University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh UNIVERSITY OF GHANA CENTER FOR MIGRATION STUDIES THE EFFECTS OF OUT-MIGRATION ON FISHING HOUSEHOLDS: A CASE STUDY OF NINGO-PRAMPRAM DISTRICT, GHANA BY BISMARK ADJEI SARFO (10310494) A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF MASTER OF PHILOSOPHY IN MIGRATION STUDIES DEGREE JULY,2019 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DECLARATION I, Bismark Adjei Sarfo, hereby declare that, except for references to other people‟s work, which have been duly acknowledged, this thesis is the outcome of my independent research conducted at the Centre for Migration Studies, University of Ghana, Legon, under the supervision of Dr.Leander Kandilige and Dr.Mary Boatemaa Setrana. I, therefore, declare that this thesis has neither in part nor in whole been presented to any other institution for an academic award. ……………………………….. ………………………….. BISMARK ADJEI SARFO DATE (STUDENT) ……………………………. ……………………………. DR.LEANDER KANDILIGE DATE (SUPERVISOR) …………………………… ……………………………… DR. MARY BOATEMAA SETRANA DATE (CO-SUPERVISOR) i University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DEDICATION This thesis is first and foremost dedicated to the Almighty God whose blessings, protection and love have brought me this far. I also dedicate it to my family, especially my parents Mr. and Mrs. Adjei, my uncle Mr. Samuel Acheamfour Boadu and my siblings, Yaw, Kwasi, Nana Kwakye, Maame Serwaa, Afia and Akua, for their support and constant encouragement. ii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ACKNOWLEDGMENT I am exceedingly grateful to Almighty God who, through his mercies and grace, has seen me through this programme. My sincere gratitude goes to my supervisors, Dr.Leander Kandilige and Dr. Mary Boatemaa Setrana. Thank you for your careful critique, advice and insightful comments that have seen this work through to completion. I have learnt a lot and I am most grateful. God richly bless you. I also thank Dr. Delali Badasu, former Director for the Centre for Migration Studies, University of Ghana, and Mr. George Fiifi Botchway, a Teaching Assistant at the Centre for their support and encouragement throughout my study. I also thank all the lecturers and staff at the Centre for Migration Studies, University of Ghana. Finally, I thank all my mates of the 2017/19 MA/MPhil year group at the Centre for Migration Studies, Unviersity of Ghana. God bless you all. iii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS FAO Food and Agricultural Organisation GSS Ghana Statistical Service IOM International Organisation for Migration IFAD International Food for Agricultural Development NELM New Economics of Labour Migration SSRC Structural Stability Research Council SPSS Statistical Package for Social Sciences UNDESA United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. MFHH Migrant Fishing Household Head iv University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION ........................................................................................................................ i DEDICATION ........................................................................................................................... ii ACKNOWLEDGMENT.......................................................................................................... iii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ................................................................................................... iv LIST OF TABLES ..................................................................................................................... x LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................................. xii ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................... xiii CHAPTER ONE ...................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Background of the study ...................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Statement of Problem ........................................................................................................... 2 1.3 Research objectives of the study .......................................................................................... 4 1.4 Operational definition .......................................................................................................... 4 1.5 Justification and significance of the study ........................................................................... 6 1.6 Organisation of the study ..................................................................................................... 6 CHAPTER TWO ..................................................................................................................... 8 LITERATURE VIEW ............................................................................................................. 8 2.0 Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 8 2.1 Theoretical perspectives ....................................................................................................... 8 2.2.1The New Economics of Labour Migration (NELM) Theory............................................. 9 2.2.2Push-Pull model of migration .......................................................................................... 11 2.3 Conceptual framework ....................................................................................................... 12 2.4 Out-migration ..................................................................................................................... 18 2.5 Ghana‟s migration literature .............................................................................................. 19 2.6 Migration and Remittances nexus ...................................................................................... 21 2.7 Migration and Gender perspective on fishing .................................................................... 25 2.8 Migration and community development ............................................................................ 29 2.9 Effects of out-migration on fishing households ................................................................. 32 v University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.10 Summary .......................................................................................................................... 34 CHAPTER THREE ............................................................................................................... 36 STUDY AREA AND METHODOLOGY ............................................................................ 36 3.0 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 36 3.1 Description of the study area ............................................................................................. 36 3.2 The research design............................................................................................................ 39 3.3 Target Population ............................................................................................................... 41 3.3.1 Inclusion Criteria ............................................................................................................ 41 3.3.2 Exclusion Criteria ........................................................................................................... 41 3.4 Sample and sampling procedure ........................................................................................ 41 3.4.1 Sample size ..................................................................................................................... 41 3.4.2 Sampling Procedure ........................................................................................................ 43 3.5 Data collection ................................................................................................................... 45 3.5.1 Instruments for the data collection .................................................................................. 45 3.5.2 Pretesting of instrument .................................................................................................. 46 3.5.3 Procedure for data collection .......................................................................................... 46 3.6 Data analysis ...................................................................................................................... 47 3.6.1 Quantitative data analysis ............................................................................................... 47 3.6.2Qualitative data analysis .................................................................................................. 47 3.7 Ethical considerations ........................................................................................................ 47 3.8 Research Experience and limitations ................................................................................ 48 3.2.1 Summary ......................................................................................................................... 49 CHAPTER FOUR .................................................................................................................. 51 SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF THE MIGRANT FISHING HOUSEHOLDS AND IMPLICATION ON LIVELIHOOD ............................................. 51 4.0 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 51 4.1 Composition of household ................................................................................................. 51 4.2 Sex characteristics of Respondents (Migrant Fishing Household Head (MFHH)) ........... 53 4.3: Age distribution of MFHH ............................................................................................... 