimated in selected com- The study examined the non-timber forest products that are common munities adjacent to forest areas. From 2001 to 2018, honey production and mainly collected within forest communities in the study region levels declined continuously. In response to a question about how many (Fig. 2). Based on the findings of the survey, most of the respondents gallons and how much money he was receiving from honey harvesting, a indicated that the collection of snails and honey accounts for 21.69% farmer replied, “I’ve been harvesting honey for 20 years, and it wasn’t and 20.55%, respectively, of all NTFPs harvested in the study regions. like this before.” For about 10 years, I harvested about 70 gal per year. Mushroom collections were collected by 15.21% of respondents. This was what I used to pay for my children’s school fees from Furthermore, 12.22% of study participants hunted for games and elementary school to university. The system has changed; I cannot even 10.78% collected herbs. A total of 8.32% of straw, 3.46% of leaves, harvest 20 gal a year. This is because the rate at the youth are cutting 2.99% of chewing sticks, and 1.89% of raffia palms were collected, down trees in the forest is alarming, and this has made the system respectively. change, we experience prolonged droughts and short rainfall, and the Honey, snails, and mushroom had the highest response in its trees cannot flower, and this has also affected the production level of collection due to the easy commercialisation of the products. Raffia honey, cocoa farmers are also using insecticides to spray their farms palm and pestles are hard the lowest due to the difficulty in processing which is killing the bees which are also affecting the production levels of and gathering. honey in the farms. The government needs to do something about it to curb the situation if not, then in the next 10 years, there will be no honey 3.2. Perception of locals on causes of climate change and its impacts on to save a life”. Income generated from Non-timber forest products for the NTFPs locals living adjacent to the forest was asked. It was observed that there was a total decline in the income generated due to the decline of the The response made it clear that many locals are aware of the change targeted NTFPs in the selected communities. Almost all the hunters and in climate and how climate has impacted NTFPs. According to the sur- farmers (99.6%) contacted stated that there had drastically decline in vey, 95.5% of respondents were aware of climate change and its impacts NTFPs in the reserved and off-reserve forests. When one hunter was on their livelihood, while 32 respondents (4.5%) did not know and did asked about the changes that have occurred and their effects, the hunter not believe climate change existed. According to residents, illegal min- stated, “I started hunting and looking for NTFPs at age 17 when I lost my ing, deforestation, overexploitation of resources and illegal logging are parents, and I am 50 years now. I have hunted for NTFPs for 33 years, some of the major contributing factors to climate change, which nega- both in the forest reserves and off-reserves in this village. During the tively impacts NTFPs and the environment. In addition to the change in rainy season, I can hunt for about 50 bags of snails, which is about 3000 rainfall pattern (Fig. 3), locals also state that the increase in atmospheric pieces of snails in those days, which I used to get money from it. I temperature, diseases, and pest infestations have also affected the pro- remember in 1990 I hunted for mushrooms and I got enough money out duction levels of NTFPs. The high temperatures, prolonged droughts, of which I bought a motorbike. short rains, and increased use of chemicals on soils and farms have It is now very hard for me to even get a bucket of snails for about two contributed to an increase in mortality among most insects that produce days hunting in both reserve and off-reserve forest”. The hunter some NTFPs. This confirms [1] that in 2005–2014, the decadal mean continued, “this is because most of the trees in the forest are logged. rainfall decreased from 1308 mm in the 1960s to 1147 mm in Ghana. Consequently, the snails and the organisms that help in the production Fig. 2. Types of non-timber forest products collected by respondents. 5 O. Asamoah et al. A c t a E c o l o g i c a S inica xxx (xxxx) xxx Fig. 3. Locals’ perceptions of climate change and its impact on NTFP production in the study area. n = 706. Fig. 4. Estimated honey collections in gallons by farmers in forest adjacent communities. of mushrooms are all dead. The rains do not come at the right time, and Ghana should be considered, as it is glaring. Late rains and intermittent there has been a long drought, making it difficult for the snails to sur- and prolonged droughts have become more frequent. This has posed a vive. Now it is a problem”. This hunter further stated, “NTFPs were considerable challenge to farmers and local communities and people helping us all the year round, and we were getting money from it all the living adjacent to the forest, NTFPs, hunters, and producers as tradi- time. We used income earned from NTFPs to care for our families, but tional coping mechanisms are increasingly challenged. With the focused now it is not like that, and life is hard here”. Other respondents made group discussions and Key Informant interviews with the market players similar submissions. like the market women who sell NTFPs like snails and mushrooms were The effects of climate change on NTFPs production in forest areas in contacted, and discussions were held with them on the changes that 6 O. Asamoah et al. A c t a E c o l o g i c a S inica xxx (xxxx) xxx have occurred in the production level of NTFPs. According to the market