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SCHOOL TO WORK TRANSITION AMONG EMPLOYED 
 GRADUATES IN ACCRA. 
  
 
 
 
BY 
 
DEBORAH NAA KOSHIE MILLS 
(10551978) 
 
 
 
 
THIS THESIS IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, 
LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR 
THE AWARD OF MPHIL SOCIOLOGY DEGREE. 
 
 
 
 
JULY, 2017.
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DECLARATION 
 
I hereby declare that, except for references to other people‟s work, which have been duly 
acknowledged, this work is the result of my own research work carried out under the 
supervision of Dr. James Dzisah and Prof. Akosua Darkwah of the Department of Sociology.  
 
Deborah Naa Koshie Mills                                                         Date 
 
............................................................................... …………………… 
Student  
 
Dr. James Dzisah Date 
 
...............................................................................                  ……………………… 
Principal Supervisor 
 
Prof. Akosua Darkwah Date 
 
............................................................................... …………………… 
Co-Supervisor 
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DEDICATION 
 
This work is dedicated to the Almighty God for His steadfast love, infinite mercy, grace and 
the gift of intellect for the entire duration of my studies and to my parents, Mr. and Mrs. Mills 
for their unwavering support, sacrifices and encouragement. I am forever grateful. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 
 
A journey through this ever-changing academic environment could not have been possible 
independently. I have had the benefit of being supported and encouraged by many people 
throughout this journey and there cannot be enough words and space to express my 
appreciation to these people who have helped me through this journey. 
My profound gratitude, first and foremost goes to the Almighty God for His goodness, mercy 
and faithfulness throughout the entire course of study. Special thanks and appreciation goes 
to my supervisors, Dr. James Dzisah and Prof. Akosua Darkwah who inspired me and 
engaged me in very helpful discussions and constructive criticisms, expert direction, time and 
energy to make this work a good one. Thank you so much for your priceless contributions. I 
am also grateful to the Head of Department and lecturers of the Department of Sociology of 
the University of Ghana for this course and for their contributions during the thesis 
presentation. 
To all the institutions and respondents who spent time with me to share your views and ideas 
and relevant information, thank you for being indispensable in this work.  
My gratitude also goes to my course mates who made the experience of studying at this 
university enjoyable and in one way or the other made contributions to this work, I say thank 
you. I could not have asked for a better class.  
To Mr. Denning Bandua, I say thank you for your support. The many other friends who 
became companions in this journey of work, I express my sense of gratitude. 
God richly bless you all. 
 
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ABSTRACT 
 
The transition from school to work is one that has long been the focus of academic attention. 
Two assets, formal and informal have been identified to offer a more successful transition. 
However, there is a lack of clarity in our context about which supersedes the other in 
determining this successful transition. Generally, this study sought to explore the nature of 
assets that enabled an easy transition from school to work. To achieve this, the study utilized 
a mixed methods approach; a survey of 209 employed graduates working in six formal 
organizations and interviews with 7 respondents. The study revealed that, it takes a graduate 
as early as one year and at least five years to get a job in Accra after tertiary education. The 
study also disclosed that, out of the varied strategies used in securing jobs, the family factor 
was the main source of finding out about job vacancies. As Granovetter (1974) argued, the 
study found that informal assets specifically social networks were the most important factor 
for successful school to work transition among employed graduates in Accra. In this study, it 
is also found that, the status of members in one‟s social network was key. The study, 
however, recommends graduates make use of their formal assets (skills, qualification, work 
experience, course of study etc) rather than their informal assets (family friends, 
acquaintances) since it is the formal assets that would help them stay in the organisation 
when there is a change in the structure of the organisation. 
  
 
 
 
 
 
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Table of Contents 
 
DECLARATION ..................................................................................................................................... i 
DEDICATION ........................................................................................................................................ ii 
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ..................................................................................................................... iii 
ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................................... iv 
List of Tables ....................................................................................................................................... viii 
List of Figures ...................................................................................................................................... viii 
List of equation .................................................................................................................................... viii 
CHAPTER ONE ..................................................................................................................................... 1 
INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................. 1 
1.0 BACKGROUND ............................................................................................................................... 1 
1.1 PROBLEM STATEMENT ............................................................................................................ 5 
1.2 RESEARCH OBJECTIVE ............................................................................................................. 6 
1.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS ............................................................................................................ 6 
1.4 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ................................................................................................... 7 
1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY ................................................................................................. 8 
1.6 SCOPE OF THE STUDY .............................................................................................................. 8 
1.7 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY ................................................................................................... 9 
1.8 DEFINITION OF CONCEPTS ...................................................................................................... 9 
1.9 ORGANISATION OF THE STUDY ............................................................................................. 10 
CHAPTER TWO .................................................................................................................................. 12 
LITERATURE REVIEW ..................................................................................................................... 12 
2.0 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................... 12 
2.1 NATURE OF SCHOOL TO WORK TRANSITION .............................................................................. 12 
2.2 FORMAL ASSETS .......................................................................................................................... 14 
2.2.1 Services of Employment Agencies ...................................................................................... 14 
2.2.2 Response to Advertisements/ Direct Applications ............................................................... 14 
2.2.3 Internet ................................................................................................................................. 15 
2.2.4 Skills .................................................................................................................................... 17 
2.2.5 Qualifications ....................................................................................................................... 18 
2.2.6 Work Experience.................................................................................................................. 19 
2.3 INFORMAL ASSETS ...................................................................................................................... 21 
2.3.1 Social Capital / Social Network ........................................................................................... 21 
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2.3.2 Family and Peers .................................................................................................................. 25 
CHAPTER THREE .............................................................................................................................. 27 
RESEARCH METHODS ..................................................................................................................... 27 
3.0 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................... 27 
3.1 STUDY AREA ................................................................................................................................ 27 
3.2 STUDY DESIGN............................................................................................................................. 28 
3.3 QUANTITATIVE METHOD ............................................................................................................ 30 
3.3.1 Target Population ................................................................................................................. 30 
3.3.2 Study Population .................................................................................................................. 31 
3.3.3 Unit of Analysis ................................................................................................................... 31 
3.3.4 Sampling Frame ................................................................................................................... 31 
3.3.5 Sampling Method and Procedure ......................................................................................... 32 
3.3.6 Sample Size .......................................................................................................................... 34 
3.3.7 Data Collection Instrument .................................................................................................. 35 
3.3.8 Pre-testing of Data Collection Instrument............................................................................ 37 
3.3.9 Quantitative Data Processing ............................................................................................... 38 
3.4 QUALITATIVE METHOD ............................................................................................................... 38 
3.4.1 Target Population ................................................................................................................. 39 
3.4.2 Sample Selection and Size ................................................................................................... 40 
3.4.3 Data Collection Instrument .................................................................................................. 40 
3.4.4 Qualitative Data Processing ................................................................................................. 41 
3.5 ETHICAL CONSIDERATION ........................................................................................................... 41 
CHAPTER FOUR ................................................................................................................................. 43 
DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSES AND DISCUSSION ............................................................ 43 
4.0 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................... 43 
4.1 SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS .................................................................................. 43 
4.2 DESCRIPTION OF RESPONDENTS’ CURRENT EMPLOYMENT ....................................................... 48 
4.2.1 National Service ................................................................................................................... 48 
4.2.2 Preferred Job ........................................................................................................................ 49 
4.2.3 Job Relatedness .................................................................................................................... 50 
4.2.4 Knowledge and Skills .......................................................................................................... 50 
4.2.5 Additional Skills .................................................................................................................. 51 
4.2.6 Years Working after National Service ................................................................................. 52 
4.3 STRATEGIES OF JOB SEARCH ....................................................................................................... 52 
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4.3.1 Newspaper Advertisement ................................................................................................... 53 
4.3.2 Career Fair ........................................................................................................................... 53 
4.3.3 Internet ................................................................................................................................. 54 
4.3.4 Family .................................................................................................................................. 54 
4.3.5 Groups .................................................................................................................................. 55 
4.4 FORMAL ASSETS .......................................................................................................................... 56 
4.5 INFORMAL ASSETS ...................................................................................................................... 61 
4.5.1 Size of Network ................................................................................................................... 62 
4.5.2 Strength of Network ............................................................................................................. 63 
4.5.3 Status of Tie Members ......................................................................................................... 63 
4.5.4 Member of Youth Organisation ........................................................................................... 64 
4.5.5 Member of Old Students‟ Association ................................................................................. 64 
4.5.6 Member of Professional Association ................................................................................... 65 
4.6 COMBINATION OF ASSETS .......................................................................................................... 66 
CHAPTER FIVE .................................................................................................................................. 68 
GETTING A JOB: THE ROLE OF ASSETS ...................................................................................... 68 
5.0 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................... 68 
5.1 THE EXTENT TO WHICH FORMAL ASSETS DETERMINE GRADUATES’ EMPLOYMENT. ................ 68 
5.2 THE EXTENT TO WHICH INFORMAL ASSETS DETERMINE GRADUATES’ EMPLOYMENT ............. 74 
5.3 THE EXTENT TO WHICH COMBINATION OF ASSETS DETERMINE GRADUATES’ EMPLOYMENT . 77 
CHAPTER SIX ..................................................................................................................................... 78 
SUMMARY, FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION ......................................... 78 
6.0 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................... 78 
6.1 SUMMARY ................................................................................................................................... 78 
6.2 KEY FINDINGS .............................................................................................................................. 79 
6.3 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................... 81 
6.4 RECOMMENDATIONS.................................................................................................................. 82 
6.5 SUGGESTION FOR FURTHER RESEARCH ...................................................................................... 82 
REFERENCES ..................................................................................................................................... 83 
APPENDIX 1 ........................................................................................................................................ 91 
APPENDIX 2 ........................................................................................................................................ 99 
APPENDIX 3 ...................................................................................................................................... 102 
APPENDIX 4 ...................................................................................................................................... 103 
 
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List of Tables 
 
Table 1: Sex of respondents .................................................................................................................. 43 
Table 2: Age of respondents ................................................................................................................. 44 
Table 3: Marital status of respondents .................................................................................................. 44 
Table 4: Ethnicity of respondents ......................................................................................................... 45 
Table 5: Religious affiliation of respondents ........................................................................................ 46 
Table 6: Type of organisation ............................................................................................................... 46 
Table 7: Bio-data of interviewees ......................................................................................................... 47 
Table 8: Background information on respondents‟ job......................................................................... 48 
Table 9: Strategies of job vacancies ...................................................................................................... 53 
Table 10: Respondents‟ formal assets ................................................................................................... 56 
Table 11: Graduates‟ informal assets .................................................................................................... 61 
Table 12: Groups respondents belong to ............................................................................................... 64 
Table 13: Combination of assets ........................................................................................................... 66 
Table 14: Relationship between secondary school attended and years taken to get a job. ................... 68 
Table 15: Relationship between university attended and years taken to get a job. ............................... 69 
Table 16: Relationship between course of study and years taken to get a job. ..................................... 70 
Table 17: Relationship between class obtained and years taken to get a job. ....................................... 71 
Table 18: Relationship between internship and years taken to get a job. ............................................. 72 
Table 19: Relationship between professional course read and years taken to get a job. ...................... 73 
Table 20: Size of network varies by years taken to get a job. ............................................................... 74 
Table 21: Strength of one‟s network varies by years taken to get a job. .............................................. 75 
Table 22: Status of members in network varies by years taken to get a job. ........................................ 76 
Table 23: Relationship between assets combined and years taken to get a job. ................................... 77 
 
List of Figures  
 
Figure 1: Sequential explanatory design ............................................................................................... 29 
List of equation 
 
Equation 1: Formula for determining sample size ................................................................................ 35
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CHAPTER ONE 
INTRODUCTION 
 
1.0 BACKGROUND 
 
...Meet Naa Odarley, Nana Ama, Joojo and Kofi. All four have graduated from their 
universities, ended their National Service at their various postings and searching for jobs in 
the labour market. This is their first transition from school to work. Who will make an 
appreciable school to work transition? Fortunately, Naa Odarley gets a job amidst the limited 
employment opportunities and where having a degree does not guarantee one a job. How did 
she get in...? 
The transition from school to work is an important phase in the life of every graduate. 
School-to-work transition is not just one single event that is, moving from being a student to 
being a worker but a series of transitions that varies significantly across both individuals and 
countries (Korpi et al., 2003). It refers to the time in an individual‟s life when he completes 
his or her tertiary education or training and acquires a steady job in an organisation (Wolbers, 
2003). 
Just like “rites of passage” where individuals move from one life stage to another (from birth 
to death), school to work transition can be likened to the progression from being a student to 
being a worker (Gangl, 2002). It can also be seen as a period where individuals are integrated 
into the labour market. To Wyn et al (1997 p. 96), „transition to adulthood‟ means that every 
individual in his life moves from childhood to adulthood and this stage has its own 
responsibilities that is, a destination at which one „arrives‟ and this marks his or her economic 
independence and other aspirations as well. 
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As an important life event, this transition is a crucial stage in the lives of graduates because it 
is usually their first and major entry into the labour market and their lifelong careers as well, 
and can be very unstable (Korpi et al., 2003). This instability involves various efforts and 
ways to establish themselves in the world of work since the quest for a smooth school to 
work transition can be very tedious. Additionally, this causes them to make difficult decisions 
such as how to respond to the opportunities and constraints of the labour market (Schoon and 
Silbereisen, 2009).   
According to the International Labour Organization (2011), the 2008 world‟s financial crisis 
or global economic recession had negative effects on both developed and developing 
countries. It led to the loss of jobs as both private and public institutions froze employment 
because of low demand for goods and services. This situation mainly affected young workers 
as compared to the older ones; the reason being that the younger workers had little experience 
thus, making it difficult for graduates to make a smooth transition into the labour market. By 
the end of 2009, the world‟s unemployed had increased to two hundred and five million.  
Also, aside unemployment, there was a decline in the quality of employment where 
employees had to accept unfavourable working conditions.  
Asafu-Adjaye (2012) reiterated this point by making it known that; higher unemployment 
levels among graduates in Africa in recent times have reinforced the uncertainty about the 
effects on education in terms of employability. He further argued that, the economic crisis 
and cuts in public expenditure in most African states as a result of the structural adjustment 
programs implemented in the late 1980s hindered many graduates‟ labour market 
opportunities (ibid.). 
Transition from school to work is not as straightforward as it looks or sounds. According to 
Te Riele (2004), this transition is made up of lots of ups and downs. In confirmation of this, 
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Scherer (2005) posits that whereas in some countries graduates have to wait a long time 
before they enter the labour market, in others, they have a smooth transition into the labour 
market; and whereas some graduates are stable in their first jobs, others are not. This 
integration process according to Muller and Gangl (2003) is not solely a result of the 
individual‟s decision but also economic conditions, job market conditions, government 
policies and rapid technological changes which they respond to in diverse ways.  
In developed countries such as Austria, Sweden and Belgium, graduates have fairly easy 
transitions as job opportunities are available and graduates in these countries are able to get 
jobs during the first six months after their graduation but in developing countries like Cote 
d‟Ivoire, it takes individuals one year to get into the labour market and more than five years 
in countries like Kenya, Malawi, Ethiopia, Burkina Faso, among others. In fact, graduates 
have to wait for a long time before getting employed and as a result taking up other 
temporary jobs for lack of better job opportunities (Fares et al, 2005). In Ghana, it is common 
among graduates from universities to secure employment in the formal sector. In 2008, it was 
estimated that less than two percent of those who complete school are able to get jobs in the 
formal sector (ISSER, 2008). However, this figure has changed as it is estimated that only 
eight percent are able to get jobs in the formal sector of the economy with the remaining 
ninety-two percent in the informal sector (NDPC 2010). This therefore depicts the 
unavailability of jobs to match the number of graduates seeking employment in the formal 
sector.  
Employability is an individual‟s achievement and it is the ability of a graduate to get 
employment (Harvey, 2001). McQuaid (2006) referred to employability as the various factors 
that together affect a person‟s likelihood of securing a job; that is, the quality of being 
employable. These factors, she classified as individual factors (the person‟s skills, 
qualifications, work experience, length of unemployment, demographic characteristics); 
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personal circumstances (access to resources, family support, caring responsibilities); and 
external factors (labour market demand, mobility).  
To Green et al (2011), these methods have normally been divided into formal and informal 
methods and are deployed in ways which differ from person to person to facilitate their entry 
into the labour market. Thus, one factor will not ensure a successful transition into the labour 
market for everyone. The formal methods comprise the services of employment agencies, 
responding to advertisements in newspapers, journals and recently, the internet. The informal 
methods include social network, ethnicity among others. They also further classify job search 
behaviour as „active‟ or „passive‟ depending on the diverse actions that an individual engages 
in to seek employment, with the former being associated with greater actions than the latter. 
Another concept used in studies of job search is that of job-search „intensity‟ which is 
variously considered as the time spent by individuals looking for jobs, the number of 
applications made or the number of different job-search methods used (ibid).  
Granovetter‟s (1974) work on “Getting a Job” proposed that, numerous employees not only 
get jobs through their formal assets (internet, skills, qualification, and work experience) but 
also get jobs through their informal assets (social network), that is, whom they know. He 
brings out a clear distinction between what he refers to as strong and weak ties. For him, 
strong ties are formed between people and their families and close friends whiles weak ties 
are formed between people and their colleagues and acquaintances. To him, strength of ties is 
the combination of the amount of time devoted to a relationship, the emotional intensity 
within the relationship, the intimacy between members as well as the mutual service 
rendered. He also makes it clear that these ties; strong and weak both have values they 
contribute in order for individuals to secure jobs. 
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This study thus seeks to explore and understand how this eight percent are able to make it 
into the formal sector and the assets they deploy to transition from school to work effectively. 
These assets are what Bourdieu (1984) calls capital which comes in different forms; 
economic, cultural, social and symbolic.  Either one or a combination of all four makes this 
transition possible. 
1.1 PROBLEM STATEMENT 
 
University education is a frequently chosen pathway for individuals to be employable in the 
workforce (Perez-Pena, 2012). However, in recent years, there has been a debate about the 
extent to which university education offers a simple transition to employment.  One school of 
thought has it that, graduates are able to make an easy school to work transition whiles the 
other holds that, graduates are not able to make an easy school to work transition.  The 
consensus is that a lot of factors other than simply attending a university determine the ease 
of one‟s transition. These factors include the internet (Green et al 2011), skills (Brown et al 
2003), qualifications (Brown, 2003), work experience (Tomlinson, 2008) and social network 
(Elias, 2000), advertisements (Opoku Nyarko et al, 2014). A key point to note about this 
discussion is the fact that, the literature available, focuses on the developed countries where 
securing a job is fairly easy. However, not much is known within the Ghanaian context. 
Therefore, the extent to which formal and informal assets are relevant in getting graduates 
jobs in Ghana is not known.  This study therefore seeks to fill this gap by understanding the 
keys to a successful school to work transition in the Ghanaian context to ascertain to what 
extent the factors identified for such transitions are applicable in the Ghanaian context. 
 