54 vi University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.4: Marital status of MFHH .................................................................................................... 55 4.5 Educational status of MFHH ............................................................................................. 56 4.6 Employment level of Respondents .................................................................................... 57 4.7 Religious Affiliation of MFHH ......................................................................................... 58 4.8 MFHHs Place of birth ........................................................................................................ 59 4.9 Number of out-migrants from Migrant Fishing Households ............................................. 60 4.1.1 Out-migrated children who could have contributed to fishing and its related activities 61 4.1.2 Socio-Demographic characteristics of out-migrants ....................................................... 62 4.1.3 Socio-Demographic characteristics of remittance recipients .......................................... 66 4.1.4 Summary ......................................................................................................................... 72 CHAPTER FIVE ................................................................................................................... 73 MIGRATION PROCESSES, CONTACTS AND REMITTANCES EFFECTS ON THE MIGRANT FISHING HOUSEHOLDS (MFH) .................................................................. 73 5.0 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 73 5.1 Migration decision-making processes within MFH ........................................................... 73 5.2 Destination areas of the out-migrants. ............................................................................... 75 5.3 Household contact with the out-migrant ............................................................................ 76 5.4 Ways in which Households maintain contact with migrants ............................................. 77 5.5 Frequency of the out-migrants‟ contact with Migrant Fishing Household ....................... 79 5.6 Pull factors attracting migrants to destination areas ......................................................... 79 5.7 Employment status of migrants before migrating. ............................................................. 81 5.8 Kind of employment before migration .............................................................................. 81 5.9 Frequency of remittances ................................................................................................... 82 5.10 Ways of cash remittances transfer by out-migrants ......................................................... 84 5.11 Cash amount sent by migrants ......................................................................................... 85 5.12 Other types of items received by households at the origin .............................................. 86 5.13 Usage of remittance ......................................................................................................... 87 5.14 Percentage distribution of usage of remittance by sex of recipients of remittances ........ 89 5.15 Percent of the frequency of remittances received by Sex of out-migrants ...................... 91 vii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5.16 Percentage distribution of Occupation of migrants with the amount sent to the household .................................................................................................................................................. 92 5.17 Percentage distribution of cash remittance sent by marital status of remitters ................ 94 5.18 Percentage distribution of amount received by Sex of Recipients of remittance ............ 95 5.19 Percentage distribution of amounts received by the number of household members (composition) ........................................................................................................................... 96 5.20 Household Assistance to Out-Migrants ........................................................................... 97 5.21 Effects of remittances on households .............................................................................. 99 5.22 Percentage of remittance effects by the sex of household heads ................................... 100 5.23 Summary ........................................................................................................................ 101 CHAPTER SIX .................................................................................................................... 103 EFFECTS OF OUT-MIGRATION ON GENDERED ROLES, FISHING AND ITS RELATED ACTIVITIES .................................................................................................... 103 6.0 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 103 6.1 Roles played by female migrants before migrating ........................................................ 103 6.2 Roles played by male migrants before migrating ............................................................ 104 6.3 Changes in the female role in the household due to migration ........................................ 105 6.4 Effects of female migration on the household ................................................................. 106 6.5 In the absence of men who takes care of the household? ................................................ 108 6.6 Effects of male migration on households......................................................................... 109 6.7 Out-Migration effects on fishing ..................................................................................... 110 6.9 Percentage of migration effects on fishing by sex of household heads ........................... 113 6.10 Percent of male roles played before migration by sex of household ............................. 114 6.11 Summary ........................................................................................................................ 116 CHAPTER SEVEN .............................................................................................................. 117 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION, AND RECOMMENDATIONS ........... 117 7.0 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 117 7.1 Summary of findings....................................................................................................... 118 7.2 Conclusion ....................................................................................................................... 120 7.3 Recommendations ............................................................................................................ 121 viii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 7.4 Areas for further research ................................................................................................ 122 REFERENCES ...................................................................................................................... 123 APPENDICES ....................................................................................................................... 135 ix University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF TABLES Table 3.4.1: Systematic sampling technique process ............................................................................ 44 Table 4.1.1: Composition of household ................................................................................................ 53 Table 4.1.2: Sex of MFHH ................................................................................................................... 54 Table 4.1.3: Age of Distribution of MFHH .......................................................................................... 55 Table 4.1.4: Marital status of MFHH .................................................................................................... 56 Table 4.1.5: Educational status of MFHH ............................................................................................ 57 Table 4.1.6: Employment status of Household Heads .......................................................................... 58 Table 4.1.7: Religious Affiliation of MFHH ........................................................................................ 59 Table 4.1.8: Out-migrated children who could have contributed to fishing and its related activities .. 62 Table 4.2.1 Sex of out-migrants ............................................................................................................ 63 Table 4.2.2 Age of Out-migrants .......................................................................................................... 63 Table 4.2.3 Educational levels of out-migrants .................................................................................... 64 Table 4.2.4 Marital status of out-migrants ............................................................................................ 65 Table 4.2.5 Employment level of out-migrants .................................................................................... 65 Table 4.2.6 Relationship of out-migrants to the Household ................................................................. 66 Table 4.2.7 Sex of the recipients .......................................................................................................... 67 Table 4.2.8 Age of remittances recipients ............................................................................................. 68 Table 4.2.9 Educational levels of recipients of remittances and Migrants ........................................... 69 Table 4.3.1 Marital status of the recipients of remittances ................................................................... 