production, reduced growth rate, low body weight, poor hatchability women contacted, they made it clear that it is hard to get snails and and fertility [123]. Honeybees maintain the temperature of the brood mushrooms during the rainy season as it used to be. Some stated that the nest between 32 ◦C and optimally 35 ◦C so that the brood can develop system has changed; there has been a long drought and short rains in naturally. When the temperature in the nest is recorded to be too high, most forest areas where they get most of the NTFPs for the market. When the bees ventilate by fanning the hot air out of the nest or using evap- the rains do not come at the right time, one market woman stated, “Look orative cooling mechanisms. When the temperature is too low, bees at how dusty the environment is; for the past 4 months, there has not generate. Research has revealed that even small deviations (more than been a drop of rain. Do you think snails can survive without rains?” 0.5 ◦C) from the optimal brood temperatures have a significant influence Other businesswomen contacted in the interview stated it clearly that it on the development of the brood and the health of the resulting adult is hard to get NTFPs, and this has disrupted the business, and the busi- bees. Bees raised at sub-optimal temperatures are more susceptible to ness is fading away slowly. certain pesticides than adults [26,59]. The study further assessed the perception of the locals on the causes 4. Discussions of Climate change; it was mentioned that illegal mining, bush burning, deforestation, over-exploitation, and application of chemicals to the 4.1. Locals’ perception of climate change and its impacts on NTFPs land are the major contributor of climate change, which affect the production levels of NTFPs. This affirms [15] the misuse of lands To understand the impact of climate change on non-timber forest affecting the forest ecosystem. Deforestation has become one of the products (NTFPs), local communities must have direct interaction with major challenges to climate change, especially in Africa, where timber the environment. Depending on the experience, observations, and cul- and other forest resources are overexploited for economic benefits tural beliefs of locals, perceptions of climate change and its effects on [9,11,57]. Deforestation is considered the second most dreadful causal NTFPs may differ. According to our study, locals have noticed that the agent of climate change apart from the use of fossil fuels [15]. The climate has changed over time. There has been an increase in temper- continuous overexploitation and degradation of the forest will therefore ature, a decrease in rainfall, or a change in rainfall pattern. Results intensify climate alteration events leading to a prolonged drought, indicate that NTFP production yields have declined over time, possibly floods, extreme weather conditions, erratic rainfall patterns, and sea- due to increasing temperatures, changing rainfall patterns (long and level rise, among others [19,64,107]. The annual contribution from short rainfalls), chemical fertiliser use, and illegal mining. In addition to deforestation and changing land use is 23% of the total emission of CO2 supporting the secondary data, NTFP collectors’ survey responses indi- to the atmosphere [12,62]. The conversion of forests to agricultural land cated that infrastructure development and a changing climate have had is estimated to be 13 million hectares annually, contributing to the an impact on NTFP yield and, as a result, have had an impact on their release of carbon stored in trees as CO2 emissions into the atmosphere income from NTFPs. [58,68]. According to the respondents, Illegal mining is a major threat to Our study was keen on assessing the perception of the locals on the the forest and has negatively affected NTFPs level. According to most impact of climate change and if it has had an impact on NTFPS avail- respondents, several non-timber forest products were abundant in their ability. From the response of the locals, 95.5% confirmed that they are communities prior to illegal mining activities. Most respondents indi- aware of the alteration of climate, which has altered the atmospheric cated that snail mushrooms and rats, a delicacy in many Ghanaian temperature and rainfall pattern and has declined the production levels cookeries, were plentiful in the area before illegal mining activities of NTFPs [13,69]. Among the collectors who responded to a survey commenced. This validated [87] that illegal mining in forest areas has regarding the impact of climate change on NTFP yield, most (96.5%) affected the production levels of NTFPs. The forest is not threatened only stated that there had been an increase in temperature and a decrease in by logging, agriculture, mining, and other human activities but also by or unusual rainfall patterns. According to the respondents, insects that climate change [78]. Forests are exposed to different forms of distur- facilitate the production of NTFPs are drying out as a result of climate bances or disruptions that are highly influenced by the climate, which change. Additionally, the water table has been decreasing over the the locals mentioned climate’s impact on the forest. Disruptions such as years, negatively impacting the production of NTFPs. Temperature extreme drought and wildfire have a high negative impact on the forest changes and changes in precipitation patterns have been shown to have which in turn affects the production levels of NTFPs. In the tropics, a negative impact on NTFP ecosystem services [16,28,106]. prolonged drought exposes most of the vital organisms to danger, where The variations in the amount of rainfall and temperature across space most of the microorganisms cannot withstand the temperature and the and time can