 
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1.2 RESEARCH OBJECTIVE  
 
Generally, this study seeks to explore the factors that are at play in getting graduates 
permanent jobs in the formal sector of Ghana‟s economy. 
 The specific objectives are: 
 To explore the extent to which formal assets (knowledge, skills, qualifications, work 
experience) determine graduates‟ employment. 
 To examine the extent to which informal assets (family, friends, acquaintances and 
social networks) determine graduates‟ employment. 
 To examine which combination of formal and informal assets increase a graduates‟ 
chances of securing early employment. 
 
1.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS 
 
The following research questions are posed to give a specific focus to the study. 
 What is the extent to which formal assets are relevant in getting graduates jobs? 
 What is the extent to which informal assets are relevant in getting graduates jobs? 
 Which combinations of assets deployed by graduates facilitate their employment? 
 
 
 
 
 
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1.4 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 
A number of theoretical frameworks have been used in the analysis of graduates‟ entry into 
the world of work and their relative performance in their occupations (Couppié and Mansuy, 
2004). These include theories of human capital (Becker, 1964), labour mobility (Sicherman 
and Galor, 1990), job search (Mortensen, 1970), job matching and turnover (Jovanovic, 1979, 
1984), job competition (Thurow, 1975) and labour market segmentation (Doeringer and 
Piore, 1971). These theories in different ways, explain the employment situation of graduates, 
especially during their early years in the labour market.  
Strength of ties plays an important role in getting people jobs. A study conducted by 
Granovetter (1974) on two hundred and eighty-two professional, technical and managerial 
employees from Massachusetts found that eighty-four percent of respondents got jobs 
through their ties. Levin et al (2004) in a study of one hundred and twenty-seven people from 
three organisations discovered that weak ties provide relevant information about the labour 
market which is in line with Granovetter‟s strength of weak ties. Similarly, a study conducted 
by Franzen et al (2006) on eight thousand university graduates found that forty-four percent 
got their jobs through social network. These studies confirm the strength of ties in one‟s 
transition from school to work. 
This study being undertaken therefore draws on Granovetter‟s (1974) work on “Getting a 
Job” which proposed that, numerous employees do not only get jobs through their formal 
assets (internet, skills, qualification, and work experience) or “what you know” but also get 
jobs through their informal assets (social network) or “who you know” to assess the transition 
of graduates in Accra from school to work.  
This points to the fact, that in order to get a job, it is not only about one‟s personal 
achievement but whom he knows also plays an important role in getting a job. This he calls 
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the strength of ties which is either weak or strong. To him, strength of ties is the combination 
of the amount of time devoted to a relationship, the emotional intensity within the 
relationship, the intimacy between members as well as the mutual service rendered. That is, 
the kind of social relationship that exists between the individual and the people in his or her 
network also helps individuals to secure jobs. 
1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY 
 
This study seeks to explore the factors that are at play in getting graduates permanent jobs in 
the formal sector of Ghana‟s economy. The idea is to understand the transition of graduates 
from school to work in modern Ghanaian society and unearth the various assets employed by 
graduates in modern Ghanaian society to facilitate their entry into the labour market. This 
will reveal the most effective asset employed by graduates in modern Ghanaian economy. An 
insight into the extent to which these assets play a role in securing jobs will also come to 
bare.  
More so, through this study, new knowledge will be added to existing literature on school to 
work transition and relevance of the assets used in securing jobs in Ghana. And finally, the 
results of this study will serve as a basis for any further research on the topic being studied. 
1.6 SCOPE OF THE STUDY 
 
There are many formal organisations in the Accra. However, the study covers the formal 
organisations in the Accra Metropolitan Assembly. Thus, the public and private organisations 
are included in the sample in order to get a representative sample so as to reveal the assets 
used and the extent to which the assets play in securing graduates jobs. Contextually, the 
study focuses on the various assets deployed by graduates to secure jobs in these 
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organisations and further looks at the extent to which these assets get graduates jobs in the 
Ghanaian economy. 
1.7 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY 
 
The study is first and foremost restricted to graduates who have secured jobs after graduating 
from the university and had their National Service. Though a study of this nature should have 
covered the whole country to reveal the most used asset among employed graduates in 
Ghana, time and financial constraints did not make it possible for a nationwide study, thus 
limiting the study to the Accra Metropolitan Assembly.  
1.8 DEFINITION OF CONCEPTS 
 
The following definitions are provided to ensure the uniformity and understanding of these 
terms throughout the study. 
School to work transition has been defined variously. For the purpose of this study, school to 
work transition refers to the period where individuals graduate from the university and 
secure employment in a formal organisation. 
Graduate: For the purpose of this study, a graduate refers to an individual who has 
completed four years of university education and has graduated. 
Stable employment: For the purpose of this study, stable employment refers to when a 
graduate attains full time employment in an organisation and is satisfied with his or her job. 
Assets: For the purpose of this study, assets refer to the resources used by graduates to gain 
employment. 
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Formal assets: For the purpose of the study, formal assets are personal achievements such as 
education, skills, qualifications, work experience that graduates make use of in order to get 
jobs. 
Informal assets: For the purpose of the study, informal assets are social networks; family, 
friends, acquaintances and associations graduates draw upon to secure jobs. 
1.9 ORGANISATION OF THE STUDY 
 
The thesis is organised into six chapters. First and foremost, chapter one covers the 
introductory section of the study. That is the research background, research problem, the 
objectives of the study, the research questions which guides the study, the theoretical 
framework underpinning the study, the scope of the study, the significance of the study as 
well as the limitations of the study, the definition of concepts and concludes with a summary 
of how the entire thesis has been organised.  
Secondly, chapter two focuses on the literature review. The chapter is devoted to the body of 
work on the school to work transition of graduates. First, it begins with an overview of the 
content of the chapter. The review presents an overview of the nature of school to work 
transition among graduates, this is followed by a review on the various assets; formal and 
informal graduates use in order to get employed. Finally, the chapter concludes with a 
summary of the discussion had. 
Chapter three covers the research methods used in carrying out and obtaining data for the 
study. The chapter begins with an overview of its contents. This is followed by describing the 
research area, explaining the research design and sampling procedure. The chapter continues 
with the data collection methods, how data was managed and analysed and the ethical issues 
considered in conducting the study. 
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Chapter four analyzes data on the first part of the findings from the field. It gives a 
description of the respondents of the study, then, presents general information about the jobs 
of respondents, the strategies of job search of respondents, the formal assets as well as the 
informal assets of respondents of the study. 
Chapter five continues with the findings of the study. It looks at the role of assets in getting a 
job. The chapter also presents results of nonparametric tests conducted to find the relationship 
between the assets deployed by graduates when searching for jobs and how long it takes them 
to get employed and finally presents the findings on the combination of assets used in gaining 
employment in Accra.  
Chapter six, the final chapter, covers the main arguments of the study in response to the 
research questions, summarises the key findings of the study, suggest recommendations for 
consideration for future policies and draws a conclusion on the study.    
This chapter gives an overview of the study under study. In order to throw more light on this, 
the chapter that follows explores the empirical works on school to work transition. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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CHAPTER TWO 
LITERATURE REVIEW 
 
2.0 INTRODUCTION 
 
This chapter presents an overview of literature in the area of school to work transition. Its 
primary purpose is to give an understanding of the transition of graduates from the university. 
As assets used in securing jobs have broadly been categorised under formal and informal and 
the importance of both depends on either how they are used or how they are combined, there 
is a section that looks at the formal assets graduates use in order to secure jobs. A section on 
the informal assets used in securing jobs is then looked at. Afterwards, a section on job 
satisfaction follows. The chapter then concludes with a summary of what has been discussed. 
2.1 NATURE OF SCHOOL TO WORK TRANSITION 
 
Securing a job after years of education is one of the most important and difficult time in the 
lives of young graduates. This period can be very unstable as it involves different efforts and 
varied ways to enter the labour market, or it can be a fairly smooth process. During this 
period of transition, graduates are faced with difficult decisions like: higher education, job 
search and how to respond to the opportunities and problems of the labour market. A decision 
taken by the graduate during this period goes a long way to affect his or her future career as 
well as other transitions of life like leaving one‟s parents and forming a family of his or her 
own (Schoon and Silbereisen, 2009). 
According to Muller and Gangl (2003), this transition process does not only depend on the 
graduates‟ decision but also from the opportunities and constraints formed by economic 
conditions such as the improvement in technology, disappearance of manual jobs, 
involvement of women in the labour market and government policies. In developed countries 
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such as Austria, Sweden and Belgium, graduates have fairly easy transitions as job 
opportunities are available and graduates in these countries are able to get jobs during the 
first six months after their graduation but in developing countries like Cote d‟Ivoire, it takes 
individuals one year to get into the labour market and more than five years in countries like 
Kenya, Malawi, Ethiopia, Burkina Faso, and others found in the Sub Saharan region, 
graduates have to wait for a long time before getting employed and as a result taking up other 
temporary jobs for lack of better job opportunities (Fares et al, 2005).  
School to work transition has transformed over the years from short and straight forward 
routes which were available to previous generations to  lengthy and less clear cut routes in 
modern times (Wyn et al, 1997) indicating that, the road from education to the labour market 
is not easy as graduates in search of jobs outnumber the jobs available.  
There are many views with regards to what a successful school to work transition is. To 
Cellini (2006), some use objective criteria such as employment versus unemployment, job 
performance ratings and levels of turnover whiles others use the subjective criteria like work 
attitudes, stress levels and perceptions of how well they fit in the world of work.  
As a result of this, a successful school to work transition has been defined by Ng et al (2007 
p116) as “a state in which individuals are employed after leaving school, perform at levels 
acceptable to their employers, and have positive attitudes towards their work environments 
and job requirements.” 
However, the school to work transition cycle ends when the individual‟s place in the labour 
market has gotten to the “degree of consolidation affording him or her a reasonable set of 
skills to undertake the adventure that constitutes a large part of workers‟ life cycles in today‟s 
labour markets, characterised as they are by instability and high productivity demands” which 
leads to a promising career (Ramirez, 1998 as cited in Jeria, 2009 p320). 
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As a result of this, various assets and methods which are grouped into formal and informal 
are used by graduates to facilitate their entry into the labour market (Schoon and Silbereisen, 
2009). These assets are discussed in the next section. 
2.2 FORMAL ASSETS 
 
2.2.1 Services of Employment Agencies 
 
The use of services of employment agencies by individuals to secure jobs in organisations or 
aid in the transition of graduates from school to work is another of the range of job seeking 
methods. It is when vacancies in organisations are made known to the employment agencies 
who then relay the information to graduates who register with these agencies so they can 
apply for the vacant positions in the organisations thus, acting as a mediator between the 
graduate and the organisation. In Ghana currently, there are about forty-six registered 
companies that act as employment agencies for organisations (Oppong, 2008). These 
agencies are specialised in delivering specific tasks to various organisations who in this case 
are their clients. They add great value to organisations as they help organisations assess, hire 
and retain the right people (Dessler, 2002). To Hansen (2009), employment agencies allow 
organisations to focus and modernize its capabilities as the world of business is becoming 
more complex and advanced.  
2.2.2 Response to Advertisements/ Direct Applications 
 
Response to advertisements either through newspapers or public media of jobs available in 
organisations is one of the formal methods used by graduates in the transition from school to 
work though it is rapidly becoming outmoded. It is when an individual on seeing an 
advertisement of a job he or she is interested in writes an application letter and adds his or her 
curriculum vitae (CV) and sends it to the recruiting organisation. Findings of a study 
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conducted by Adjei and Mohammed (2014) revealed that graduates use the response to 
advertisements through application letters to gain employment in organisations. In their 
study, twenty-three percent of respondents applied for vacancies using application letters and 
fifty-two percent of the respondents rated the use of application letters as one of the effective 
ways of securing jobs. A study conducted by Opoku Nyarko et al (2014) on four hundred and 
four workers found responding to advertisements to be the second most frequently used by 
graduates to get jobs with social networks being the first factor. 
2.2.3 Internet 
 
As a result of technological changes and the diffusion of the internet in modern society, the 
use of the internet has become one of the most important ways of looking for, as well as, 
getting jobs amongst graduates. Its impact on the job market therefore has garnered high 
interest. This is because; it has brought about changes in the ways in which people search for 
jobs.  According to Suvankulov et al (2012), this recent development has overshadowed the 
traditional ways (such as personal referrals, job fairs, private and public employment offices 
and newspaper advertisements) of getting jobs. According to Green et al (2011), one of the 
formal assets used by graduates to ease their entry into the labour market is the use of the 
internet. Individuals are therefore able to access the internet from a number of places 
including their homes, workplaces, schools, and libraries as a result of the production and 
sale of new wireless devices such as modems, broadband, router and wifi, which gives one 
the opportunity to access the internet anywhere at any time. 
According to Suvankulov et al (2012), since graduates are able to access the internet from 
different places, it gives graduates the opportunity to access information on available jobs at 
any time, any day and also allows them upload their curriculum vitae (CV) and cover letters 
on organisations‟ job boards. Likewise, it gives organisations the chance to also place their 
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advertisements on their job boards and this has a positive outcome in getting graduates jobs. 
In the same study, it was found that university degree holders who used the internet in 
searching for jobs had the probability of being employed within twelve months. Autor (2001) 
also reiterates this point.  
Mang (2012) posited that one of the reasons why people use the internet when searching for 
jobs is that it has greatly enhanced the job search process. The use of the internet is a fast and 
efficient way of getting jobs since it gives first-hand information on job opportunities. That 
is, it allows individuals to have quick and easy access to a wide range of job opportunities 
and employment websites like Monster.com, employment portal websites for major 
businesses, streamlined online application systems which allow job seekers to access 
thousands of job offers. Recently, other websites like LinkedIn and Jobberman.com, Jobs in 
Gh. have began operation, performing the same functions as the other employment websites 
that is, serving as a source of information about jobs, wages, employers and relevant 
economic conditions. Nakamura et al. (2009) also provided evidence to prove that the 
internet is one of the tools used by graduates to acquire jobs in modern times. In their study, 
87.6% of male respondents between ages 25-34, and 93.8% female respondents of the same 
ages, indicated using an Internet jobsite in 2007 to secure their jobs; 41.8% male respondents 
between ages 25-34, and 39.3% of female respondents from the same group, also indicated 
that, in using the internet, they successfully acquired their current or most recent job in 2007. 
Also, Stevenson (2009) reported from his study that, the primary means by which employees 
gained employment was through the internet which they believe helped them find jobs. Also, 
in the same study, majority of the participants revealed that the Internet was an effective 
method of job search. 
In Ghana, a study conducted by Adjei and Mohammed (2014) revealed that, out of the varied 
ways in which individuals get jobs, the use of the internet is one of the most effective tools 
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used by graduates to gain employment in Ghana. Their study further revealed that it takes a 
graduate a shorter time, usually, between six months to one year for those who employ the 
use of the internet to secure jobs. 
2.2.4 Skills 
 