69 Table 4.3.3Employment status of Recipients of remittances and Migrants .......................................... 70 Table 4.3.4 Relationship of remittances recipients to the household .................................................... 71 Table 4.3.5 Migrants place of residence ............................................................................................... 72 Table: 5.1.1 Migration Decision making in migrant fishing households .............................................. 75 Table 5.1.2: Destinations of the out-migrantss ..................................................................................... 76 Table 5.1.3: Household contact with migrants ..................................................................................... 77 Table 5.1.4 Ways in which Households maintain contact with migrants ............................................. 78 Table 5.1.5: Frequency of migrant fishers‟ contact with household ..................................................... 79 Table: 5.1.6 Pull factors attracting migrants to other areas ................................................................... 80 x University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table: 5.1.7 Employment status of the out-migrants before migrating ................................................ 81 Table: 5.1.8 Kind of employment before household fishers migrate .................................................... 82 Table 5.1.9: Frequency of remittances .................................................................................................. 83 Table 5.2.1 Medium of transferring cash remittance by out-migrants to receiving households ........... 85 Table 5.2.2: Cash Amount sent by Migrants ........................................................................................ 86 Table 5.2.3: Type of items received ...................................................................................................... 87 Table 5.2.4: Household Usage of remittance ........................................................................................ 89 Table 5.2.5: Percentage distribution of usage of remittances by sex of the recipient. .......................... 90 Table 5.2.6: Percentage distribution of frequency on household remittance received by sex .............. 92 Table 5.2.7: Occupation of out-migrants with the amount sent to migrant fishing households ........... 93 Table 5.2.8: Cash remittances sent by marital status of remitters ......................................................... 95 Table 5.2.9: Amount received by sex of recipient of remittances. ....................................................... 96 Table 5.3.1Amounts received by number of household members ........................................................ 97 Table 5.3.2: Households‟ assistance to migrants .................................................................................. 98 Table 5.3.3: Effects of remittances on households ............................................................................. 100 Table 5.3.4: Percentage of remittances effects by the sex of household heads ................................... 101 Table 6.1.1 Roles played by female migrants before migrating ......................................................... 104 Table 6.1.2 Roles played by male migrants before migrating ............................................................ 105 Table 6.1.3 Female role changes due to their absence from home ..................................................... 106 Table 6.1.4 Effects of female migration on households...................................................................... 108 Table 6.1.5 In the absence of men who takes care of the household? ................................................ 109 Table 6.1.6 Effects of male migration on households ......................................................................... 110 Table 6.1.7 Ways in which migration affects fishing activities .......................................................... 111 Table 6.1.8 Percentage of female roles played before migration by sex of household ....................... 112 Table 6.1.9 Percentage of migration effects on the household by sex of household heads ................ 114 Table 6.2.1 Percentage of Male roles played before migration by sex of household ......................... 115 xi University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2.1.1 Conceptual framework 1 .................................................................................................. 16 Figure 2.1.2 Conceptual framework 2 ................................................................................................. 17 Figure 4.1: MFHHs Place of birth ........................................................................................................ 60 Figure 4.2: Number of out-migrants from migrant fishing households ................................................ 61 xii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ABSTRACT Out-migration and fishing nexus is an age-old phenomenon and this relationship has a long historical antecedence among coastal fishing communities around the world. However, there is a dearth of literature with regard to out-migration effects on fishing households and their related activities. The objectives of the study are to examine the effects of out-migration on fishing households in the Ningo-Prampram district. The research design that was adopted for the study was mixed methods. The sample size was made up of 271 migrant fishing households, selected through a systematic sampling technique. Instruments used for the study were semi-structured questionnaires, in-depth interview guides and focus group discussions. The quantitative data were analyzed using SPSS version 20 and the qualitative through the use of thematic analysis. The results show that a little over three-fifth (60%) of the migrant fishing household mentioned that migration decision making process rest on both the individual and the household and this is consistent with the views of the NELM and push-pull perspective which posited that individuals and household make costs and benefits analysis of the conditions available at the destination areas and the origin areas before selecting a household member to migrate. Also, the findings of the study indicate that an overwhelming majority of the households asserted that they maintain contact with their out-migrants, while close to two-fifth (39.9) espoused that migrants maintain contact with their households through visits, even though there is an advancement in telecommunication. The results of the study reveal that receipts of remittances by the households improved the standard of living of household members. It again shows that a significant proportion of the households attributed labour lost as a cause for out-migration. It was concluded that out-migration has a positive and successful outcome on the migrant fishing household if households assets are well managed due to uncertainty in household economic activities and vice versa. xiii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Recommendations are made for state agencies to maximize the benefits that come with out- migration and minimize the cost associated with out-migration. xiv University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER ONE 1.1 Background of the study Global Migration flows have been on the increase even though there is a rise in urbanisation and globalisation (Skeldon, 2005). Studies done in some parts of Africa have suggested that though population movements are on the ascendency, there is also an increase of female participation in migration as well as diversification of population (Adepoju, 2006). Its effects on households are multifaceted. Further studies with empirical support have also asserted that migration can help reduce the poverty levels of migrant households, bridge the inequality gap between the rich and poor households linking to economic growth and development in both the migrant-sending countries and migrant-receiving countries (Ravallion et al., 2007 Yaro, 2008) ) For several decades now, the negative impact of migration exposed by most literature suggests that migration affects the socio-economic structure and development of the migrant-sending countries with issues such as labour force declining, brain drain, brawn drain, and low productivity been at the forefront of discussions whiles migrant-receiving countries are engulfed with problems including slums development, declining standard of living, and increased unemployment and among others (Owusu, Agyei-Mensah, & Luud, 2008). According to Srivastava (2005), migration can be used as a livelihood strategy to improve the household‟s wealth. Other scholars like Ajaero and Onokala (2013) postulated that migration can be used as a tool to transform the lives of the individual migrants as well as the life and conditions of left behind family members, the migrant's locality and the migrant-sending country or area as a whole. The relationship between migration and fishing has had a long history and in most cases, water resources tend to sustain this nexus in explaining that water availability is a key determinant for fish production. The significance of water and it coverage space on earth ( Owusu, Asumadu-Sarkodie &Ameyo, 2016) paves 1 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh way for various activities such as tourism, circumnavigation, fishing, farming, sports, leisure, exploration, cultural heritage, education, and economic benefits to take place which serves as a source of livelihood. It also affects activities of fishing (fish production, sale, and processing) which provides employment and generates income for communities living close to water bodies (Allison & Ellis, 2001). 