significantly influence agricultural and forest products, dry conditions of the forest. For instance, a high amount of fuel loads which in turn can substantially affect food security and household in- exposes the forest ecosystem to fire in the dry seasons. When fires are set come [27]. This is particularly the case in most parts of Africa, including in the forest either by natural or man-caused, it causes more harm, wipes Ghana, where climatic conditions continue to threaten the forest, its out most of the living organisms in the forest, and interrupt the forest products, agricultural production, and the livelihoods of people living in ecosystem [100,116], which affects the production levels of NTFPs in poor and marginalised rural communities [43]. Dozens of forest species forest areas. Climate change will also reorient the dynamics of the native and forest ecosystems may not be able to withstand the effects of global forest and its species in it, which will end in the establishment of non- warming and its associated disruption, for example, prolonged drought, native species in the forest ecosystem. Climate change and its effects floods, wildfire, and outbreaks of insects which will have adverse effects on the forest ecosystem are glare. There are other species that were on the forest ecosystem. Due to the sharp increase in temperature, most found in the past 100 years that cannot be found in the same forest organisms cannot survive in extremely warm temperatures. In the cur- today, being that those species could not withstand the changes that rent state of temperature in the southern part of the country, where the occurred [100]. Organisms that have greater mobility can seek shelter study was conducted, it was observed that the highest temperature from excessive radiant heat in their burrow or within the confines of the ranges from 30.1 to 31.9 ◦C, which can drastically affect snail produc- relatively cooler area of a forest or woodland. For organisms, such as tion. Optimum temperatures vary according to species, but most land snails, that do not make fast movement tend to perish, and mushrooms snails prefer warm temperatures from 13 ◦C to 32 ◦C and high-humidity and other forest products which cannot tend to perish will go extinct. environments. Looking at the temperature range in the southern part of the country, it can be said that a slight rise in the temperature will not be 4.2. Perception of locals living adjacent to the forest on climate change conducive to snail production in the southern part of the country. The effect of heat occasioned by high temperatures on snails could be It is reported that in Ghana, climate change, particularly heavy rain in the form of reduced feed intake and utilisation, reduced egg downpour which leads to flooding and long drought seasons, caused 7 O. Asamoah et al. A c t a E c o l o g i c a S inica xxx (xxxx) xxx about 6.3% and 9.3% reduction in agricultural produce and forest 4.4. Perception of locals on climate change enhancing decision-making in products. This results in increased food insecurity, poverty, and liveli- forest management hood challenges, particularly at the grassroots, where livelihood and food security are dependent mainly on agriculture. Knowing the According to the Mind Sponge Theory, individuals, particularly perception of smallholder farmers in the forest communities enables those within local communities, possess a vast reservoir of information, policymakers to have a deeper understanding of the realities of climate experiences, and perspectives that can be compared to a sponge. It change at the local level, which is essential for policy formulation and emphasises the importance of tapping into this valuable resource when implementation. The perception of the locals living in the forest com- making decisions and addressing complex challenges [122]. Based on munities about climate change was found. From Fig. 3, it was observed the theory, individuals living within their local communities are deeply that most of the locals had observed changes in the rainfall pattern. rooted in their environment and uniquely understand it. Their knowl- Some locals explained that there have been short rainfall and prolonged edge has been acquired through generations of living in close proximity drought in recent years. Other locals also made mentioned that climate to nature, observing patterns, and adjusting to changing environmental changes can be attributed to superstition. They mentioned that conditions. humanity’s evil deeds have resulted in sharp climate changes. Decision-makers can enhance the quality and effectiveness of their decisions by recognising the potential of local communities as “mind 4.3. Decline of honey collections by farmers in forest adjacent sponges.” The process involves actively seeking input from the com- communities munity and engaging in meaningful dialogue with them. The report acknowledges that local communities are well-versed in their ecosys- The bees of the Apis genus, who are responsible for the production of tems, including natural resource dynamics, ecological relationships, and honey, are distributed throughout the globe in diverse climates. A the effects of climate change on them. Mind Sponge Theory emphasises change in climatic conditions is bound to affect the survival of honeybee the importance of valuing and respecting local knowledge as comple- species that are closely associated with their environment. Climate mentary to scientific knowledge. There is an acknowledgement that alteration can have an impact on honeybees at different levels. The local perspectives and experiences are unique and can help shape more alteration in climate can directly influence honeybee behaviour and comprehensive and context-specific solutions. Including local knowl- physiology, affecting their