Skills are an important factor for people and organisations at large because it is the key to 
their success. To get a driver‟s license, one has to pass both the theory and practical test. 
Passing one and failing the other does not justify getting the license as this individual would 
pose a threat to human lives.  In a similar way, in a world of increasing globalisation and 
technological change, patterns of work are shifting very fast with the emergence of new 
sectors, as there is the diffusion of technology, and demographic changes that are reforming 
the workforce over the time (Oliver 2015). This therefore implies that, although a degree is a 
proof of intellect, having that alone is not enough to land a graduate a job (Rae, 2007). To 
Rae (2007), graduates need other requirements or characteristics in order to gain employment 
since it contributes to the growth and development of organisations. Skills acquired by 
individuals through their years of education contribute to their quick entry into the labour 
market (Brown, et al., 2003).  
A skill is usually referred to as personal characteristics that help an individual to get a job. 
According to CEDEFOP (2009), skills such as listening, speaking, reading, writing and 
mathematics are the basic skills every individual needs to be able to carry out their tasks in 
the world of work. In recent times, there are discussions on skill requirements of graduates. 
Researchers like Poku-Boansi and Afrane (2011) in their study proved that the lack of skills 
such as communication, problem solving and analytical skills of most graduates negatively 
influence their transition from school to work. Likewise, Pitan and Adedeji (2012) in their 
study found that about sixty one percent (60.6%) of employed graduates lacked skills such as 
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communication, information technology, decision-making, critical thinking, interpersonal 
relationship, entrepreneurial, technical and numeracy skills. Yorke (2004) found that, 
although individuals expect to gain knowledge and skills needed in order to function in their 
fields of work, they lack strategizing and communication skills.  
2.2.5 Qualifications 
 
The use of one‟s educational qualification is another of the pathways graduates take in order 
to be employable in modern Ghanaian society. According to Australian Bureau Statistics, 
most students considered having a degree as a means of acquiring employment. This is 
because to be successful in one‟s occupation, education is needed. Educational qualification 
and employment has changed over the years as a result of changes in society (CEDEFOP, 
2009). Bourdieu (1984) defined qualifications as the education and skills acquired and used 
to access jobs in the labour market. Collins (1979) described credentials as a tool used in the 
job market, where every qualification is important.  
Literature on qualifications of graduates posits that qualifications bestow status and are a 
symbol of educational qualifications conferred by colleges and universities in the form of 
degrees (Bills, 2003). In the job market, one‟s qualification serves three major functions. 
First, it links educational institutions to the labour market; it is an efficient tool for filling jobs 
by linking workers with employers; and it serves as hiring criteria, establishing parameters 
and guidelines for entry into the job market (Brown, 2003).  Watson in his work also found 
that having a degree facilitates graduates‟ entry into the labour market and also revealed that 
the nature of the qualification plays a vital role in getting graduates jobs. Graduates in a study 
conducted by Stewart and Knowles (2000) believed a degree will not only guarantee one a 
job, but, a very good job. 
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To Gangl (2000 p.3) as cited in Ionescu et al (2012), the qualifications attained by individuals 
are a main asset used to secure jobs as a result of the competition that exists over available 
jobs in the labour market. Globally, one‟s qualifications are relevant because it plays a role in 
attaining jobs as it serves as a proof that an individual has acquired knowledge that will help 
him or her work effectively and efficiently (Ogege, 2011 p. 253-254). 
Psacharopoulos (2007) in Asafu-Adjaye (2012) reported that, once, in the European Union 
labour market, the more educated have a better chance of gaining employment as compared 
to those who are less educated. To find out if the same could be said of Ghana, Asafu-Adjaye 
used a probit model to estimate the effects of education on employment in Ghana using data 
from the fifth round of the Ghana Living Standard Survey (GLSS 5). Results showed that, 
individuals with primary, secondary and tertiary education have higher chances of being 
employed as compared to those with lesser qualifications or no qualifications all things being 
equal (ibid). 
Furthermore, using the 2009 Eurostat database, Ionescu et al (2012) in a study of  thirty-two 
countries found that one‟s qualifications play a role in securing jobs, the study also showed 
that, having a higher educational level would set you apart from those who do not have it. 
Likewise, Shildrick et al (2010), in a thirty man interview also revealed that qualifications 
and education are important in securing jobs. 
2.2.6 Work Experience 
 
Work experience is another important factor that graduates deploy to enter the labour market 
and find suitable jobs. This is because the labour market is flooded with graduates with good 
credentials (Tomlinson, 2008). A lot of studies have been done on how work experience 
contributes to getting a job. A study conducted by Harvey (1997) on graduates who were very 
satisfied with their job revealed that, having had work experience facilitated their 
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employment. To them, work experience facilitated their employment since it gave them the 
opportunity to practice the knowledge they had acquired from school, and gave them an 
insight of what work is about.  In the same study, it was revealed that, lack of relevant work 
experience made it difficult for a graduate to enter the labour market.  More so, a study 
conducted by Jackson (2015) on the relationship between work experience and employability 
showed that employers prefer graduates who have work experience since they have some 
knowledge about the work environment. 
Work experience comes in many different ways for example, through internships (Jensen, 
2009), volunteering to work (Bourner and Millican 2011), and service learning (Prentice and 
Robinson, 2010). It acts as a buffer over other individuals entering the labour market (Taylor 
2004). This is because students who engage themselves in internships, short term placements, 
voluntary work and service learning get exposed to the work environment, enhance their 
competencies and this goes a long way to affect their employability positively since they 
acquire practical knowledge and can easily apply what they learnt in their work environment 
(Knight and Yorke, 2002). 
A report from Smith and Green (2005) showed that individuals saw work experience as an 
avenue to interact with different people thus, boosting their confidence. Likewise, a study 
carried out by Heckhausen and Tomasik (2002) emphasizes this fact and also add that, work 
experience helps graduates transit from school to work easily. Smith (2011) in her work made 
it known that work experience gives individuals greater advantage than only qualifications. 
 
 
 
 
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2.3 INFORMAL ASSETS 
 
2.3.1 Social Capital / Social Network 
 
With the expansion in the educational system and the competition among graduates with the 
same credentials, another of the strategies deployed by individuals among the many other 
employment search behaviours that facilitates their entry into the labour market is social 
capital (Thompson et al, 2008). This is so because, it is said that majority of jobs that are 
available are never advertised and this to them is known as the “the hidden job market” 
(Adjei and Mohammed 2014). Social capital is one of the informal methods used in job 
search that can be traced to Karl Marx‟s (1933) who believed that capital is a resource 
possessed by the bourgeoisie who at the end of the day control the means of production. 
Social capital refers to the benefits that inhere in family, friends, acquaintances, colleagues 
and social organisations or associations, which individuals possibly take advantage of in 
achieving certain goals.  To Forret and Dougherty (2001 p.284), it is "individuals' attempts to 
develop and maintain relationships with others who have the potential to assist them in their 
work or career". To Wanberg et al (2000 p.492), it is "individual actions directed toward 
contacting friends, acquaintances, and other people to whom the job seeker has been referred 
for the main purpose of getting information, leads, or advice on getting a job".  
This therefore means that, social capital focuses on social relationships and networks, values, 
access to resources in families, friends, colleagues and even social organisations. Individuals 
in recent times rely on family relations, ethnicity, friendships, old school mates and other 
affiliations such as religion and social organisations to secure job opportunities. This makes 
social capital a great asset to secure employment in modern Ghanaian society. This situation 
usually goes with the saying that, accessing job opportunities now is dependent on the “who 
you know” principle and not the “what you know” principle; implying that, people get 
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opportunities to job over others because they have either built or have access to social capital 
in the form of strong ties and networks. 
These resources differ from person to person and is usually advantageous in the development 
of their human capital and their jobs as well (Try, 2005). The extent to which an individual 
accesses his or her social capital is dependent on three things; connections (who he knows), 
the strength of these connections (how well he knows them), and the resources available to 
these connections (educational, occupational, general life status) (ibid). According to Holzer 
(1987), graduates disadvantaged in this form of networking rely more on their formal 
methods whiles the advantaged make use of their social network. 
According to Kadushins (2004) and Lin (2001), there are two perspectives involved with 
social capital. These are “the individual” and the “the group”. The “individual perspective” 
focuses on how the individual accesses and utilizes resources available in the social networks 
to acquire a job. Since this is to be advantageous for the individual; he invests more into it 
with the hope of benefitting from it (Lin, 2001).  The group perspective also focuses on social 
capital at the group level, looking at how groups are formed, how it is maintained as a 
collective resource and how it increases members‟ life chances of belonging to that group 
(Kadushins, 2004). 
Every individual possesses some resources. According to Lin (1999), these resources 
possessed by individuals can be grouped into two namely; “personal resource” and “social 
resource”. The personal resources are mainly possessed or identified by the individual when 
the need arises and it can be easily disposed off if and when the individual so wishes. 
However, individuals‟ social resources are gotten through his or her direct or indirect 
relationship or ties.  
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Granovetter (1973) states hypothetically in his “strength of weak ties” that, graduates with 
weaker ties often form links that draws the individual to other social sources for the 
information which they would not be able to achieve from their own circles and get access to 
information different from what they receive. Thus, weak ties act as a bridge between 
graduates and their strong ties (Seibert et al., 2001). 
The number of people counted upon by an individual when searching for a job either reflects 
a large network or small network. Kadushins (2004 p.4) identified the various kinds of 
networks: ego-centric, socio-centric and open system network. Ego-centric network refers to 
a single group of individuals for example “best friends”. Socio-centric networks a found 
within a particular geographical location for example, connections that exist between a 
particular year group or co-workers in an organisation. Finally, the open system networks are 
the ones with less clear cut boundaries for example connections between corporations. 
Literature on employment and other related topics see the use of social networks to play an 
important role in securing jobs (Putnam, 2000).  According to Drentea (1998), social network 
makes available to graduates, a wide range of people in different social and professional 
positions and these people give graduates the necessary information, guidance and advice in 
getting jobs. It is also seen by Wanberg et al.(2000) as “efforts made by individuals to get in 
touch with friends, acquaintances, and other people to whom the job seeker has been referred 
in order to obtain information, lead, or counsel on getting a job” (p 492).  
According to Kanfer et al (2001), the quality of the social network or social capital is very 
important as this influences the ease with which one gets employment. For example, a 
graduate looking for employment after contacting one important person will be successful in 
getting employed, whereas another remains unemployed after contacting five to ten less 
important people. Wanberg et al 2002 also affirms this. This shows that, the ease with which 
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individuals get employed is based on not only the number of people one knows and the types 
of social network available to them but the quality of the social network. Also, a survey 
conducted by Shuttleworth et al (2008) revealed that the use of social network as a tool to 
enter the labour market placed second after “adverts in the press”. Shildrick et al (2010) in 
their thirty interviews found that majority of their respondents got jobs by means of social 
network. 
 A study conducted by Brook (2005) on Labour Participation: The Influence of Social Capital 
revealed that, social capital plays an important role in determining one‟s employment and that 
people who have built strong connections with other people are more likely to be in full-time 
employment than those who are not networked. However, in terms of job search, the study 
established the fact that, it is not based primarily on trust but networks. Another important 
finding was that, the effect of social capital varied among individuals and it may act to 
worsen existing inequalities or differences between people from different backgrounds. This 
fact was also confirmed by Stone et al, (2003).  
According to Brook (2005), the result of individuals not being able to acquire jobs was 
because they did not know people who could help them get jobs as compared to those who 
have acquired jobs. To him, the kind of job an individual acquires is dependent on the kind of 
people you know. This fact was also confirmed by Stone et al (2003). In addition, according 
to Mouw (2003) although people use diverse methods to find work, a large number of them 
obtain their job through personal contacts. This therefore presumes that, individuals may 
either be advantaged or disadvantaged depending on his or her social network. 
Likewise, an analysis of Labour Force Survey data on job search from 2006 and 2009 proved 
that social networks are the most common and widely used method that eases individuals‟ 
entry into the labour market. Findings also showed that one in four individuals in their current 
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employment was employed by “hearing from someone who worked there” (Green et al, 
2011) proving that “who you know” matters and plays a role in getting jobs. Thus, 
individuals who employ this strategy have easy access into the labour market in spite of their 
use of other methods of job search. 
 Saks (2005) posits that for more than three decades, employees who acquired employment 
through informal methods have positive attitudes towards work than those who got jobs 
through the formal methods. 
2.3.2 Family and Peers 
 
A study by Gerry et al (2000) showed that families, friends, classmates and colleagues are 
contributing factors that aid graduates in accessing jobs. The family is the first point of 
contact from where individuals get advice and help. As such, the family; nuclear and 
extended do not only provide material, emotional, motivational among other kinds of support 
to their children but also help with job opportunities available by contacting their network or 
social capital, relational assets, powers of association among others (ibid).According to the 
study, families get in touch with close friends and acquaintances that are in various socio-
economic statuses to help them access employment for their children. To Try (2005), if a 
graduate‟s parents have high educational qualification, he or she may have access to 
information that would help him or her in getting a job. 
Friendship network is another important determinant of successful school to work transition. 
Growing up and being enrolled in school and going through the educational system, friends 
are made and ties are established. As such, these friends come in handy as individuals search 
for jobs as well as giving information on job vacancies. This is because friendship network 
has been found to be productive as it increases one‟s probability of getting or finding a job 
(Granovetter, 1974).   
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Results of a study carried out by Gerry et al (2000) proved that strong ties exist between 
schoolmates in spite of the differences in age. To them, this tie is established as a result of 
attending either the same secondary school or tertiary school, staying in the same, past or 
present residence and other forms of relationships with other people. One interviewee who 
took part in the study explained how she heard of a job vacancy through a girl she knew from 
school. 
Also, the differences in the educational status of individuals in one‟s network influences 
graduates‟ transition to work. This variation has been found to increase the chances of a 
graduate to acquire a job especially, through family and friends and decreases one‟s chances 
of securing a job through an advertisement. This supports the fact that one‟s diversity of 
network increases the resources he or she can access to secure a job (Stone et al, 2000). In 
addition, their study also showed that, the more dense the networks of friends or family, the 
likelihood of securing a job. This finding according to them is in relation with the strength of 
weak ties theory developed by Granovetter (1973). Thus, the conclusion that, one‟s social 
network plays a role in influencing his or her transition into the labour market. 
The literature review has elaborated on the theoretical framework based on Granovetter‟s 
strength of weak ties; making known that not only does formal assets get people jobs but 
also, informal assets (strength of ties) play a role in getting people jobs. Also, the review 
identified services of employment agencies, response to advertisements (direct applications), 
internet, skills, qualifications, work experience and social capital or network as assets 
deployed by graduates to facilitate their smooth transition into the labour market.  From the 
review, various research findings have shown that indeed, these assets play roles in one way 
or the other in order to get employed. Additionally, there was limited literature in Africa and 
Ghana as most write ups were based in Europe. The following chapter, chapter three, covers a 
discussion of the methods used in carrying out this study. 
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CHAPTER THREE 
RESEARCH METHODS 
 
3.0 INTRODUCTION 
 
This chapter is devoted to the various methods and procedures employed by the researcher in 
gathering primary data for the study as well as the methods of analysis in order to achieve the 
objectives highlighted in the first chapter and answering the research questions as well. 
Within the various disciplines, researchers use a number of different methods to conduct 
research and have given various reasons for using those research methods. According to 
Kumekpor (2002), these methods however must be formalised, rigorous, and verifiable. 
3.1 STUDY AREA 
 
The study area for this work is Accra Metropolitan Assembly (AMA) which is in the Greater 
Accra Region. The Greater Accra Region is the smallest of the ten administrative regions and 
the administrative and commercial capital of Ghana. It lies within latitude 5° 33' N and 
longitude 0° 11' W occupying a total land size of 3,245 km square or 1.4 percent of the total 
land area of Ghana. It has a population of 4,010,054 according to the 2010 population census 
and bordered on the North by the Eastern Region, on the West by the Central Region, on the 
East by the Lake Volta and on the South by the Gulf of Guinea. 
According to the 2010 Population and Housing Census, the total population of the Greater 
Accra Region was 4,010,054 representing 16.3% of the country‟s total population; this 
includes 1,938,225 males (48.3%) and 2,071,829 females (51.7%). Most (90.5%) of the 
inhabitants of Accra, according to the census report, are in the urban areas of the region. 
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The Gas are the largest ethnic group in the region and are organised into six independent 
towns namely; Ga-Mashie, Osu, La, Teshie, Nungua and Tema. The region also has a 
Christian population of 76.8 percent whiles Muslims constitute 17.2 percent. Other religious 
affiliations make up 4.6 percent whiles a small percent, 1.4 represent the traditional religion. 
Accra serves as the centre of the region‟s economic and administrative activities. It situates 
Ghana‟s government administration, an area called the ministries, offices of public 
institutions such as the Volta River Authority, Electricity Company of Ghana, Ghana Water 
Company, Ghana Revenue Authority, the city‟s main banks and other departments and stores. 
 The area was selected as the study area because not only does it represent the seat of most 
administrative and business capital of the nation but where graduates search for jobs. It also 
employs graduates to contribute to the realisation of the objectives of these organisations and 
structurally suitable with respect to conducting the study. Also, since the capital city of 
Ghana capital is sited here, the residents, including employees, are diverse in culture, 
education, and economic activities.      
3.2 STUDY DESIGN 
 
The quality of every research is based on its research design. In some studies it refers to the 
whole research process, beginning from identifying a problem, reading available literature on 
it, formulating questions which guides the researcher to answer the problem identified, the 
procedure to carry out the study, and conclusions, whereas in another study, research design 
refers only to the procedure used in carrying out the research for example, data collection and 
analysis (Conrad and Serlin, 2011). In trying to understand the keys to a successful school to 
work transition of employed graduates in Accra, a mixed methods approach was adopted to 
collect the relevant data. This method focused on combining both quantitative and qualitative 
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research methods to better understand and explain the research problem and also help the 
researcher to increase the credibility of her study.  
Specifically, the explanatory sequential mixed methods design was utilized in carrying out 
the study; this mixed methods design consists of two separate stages: quantitative, followed 
by qualitative (Creswell, 2009). Accordingly, the quantitative data was collected and 
analyzed after which the qualitative data was collected and analyzed. Thus, the results of the 
quantitative data informed the questions and the respondents for the quantitative study. The 
data from the two methods was merged at an intermediate stage to give a better 
understanding of the data collected from the field (see Figure 1). As a result, the findings 
from the interview helped in explaining the quantitative data collected. 
The rationale behind the adoption of this mixed method approach was that, the quantitative 
data provided a general understanding of the research problem, bringing out the facts while 
the qualitative data looked at the subjective meaning and explained the statistical results 
generated from the quantitative data in more depth (ibid.). In addition, the quantitative data 
collected assisted in the selection of participants for the qualitative study and the kind of 
questions to ask. 
 