1.2 Statement of Problem Migration and fishing nexus is an old aged phenomenon and, this relationship has a long historical antecedence among coastal fishing communities around the world (Aburto, Thiel, & Stotz, 2009). Globally, the migration decision of an individual normally depends on the opportunities available as well as easier access to resources at migrant-receiving areas especially for labour migrants (Näre, 2011, Anderson, 2001., Piore, 1979). A study by Bjarnason and Thorlindsson (2006), in Iceland, suggested that young adolescents in Icelandic fishing and farming communities are more likely to move to areas where there is occupational opportunities and can maximize income. This finding indicates that fishers are likely to migrate to regions where there is enough prey (fish) to catch, creating employment availabilities, hence increasing their returns to remit home. However, the study by Kramer, Simanjuntak and Liese (2002), in southern part of Asia expounds that the migration status and socioeconomic indicators of fishers did not have any significant influence on the amount of fishes caught on weekly basis but rather the fishing efforts (labour, boat, gear, and fishing net), the specialization level of the fisher as well as the remoteness of the fishing villages were found to have a positive correlation on weekly fish production. Some studies were done in the central and western part of Africa by Njock and Westlund (2010), have revealed that some fishers used migration as a livelihood strategy to escape 2 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh economic pressures and fish stock depletion in order to have good opportunities such as active market, fishing equipment, cheaper fuel, and good social structures. More so, some scholars have researched on fishers‟ migratory patterns, trends (Wanyonyi, Wamukota, & Mesaki, 2016 : Marquette, Koranteng, Overa, & Aryeetey, 2002) and their integration process in the host communities and return migration of fishers, for instance, the return of Senegalese fisher from Mauritania to Senegal for religious celebrations and for farming during the lean fish seasons. (Njock & Westlund, 2010). Seasonal and permanent migration has been an important component of fishing in West African countries like Ghana. Even though there is considerable amount of studies on the general effect of migration in Ghana (Ackah & Medvedev, 2010., Twum-Baah, Nabila, & Aryee, 1995), most studies conducted on fishing and migration have focus on the migratory patterns of fishers within and outside the borders of Ghana (Kraan, 2011: Mensah, Koranteng, Bortey & Yeboah,2006. Marquette et al, 2002), their integration process in their host communities as well as their return migration (Njock & Westlund, 2010). Other studies have focused on the gender roles of migrant fishing households (Odotei, 1999; Odotei, 1992). Again researches conducted in Ghana on migration and coastal fishing have been done in the Western, Central and the Greater Accra regions. However, with respect to Greater Accra, migration and fishing researchers have concentrated mainly on the Southwestern and south- central part of the region at the expense of `the South-eastern part of the region(Ningo- Prampram district). Also, there is dearth of literature with regards to fishing and out- migration from Ningo-Prampram and their effects on households and while most studies conducted on fishing and migration have been carried out using quantitative or qualitative approaches (Odotei,1999; Kwankye,2012; Awumbila et al.,2015), only few of these studies have adopted both quantitative and qualitative approaches for studying migration and fishing in the 3 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Ghanaian context. This study was conducted to examine the phenomenon but primarily supporting findings with both qualitaive data and statistical evidence in understanding the effects of out-migration on fishing household and community development using Ningo- Prampram district as a case study. 1.3 Research objectives of the study General Objectives The study sought to examine the effect of out-migration on Migrant fishing households in Ningo-Prampram. Specific objectives The specific objectives were to ; 1. Determine the out-migration processes and reasons for migration among migrant fishing households in Ningo-Prampram district 2. Examine the type of contacts out-migrant fishers have with their households in Ningo- Prampram district. 3. Examine the impact of remittances on migrant fishing households in Ningo- Prampram. 4. Investigate out-migration effects on gender roles among migrant fishing households in Ningo-Prampram district. 5. Examine the effect of out-migration on fishing in Ningo-Prampram district. 1.4 Operational definition 1. Household: is defined as a person or group of related or unrelated persons who live together in the same housing unit, sharing the same housekeeping and cooking 4 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh arrangements and are considered as one unit, who acknowledge an adult male or female as the head of the household( GSS,2014: 11). 2. Migration: is the movement of people from Ningo-Prampram district to other coastal fishing communities within Ghana for at least six months and above. 3. Effects: is the positive and negative influence on fishing households as a result of migrating to fish. 4. Fishing activities refer to practices or methods when employed into fishing increase catchment for consumption directly or commercially. These activities include boat fishing, net fishing, on and offshore fishing and among others. These activities are improved and enlarge when other fishing processes such as marketing, transportation and among others are considered with key interest to economic, environmental and social sustainability (FAO, 2013) 5. Migrant fishing household: households whose main economic activity is fishing and whose member have travel elsewhere to fish for a minimum of one year. 6. Out-migration: the outward movement of people from the Ningo-Prampram district due to economic factors and residing a particular destination for a period of one year and above. And out-migrant is a person who has migrated from the district to seek and maximize their economic potential and opportunities. 7. Livelihood refers to ways of making a living. The term comprises of individual‟s assets, income, capacities and activities that serve as a necessary means for life. Livelihood is sustained when it can withstand stress and shocks as well as improving its capacities and asset both present and in the future without destroying the natural resource base (Chamber & Conway, 1991). 5 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.5 Justification and significance of the study In view of the strategic role played by fishing activities and fish produce in our communities and the economy of Ghana as a whole (employment, sources of food (protein), and income), it is important to undertake a study to know the extent to which fishers travel and its resultant effect on their households. The findings of the study suggested to policymakers as to how to address issues regarding migration and fishing among coastal fishing communities. This study also contributed to the contemporary debate on fishing and migration nexus. Findings from the study has also provided empirical evidence on the effect of migration on migrant fishing households and added to bridge the knowledge gap in the literature on migration and fishing households. The study provides information on the socio-demographic backgrounds on the migration process, who moves and what ages. Also, information on the study will also help to unearth the potential of migrant fishers for development as well as the gap created by their absence. Results of the study from the Ningo-Prampram district can be used for further studies. 1.6 Organisation of the study The study structured into six chapters. The first chapter focuses on the background of the study, statement of the problem, objectives of the study and the purpose of the study. The second chapter contains an in-depth literature review of the study and the topic area. It also dealt with some key concepts and conceptual framework for the study. In this chapter also, relevant research findings on migration and fishing issues are discussed. Chapter three presents the study area and the methodology employed to gather data for the study. It included physical features of the study area, the sampling method used to select the respondents, method of data collection, limitations of the study and data analysis. 6 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The fourth chapter provides a clear description and presentation of the results of the analysis of the socio-demographic characteristics of respondents. This chapter again looked at the effect of migration on fishing households. The fifth chapter examines migration processes, contacts, and remittances effects on fishing households. Chapter six provides the effects of out-migration on gendered roles, fishing, and its related activities. The final chapter which is chapter seven gave the summary of the findings, conclusion, and recommendations. 7 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE VIEW 2.0 Introduction This chapter reviews the literature on migration and fishing coupled with other influential factors that attract people to migrate. It also aims at getting theoretical and empirical information on diversification of livelihood strategies in developing countries like Ghana especially through migration and the overall effect on fishing households. 