production levels. Alterations in climate can edge in decision-making processes can result in more sustainable and alter the quality of the floral environment and increase or reduce colony equitable outcomes, as it reflects the needs, values, and aspirations of harvesting capacity and development[10,23]. Honeybees adjust their those directly affected by those decisions. behaviour to weather conditions; they do not go out when it rains and in In the context of climate change and natural resource management, extremely high temperatures. They gather water to keep the colony cool, the Mind Sponge Theory emphasises the importance of involving local affecting honey’s production level. Fig. 4 shows the estimated honey communities in decision-making processes [17,81]. Recognition of their collections in gallons by farmers and hunters in the forest-adjacent knowledge and perspectives fosters a sense of ownership, empower- communities in Ghana. The above figure shows the production levels ment, and collaboration [50]. Moreover, it recognises that people are of honey in the selected communities adjacent to the forest areas in intrinsically connected to their environment and that local communities Ghana. It was observed that honey production levels steadily declined are vital in ensuring ecosystem sustainability and resilience. from 1999 to 2018. Most of the contacted farmers narrated that “we used to get more honey from the forest when we go hunting for honey. 4.5. Climate change adaptation and mitigation We used to get more honey, and when sold, we get more money which I used to pay for my children’s fees, but now we hardly get honey when Alteration in Climate in Ghana affects every aspect and sector of our we go hunting. I can spend days in the forest but do not even get more socio-economic development, and it is all sectoral inclusive. It outdoes than 4 gallons of honey. This has affected my living standard”. This is a the traditional focus on environmental issues because it affects Ghana’s clear indication that there has been a sharp decline in honey. Snails, overall well-being and economic growth. It then points to the fact that mushrooms, and other non-timber forest products in the forest were not the response must be all-inclusive, involving all stakeholders in an exception. The low production levels of Non-timber forest products addressing the impacts of climate change on all sectors, mostly on nat- have had a negative effect on the income levels of the locals in the forest ural resources management which our interest will be in the forest, areas since most of their income is generated from some of the NTFPs. agriculture, and others like economic development, infrastructure, en- Two of the most important services the honeybee renders to human is ergy, and transportation. the pollination of domestic and wild fruit crops and the production of Some of the available options to mitigate the impact of climate honey. Honeybees have become indispensable in our agricultural change include changing the cropping patterns; avoiding further economy and may be considered a relatively not a new story. The more development on wetlands, flood plains, and close to sea level, avoiding bees get crops pollinated, we get abundant food, and the more they help land degradation; developing crops that are resistant to drought, heat, in honey production. The long period of drought makes all trees shed and salt; afforestation programs of degraded land with tree species that their leaves and do not flower on time, affecting the bees’ activities, can sequestrate more carbon, a policy of cut one plant ten in the forest affecting their production levels. This has become a key factor in the low areas and environmental engineering defences against diseases. level of honey production in recent times in the forested areas in Ghana. Designing and building new water projects for flood control and drought A period occurs in the tropics and temperate zones during which envi- management. Introduction of afforestation programs on degraded land, ronmental conditions are unfavourable for the bees, and as a result, the reduction of deforestation, and making honey, mushroom, and snail colony’s activity diminishes. In tropical zones, adverse conditions for farms in the afforestation lands. honeybees may occur in different periods and may be caused by other NTFPs for food, medicines, and water are forest-related priorities for factors: In some areas, the temperature rises so high that the colony’s climate adaptation methods. Strategic forest management (SFM) is seen activity is reduced. Few or no plants are flowering. Only a few bees fly as the simplest way to attain global climate change adaptation and out, and as a result, very little, if any, nectar is collected. In other areas, mitigation, furthermore as poverty reduction and economic and social drought occurs, and the lowering of flowers, and therefore the amount of development. Several ways of getting used are vulnerability maps and nectar available, is reduced considerably. This has adverse effects on developing adaptation strategies using forest resources. Ghana has honey production. adopted the Taungya program as the simplest way to revive the lost forests within the country. The Forestry Commission of Ghana ought to review the program within the transition zone of the country’s forest to 8 O. Asamoah et al. A c t a E c o l o g i c a S inica xxx (xxxx) xxx push a taungya system as a climate adaptation strategy. This is often References wherever the communities are actively concerned and involved in conservation and afforestation programs. The taungya system includes [1] T. Abbam, F.A. Johnson, J. Dash, S.S. Padmadas, Spatiotemporal variations in several elements of adaptation strategies. 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