Quantitative Method Qualitative Method 
 
 
Quant. Data Quant.  Qual.    Data Qual.    Data Interpretation 
collection Data Collection Analysis of Entire 
 Analysis Analysis 
Source: Adapted from Creswell (2009) 
Figure 1: Sequential explanatory design 
 
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3.3 QUANTITATIVE METHOD 
 
The quantitative approach describes the study population, sample size, the sampling method 
and procedure. Also, the data collection instrument used in collecting the data, how the data 
were collected, processed and analyzed is explained subsequently. The following sections 
details how the objectives of this approach was achieved using the quantitative approach. 
3.3.1 Target Population 
 
According to Babbie (2005) the study population is the total elements of the researcher from 
which the sample is actually selected. Thus, the population of a study is the larger group from 
which individuals are selected to participate in a study. In obtaining the relevant information 
to give a comprehensive analysis of the research problem, the target population for the study 
comprised all employed university graduates living in Accra who have worked for a 
maximum of five years in a permanent employment position.  
The criteria for eligibility to be part of the quantitative study included the following: 
 The respondent should be a graduate from an accredited University in Ghana living in 
Accra. 
 The respondent should have completed his or her National Service. 
 Respondent should be in permanent employment in a formal institution. 
 The respondent should be in his or her first five years of employment. 
On the other hand, the exclusion criteria for the quantitative study included: 
 The respondent is searching for a job. 
 The respondent does not have a University degree. 
 The respondent has worked for less than a year. 
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 The respondent has worked for more than five years. 
3.3.2 Study Population 
 
For the quantitative study, the focus was on only employed university graduates living in 
Accra who have worked for a maximum of five years in a permanent employment position. 
These people were selected because they are in the early stages of their transition and would 
be able to provide information on how they acquired their employment which is relevant in 
conducting the study. 
3.3.3 Unit of Analysis 
 
In every research, there is the need for the researcher to identify the actual observable units, 
objects or occurrences which are to be measured in order to study the particular phenomenon 
(Kumekpor, 2002). These observable units are termed units of analysis or sampling units. The 
unit of analysis for the quantitative study constituted the individual employed graduate. This 
is because they would help the researcher achieve the aims and objectives of the study. 
3.3.4 Sampling Frame 
 
The list of all employed university graduates living in Accra and working in formal 
institutions constituted the sampling frame for the quantitative study. This list was obtained 
from the Human Resource Personnel departments of the selected institutions or organisations. 
The sampling frame helped the researcher select respondents representative of the population 
under study. 
 
 
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3.3.5 Sampling Method and Procedure 
 
In every social research, sampling is very important. According to Osuala (2005), it is when a 
part of the population is used as a representation of that population. In order to select the 
participants for the study, the stratified sampling technique was used. According to Neuman 
(2012), “stratified sampling is a random sample in which the researcher first identifies a set of 
mutually exclusive and exhaustive categories, divides the sampling frame by the categories, 
and then uses random selection to select cases from each category.” 
 Firstly, by observing the list of all organisations within the Accra Metropolitan Assembly, 
the researcher categorized all the organisations into two groups based on their ownership and 
management. Organisations were categorised into public organisations (that is organisations 
established by and funded by the state) and private organisations (that is organisations 
established and operated by private individuals). From these groups, three private (The Royal 
Bank, UT Bank and First Atlantic Bank) and three public organisations (Volta River 
Authority, Ghana Water Company Limited and Electricity Company of Ghana) were 
randomly selected with the help of three colleagues to avoid bias. In all, six institutions were 
sampled for the study. The researcher then contacted the Human Resource Personnel of these 
institutions and discussed the survey with them. A list of all employees who fell within the 
researcher‟s criteria for the survey was then submitted to the researcher; one hundred and 
fifty from The Royal Bank, one hundred and forty-seven from First Atlantic Bank and one 
hundred and thirty-three from UT Bank. Also, two hundred and seventy was obtained from 
Volta River Authority, one hundred and forty-six from Ghana Water Company Limited and 
one hundred and fifty-four from Electricity Company of Ghana. 
From the lists given to the researcher, the population for the study was estimated at one 
thousand (1000); four hundred and thirty (430) that is, forty-three percent (43%) from the 
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private institutions and five hundred and seventy (570) that is, fifty-seven percent (57%) from 
the public organisations. The researcher then used S= X2 NP (1-P) / d2 (N-1) + X2 P (1-P) a 
formula by Krejcie and Morgan (1970) to appropriately estimate the number of respondents 
to be selected for the study. Thus, the sample for the study was estimated at two hundred and 
seventy- eight (278). Afterwards, the researcher calculated the total number of people to be 
selected from both private and public organisations using the percentages stated above. This 
was estimated at one hundred and twenty (120) people for the private organisation and one 
hundred and fifty-eight (158) people for the public organisations. Subsequently, the 
researcher calculated the proportions for the various organisations using the numbers 
obtained from the Human Resource Departments with Royal Bank having thirty-five percent 
(35%) UT Bank having thirty percent (30%), First Atlantic Bank having thirty-five percent 
(35%), VRA having forty- seven percent (47%) Ghana Water having twenty-six percent 
(26%) and ECG having twenty-seven percent (27%). These proportions and total number to 
be selected from private and public organisations were then used by the researcher to 
calculate the actual number of respondents to be selected from these organisations. Results 
from the calculations indicated forty-two (42) respondents to be selected from Royal Bank, 
thirty-six (36) to be selected from UT Bank, forty-two (42) to be selected from First Atlantic 
Bank, seventy-four (74) to be selected from Volta River Authority, forty-one (41) to be 
selected from Ghana Water Company and forty-three (43) to be selected from Electricity 
Company of Ghana adding up to the sample size of two hundred and seventy-eight estimated 
for the study. To select these samples from the organisations, the names of employees on the 
lists given the researcher were numbered. The numbers were written on pieces of paper, 
folded and put in a basket and after thorough shuffling and reshuffling, the researcher 
selected the units until the required number was obtained. This also helped the researcher to 
select respondents fairly representative of the various organisations selected for the study.  
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After the selection process, the Human Resource Personnel introduced the researcher to the 
employees whose numbers were picked and during their lunch time, the researcher was then 
given the opportunity to introduce the study and its objectives to the employees. During this 
period, the researcher also took the opportunity to assure employees of anonymity, 
confidentiality and to encourage them to willingly participate; as a means not to disrupt their 
work schedule and also to encourage honest responses, the researcher requested that the 
selected participants completed their questionnaires during their lunch time when they were 
free and collected after the lunch break.  
However, this mode was the case in all organisations with the exception of two organisations. 
In one of those organisations, the Human Resource Personnel invited the researcher to attend 
the safety meeting of the organisation in order to administer her questionnaire. This meeting 
was organised every Friday for all employees and safety measures at the workplace was 
discussed thus, a good day to meet the employees. On the agreed day, the safety meeting 
ended earlier and the researcher was allowed to administer the questionnaire and the 
researcher collected the completed questionnaires when the employees finished responding to 
them. In the other organisation, the researcher had to leave the questionnaires with the 
employees and collect them on an agreed day. With the help of the Human Resource 
Personnel, these questionnaires were collected and handed over to the researcher on the 
agreed day. As a result of this approach, the survey recorded a 75.2% response rate; in all, 
209 employees returned their questionnaires out of the 278 questionnaires distributed.  
3.3.6 Sample Size 
 
Sample size is very important when conducting a research. This is because, the sample size 
has to be representative of the population and reflect the characteristics of the population as 
well. To determine an effective sample size for the survey, the researcher applied the formula 
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for determining sample size for surveys by Krejcie and Morgan (1970) (see figure 2); hence 
with a target population of one thousand (1000), the estimated sample size was two hundred 
and seventy-eight (278). 
S= X2 NP (1-P) / d2 (N-1) + X2 P (1-P);    Where 
S = Required Sample Size 
X = Z value (eg. 1.96 for 95% confidence level) 
N = Population Size 
P = Population Proportion (assumed to be 0.5) 
d = Degree of accuracy expressed as a proportion (0.05); it is margin of error. 
Source: Adapted from Krejcie and Morgan (1970) 
Equation 1: Formula for determining sample size 
 
3.3.7 Data Collection Instrument 
 
The main instrument used for collecting the quantitative data was the self-administered 
questionnaire (see Appendix 1). This is because the respondents were literate and could read, 
understand and respond to the questionnaire with little or no supervision. According to Mau 
et al (2001), it is a simple and convenient approach to collecting data from a large sample 
size, effective and ensures anonymity. It also gives the respondent the privacy to give 
unbiased information since there is limited interference and enable them to be more candid in 
their answers.  
Prior to collecting the data, an introductory letter (see Appendix 3) explaining the purpose of 
the study was sent to the organisations, a bond of confidentiality was signed by the researcher 
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in order not to reveal information about the organisation to other people, a copy of the 
questionnaire was scrutinised by the Human Resource Personnel to make sure the 
information the researcher wanted was not one that was going to be about the organisation. 
Afterwards, an arrangement was made with the Human Resource Personnel before the 
administration of the questionnaires. 
The focus of this study, which is, exploring the factors that come to play in getting graduates 
jobs in the formal sector of Ghana, has rarely been investigated. As such, the survey 
instrument was designed to collect relevant data needed for the study being undertaken by the 
researcher. The questionnaire had six sections. The first section covered the bio data of the 
respondents. This part sought respondents to provide bio data such as sex, age, marital status, 
ethnicity, religious affiliation and the type of organisation in which they worked.  The second 
section required respondents to answer questions on the background of their job. Questions in 
this section was adapted from Mau et al (2001) and modified appropriately for the study. 
Then, the third section required respondents to answer questions on the extent to which 
respondents‟ formal assets facilitated their employment. The fourth section also required 
respondents to answer questions on the extent to which informal assets are relevant in getting 
graduate jobs. Questions in this section was adapted from Wanberg et al (2002) and modified 
appropriately for the study. The fifth section required respondents to answer questions on the 
combinations which ease the securing of jobs by graduates. The last section sought 
respondents to respond to questions on the extent to which the new forms of assets help 
graduates to secure jobs. 
The questionnaire was structured to include both open and closed ended questions. The open 
ended questions gave respondents the opportunity to provide their own answers to the 
questions whiles the close ended questions provided respondents with a set of answers to 
choose from. There were also three Likert scale questions with five point response ranging 
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from completely disagree to completely agree to address issues relating to respondents‟ 
network size, strength of the relationships as well as the status of members making up their 
networks. The Cronbach‟s alpha for the likert scale questions were .699, .824 and .895 
respectively. The questionnaire was structured this way to help the researcher address the 
research problem. 
In order to promote candid responses from respondents, questionnaires were given out with 
the help of the Human Resource Personnel and respondents were given time to complete the 
questionnaires without disruptions. Respondents were assured of anonymity and 
confidentiality. Completed questionnaires were collected after respondents had completed the 
questionnaires and were collected with the help of the Human Resource Personnel. 
3.3.8 Pre-testing of Data Collection Instrument 
 
According to Bell (2005, p. 147), “however pressed for time you are, do your best to give the 
questionnaire a trial run, as without a trial run, you have no way of knowing whether your 
questionnaire will succeed”. To Saunders et al (2007), the purpose of getting a pilot study 
done is to test the questionnaire the researcher has developed on a small group of people 
before the major study. This is because, having a pilot study makes deficiencies known to the 
researcher in order for the deficiencies to be addressed before data is collected for the study 
Ruxton and Colegrave (2006). Since the questionnaire was developed by the researcher for 
the first time, the questionnaire was given out to fifteen randomly selected employees who 
were asked to read through the questions and instructions as well and then, give feedback or 
comments on the questions in terms of how they understood it. It took approximately a week 
to complete the pre-testing exercise. The questionnaire was thus re-designed based on the 
suggestions and comments from the pilot study. 
 
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3.3.9 Quantitative Data Processing 
 
To draw inferences, meaning and conclusions from data collected, data collected from 
respondents were processed in three ways, namely, coding, data entry and data cleaning. 
After collection of the data, the closed ended questions were coded as such whiles the open 
ended questions were themed for coding since there were varied responses for those 
questions. After coding, the data was entered into the computer using the statistical package 
for social sciences (SPSS) software, version 22. Data cleaning was done to identify and 
correct errors during coding. Errors found were referred back to the questionnaire and 
rectified accordingly. With the help of the SPSS software, the data was interpreted into 
univariate and bivariate analysis. At the univariate level, the frequencies of variables were 
generated to describe the variables. At the bivariate level, the strength of associations 
between the variables was established using chi-square test of independence and independent 
t-test. The next section discuses the qualitative approach to the study. 
3.4 QUALITATIVE METHOD 
 
Sequentially to the quantitative approach, this study also adopted the qualitative approach. 
This design was used because the researcher intended to explore an aspect of human 
behaviour which was difficult to quantify (Boodhoo and Purmessur, 2009). Questions for the 
quantitative study mainly focused more on the formal assets and how it influenced their 
successful transition with little attention on the informal assets and did not also give 
respondents the opportunity to express themselves. However, the researcher employed the 
qualitative method to explore the informal assets available to the respondents and how these 
informal assets were used by them to acquire their current jobs. This qualitative method also 
gave the researcher the opportunity to probe further on issues that arose during the analysis of 
the quantitative data that was collected by the researcher.  
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As the quantitative data gave a general understanding of the research problem, the qualitative 
research approach, allowed the respondents to provide detailed information by describing 
their perceptions, attitudes, beliefs, views and feelings as well as the meanings and 
interpretations of circumstances (Hakim, 2000). In all, ten individuals, five males and five 
females were to be interviewed. Due to work schedules, seven individuals; five males and 
two females were interviewed and information used to complement the quantitative data 
collected. These individuals were selected based on an inclusion and exclusion criteria 
developed by the researcher. 
3.4.1 Target Population 
 
The target population for the qualitative study included all employees who participated in the 
quantitative study and got their jobs using their informal assets. The researcher believes that 
these individuals could give detailed information on the subject matter.   
For the interviews, the criteria for inclusion were: 
 The interviewee should have gotten his or her first job within a year after National 
Service.  
 The interviewee should still be working in his or her first job. 
 The interviewee should have worked more than a year and less than five years. 
 The interviewee should be less than forty years old. 
On the other hand, the exclusion criteria for the interview were: 
 If the interviewee has been working less than a year. 
 If the interviewee has worked more than five years. 
 If the interviewee is above forty years old. 
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3.4.2 Sample Selection and Size 
 