2.1 Theoretical perspectives A theoretical overview of migration The contribution of migration to human development globally especially in developing countries such as Ghana, Nigeria, Philippines and among others is enormous and only a few researchers deny its colossal contributions to the livelihood and the survival of migrant fishing Households including the aged and children. The rate at which remittances a subset of migration contributes immensely to economic growth and human development of both sending and receiving countries occurs differently (De Hass, 2007). This view has been a bone of contention over the past decades after the Second World War between two schools of thought, thus the “developmentalist” optimism and pessimism. The developmentalist optimism reigned in the early 1950s and 1960s whilst the developmentalist pessimism surfaced in the 1970s and 1980s. Different views erupted during the 1990s due to the varied nature of migration issues discussed on remittances and the potential nature of migration and development in contemporary times (De Haas, 2007). 8 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.2.1The New Economics of Labour Migration (NELM) Theory The New Economics of Labour Migration (NELM) emerged in the 1980s and 1990s, mainly within the American research context as a response to developmentalist and neoclassical theories (the migration optimists viewpoints) and structuralist theory (the migration pessimists viewpoints). This theory was developed for households and sees households as a single entity or unit. It questioned some tenets of neoclassical theory (Piore, 1979: 56), by critiquing its ideas or by completing them (Stark, 1991: 98). The main viewpoint of this theory is represented by the idea that migration decision is not based on the individual but instead by a social entity or group such as the families or households. Group or family members act in common fashion not only to maximize and diversify their income but also to reduce their risk and limitations that come from national market failures (Stark, 1991: 17). Most often migration decisions are jointly made by migrants and some group of non- migrants, and in so doing returns and costs are shared among group members (Porumbescu, 2015). For instance, one direct component of returns to nonmigrants family whose member(s) had migrated is his or her remittances. In other words, migration decision was considered as a strategy well calculated and not decision done out of desperation (Stark & Bloom, 1985), thus migration decisions are not made by an isolated individual but rather the households (Krantz, 2001). Stark and Bloom (1985), tried to postulate the need for new theoretical structure in an effort to explain migration and in this vein, studies done on economies of labour have undergone various trajectories during the past years. Thus, at the theory level, migration studies have extended the sphere of elements that seem to impact and are influenced by spatial labour supply decisions. It has also emphasized the role of broader social bodies (families and households) and collaborations within them in altering migration behavior and identified new ties between migration as a different labour market occurrence and other labour market and 9 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh non-economic events. Also, research on economies of labour has contributed to our understanding of the processes of economic growth and development. More so, with regards to the empirical phase of the theory, work on the economics of labour migration has established the effectiveness of longstanding and engrained models of labour migration (Stark & Bloom, 1985: 173). According to this theory, labour migration has to be studied within broader social entities (families and households) and the household entities incomes are the main cardinal force of labour migration. That is, a household may fund members to migrate in order to spread the risk of household‟s inadequate income with the hope that migrated members may send remittances which may increase the household‟s revenue (Taylor, 1999: 72). In other words, the whole migration processes become attractive for extra income which is very vital for sustaining current households living and investment (Porumbescu, 2015). NELM theorists also argued that households which send their members abroad or outside their community of residence do not only want to increase their income in real terms but rather to compare their income to other households as well as reduce deprivation in relation to other groups (Stark, 1991: 25). Also, wage differentials are not a necessity for migration to happen but households have good reasons to minimize risks that are related to economic variance through migration. This theory contends that people‟s migration is temporal in order to achieve their goals in the host communities which form the basis for their return. Return migration is seen as a story which is successful or an outcome that is reasonable as compared to the neoclassical theorists who view return migration as a failure (Abreu, 2012: 48). Thus, the NELM responses to return migration goes beyond the undesirable wage differences (Stark, 1991: 11). 10 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.2.2Push-Pull model of migration Push-Pull model is a stable model and it is based on an individual‟s choice. Many migration scholars have stipulated that the decision to migrate are dependent on elements such as climatic reasons, environmental, demographic, social among others (Lee,1966; De Haas,2008). Push-pull theory under migration is coined by observing some factors (unemployment, seasonal nature of fishing, poor fish catch) of an origin forcing (‘’pushing’’) people to move or migrate while factors (job availabilities, better wages, good working condition) attract (pull) migrant(s) towards a particular location or space. These multifaceted conditions sum up to create the pulls and pushes. However, the most important conditions are population growth creating Malthusian force on natural and fishing resources and other being the economic factors (better income) beguiling people into areas when they can maximize their opportunities and improve their life (Skeldon, 1997:20; King & Schneider, 1991; Schwartz & Notini, 1994). The model's ability to combine all other factors that play a key role in migration decision and choices make it attractive in nature (De Haas, 2008). This is due to the fact that it is capable of incorporating other theories and this is why some scholars have suggested that the overall view of labour migration could be examined using push-pull model (Bauer & Zimmermann, 1998; Schoorl, 1998) Furthermore, aside wage variation, others factors such as demographic stress (extra or massive population) and environmental depletion have been recorded as some basic determinants of migration (King & Schneider, 1991; Zachariah, Mathew, & Rajan, 2001). Conversely, migrants come across other sets of challenges called intervening obstacle or variable (Lee, 1966:1969). These impediments or barriers consist of cultural barriers, visa regimes, physical distances and monetary cost among others. Some of the intervening 11 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh obstacles concomitant with fishing household have to do with migration cost, language obstacles, and environmental barriers. 2.3 Conceptual framework In most developing countries of which Ghana is no exception, out-migration is used as a survival livelihood strategy especially by the poor in rural centers (Scoones, 1998; Ellis, 2000). In this regard out-migration of people to areas in search for greener pastures is due to spatial disparities between two areas. A critical analysis of the effect of out-migration on rural areas like Ningo-Prampram District continues to remain vital since most migrant fisher households and their community regard migration as a key determinant in the process of transforming households and their community (Ajaro & Onokola, 2013). From the above assertions, a framework was adopted from sustainable livelihood strategy approach for the study and the reason for the framework was its significance and applications to migration theories and concepts. This is because most fishing areas along the coast of Ghana are rural and a significant percentage of the people residing in these areas are poor. The study linked the framework to the effect of out-migration on fishing households and community development in rural centers. The conceptual framework recognizes that the relationship between migration and fishing is dependent on the conditions at both the sending and receiving areas. At the origin level (rural centers), multiple drivers may contribute to out- migration as postulated by many scholars (see de Haas, 2008). Commonly among these theories and concepts is the pull and push theory posited by Lee (1966). According to Lee (1966), the push drivers refer to the conditions at the origin that influence people to out- migrate from their households and communities. For instance, low fish production, high cost in fish production, unfavourable climatic conditions, unemployment and among others. Conversely, the pull factors explain the situations at the receiving areas that attract migrant fishers and this may include rural or urban centers with vast opportunities such as job 12 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh availabilities, better wages, and good working conditions, low cost in fish production, favorable condition, and rich ocean floors and among others. Several favorable factors have led to greater out-migration in the rural- areas. Apart from the pull-push theory, NLEM explains migration from social entity perspective, thus, the household or the family (Piore,1979). The main tenet of this theory is that migration decision is not based on a personal or individual choice but rather a collective decision-making processes by the household or family. Household works together not only for profits and diversification of household income but instead to reduce household risks and limitations that come from fishing economy failures (Stark, 1991: 17). This is the situation of most households in fishing communities where out-migration decisions are done by the household or the family in other to minimize households risk in terms of low fish production, unemployment, uncertainties with weather conditions, depletion of the ocean floor and among others in order to diversify household incomes and investments. For household or an individual to venture in the migration business, that household ought to have some level of assets or capital that can be accessed before, during and after the whole cycle of migration processes. According to Ellis (2000) and Scoones (1998), assets comes in various forms ranging from personal assets (individual fishing skills and abilities, health, etc), physical assets (investments), financial (households income, savings, access to loans and credit facilities etc), natural capital (household lands, water etc), and social assets (households networks and association). With reference to figure 2.1.16, in fishing and migration nexus livelihood asset includes fishing skills of household members, household incomes, lands, fishing equipment and tools and among others are the first-hand facilities that encourage household members to work in the fishing economy and its related activities. According to this framework, the things that people involve themselves in order to make a living are called livelihood activities. The livelihood activities in most rural areas of which 13 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh most fishing communities in the developing world are no exception include activities ranging from fish production, marketing sales and among others. These activities according to Scoones (1998) and Ellis (2000) are influenced by the local and broader vulnerability, policy and institutional context interplays. The vulnerability context which consists of shocks, trends and seasons in terms of fishing have a great influence on fishing outcomes. The shock elements with regards to fishing and its related activities are the push factors that out-migrate people from their households and this may include the unpredictable nature of fishing due to unfavourable climatic changes, high cost of fish production (high price in premix fuel), unemployment, low fish production, depletion of the ocean floor, use of explosive and lights in fishing among others. Again, when the level of vulnerabilities are high combined with unfavorable government policies and institutional frameworks (poor fishing governance, unfavorable fishing economy, harsh and restrictive fishing laws, etc), the whole livelihood outcome could be successful or failure. Outcomes in migrant related fishing activities are successful when perceived opportunities at the destination areas are met with real opportunities. Thus, migrant fishers are able to maximize returns and remit back to their household. With reference to the NELM, a return is viewed as a success story. On the other hand, failure outcomes connote the inability of a household to strategically manage the household‟s assets (resources), vulnerability, policy, and institutional context in order to make a living. As it has been mentioned earlier on, every household or individual engage in economic activities to make a living and these activities could be done without households assets and this assert from figure 2.1.1 includes the household and the individual skills in fishing, household fishing gears and among others. All these assets when combined contributes to household total outputs. In an event where a household wants to secure and diversify household income as results of economic vulnerabilities may come in the form high cost in 14 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh premix fuel, unfavourable climatic conditions and others. The household could engage in migration in order to continue inflow of income through remittance receipts. Hence, this conceptual framework denotes that the effect of out-migration can have a successful (positive) and failure (negative) outcome on the households and their communities depending on how well their management strategy plays out with regards to assets, vulnerability, policy, and institutional context interplays. 15 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 2.1.1 Conceptual framework 1 Source: Scoones (1998) 16 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 2.1.2 Conceptual framework 2 Source: Adopted and modified from Scoones (1998) 17 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.4 Out-migration The mass movement of people from rural areas (out-migration) connotes one of the basic acts of human population redistribution over centuries now with its significant effects on individuals, their households, destination areas as well as on rural communities (origins). The greater departure or out-migration of people from rural communities has led to the rapid growth of urban centers and international migration in many developing nations with static or reduction in the rural population (United Nations, 2005), a phenomenon which is common in spaces where unfavourable conditions have a tow on fishing activities. In these areas, over- dependence on environmental resources as a livelihood strategy such as fishing is a risky way for household income and community development. Considerable movements of household members are seen as a vital role in diversifying the households‟ livelihood activities which have the potency to reduce households‟ poverty, increase remittance accessibilities and transform communities. However, an incredible number of this migration is to areas where fish resources are in abundance (Zhao, 2003) and this whole process of migration is for economic expansion and development in communities where the excess labour force is released from migrant-sending areas (Todaro, 1969; Weeks, 1989). Some studies using mixed research method have emphasized on the nexus between out- migration, fishing and origin area livelihoods, stressing on resource depletion as a force to displace or force people to out-migrate from their origins and its resultant effect on rural livelihood labour activities declining (Pretty, Morrison, & Hine, 2003). Rural out-migration is usually featured as a negative phenomenon by some policy analysts and city developers as an impediment to urban development in many African states, creating slums and shantytowns that are characterized with a high rate of crime (Gazdar, 2003; Yang, 18 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2004). For this reason, many developing countries have developed policies in other to tackle issues in the rural areas especially with respect to poverty and employment to (Harteveld, 2004). Rural out-migration is one of the predominant forms of migration in most developing countries including Ghana, even though, other kinds of migration are recorded but are on the lower level. In Ghana, a little over one-third (35%) of migration patterns are rural-urban in nature, followed by 28% urban-urban migration, with seasonal and rural-rural migration recording 18% and 14% respectively( GSS,2000:7-9) whilst in the south-eastern part of Asia, industrialization and economic expansion and development had led to a considerable rise in permanent and temporal migration (Yang, 2004). Also, according to Afshar (2003), more than half of Bangladesh‟s rural-outmigration is to the urban centers and this is raising expeditiously. Moreover, in China due to trade reforms, loosen labour restriction, improved information technology as well as lucrative economic legislation has increased their export values. This has led to a massive movement of people both internal and internationally (Zhao, 2003). 2.5 Ghana’s migration literature Migration in Ghana is well known, however, a number of economic analytical studies on migration is few and this is attributed to the fact that migration and economic studies over the years are less detailed as a result of inadequate comprehensive migration data. Conversely, significant attempts have been made by scholars to highlight the most vital patterns and explanation for migration issues in Ghana. Even though, greater number of these studies are descriptive in nature, most often present cross tabulated survey statistics and other information that gives valuable insights into the reasons, extent, and pattern of migration in Ghana, (Caldwell, 1968 & 1969; Anarfi, 1993; Tutu, 1995; Gbortsu, 1995; Awumbila et al., 2011). 