Since the results of the quantitative study informed the questions and participants of the 
qualitative study, the purposive sampling technique was employed for selecting participants 
for the qualitative study. To Neuman (2012), the purposive sampling method is most 
appropriate when the researcher wants to select exclusive cases, which are especially 
informative, and when the researcher wants to identify particular types of cases for in-depth 
inquiry. As a result, participants of the qualitative study were all contacted via telephone and 
an appointment scheduled at a time of their own convenience. This was made possible since 
participants in the quantitative study were required to put down their telephone numbers on 
their questionnaires. This enabled the researcher to get in touch with them for the qualitative 
study and to also call for any clarifications concerning their responses in the quantitative 
study. In all, seven (7) employees (five males and two females) were contacted for the 
qualitative study.  
3.4.3 Data Collection Instrument 
 
An in-depth interview guide (see Appendix 2) was developed for interviewees to probe the 
extent to which informal assets facilitate job acquisition of graduates. According to 
Silverman (2013), in-depth interviews give better insight of social phenomenon as compared 
to questionnaires. The interview guide was semi-structured to allow participants the freedom 
to express themselves on related dimensions of the topic while not losing focus of the study. 
Interviews were held in different places and at times convenient with the interviewees. The 
researcher introduced herself to interviewees, explained the purpose of the interview and also 
informed them of how long the interview was going to take. As such, there were breaks 
during the interviews. They were made aware of the interview being a voluntary one and 
could decide to withdraw if they were not comfortable, although they were encouraged to 
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participate. The interviewees were also assured of confidentiality of their responses. Their 
permission was sought to record the interview. At the beginning of the interview, respondents 
introduced themselves by mentioning their sex, age, marital status, educational level, 
ethnicity and religion followed by the questions on the interview guide. The researcher 
personally conducted the in-depth interviews because this type of data required skills in order 
to gather the right data for analysis.  
3.4.4 Qualitative Data Processing 
 
All in-depth interviews were also audio-recorded with the knowledge and permission of the 
interviewees. For the qualitative data, notes taken from the interviews were organised and the 
audio-responses from the in-depth interviews were transcribed verbatim. The face-to-face 
interaction with respondents allowed for further clarification when answers needed to be 
followed up. Analysis began after the first interview was transcribed and continued till all the 
interviews were conducted and transcribed. The translated transcriptions were grouped under 
common themes and coded accordingly. The researcher analyzed all data from the field work. 
Data was then incorporated by including narratives with quotes to support findings from the 
quantitative data. All names used in the qualitative analysis are pseudonyms. 
3.5 ETHICAL CONSIDERATION 
 
A number of ethical issues were considered whiles conducting the study to ensure that 
participants were not harmed in any way. The researcher presented an introductory letter to 
Human Resource Personnel of organisations from which data was going to be collected 
explaining the study to them. Participants were briefed on the aim of the study before 
administering the questionnaires and before the interviews as well. The consent of 
participants was sought; they were assured of the privacy, anonymity and confidentiality. In 
order to ensure this, no personal information such as name, identification card, etc were taken 
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from the respondents. It was also made clear to them that their contribution was voluntary 
and had full authority to refuse or to withdraw at anytime if they changed their mind about 
participating. Participants were assured that data would be used for the intended purpose. 
Respondents were made to leave their questionnaires with their Human Resource Personnel 
and in situations where respondents and completed the questionnaires and submitted 
immediately, the researcher did not look at the responses, did not tag the questionnaires with 
respondents, and did not forge responses. Data collected from participants was kept carefully 
by not disclosing it to anyone. Finally, the researcher sought for ethical clearance from the 
College of Humanities Ethics Committee of the University of Ghana to ensure that all ethical 
issues regarding the study were met, the quality of the data collection instruments are 
efficient, and the methods  employed for the study are of standard (see Appendix 4).    
The following chapter, chapter four, elaborates on the findings from the data collected from 
the field. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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CHAPTER FOUR 
DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSES AND DISCUSSION 
 
4.0 INTRODUCTION 
 
This chapter deals with the presentation, analyses and interpretation of the data collected 
from the field. The order of presentation in this chapter includes a section on the socio-
demographic characteristics of the respondents, a section on the description of respondents‟ 
current employment, a section on the sources of job search, a section on formal assets and a 
section on informal assets. 
4.1 SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS 
 
 Table 1: Sex of respondents 
  Frequency Percent (%) 
Sex Male 108 51.7 
Female 101 48.3 
Total  209 100 
Source: Researcher’s Fieldwork, 2017 
The Table 1 above shows the sex of respondents of the study. Respondents of the study were 
two hundred and nine. Out of this number, one hundred and eight representing 51.7 percent 
were males whiles one hundred and one representing 48.3 percent were females. This clearly 
shows that majority of respondents for this study was males. This report for more males than 
females in this study is consistent with a study conducted by Adjei and Mohammed (2014) 
which revealed a majority of males (58%) taking part in the study as compared to females 
(42%). 
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Table 2: Age of respondents 
  Frequency Percent (%) 
Age  20-24 28 13.4 
25-29 95 45.5 
30-34 80 38.3 
35-39 6 2.9 
Total  209 100 
Source: Researcher’s Fieldwork, 2017 
Age is a major factor to this study. The age categories ranged from 20 to 40 years. Results 
from the study shows that 13.4 percent of the respondents fall between the ages 20-24, 45.5 
percent of the respondents between the ages 25-29, 38.3 percent of the respondents between 
the ages 30-34 and the remaining 2.9 percent of the respondents fall between ages 35-39.  
From the study, the ages of majority of respondents are between the ages 25 and 29 and fewer 
between the ages 35 and 39. This implies that majority of the respondents who have made a 
transition from school to work are between 25 and 29 years indicating the youthful nature of 
respondents of the study. Also, since they are new at their workplaces, have to learn from the 
older employees as they have been working for a longer period of time.  
Table 3: Marital status of respondents 
  Frequency Percent (%) 
Marital Status Single 127 60.8 
Married 70 33.5 
Cohabiting 12 5.7 
Total  209 100 
Source: Researcher’s Fieldwork, 2017 
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According to the data collected for the study, one hundred and twenty-seven (60.8%) are 
single, representing the majority. Seventy (33.5%) are married whiles twelve (5.7%) are 
cohabiting. Majority of respondents are single because they are in the transition period and 
are in the early stages of their working lives. As such, they are preparing themselves in order 
to achieve their life expectations and desires and for that reason have to work, receive salaries 
and be stable enough to fend for themselves and their future as well. 
Table 4: Ethnicity of respondents 
  Frequency Percent (%) 
Ethnicity Akan 99 47.6 
Ga-Adangme 40 19.2 
Ewe 45 21.6 
Dagomba 8 3.8 
Other 16 7.7 
Total  208 99.9 
Source: Researcher’s Fieldwork, 2017 
Ghana is a country with different people from different ethnic backgrounds and so are the 
individuals who work together in organisations in order to meet the aims and objectives of 
those organisations. From the Table 4, it can be inferred that respondents of the study are 
mostly Akans as they represent 47% with Ga-Adangme representing 19.2 %, Ewe 
representing 21.6%, Dagomba representing 3.8% and the other ethnic groups such as the 
Guan, Frafra and others representing 7.7%. Only one respondent did not indicate his or her 
ethnicity.  
 
 
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Table 5: Religious affiliation of respondents 
  Frequency Percent (%) 
Religious Affiliation Christian 189 91.3 
Islam 17 8.2 
Other 1 .5 
Total  207 100 
Source: Researcher’s Fieldwork, 2017 
As a result of colonisation, there have been a lot of changes in the Ghanaian religion. In the 
society in which we live in, religion plays a very important role. This is because religion does 
not only outline the moral values of individuals but also influences the behaviours of 
individuals. One hundred and eighty-nine respondents representing a large percentage 
(91.3%) of respondents are Christians being members of various churches including 
orthodox, Pentecostal and charismatic. 8.2% of respondents are Muslims and 0.5% 
representing those who belonged to other forms of religion. However, two respondents did 
not indicate their religious affiliation. This ratio of Christians to Muslims was expected since 
the 2010 Population and Housing Census showed that 71.2 percent of Ghanaians are 
Christians and 17.6 percent are Muslims.  
Table 6: Type of organisation 
  Frequency Percent (%) 
Type of Private 94 45.0 
organisation Public  115 55.0 
Total  209 100 
Source: Researcher’s Fieldwork, 2017 
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From Table 6 above, it can be inferred that, from the study, ninety-four respondents 
representing 45.0% work in private organisations whiles one hundred and fifteen respondents 
representing 55.0% work in public organisations. By this result, it is realised that, recruitment 
in the private organisations is gradually increasing as a result of the reduction in recruitment 
in the public organisations. 
Table 7: Bio-data of interviewees 
Name Sex Age Marital Ethnicity Religious Type of 
Group status Affiliation Organisation 
Kofi Male 25-29 Single Akan Christian Public 
Nana Male 25-29 Single Akan Christian Public 
Sena Male 25-29 Single Ewe Christian Private 
Dan Male 25-29 Single Ga- Christian Private 
Adangme 
Ben Male 25-29 Single Akan  Christian Private 
Grace Female 25-29 Single Akan Christian Public 
Ida Female 25-29 Single Ewe Christian Public 
Source: Researcher’s Fieldwork, 2017 
 
The next section gives a description of respondents‟ current employment. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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4.2 DESCRIPTION OF RESPONDENTS’ CURRENT EMPLOYMENT 
 
Table 8: Background information on respondents’ job 
 
 
  FREQUENCY PERCENT 
(%) 
    
National service Yes 116 56.9 
 No 88 43.1 
 Total  204 100 
    
Preferred job Yes 137 69.9 
 No 59 30.1 
 Total  196 100 
    
Job relatedness  Not related at all 21 10.2 
                                         R   e  l a  t e  d                                          184 89.8 
 Total  205 100 
    
Knowledge and skills Yes 177 87.2 
 No 26 12.8 
 Total  203 100 
    
Additional skills Information technology 6 33.3 
 Other  12 66.7 
 Total  18 100 
    
Working after service 1-2 years 86 43.0 
 2-3 years 48 24.0 
 3-4 years 18 9.0 
 4-5 years 48 24.0 
 Total  200 100 
Source: Researcher’s fieldwork, 2017 
 
4.2.1 National Service 
 
National service is a period in the lives of graduates from both private and public universities 
to serve their country for a year after their tertiary education. These graduates serve in private 
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or public organisations, receive some allowances from the government and receive 
certificates after their service. This program does not only give graduates the opportunity to 
play active roles in the development of their country but also gain the knowledge, experience 
and values for employment. This is a very important factor when it comes to the transition of 
graduates from school to work as it plays an important role in getting one a job in Ghana as 
the certificate is usually demanded for confirmation before being employed. Data from Table 
4.8 thus reveals that, all respondents had their National service. Also, 56.9% of respondents 
are working in the organisations in which they had their National service whiles the 
remaining, representing 43.1% are working in different organisations other than where they 
had their National service. 
4.2.2 Preferred Job 
 
There is a simple Ghanaian adage which says “Work is Man”.  Others are also of the view 
that, one is defined by the kind of work they do (NCDA 2008). Every individual, aspires to at 
least a good career that guarantees sustained and well rewarding employment or work, lend 
them good reputation and peace of mind in their lifetime. As a result of this, individuals 
prepare towards the world of work and future careers begin when in school to fulfil these 
aspirations. In finding out whether respondents were able to find their preferred jobs, Table 
4.8 shows that, 69.9% of the respondents are currently in their preferred jobs. However, 
30.1% were not able to find jobs that they prefer; a situation resulting from the scarcity of 
jobs. This result supports that of Adjei and Mohammed (2014) who in their study found that 
73% of their respondents were in their preferred jobs whiles 27% were not in their preferred 
jobs. 
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Also, Kofi, who was able to gain employment and is in his preferred job, said “... if you don’t 
have a job, what have you achieved? This is who I’ve wanted to be and what I have always 
wanted to do and I am happy ...”  
On the other hand, Dan, who did not get his preferred job, said 
There are no jobs in Ghana now and since I have been looking for a job for some time now, 
this is the job I got. Everyone needs to start from somewhere right? So I am managing this 
one for the mean time. As soon as I get my preferred job, I will leave. As for those who got 
their preferred jobs, they are lucky 
From the excepts above, it can be inferred that graduates who are able to get their preferred 
jobs see it as a life achievement whiles those who do not get their preferred jobs see it as a 
stepping stone to bigger things. 
4.2.3 Job Relatedness 
 
As individuals graduate and search for jobs, they search for jobs that are related to the 
courses they read during their tertiary education. This is not surprising as majority find 
themselves in their preferred jobs. Majority, 89.8% of the respondents who took part in the 
survey find themselves in jobs that are related to their course of study at the university. 
However, 10.2 % are in jobs that are not related to their course of study at the university. This 
is contrary to Stone et al (2012) who in their study found that 40% of graduates say their job 
is not related to their course of study whiles 22% said their job is related to their course of 
study. This implies that, graduates who have gotten jobs in Accra are working in positions 
that are related to their course of study. This can be seen in Table 8 above. 
4.2.4 Knowledge and Skills 
 
Education gives one the opportunity to acquire knowledge and skills in order to be 
employable in the labour market. Complementarily, education and skills development are the 
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pathways for human capital and career development, productivity, and the general 
employability of the population of any nation. Ghana‟s first President, Kwame Nkrumah 
envisioned this and added that education and skills are tools needed for the advancement of 
the individual and society at large according to Akyeampong (2008: 1-2).  From the survey, 
Table 8 shows that, 87.2% representing a majority hare able to use the knowledge and skills 
they acquired during their years of education at their workplaces. This result is satisfactory 
because it indicates that the academic programmes of the various universities are relevant. 
However, just 12.8% are not using the knowledge and skills they acquired from school. This 
result corroborates with that of the job relatedness. This is because if their jobs are related to 
what they studied in school, then they are able to apply the knowledge and skills they 
acquired without difficulty. This result refutes the results of a study conducted by Poku-
Boansi and Afrane (2011) who in their study proved that the lack of skills such as 
communication skills, problem solving skills and analytical skills of most graduates 
negatively influence their transition from school to work. Likewise, this result refutes that of 
Baah-Boateng (2013) who found in his study that skills mismatch negatively influences 
graduates‟ transition from school to work. One employee, Ida, who shared her view on this 
said 
“...It is good to know the knowledge behind what you are doing. It’s a good feeling when you 
are able to translate the knowledge and skills you have acquired to what you are doing 
especially at work.” 
 
4.2.5 Additional Skills 
 
Skills are the tools needed to carry out tasks at the workplace in order to increase general 
employability of individuals as well as their productivity. To be effective and efficient at the 
workplace, Table 8 revealed that some respondents have acquired additional skills. 66.7% of 
these respondents representing a majority need skills such as project management skills, 
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banking skills and accounting skills whiles 33.3% need information technology skills. The 
following excerpt is in consonance with this result. 
The world is changing and there are always new ways of doing things so you must try and 
adapt to the change by learning these new methods of doing things to be more efficient, else 
you will be left behind. (Grace) 
 
4.2.6 Years Working after National Service 
 
The survey conducted focused on graduates who have been working between one and five 
years. Results from Table 8 revealed a majority, 43.0% working between one and two years, 
24.0% working between two and three years, 24.0% working between four and five years and 
the least, 9.0% working between three and four years. This shows that majority of the 
respondents are in the early years of transition after graduating from the university and are 
adjusting to their responsibilities and work schedules (see Table 8). 
4.3 STRATEGIES OF JOB SEARCH 
 
 In Ghana, there are various methods or approaches graduates deploy in order to get jobs in 
the labour market. These methods or approaches can be grouped into formal which includes 
the newspaper, career fair and internet and informal which includes family members, 
members of old school associations, members of church or mosque and members of 
professional organisations. From the survey, over 50% of the respondents used informal 
methods of job search whiles less than 50% used formal methods of job search. 
 