19 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Some determinants cited according to the literature for migration in Ghana included job search, marriage schooling and family-related issues (Caldwell, 1969; Anarfi, 1993; Tutu, 1995; GSS, 2000; Awumbila et al., 2015). Some key findings in terms of the contribution from migration dated back to the 1960s from surveys and census data. This data expounded that individual‟s ability to migrate to other destination areas were influenced by pull factors. Again, households‟ economic abilities and social networks connections with other areas as well as one's educational background were some of the motives behind mass migration of people from one destination to the other. Yet, not all these determinants had a causal relationship with each other. For instance, income had a negative outcome on the origin areas but a positive outcome on the household‟s own income on the likelihood to migrate. Other factors such as education and the social networks of individual and their household with the destination areas were major drivers pushing out- migration in the origin centers as observed by Tutu (1995) In addition, according to Beal, Levy, and Moses (1967), the relationship between migration and education in Ghana was conflicting, however, Caldwell (1968) saw a positive relationship since a significant number of migrants with higher education (Tertiary) attainment exceeded that of non-migrants. In terms of income level by households, migrant households were better off due to the inflow of remittances. This improved the standard of living of household members and its multiplier effects on the community as a whole (Asante, 1995) 20 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.6 Migration and Remittances nexus The elation about remittance study erupted from two schools of thought, thus the Pessimistic and Optimistic. The debate between these paradigms had been ongoing for some time now. The development Pessimist believes that remittances add significantly to the dependency conditions of the migrant-sending areas while the Optimists hold the view that remittances serve as a medium through which sending countries areas can develop. The World Bank (2011) estimated that the global flow of migrant remittances which was 416 billion dollars in 2009, increased to 440.1 billion worldwide in the year 2010. Remittances received exceeded the volume of foreign aid and investment. Most developing countries accounted for 325.5 billion dollars as receipts of remittances in 2010. The growth of remittances over the last ten years has outstripped that of private capital flows and official development assistance. The prime sources of global remittances were the developed North Nations. Some scholars (development thinkers) have asserted that remittances have become an engine of growth in the developing world. Moreover, transferred remittances to developing areas have also helped in poverty reduction and human development particularly through expenditure on health, trade, and education (Quartey, 2006, Quartey & Blankson, 2003, Semyonov & Gorodzeisky, 2005). In the economies of the developing world, remittance plays a significant role in businesses and individual households and firms. (Taylor, 1999). Studies done by Adelman & Taylor (1990) found out that remittances received in developing countries have a multiplier effect on the local economy where expenditure and consumption on domestic goods and services are purchased. The number of literature examining the effect of migrant remittances on households are many. Some studies have recorded how migrants influence the socio-economic development in their country of origin, that is to say, migrants, both international and internal are pivotal in 21 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh developing their communities in most developing nations as identified by the World Bank Country Analyses indicated by Russell and Teitelbaum (1995). In the Global South, most labour migrants to the Global North are expected to send or remit back home to increase investment (creation of new business) and encourage the transfer of knowledge and skill in technology). According to Russell and Teitelbaum (1995), gratifying the basic needs of most migrant household through remittances usage, migrants remittances are sometimes invested in education, farming, and the creation of small scale enterprises. However, Taylor (1999) argued that remittances have a multiplier effect as monies spent by migrant households goes a long way to increase national income. Also, Diatta and Mbow (1999) reported that remittances served as a huge source of finances for migrant left behind family as monies received and used contribute greatly to development in migrant-sending areas. Receipt of remittances influences household welfare and this emanates from a study conducted by Koc and Onan (2001) on the effect of remittances characterizing living standard of migrant left behind members in Turkey and postulated that remittances have a positive effect on households welfare, and further iterated that remittances have both direct and indirect income effects which essentially have a great impact on income inequality, poverty, and productions as a whole. They also found that 12 percent of the households 80 % of remittances received to enhance the living standard of households, even though over- dependency on remittances may be detrimental to households due to the cyclical changes in migration. More so, monies sent by migrants provide income for savings and investment, consequently leading to economic development and growth (Taylor, 1999). This is evident in a study by conducted by Findley and Sow (1998) in Mali, where it was reported that remittances did not only satisfy subsistence needs of households but was further used to pay labour for irrigation farming. In a similar study by Ahmed (2000) in Somalia and Kannan and Hari (2002) in India 22 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh further emphasized the investments and savings impact of remittances on migrant households. Moreover, most debates about migration and development place more importance on the financial aspect of remittances at the expense of social remittances. Privileging the financial aspect of remittances make scholars overlook the effect of social remittances on migrant households and communities as a whole (Rao &Woolock, 2007). Another form of remittances apart from the financial aspects is the social remittance which was coined by Levitt (1998:926-948) to draw scholars‟ attention to the fact that aside monies transferred or remitted back home by migrants, they also send behaviours, values and ideas acquired to their place of origin. Accordingly, Levitt (1998:926-948) defined social remittances as the ideas, behaviours and social capital that flows from migrant-receiving areas to migrant-sending areas. In other words, social remittances are equated to the social and cultural resources that migrants carry along in their transition from immigrant to full citizens. She observed three forms of social remittances, thus, normative structure, the system of practices and social capital. She further explained that the normative structure refers to ideas, values, beliefs for interpersonal behavior, notions of intra-family duties, standard of age and gender appropriateness, communal participation and aspiration necessary for social mobility, whilst the system of practices are the activities that are shaped by normative structures which may include individual‟s household labour, political involvement, religious affiliation as well as civil pattern of participation. Social capital on the other hand according to Verhaeghe, Pattyn, Bracke, Verhaeghe, and Van De Putte (2012) describe the basic form of social relationships and networks that people rely on as a means of support in order to survive during difficult circumstance or to make life productive. 23 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Also, most literature on migration and remittances studies have looked at unidirectional analysis where the household becomes the unit of analysis. In recent times, some scholars have focused on bi or multidirectional analysis, and one typical example is a study by Mazzucato (2009) in Ghana and Netherland where she examined the role of reverse remittances and geographical proximity. Her study found that most Ghanaian migrants use reverse remittances which comes in the form of money, prayers, cultural heritage, and childcare to insure their stay especially in the second stage of their migration phase, where work and residential permit are very difficult to acquire due to restrictive migration policies by the Netherland government. Several scholarly articles have highlighted extensively on international remittances with relatively a little attempt on internal remittances (Taylor, 1999; Kapur, 2005; Castles, De Haas, & Miller, 2013). The reason has been that, there is no global record or estimation on the total size of internal remittances (SSRC forum, 2012). As a result, there is a dearth of studies within individual countries especially those in the developing world such as Ghana and Nigeria. However, there is much debate on how both internal and international remittances affect poverty, inequalities, and social strata. (SSRCforum, 2012). Internal remittances appear small in size when compared to international remittances but are more common among many rural households of which fishing households are no exception and this in a study by De Hass (2006) in southern Morocco, reported that the average cash value of internal remittances received accrued to only 30 percent of the international remittances received. A similar study done in Ghana by Adams (2006) found that even though the average value of internal remittances received by households was about 30 percent of the value of international remittance, most households received internal remittances more than international remittances. This is because, in most developing countries, internal remittances are more likely to go to rural households as it serves as 24 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh products of rural-urban migration. Also, other studies have examined the effect of internal remittances on various social and economic factors. Studies by De Haas (2006) in Morocco and Lokshin, Bontch-Osmolovski and Glinskaya (2007) in Nepal, expounded that international remittances reduce poverty more than internal remittances. For example, in Mexico, a 10 percent rise in international remittances reduces poverty headcount by 0.8 percent as compared to 0.4 percent for internal remittances (Taylor, 1999). Moreover, Adams, Cuecuecha, and Page (2008) study in Ghana on Household spending behaviour suggests that household receiving both internal and international remittances spend almost the same margin on consumption and investment goods just as households with no remittances. Other scholars have looked at the determinant of internal remittances with regards to international remittances. One of such studies was done in Mali by Gubert (2002) which suggests that international migrants are more likely to remit and remit more than internal migrants. A similar report was by Adams (2006) in Ghana while 68 percent of international migrants remit, only 49 percent of internal migrants remit. This outcome was as a result of the higher magnitude of income earnings by international migrants compared to internal migrants, hence the ability or the propensity to remit is dependent on the income levels of migrants. 