 
 
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Table 9: Strategies of job vacancies 
 
  FREQUENCY PERCENT 
(%) 
Strategies of job Newspaper 
vacancies 25 13.0 
 Career fair 15 7.8 
 Internet 16 8.3 
 Family member 54 28.1 
 Member of church/mosque 21 10.9 
 Member of professional 18 9.4 
organisation 
 Member of old school group 10 5.2 
 Other  33 17.2 
 Total  192 99.9 
Source: Researcher’s fieldwork, 2017 
Table 9: Strategies of job vacancies continued. 
4.3.1 Newspaper Advertisement 
 
Newspaper advertisement is the most popular traditional method of making known job 
vacancies to the general public and for interested applicants to apply for the positions 
advertised. From the survey (see Table 9), 13.0% of the respondents got their jobs through 
the newspaper adverts. Most organisations advertise job vacancies through the newspaper 
since most people like to read the newspaper whiles others also buy newspapers because of 
their search for jobs. It is seen that the newspaper is a reliable source. 
4.3.2 Career Fair 
 
Career fairs also known as job fairs are programmes organised by organisations for job 
seekers and to give them information about how they can be employed in their organisations. 
During these fairs, job seekers meet with executives of organisations and present their 
Curriculum Vitae which they scrutinize and select people for interviews and employment. 
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Results from the survey showed that 7.8% of respondents got their jobs using this method of 
job search (see Table 9).  
4.3.3 Internet  
 
In this modern day and age known as the computer age, where there is a variety of job 
websites such as jobberman.com, jobs in Gh and recently, LinkenIn, few respondents, 8.3% 
got jobs through the internet. This result does not concur with that of Nakamura et al. (2009) 
whose study provided evidence to prove that the internet is one of the tools used by graduates 
to acquire jobs in modern times.  It also refutes Stevenson (2009) results from his study that, 
the primary means by which employees gained employment was through the internet which 
they believe helped them find jobs. Also, in the same study, majority of respondents felt that 
the Internet was an effective method of job search. It also refutes results of a study conducted 
by Adjei and Mohammed (2014) which found that, out of the varied ways in which 
individuals get jobs, the use of the internet is one of the most effective tools used by 
graduates to gain employment (see Table 9). 
4.3.4 Family 
 
Children are parents‟ priority and as such, get worried when after years of educating their 
children, they do not get employed and have to stay at home. When parents are faced with 
this alarming situation, they tend to help their children secure jobs. They do this by 
contacting people they know and giving their children information on job vacancies they 
have heard of. This is revealed in the survey (see Table 9) as majority, 28.1% of the 
respondents got to know of job vacancies or got jobs through their family members and this is 
because the family is the first point of contact from where individuals get advice and help, 
thus, the most common means of securing jobs. This result however is in line with a study 
conducted by Gerry et al (2000) proving that families are contributing factors that aid 
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graduates in accessing jobs. Also, it confirms Granovetter‟s strength of ties which indicates 
that people you know help in securing employment. Thus graduates not only get jobs through 
the use of their human capital but also through their social capital. This therefore implies that, 
this informal asset is playing a bigger role in getting graduates jobs in Accra whiles the 
formal assets of these people help them sustain their jobs. Dan had this to say  
You see, after my National Service, I was not getting a job. This bothered my parents a lot 
especially my mum so she contacted some of her friends and told them about my situation and 
asked them to help me get a job. There were even instances where she took copies of my CV 
and certificates which she gave to them. There was a time I also heard my dad talking to a 
friend to help me get a job.  
 
4.3.5 Groups 
 
Being a member of groups, associations and professional organisations also gives individuals 
the opportunity to get jobs. This is because being part of these groups gives individuals the 
opportunity to build their social capital as well as meet and interact with people who are 
working in different organisations who can help them get jobs due to their positions in their 
organisations or link them to other people who can help them get jobs. From the study, 14.6% 
said they got their jobs as a result of being part of groups be it in the church, mosque, old 
school associations and professional organisations as well (see Table 9).Sena who got a job 
as a result of being in a group said  
I am very active at church. I belong to the youth fellowship and the praise and worship team. 
When I was searching for a job, I told some people who work in corporate institutions in the 
church and gave them my particulars when they asked for it. I was invited by some 
organisations including where I work to write aptitude tests and here I am.  
Ben also says 
Errm, I wanted to join the Rotary Club but I didn’t do much follow up on that but I have 
friends who are members of this club and have gotten jobs. You know, groups like these 
comprise of corporate individuals so if there are vacancies in their organisations, they make 
it known to members first so that those who don’t have jobs can apply. This is how some of 
my friends who are members of Rotary Club got jobs. 
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4.4 FORMAL ASSETS 
 
These are resources acquired and achieved by individuals on their own through education and 
training which they use to acquire jobs and sustain them. 
Table 10: Respondents’ formal assets 
 
 
  FREQUENCY PERCENT 
(%) 
Secondary school  Single Sex 99 47.4 
 Mixed School 110 52.6 
 Total  209 100 
University Private  60 28.7 
 Public  149 71.3 
 Total  209 100 
Programme Studied Social Science/ Humanities 62 31.3 
 Natural Sciences 39 19.7 
 Technical Programmes 25 12.6 
 Business Programmes 72 36.4 
 Total  198 100 
Qualification  Bachelors  202 96.7 
 Masters  7 3.4 
 Total  209 100 
Class Obtained  First Class 31 15.3 
 Second Class Upper 110 54.2 
 Second Class Lower 52 25.6 
 Third Class 6 3.0 
 Pass 4 2.0 
 Total 203 100 
Internship  Yes  157 82.6 
 No 33 17.4 
 Total  190 100 
Years of Internship Less than a year 92 60.1 
 1 year 50 32.7 
 2 years 10 6.5 
 3 years 1 0.7 
 Total  153 100 
Internship Related to 
Course of Study Yes  129 78.2 
 No  36 21.8 
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 Total  165 100 
Professional 
Certificate Yes 77 37.6 
 No 128 62.4 
 Total  205 100 
Source: Researcher’s fieldwork, 2017 
Table 10: Respondents‟ Formal Assets continued 
The educational ladder has different stages; primary, basic, secondary and tertiary. At the 
primary level, one attends school, learns, is examined and promoted to the next class. This is 
done till the sixth lass after which the pupil begins his basic education. Getting to the end of 
basic education, the student is given the option to choose a secondary school he or she would 
like to attend for his or her secondary education. This choice he or she makes depends on 
many factors which include personal reasons, what he or she has heard about the school, 
because of friends, educational standard of the school or reasons known to parents among 
many others.   
From the study, (see Table 10) 47.4% of the respondents attended single sex schools. These 
single sex schools they attended include Wesley Girls High School, Accra Girls High School, 
Aburi Girls High School, Mfantsipim Boys School, Presbyterian Boys School, Prempeh 
College and other single sex schools nationwide. “I got this school by merit” says Nana. 
According to Ben, “my elder brothers attended that school so I thought of following suite”. 
Kofi says “this SHS was the school of my choice and besides, as an Anglican, I felt the school 
would best suit me”. “My parents felt that SHS was more secured in terms of security” says 
Ida. 52. 6% of the respondents attended Mixed Schools. These mixed schools include 
Akosombo International School, Labone Senior High, Achimota Senior High, Oforipanin 
Senior High School, Ghana National Senior High School, Tema Senior High School among 
others nationwide. 
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After secondary school education, individuals apply to institutions either private or public 
institutions for their tertiary education.  For tertiary education, (see Table 10) respondents of 
the study either attended private or public universities. 28.8% of the respondents attended 
private universities such as Ashesi University, Central University, Methodist University and 
Wisconsin University whiles 71.3% representing a majority attended public universities 
nationwide. They include, University of Ghana, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and 
Technology, University of Cape Coast and University of Development Studies. It can be 
inferred from this result that, most people working in organisations as well as Heads of State 
have studied in these institutions thus making the institutions prestigious thus, making it easy 
for graduates from these institutions to secure employment. To Ida, “...if you want to get a 
suitable job, then you’ve got to go through to the university and that is it because without 
university education, no one will employ you...” 
At the universities, these respondents read different courses. 31.3% read courses under the 
Social Sciences/ Humanities, 19.7% read courses under the Natural Sciences, 12.6% read 
Technical Programmes and 36.4% read Business courses. From the survey, it is realised that 
most respondents read Business courses. This is because graduates read courses that are in 
line with the employment situation at hand and as there is the establishment of more 
organisations in Accra especially banks, graduates with business administration background 
have the opportunity to secure jobs based on the courses they read (see Table 10). 
According to Bills (2003), qualifications bestow status and are a symbol of educational 
qualifications conferred by colleges and universities in the form of degrees. To Gangl (2000 
p.3) as cited in Ionescu (2012), the qualifications attained by individuals are the main asset 
used in acquiring jobs as a result of competition for jobs available on the labour market. 
One‟s qualifications are relevant because it plays a role in attaining jobs as it serves as a 
proof that an individual has acquired knowledge that will help him or her work effectively 
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and efficiently (Ogege, 2011 p.253-254). From the study, 96.7% of the respondents 
representing a majority have a Bachelors degree. This is in line with Asafu-Adjaye‟s (2011) 
probit model used to estimate the effects of education on employment in Ghana using data 
from the fifth round of the Ghana Living Standard Survey (GLSS 5) showing that, 
individuals with primary, secondary and tertiary education have higher chances of being 
employed as compared to those with lesser qualifications or no qualifications all things being 
equal. 3.4% of respondents have Masters Degree in order to set themselves apart from those 
with only the Bachelors degree. This supports the results of Ionescu et al (2012) who in his 
study found that one‟s qualifications play a role in securing a job; the study also showed that, 
having a higher educational level would set you apart from those who do not have it (see 
Table 10). 
University education is no different from that of the primary, basic and tertiary. Whereas an 
individual cannot move from basic and secondary education without the required certificates, 
so it is with securing a job. Securing a job is not about having a degree only but also having 
good qualification. This is because, without good qualification, the transition of graduates 
from school to work is not easy. From respondents‟ qualifications acquired at the university, 
15.3% had First Class, 54.2% had Second Class Upper, 25.6 graduated with Second Class 
Lower, 3.0% graduated with Third Class and 2.0% graduated with a Pass. This is shown in 
Table 10 above. 
The labour market is flooded with graduates with good credentials (Tomlinson, 2008) so 
having additional attributes facilitates one‟s employment in the Ghanaian society. Work 
experience comes in a variety of ways for example, through internships (Jensen, 2009), 
volunteering to work (Bourner and Millican 2011), and service learning (Prentice and 
Robinson, 2010). From the study, respondents had internships in order to get some work 
experience. 60.1% had internships for less than a year, 32.7% had internships for a year, 
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6.5% had two years internship and 0.7% had three years internship. They had their 
internships during their vacations. This supports the results of a study by Harvey (1997) on 
graduates who were very satisfied with their job revealing that, having had work experience 
facilitated their employment. To them, work experience facilitated their employment since it 
gave them the opportunity to practice the knowledge they had acquired from school, and gave 
them an insight of what work is about.  In the same study, it was revealed that, lack of 
relevant work experience made it difficult for a graduate to enter the labour market (see Table 
10).    
78.2% of respondents had internships that were related to their course of study at the 
University whiles 21.8% did not have course related internships. Also, 37.6% acquired other 
professional certificates aside their degrees to set them apart from others in the labour market 
whiles 62.4% did not acquire professional certificates (see Table 4.10). 
Personally, I think the value of having a degree is being lost these days, that is, everyone is 
going to the university and going through the “conveyor belt” and most graduates have the 
same qualification so the need to set yourself apart because the degree alone is not enough 
on its own to get you a job...”(Nana) 
 
“...Hmm, there are too many graduates and few jobs. Since we all have degrees, nothing 
differentiates us but when you have something extra, it puts you on top of others... (Grace) 
 
“... if you do not have any experience, it does not make you stand out from the other 
people...” (Sena) 
 
This shows that there is the need to add value to oneself to be advantageous in the labour 
market. 
 
 
 
 
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4.5 INFORMAL ASSETS 
 
According to Adjei and Mohammed (2014), there is “the hidden job market” as majority of 
jobs that are available are never advertised. As a result of this, graduates get to know of job 
vacancies through family, friends, acquaintances and other people to whom the for the 
purpose of getting information, leads, or advice on getting a job (Wanberg et al, 2000). This 
is the reason why in modern Ghanaian society, people say that getting a job is based on “who 
you know” and not “what you know”; implying that a graduate may have all the formal assets 
but if he or she does not know anyone to help him or her, it would be difficult for him or her 
to get a job. 
Literature on employment and other related topics see the use of social networks to play an 
important role in securing jobs (Putnam, 2000).  A survey conducted by Shuttleworth et al 
(2008) revealed that the use of social network as a tool to enter the labour market placed 
second after “adverts in the press”.  This is not in line with the survey conducted as more than 
50% of respondents got their jobs through informal sources such as family, friends, members 
of church/mosque, members of professional associations and old students‟ associations. This 
result is in line with Granovetter‟s findings that graduates not only make use of their formal 
assets when looking for jobs but also use their informal assets. 
Table 11: Graduates’ informal assets  
 CATEGORY FREQUENCY PERCENT 
(%) 
Size of network Disagree 103 54.8 
 Agree 85 45.2 
Total   188 100 
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Strength of network Disagree 117 61.9 
 Agree 72 38.1 
Total   189 100 
Status of tie members Disagree 127 67.6 
 Agree 61 32.4 
Total   188 100 
Source: Researcher’s fieldwork, 2017 
Table 11: Graduates informal assets continued. 
4.5.1 Size of Network 
 
According to Kanfer et al (2001), the quality of the social network or social capital is very 
important as this influences the ease with which one gets employment. For example, a 
graduate looking for employment after contacting one important person will be successful in 
getting employed, whereas another remains unemployed after contacting five to ten less 
important people. This does not support the result of the study conducted as 54.8% of 
respondents disagree that the size of one‟s network eases his or her job acquisition whiles 
45.2%  agree that the size of one‟s network plays a role in getting him or her a job. This 
shows that a graduate may know many people but these people will not play any significant 
role in helping the graduate to secure a job (see Table 11). 
“...I don’t think it is that easy. You need a lot of determination. It is not only about the 
experience oo but building up of contacts because it’s a general competition among 
graduates. For instance, one of my friends has been employed because of his contacts...” 
(Ben) 
 
“... See, the graduate market is getting overcrowded. There are too may graduates and few 
jobs so if you have no one to help you, you will not get a job (Dan). 
 
 
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4.5.2 Strength of Network 
 
The strength of one‟s network, that is, the kind of people in one‟s network also plays a role in 
the acquisition of jobs. In Granovetter‟s strength of weak ties proposition, individuals who 
are weakly tied to have access to more information on employment than what is gotten by the 
individuals themselves (Siebert et al, 2001). This means that the ease with which individuals 
get employed is based on not only the number of contacts available to them but also the 
strength of ties that exist between the members of the social network. From the study, 61.9% 
of the respondents disagree that the strength of one‟s network plays a role in getting one a job 
and 38.1% agree that the strength of one‟s network plays a role in getting one a job. Based on 
this result, one can say that, a graduate may have good relations with the people he or she 
knows but this relationship they have will not play a role in securing him or her a job (see 
Table 11) 
4.5.3 Status of Tie Members 
 
The status of the people who make up one‟s network help graduates to get jobs. This is 
because if the people in one‟s network are people with good education, have good jobs and 
live good lives, they get information on jobs and make it available to people in search of jobs 
(Aguilera, 2002). Results from the survey shows that, 67.6% of respondents disagree that the 
status (educational and occupational) of tie members plays a role in getting one a job whiles 
32.4% of respondents agree that the status (educational and occupational) of one‟s tie 
members play a role in getting one a job (see Table 11). 
 
 
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Table 12: Groups respondents belong to 
  FREQUENCY PERCENT (%) 
Member of Youth Yes  
Organisation 120 60.6 
 No  78 39.4 
 Total  198 100 
Member of Old Yes 127 62.3 
Students‟ Association 
 No  77 37.7 
 Total  204 100 
Member of 
Professional Yes  31 15.9 
Organisation 
 No  164 84.1 
 Total  195 100 
Source: Researcher’s fieldwork, 2017 
4.5.4 Member of Youth Organisation 
 
Ghana as a country is becoming more religious and this is influencing graduates‟ transition 
from school to work. Graduates join organisations at their various churches in order to build 
their social capital which they make use of to gain employment. This is because, in joining 
theses groups, those who are employed are able to give them information on job vacancies 
and sometimes are referred to recruiting organisations. From the study, as shown in Table 12, 
respondents are part of organisations as well as associations, 60.6% are members of youth 
organisations in their various churches and 39.4% do not belong to youth organisations in 
their churches.  
4.5.5 Member of Old Students’ Association 
 
Being a member of the Old Students‟ Association of the school one attended also plays a role 
in smooth school to work transition. This is because, every school has its values and 
principles that shape their lives. Also, some people from these schools hold different 
positions in different organisations. As a result, when organisations are employing 
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individuals for positions within their organisations, tend to consider people from their Alma 
Mata and have that allegiance. From the study, 62.3% respondents are members of their Old 
Students‟ Associations and 37.7% are not (see Table 12).  
4.5.6 Member of Professional Association 
 
Being a member of a professional organisation also plays a role in graduates‟ smooth 
transition from school to work. This is because, these organisations consist of corporate 
individuals with objectives and hold meetings at regular intervals in order to meet their 
objectives. However, since these people are in the corporate world, they tend to have or get 
information on employment. In view of this, they make it known to individuals in that 
organisation before any other person. Also, most graduates also join these groups not only 
because of building social capital but also to secure jobs. From the Table 12 above, it is 
inferred that 15.9% belong to professional organisations whiles 84.1% do not belong to 
professional organisations. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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4.6 COMBINATION OF ASSETS 
 
Granovetter‟s (1974) work on “Getting a Job”  (GAJ) proposed that, numerous employees do 
not only get jobs through their formal assets (internet, skills, qualification, and work 
experience) or “what you know” but also get jobs through their informal assets (social 
network) or “who you know”. This points to the fact, that in order to get a job, it is not only 
about one‟s personal achievement but whom he knows also plays an important role in getting 
him a job thus, the combination of the two. 
Table 13: Combination of assets 
 
  FREQUENCY PERCENT 
(%) 
Combination of assets More formal assets and less 
informal assets 152 82.2 
 Less formal assets and more 
informal assets 33 17.8 
How long it took to get a 
job after using this Less than a year 70 36.8 
combination 
 1 year 68 35.8 
 2 years 30 15.8 
 3 years 16 8.4 
 4 years 1 .5 
 5 years 2 1.1 
 Other  3 1.6 
Recommendation  Yes 145 82.4 
 No 31 17.6 
Source: Researcher’s fieldwork, 2017 
 
From the study, 82.2% representing a majority of respondents got jobs through the 
combination of more formal assets and less informal assets whiles 17.8% of respondents got 
their jobs through the combination of less formal assets and more informal assets. Using 
these combinations, it took 36.8% of respondents to get jobs in less than a year and 63.2% to 
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get jobs after a year. Also, 82.4% of respondents recommended the use of the combination of 
assets in the search of jobs in order to ease their employment whiles 17.6% said otherwise. 
The next chapter, chapter five, explores the role of assets in getting a graduate a job. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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CHAPTER FIVE 
GETTING A JOB: THE ROLE OF ASSETS 
 
5.0 INTRODUCTION 
 
As the numbers of graduates outnumber the jobs available in Accra, graduates deploy various 
assets in order to facilitate their employment. This chapter presents the results of 
nonparametric tests conducted to find the relationship between the assets deployed by 
graduates when searching for jobs and how long it takes them to get employed. The chapter 
ends by looking at the determinants of job satisfaction among employed graduates in Accra. 
5.1 THE EXTENT TO WHICH FORMAL ASSETS DETERMINE GRADUATES’ 
EMPLOYMENT. 
 
In finding out whether the secondary school an individual attends plays a role in getting job, a 
chi-square test was run. 
Table 14: Relationship between secondary school attended and years taken to get a 
job. 
Years taken to get a job Secondary School Attended  
after NS1 Single Mixed 
Before a year 44(41.9%) 61(58.1%) 2.022 
After a year 36(52.9%) 32(47.1%)  
Chi-square value= 2.022                                                     P value= 0.155 
* P < 0.05 
1 National Service  
Source: Researcher’s fieldwork, 2017. 
 
Results depicted in the chi-square Table 14 above is a test run to find out if the secondary 
school one attends plays a role in getting one a job. Results of this test show that majority 
(58.1%) of respondents who attended Mixed Schools landed their first job within a year after 
their National Service as compared to 41.9% who attended Single Sex Schools. Also, 52.9% 
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of respondents who attended Single Sex Schools got jobs after a year after their National 
Service as compared to 47.1% who attended Mixed Schools. This shows some kind of 
relationship between the variables however, statistically, this relationship is not significant as 
the P value (0.155) is more than 0.05. Therefore, getting a job earlier or later is not dependent 
on the Secondary School a graduate attends.  
 
Table 15: Relationship between university attended and years taken to get a job. 
Years taken to get a job University Attended  
after NS1 Private Public 
Before a year 27(25.7%)                   7  8  (74.3%)  
After a year 23(33.8%) 45(66.2%)  
Chi-square value=1.321                                      P value= 0.250 
* P < 0.05 
1 National Service 
Source: Researcher’s fieldwork, 2017. 
 
 
Testing to find out if the University attended plays a role in getting one a job in Table 15 
above, the test reveals that 74.3% of participants of the study representing a majority attended 
Public Universities and got a job within a year after National Service whiles 25.7% who 
attended Private Universities got jobs within a year after their National Service. In the same 
vein, 66.2% who attended Public Universities got employed a year after National Service 
with the remainder, 33.8% who attended Private Universities getting employed a year after 
National Service. With a chi-square value= 1.321 and P value=0.250, how early or late a 
graduate gets a job is not dependent on the University attended. 
 
 
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Courses individuals pursue in the universities are courses chosen by them in relation to their 
career path.  Above is the result of a chi-square test to find out the relationship between the 
courses read by graduates and the years taken to get employed. 
Table 16: Relationship between course of study and years taken to get a job. 
Years taken to get a job Course of study  
after NS1 Social Natural Technical Business 
Sciences/ Sciences Programmes Programmes 
Humanities 
Before a year 32(31.4%) 21(20.6%) 13(12.7%) 36(35.3%)  
After a year 18(28.6%) 9(14.3%) 8(12.7%) 28(44.4%)  
Chi-square value=1.792                                                           P value= 0.617 
* P < 0.05 
1 National Service 
Source: Researcher’s fieldwork, 2017. 
 
Results from Table 16 show that majority (35.3%) participants of the study read Business 
Programmes during their study in the university got employed within a year after National 
Service followed by those who read Social Science/ Humanities Programmes (31.4%), 
Natural Sciences (20.6%) and Technical Programmes (12.7%) respectively. Likewise, 
majority (44.4%) of participants of the study who read Business Programmes got employed 
after a year after their National Service followed by those who read Social Science/ 
Humanities Programmes (28.6%), Natural Sciences (14.3%) and Technical Programmes 
(12.7%). It is also seen that majority of those who got jobs earlier and later than a year read 
business courses however, with a P value greater than 0.05, getting a job is not dependent on 
the course one studies at the university. 
To test if the class obtained by graduates play a role in getting them jobs, Table 17 below 
reveals the classes (first, second, third class and pass) one could obtain after years of 
education in the university. 
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Table 17: Relationship between class obtained and years taken to get a job. 
Years taken to get a job Class obtained  
after NS1 First Class Second Class Third Class 
and Pass 
Before a year 11(10.7%) 88(85.4%) 4(3.9%)  
 
After a year 11(16.2%) 51(75.0%) 6(8.8%)  
Chi-square value=3.220                                               P value=0.200 
* P < 0.05 
1 National Service 
Source: Researcher’s fieldwork, 2017. 
 
 
Majority, representing 85.4% of respondents had Second Class and this group of people 
gained employment within a year after their National Service followed by those who had 
First class (10.7) and Below Second Class (3.9). In the same vein, majority (75.0%) of 
respondents who got jobs after a year after National Service are those who had Second Class 
followed by those who had First Class (16.2%) and those who had Below Second Class 
(8.8%). Though this test signifies a relationship between the class one obtains from the 
university and how long it takes for one to get a job, statistically, this relationship is not 
significant as the P value (0.200) is more than 0.05. Therefore, getting a job is not dependent 
on the class one obtained from the university (see Table 17). 
 
Work experience is also a vital asset that helps graduates to get jobs since it gives them an 
idea of what happens at the workplace and also gives one some basic skills needed at the 
workplace. A chi-square test on the relationship between the internships had by respondents 
and the years taken to get a job (see Table 18 below). 
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Table 18: Relationship between internship and years taken to get a job. 
Years taken to get a job Internship  
after NS1 Yes No 
Before a year 83(85.6%) 14(14.4%)  
After a year 47(78.3%) 13(21.7%)  
Chi-square value= 1.362                                     P value=0.243 
* P < 0.05 
1 National Service 
Source: Researcher’s fieldwork, 2017. 
 
Results of the chi-square test on the relationship between the internships had by respondents 
and the years taken to get a job show that 85.6% of respondents representing a majority who 
had internships got jobs within a year after National Service and only 14.4% who did not 
have internships got jobs within a year after National Service. Also, 78.3% of respondents 
who had internships got jobs after a year after their National Service with 21.7% of those 
who did not have any internship getting jobs after a year after National Service. Here, it is 
noted that, there exists a relationship between having internships and how long it takes a 
graduate to get a job however, this relationship is not significant as the P value (0.243) 
exceeds 0.05. This result is not in line with what Ben says about having work experience. 
In school, we were told that internships add up to your work experience. Sometimes when you 
are done with school, your first point of contact with work experience is National Service. 
Internships add up to your years of experience so personally, I had internships when I was in 
school. (Ben) 
 
Due to the competition that exists in the labour market between thousands of graduates which 
puts every graduate on the same board, some graduates set themselves apart in order to get 
jobs. In setting themselves apart, graduates obtain certificates in other courses to make them 
more marketable in the labour market. 
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Table 19: Relationship between professional course read and years taken to get a job. 
Years taken to get a job Professional course  
after NS1 Yes No 
Before a year 40(38.1%) 65(61.9%) .584 
After a year 21(32.3%) 44(67.7%)  
Chi-square value= 0.584                                     P value=0.445 
* P < 0.05 
1 National Service 
Source: Researcher’s fieldwork, 2017  
 
To find out the relationship between professional courses read and the number of years taken 
to get a job, the chi-square Table 19 above show that 61.9% representing majority of 
respondents of the study who did not obtain professional certificates got jobs within a year 
after National Service and 38.1% who obtained professional certificates got jobs within a 
year after National Service. Also, 67.7% of respondents who did not obtain professional 
certificates got jobs after a year after National Service and 32.3% who obtained professional 
certificates got jobs after a year after National Service. With a P value of 0.445, there is no 
significant relationship between professional courses read by graduates to make them more 
marketable and the years taken to get a job.  
Results from the above parametric tests run to find out the extent to which formal assets 
determine graduates‟ employment has shown that how early or later a graduate gets a job 
does not matter on the formal assets he or she possesses.  
 
 
 
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5.2 THE EXTENT TO WHICH INFORMAL ASSETS DETERMINE GRADUATES’ 
EMPLOYMENT 
 
In order to examine if the size of one‟s network varies by the time taken to get a job, an 
independence t test was conducted. 
Table 20: Size of network varies by years taken to get a job. 
 Groups  N Mean Std. T Sig 
 Deviation 
 
Size of Before a 96 12.0313 3.14376 .208 .835 
Network year 
 
After a 63 11.9206 3.46551   
year 
 
T value= 0.208                                                          P value=0.835 
* P < 0.05 
Source: Researcher’s fieldwork, 2017 
 
Results depicted in the Table 20 above show that graduates who got a job within a year after 
their National Service (Mean=12.03; SD= 3.14) agree more that the size of one‟s network 
helps one to get a job whereas graduates who got jobs after a year after National Service 
(Mean=11.92; SD=3.5) less agree that the size of one‟s network helps in getting a graduate a 
job. However, this variation is not significant as the P value 0.835 is greater than 0.05. This 
result means that there is no significant difference between the extent to which those who got 
jobs earlier and later agree that the size of one‟s network guarantees a job.  
Network certainly; you must get to know people. Even if it’s just volunteer work, helping out 
with something, taking part in activities, getting involved with things, joining groups, things 
like that. My family members know a lot of people. I think if you know other people you can 
inform them about your job search and they can help you get a job because a lot of people 
graduate every year. (Ida) 
 
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“...yeah, networking is a sure thing. I really made good connections with a lot of people. My 
connections with people helped me a lot...” (Kofi) 
In order to examine if the strength of one‟s network varies by the time taken to get a job, an 
independence t test was conducted. 
 
Table 21: Strength of one’s network varies by years taken to get a job. 
 Groups N Mean Std. T Sig 
 Deviation 
 
Strength of Before a 97 9.3814 2.80418 -.221 .826 
Network year 
 
After a 62 9.4839 2.92945   
year 
 
T value= -0.221                                                            P value=0.826 
* P < 0.05 
Source: Researcher’s fieldwork, 2017 
 Results depicted in the Table 21 above show that graduates who got a job within a year after 
their National Service (Mean=9.4; SD=2.80) less agree that the size of one‟s network helps 
one to get a job whereas graduates who got jobs after a year after National Service Mean=9.5; 
SD=2.92) agree more that the strength of one‟s network helps in getting a graduate a job. 
However, this variation is not significant as the P value 0.826 is greater than 0.05. This result 
means that there is no significant difference between the extent to which those who got jobs 
earlier and later agree that the strength of one‟s network guarantees a job. 
 
 
 
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Table 22: Status of members in network varies by years taken to get a job. 
 Groups  N Mean Std. T Sig 
 Deviation 
 
Status of Before a 96 11.7708 2.59343 2.378 .019 
Tie year 
Members  
After a 62 10.7258 2.85249   
year 
 
T value= 2.378                                                             P value=0.019 
* P < 0.05 
Source: Researcher’s fieldwork, 2017 
 
In order to examine if the status of members of one‟s network varies by the time taken to get 
a job, an independence t test was conducted. Results depicted in the Table 22 above show that 
graduates who got a job within a year after their National Service (Mean= 11.77; SD=2.59) 
agree more that the status of members of one‟s network helps one to get a job whereas 
graduates who got jobs after a year after National Service Mean=10.72; SD=2.85 agree less 
that the status of members of one‟s network helps in getting a graduate a job. This variation is 
significant as the P value 0.019 is less than 0.05. This result means that there is a significant 
difference between the extent to which those who got jobs earlier and later agree that the 
status of members of their network got them a job.  That is, the worth of people in one‟s 
network, that is, their educational status, occupational status as well as their general life status 
is what secures one a job as compared to the size of one‟s network and the strength of one‟s 
network. This is therefore in line with Granovetter‟s strength of ties “...My dad spoke to 
someone who he used to work with to help secure an interview for me...” (Grace). 
 
 
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5.3 THE EXTENT TO WHICH COMBINATION OF ASSETS DETERMINE 
GRADUATES’ EMPLOYMENT 
 
Table 23: Relationship between assets combined and years taken to get a job. 
Years taken to get a job Combination of assets  
after NS1 More formal assets Less formal assets 
and less informal and more informal 
assets assets 
Before a year 76(80.9%) 18(19.1%)  
After a year 47(79.7%) 12(20.3%)  
Chi-square value= 0.033                                         P value=0.857 
* P < 0.05 
1 National Service 
Source: Researcher’s fieldwork, 2017 
 
To find out the relationship between assets combined and the number of years taken to get a 
job, the chi-square Table 23 above shows that 80.9% of respondents who combined more 
formal assets and less informal assets got jobs within a year after their National Service as 
compared to 19.9% who combined less formal assets and more informal assets. Also, 79.7% 
got jobs after a year after National Service when they combined more formal assets whiles 
20.3% of respondents who combined less formal assets and more informal assets got jobs 
after a year after National Service. From this table, it is seen that combining more formal 
assets and less informal assets plays a role in getting one a job. However, with a p value more 
than 0.05, there is no significant relationship between the assets combined and the number of 
years taken to get a job. This implies that, how long it takes a graduate to get a job does not 
depend on the assets combined. 
 
 
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CHAPTER SIX 
SUMMARY, FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 
 
6.0 INTRODUCTION 
 
This chapter presents the summary of the major findings of the study in response to the 
research questions, draws conclusions on the study and suggests recommendations for 
consideration and future research as well.  
6.1 SUMMARY 
 
University education is usually a pathway chosen by individuals who want to be employable 
in the labour market. Out of the thousands of individuals who graduate from the various 
universities in Ghana after years of education, only 8% of graduates are absorbed into the 
formal sector. This research project therefore sought to explore the factors that are at play in 
getting graduates permanent jobs in the formal sector of Ghana‟s economy thus, the keys to a 
successful school to work transition. To be able to do this, three objectives were outlined to 
help achieve the aim of the study. These were to explore the extent to which formal assets 
(knowledge, skills, qualifications, and work experience) determine graduates‟ employment. 
To examine the extent to which informal assets (family, friends, acquaintances and social 
networks) determine graduates‟ employment. To examine which combination of formal and 
informal assets increase a graduates‟ chances of securing early employment.  
The mixed methods specifically the sequential explanatory mixed method was employed in 
carrying out the study and in this case, the quantitative study preceded the qualitative study. 
The target population for the study comprised all employed university graduates living in 
Accra who have worked for a maximum of five years in a permanent employment position. 
Using the stratified sampling method, private and public organisations within the Accra 
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Metropolitan Assembly were selected for the survey. Also, by employing Krejcie and 
Morgan‟s (1970) formula for determining sampling sizes for surveys, the researcher 
estimated the sample size for the survey at two hundred and seventy-eight (278). However, 
two hundred and nine (209) that is, one hundred and eight (108) males and one hundred and 
one (101) females actually participated in the study giving a response rate of 75.2%. The 
purposive sampling technique was, employed to select ten (10) employed graduates for the 
qualitative study. However, seven (7) employed graduates were available for the qualitative 
study. Also, the selection of the respondents, who participated in the quantitative study, was 
based on the result from the survey. Using a self-administered questionnaire and a semi- 
structured interview guide for the survey and the qualitative study respectively, the data was 
collected and analyzed in two phases; first the quantitative data collection and analysis then 
second, the qualitative data collection and analysis. The two analyzed data, however, were 
later merged at an intermediary level. 
6.2 KEY FINDINGS 
 
In finding out the factors that come to play in getting graduates permanent jobs in the formal 
sector of Ghana‟s economy, it was found that in Accra, it takes a graduate as early as one 
year and at least five years to get a job post National Service. This finding supports that of 
Fares et al (2005) who in his study found that in developing countries like Cote d‟Ivoire, it 
takes individuals one year to get into the labour market and more than five years in countries 
like Kenya, Malawi, Ethiopia, Burkina Faso, and others found in the Sub Saharan region, 
thus, graduates have to wait for a long time before getting employed. 
Findings from the study show that the family factor (28.1%) was the main source of finding 
out about job vacancies. This is so because there is “the hidden job market” as majority of 
jobs that are available are never advertised (Adjei and Mohammed, 2014) and as such 
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graduates have to rely on family, friends, acquaintances and other people with the purpose of 
getting information, leads, or advice on getting a job (Wanberg et al, 2000). This finding also 
supports the saying “getting a job is based on who you know and not what you know”. 
In other jurisdictions like developed countries, formal assets like employment agencies, 
advertisement, internet, skills, qualifications and work experience are utilized in getting jobs. 
However, this is not the case with this study as these assets were not found to play significant 
roles in getting graduates jobs. 
Graduates also have available to them, informal assets which include the number of people 
they know, the strength of the relationship they have with these people and the status of the 
people they know which they make use of when searching for jobs. From the study, it is 
evident that the status of the people a graduate knows plays a vital role in getting him or her a 
job. This finding is in line with Kanfer et al (2001) who in their work found the quality of 
one‟s social network to be important in influencing the ease with which he or she gains 
employment. Likewise, this finding supports Granovetter‟s thesis on strength of ties which 
states that, not only do people get jobs using their formal assets (internet, skills, qualification 
and work experience) or “what you know” but also by making use of their informal assets 
(social networks) or “who you know” thus, showing the important role informal assets (social 
networks) play in getting a graduate a job in Accra. 
It is also evident from the study that the kind of combination of assets deployed in the labour 
market does not play a role in getting one a job as the test revealed a no significant 
relationship between the assets combined and how long it takes one to get a job.  
 
 
 
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6.3 CONCLUSION 
 
From the study conducted, it is noted that in Accra, graduates possess a wide range of assets 
be it formal or informal which they deploy either separately or combined to facilitate their 
employment. In Accra, formal assets do not facilitate a graduate‟s employment but rather his 
or her informal assets particularly the status of the people who make up the network since 
they have information on employment vacancies as a result of who they are, where they work 
and people they know. Thus, the worth of the people a graduate knows is the main 
determinant for his or her successful school to work transition. This finding is in line with 
Granovetter‟s strength of ties which proposed that, numerous employees do not only get jobs 
through their formal assets (internet, skills, qualification, and work experience) or “what you 
know” but also get jobs through their informal assets (social network) or “who you know” to 
assess the transition of graduates in Accra from school to work. This therefore makes known 
the importance of social network or social capital in the search of jobs. This implies that, 
graduates applying for a position may possess the same formal assets but what makes the 
difference is the quality of one‟s weak ties; that is, those who have strong weak ties 
especially weak ties with higher status in the society transit faster than those who do not have 
strong weak ties.  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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6.4 RECOMMENDATIONS 
 
Based on the findings of the study, the researcher recommends that students should engage in 
voluntary work during their vacations as this would make them acquire the skills, values and 
experiences needed at the workplace. 
Graduates should make use of their formal assets (skills, qualification, work experience, 
course of study etc) rather than their informal assets (family friends, acquaintances) since it is 
the formal assets that would help them stay in the organisation when there is a change in the 
structure of the organisation. 
 
6.5 SUGGESTION FOR FURTHER RESEARCH 
 
To find out whether the findings of this study are corroborated or disconfirmed in other 
regions of the country, the researcher recommends a National survey in order to ascertain the 
extent to which the findings of the study are representative. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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APPENDIX 1 
UNIVERSITY OF GHANA 
MPHIL IN SOCIOLOGY 
QUESTIONNAIRE FOR DATA COLLECTION 
TITLE: DETERMINANTS OF SCHOOL TO WORK TRANSITION AMONG 
EMPLOYED GRADUATES IN ACCRA. 
AIM: The primary objective of this study is to examine the factors that facilitate easy access 
of graduates into the formal labour market in Accra. Information given will solely be used for 
academic purposes. It is to enable the researcher write her thesis in partial fulfilment for 
MPhil Sociology. Respondents are therefore ensured of full confidentiality, privacy and 
anonymity. Thank you for your cooperation. 
Please tick the appropriate answer in the bracket and write out your response where 
necessary. 
                                                                                      Questionnaire ID…………………….. 
SECTION A: BIO-DATA OF RESPONDENTS 
1. Sex: 1. Male  (     ) 
        2.  Female (     )         
 
2. Age: 1. 20-24  (     ) 
         2. 25-29  (     )             
         3. 30-34  (     )             
         4. 35-39  (     )             
         5. 40-44  (     )            
         6. 45-49  (     )             
 
3. Marital Status:  1. Single   (     )                
                            2. Married    (     )           
                            3. Cohabiting  (     )       
                            4. Separated  (     )         
                            5. Divorced  (     )           
                            6. Widowed  (     )     
 
4. Ethnicity:     1. Akan    (     )                           
                      2. Ga Adangme  (     )             
                      3. Ewe     (     )                            
                      4. Dagomba  (     )                     
                                  5. Other..............................................       
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5. Religious Affiliation:   1. Christian  (     )         
                                      2. Islam  (     )                
                                      3. Traditionalist  (     )   
SECTION B: BACKGROUND INFORMATION ON RESPONDENT’S JOB 
1. How many years post National Service did it take you to get a job?............................... 
 
2. Was this your preferred job? 
1. Yes (     ) 
2. No  (     ) 
 
3. How closely is your job related to your undergraduate education? 
1. Not related at all  (     )   
2. Somewhat related  (     )    
3. Closely related  (     ) 
4. Related   (     ) 
  
4. Are you able to utilise your knowledge and skills acquired from your education? 
 1. Yes  (     )                          
 2. No  (     )     
                     
5. If No, what additional skills do you need?.................................................................... 
6. How did you find out about this job? 
1.Newspaper       (     ) 
2.Career Fair       (     ) 
3.Internet site (please specify)    (     ) 
4.Family member      (     ) 
5.A member of my church/mosque    (     ) 
6.A member of my professional organisation  (     ) 
7.A member of my old school group    (     ) 
8.Other (specify).............................................................................   
    
7. Number of Years Working after National Service. 
             1. Less than a year  (     ) 
             2. 1 - 2 years   (     ) 
             3. 2 - 3 years   (     ) 
             4. 3 - 4 years   (     ) 
             5. 4 - 5 years   (     ) 
 
 
 
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SECTION C:  THE EXTENT TO WHICH FORMAL ASSETS DETERMINE 
GRADUATES’ EMPLOYMENT    
1. Secondary School Attended: 
1. Single Sex School (     ) 
2. Mixed School  (     ) 
2. Specify the School.............................................................................................. 
3. University Attended: 
1. Private  (     ) 
                  2. Public  (     ) 
 
4. Which University?................................................................................................ 
5. Major Course of Study: (specify the course) 
 
1. College of Humanities..................................................................................... 
       2. College of Sciences........................................................................................ 
       3. College of Art................................................................................................. 
       4. Business..........................................................................................................  
       5. Law 
       6. Other ................................................................................................................. 
 
6. Qualification:    
1. Diploma  (     )    
      2. Bachelors   (     )                   
      3. Masters   (     )                     
      4. Other...................................................... 
                         
7. Class Obtained:      
1. First Class   (     )                                   
       2. Second Class Upper   (     )                 
       3. Second Class Lower   (     )                 
       4. Third Class   (     )                          
 5. Pass    (     ) 
 
8.  Did you have any internship while you were at the University?    
 1. Yes (     ) 
 2. No (skip to 10) 
 
9. If Yes, for how many years? 
1. One year  (     ) 
2. Two years   (     ) 
3. Three years  (     ) 
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4. Four years  (     ) 
 
 
10. Was the internship related to your course of study? 
1. Yes   (     ) 
2. No   (     ) 
 
11. Did you obtain other professional certificates while at school? 
1. Yes   (     ) 
2. No   (     ) 
 
12. If Yes, which of these did you obtain? 
1. Marketing      (     ) 
2. Accounting     (     ) 
3. Information Technology (I.T.)   (     ) 
4. Typing      (     ) 
5. Other, specify............................................................. 
  
SECTION D: THE EXTENT TO WHICH INFORMAL ASSETS DETERMINES 
GRADUATES’ EMPLOYMENT 
1. How did you get this job? 
From the statements 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 
below, select your Completely Disagree Neutral Agree Completely 
response to indicate Disagree Agree 
the size of your 
network. 
I knew few people      
who could help me 
find a job. 
I knew a lot of      
people who could 
help me find a job. 
I could count on      
family, friends or 
acquaintances for 
information about 
jobs. 
I had connections I      
could talk to to help 
me find a job 
 
 
 
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2. The people who helped me find a job are: 
From the statements 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 
below, select your Completely Disagree Neutral Agree Completely 
response to indicate Disagree Agree 
the strength of the 
ties in your  
network. 
People who helped      
me find a job are 
people I know very 
well eg. Parents, 
friends. 
People who helped      
me find a job are 
people I often talk 
to. 
People who helped      
me find a job are 
people I feel 
comfortable talking 
to, even about other 
issues. 
 
3. The people who helped me find a job: 
From the statements 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 
below, select your Completely Disagree Neutral Agree Completely 
response to indicate Disagree Agree 
the status of the ties 
in your network. 
People who helped      
me find a job have 
good education. 
People who helped      
me find a job have 
good jobs. 
People who helped      
me find a job are 
generally doing 
well. 
 
 
4. What is the ethnic background of your employer? .......................................................... 
 
 
5. Are you a member of a youth organisation in your Church /Mosque? 
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1. Yes (     ).................................................................................. 
2. No  (     ) 
6. How often do you attend meetings? 
1. Never   (     ) 
2. Rarely   (     ) 
3. Frequently   (     ) 
4. Very frequently  (     ) 
5. Always   (     ) 
 
7. How often do you attend rites of passage (weddings, funerals, naming ceremonies) of 
members? 
1. Never   (     ) 
2. Rarely   (     ) 
3. Frequently   (     ) 
4. Very frequently  (     ) 
5. Always   (     ) 
 
8. Are you an executive in your youth organisation? 
1. Yes (     ) 
2. No  (     ) 
 
9. Which position do you occupy?................................................................................. 
 
10. Are you a member of any Old Students‟ Association? 
1. Yes (     ).................................................................................................... 
2. No  (     ) 
 
11. How often do you attend meetings? 
1 Never   (     ) 
2. Rarely   (     ) 
3. Frequently   (     ) 
4. Very frequently  (     ) 
 5. Always   (     ) 
 
12. How often do you attend rites of passage (weddings, funerals, naming ceremonies) of 
members? 
1. Never   (     ) 
2. Rarely   (     ) 
3. Frequently   (     ) 
4. Very frequently  (     ) 
5. Always   (     ) 
 
13. Are you an executive in the association? 
1. Yes  (     ) 
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2.  No  (     ) 
 
14. Which position do you occupy?................................................................................. 
 
15. Are you a member of any Professional Organisation? 
1. Yes (     ).................................................................................................... 
2. No  (     ) 
 
16. How often do you attend meetings? 
1 Never   (     ) 
2. Rarely   (     ) 
3. Frequently   (     ) 
4. Very frequently  (     ) 
5. Always   (     ) 
 
17.  How often do you attend rites of passage (weddings, funerals, naming ceremonies) of 
members? 
1. Never   (     ) 
2. Rarely   (     ) 
3. Frequently   (     ) 
4. Very frequently  (     ) 
 5. Always   (     ) 
 
18. Are you an executive in the organisation? 
1. Yes  (     ) 
2. No  (     ) 
 
19. Which position do you occupy?................................................................................. 
 
SECTION E: COMBINATION OF ASSETS WHICH INCREASE THE CHANCE OF 
SECURING JOBS. 
1. Which of these combinations facilitated your employment? 
1. More formal assets and less informal assets. (     ) 
2. Less formal assets and more informal assets. (     ) 
.     2.   How long did it take you to get a job using this combination? 
1. Less than six months (     ) 
2. One year   (     ) 
3. Two years   (     ) 
4. Three years  (     ) 
5. Four years  (     ) 
6. Five years   (     ) 
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7. Other, specify................................................................... 
      3.    Would you recommend this combination? 
1. Yes (     ) 
2. No  (     ) 
SECTION F: EXTENT TO WHICH NEW FORMS OF ASSETS SECURE 
GRADUATES JOBS. 
1. Did you use any of the internet websites to find a job? 
1. Yes  (     ) 
2. No  (     ) 
 
2. Which one of them?  
1. Jobberman.com 
2. LinkedIn 
3. Other, specify...................................................................... 
 
3. How often did you visit these websites? 
1. Never   (     ) 
2. Rarely   (     ) 
3. Frequently   (     ) 
4. Very frequently  (     ) 
5. Always   (     ) 
 
4. How many job offers did you receive? ...................................................... 
 
5. Did the job offered match the kind of job you were searching for? 
 
6. Did you find a job through an employment agency? 
1. Yes   (     )........................................................................ 
2. No   (     ) 
 
7. How many job offers did you receive? ...................................................... 
 
8. Did the job offered match the kind of job you were searching for? 
 
 
 
 
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APPENDIX 2 
UNIVERSITY OF GHANA 
DEPARTMENT OF SOCIOLOGY 
IN-DEPTH INTERVIEW GUIDE 
TITLE: DETERMINANTS OF SCHOOL TO WORK TRANSITION AMONG 
EMPLOYED GRADUATES IN ACCRA. 
 
Interviewer introduces herself, explain consent and purpose of the interview. 
Thank you for giving me your time. I am very much appreciative of your willingness to be 
interviewed. 
My name is Deborah N. K. Mills, an MPhil student of the University of Ghana, Department 
of Sociology conducting a study on the informal assets (social networks) that ease one‟s 
transition from school to work. 
Your participation in this study is voluntary. The interview may last between 45minutes to an 
hour and as such, we will have one break. Information given will solely be used for academic 
purposes and would be kept confidential. Your name and/ or address would not be needed. 
You can decide to withdraw from the interview anytime you so wish, or refuse to answer any 
question you are not comfortable with. 
Your participation would help in accumulating knowledge on the various social networks 
graduates deploy and the extent to which it facilitates their employment. Information gotten 
would add new knowledge to existing literature on relevance of social capital and networks in 
seeking jobs in Ghana. 
I will need your permission to record the interview in order to help me capture everything we 
discuss but be rest assured the recording would not be used against you in any way but 
strictly for academic purposes and later discarded. 
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Consent forms would be completed at this point and then, interview begins. 
SECTION A: BIO-DATA 
1. Please tell me a little about yourself (sex, age, marital status, educational level, 
ethnicity, religion and organisation you work in). 
 
SECTION B: EXTENT TO WHICH SECONDARY SCHOOL ATTENDED 
FACILITATES EMPLOYMENT. 
1. Which Senior Secondary School did you attend? 
 
2. Why did you choose that school 
 
3. Were you posted there or your parents attended that school? 
 
4. Did the secondary school you attended play a role in securing your job here? 
 
SECTION C: EXTENT TO WHICH RELIGION FACILITATES EMPLOYMENT. 
1. Which Church/ Mosque do you attend? 
 
2. What is the name of your Church/ Mosque? 
 
3. Why do you attend that Church/ Mosque? 
 
4. Are you part of any group in Church/ Mosque? 
 
5. Which one of them? 
 
6. Why did you choose that group over the others? 
 
7. What are some of the benefits of being in that group? 
 
SECTION D: EXTENT TO WHICH PROFESSIONAL ORGANISATIONS 
FACILITATE EMPLOYMENT. 
1. Are you a member of a professional organisation (Rotary, Full Gospel Business 
Men‟s Association, Women‟s Aglow, Zonta, Soroptimist)? 
 
2. Who invited you? 
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3. Do you hold any position in this organisation? 
 
4. What are some of the benefits of being in that position? 
 
WRAP UP 
Interviewer would ask if interviewee has any question he or she would want to ask for 
further clarification. 
Interviewer would also ask if there are any additions to the discussion. 
 
Interviewer would thank the interviewee for his or her time spent. 
Thank you for sharing this time with me. All shared information would be kept 
confidential. What you have shared is of great importance and would go a long way to 
add up to the body of knowledge in the area of school to work transition in Ghana. 
 
End of interview. 
 
 
 
  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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APPENDIX 3 
 
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APPENDIX 4 
 
 
 
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