2.7 Migration and Gender perspective on fishing For the past few decades, women have accounted for approximately half of the world‟s migrants (Zlotnick,2003). Despite the substantial flow of migrant women, there is insufficient sex‐disaggregated data in migration analysis. Only since the 1980s has research begun to focus on migration and gender. However, a presentation by the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UN DESA, 1993) shows that from 1990 to 2010 the number of countries with sex‐disaggregated migrant data has actually decreased (Hovy,2013). Understanding the role of women in migration involves not just disaggregating data by sex, 25 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh but also understanding how gender relations play into each aspect of the migration cycle (Petrozziello, 2013). Migration research is often based on economic or financial cost‐benefit analyses. When analyzing migration and gender and with respect to fishing, it is critical that the analysis include a social interpretation rooted in gender norms and culture and the roles ascribe to individuals based on their sex as a result of the social construction of gender created by the society when it comes to fishing and its related activities. Though gender constitutes a construction by society, its primary roles and behaviours are associated with masculinity and femininity (Ghosh, 2009). Migration and gender nexus have reconstructed some of the indigenous roles assign by society due to the absence of a member in the household. This is largely due to migration and fishing relation as a result of both intrinsic and extrinsic factors. These factors can both empower and constrain rights and opportunities since it offers a perspective on gender relations; how gender affects access to resources; and differences in power and equality in economic, social, and legal structures. Migration can be empowering for women in the absence of their men due to fishing activities, allowing them to access employment and their ability to make independent decisions to achieve desired outcomes (Semyonov &Gorodzeisky, 2005). Conversely, migration also exacerbates vulnerabilities due to long term absence of household member responsible for the upkeep of the family. This further increase the responsibilities and roles that surpass what gender in its natural state ascribe. Understanding the intricacies of gender and migration which fisher folks on the move form part can result in better programs and policies that enhance the benefits and decrease the challenges that come up especially during the absence of fisher folks. A growing body of research on migration and gender indicates that in 2015, there were 250 million international migrants and 750 million domestic migrants (World Bank 2015) which highlighted the role gender plays in specific key areas for the benefit of 26 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh the individual, the household and the local community in general. This enhancement includes remittances, the welfare of migrants‟ families and communities, and the benefits and costs for women as migrants or at home. According to Collinson, Tollman, Kahn, and Clarke (2003), migration varies in forms and can either be temporary, permanent, or circular and includes migrants returning to their homes. For fisher folks, each type of migration depends on their ability to catch fish and to make sales enough at the destination before returning. The UN defines a long‐term migrant as an individual living in a foreign country for more than a year, and a short‐term migrant as living abroad between three months and a year (UN DESA, 1998). This definition is more internalized when it comes to fishing since a chunk of the fisherfolks migrate internally with few traversing to other neighboring countries for fish (Odotei,1999). In other definitions, international migration may occur for shorter periods, such as with seasonal or circular migration which is more associated with fishing. Furthermore, definitions of internal migration differ based on the purpose of migration, whether temporary, circular, or permanent, or for marriage, education, or economic purposes (fishing activities) in addition to commuting into cities. Again estimates on migration-gender nexus estimated that in 2000, 1 in every 35 people was an international migrant with half constituting women (Cerrutti & Massey, 2001). This shows that the total numbers of people moving internally and the proportions of women among them are even higher and people‟s experiences of gender are central to the patterns, causes, and impacts of migration. Juxtaposing this assertion on gender impact on fishing shows that gender roles, relations, and inequalities associated with migration of household heads and members which hardly includes the women provide them with opportunities to become economically and socially autonomous as well as challenging traditional or restrictive gender roles. Through migration, both men and women are likely to develop skills or earn higher 27 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh wages, some of which they can send back to their left-behind families and the communities as remittances. However, migration can also entrench restrictive gender stereotypes of women‟s dependency and lack of decision-making power (De Jong, 2000). Gender effect on people can contribute to and benefit from their destination community and also shaping the basic goals of both social and economic development. In contemporary times, more people are on the move than ever before (De Haas, 2009). Many of them are seeking new opportunities and a better life for themselves and their families. Others are forced to move due to disaster or conflict but gender is key in unraveling some of the causes and consequences of migration, whether forced, voluntary. It is recognized that a person‟s sex, gender, gender identity, and sexual orientation shape every stage of the migration experience. This has led to the assigned roles to fisherfolks base on one‟s sex making it difficult for women to go to fishing but rather are more into the business aspect of fishing (Odotei, 1992; Odotei, 1999). Gender influences reasons for migrating, who migrates and to where, how people migrate and the networks they use, opportunities and resources available at destinations, and relations with the country of origin. Risks, vulnerabilities, and needs are also shaped in large part by one‟s gender and often vary drastically for different groups. The roles, expectations, relationships and power dynamics associated with being a man, woman, boy or girl play a significant part when it comes to activities associated with fishing. Migration- gender nexus is exigent since it affects all aspects of the migration process, and can also be affected in new ways by migration. 28 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.8 Migration and community development The vast body of migration literature undeniably indicates the nexus between migration and community development as a complex and content-specific. In most migrant-sending communities, migration and development policies are usually disjointed and this declines the effective collaboration that establishes a positive relationship between migration and development (De Haas, 2005). Migration forms part of the three (3) components of population and demographic changes, and these changes have a significant effect in both migrant-sending and migrant-receiving communities. In other words, out-migration has diverse consequences on the society, the economy, and demographic nature not only on destination areas but also on the areas of origin (Adger, Kelly, Winkels, Huy & Locke, 2002; Connell & Conway, 2000; Spaan, 1999; Skeldon, 1997). The NELM approach advocates that the effect of migration on development at the community level is glued together by migration drivers which may include motivates (aspirations) to migrate and the process of migration selectivity (Lucas, 2005; Stark, 1991). Although, it is sometimes difficult to conduct empirical research and systematically analyze data on migration as a result of insufficient data supply, there are some empirical studies that provide detail information into migration and development nexus in most developing areas of the world of which Ningo-Prampram district is no exception. The major effect of migration and development (remittances) on migrant-sending communities emanate through the direct dynamic patterns of migrants-household expenditure and investment, and its indirect multiplier effects as well as changes in the labour market. There are nuance views and empirical studies on the impact of migration and development in influencing households‟ assets acquisitions and consumptions. Migration flows study by 29 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Mines and Janvry ( 1982) from Mexican village to other Mexican towns and the US found out that return migrants did not invest their monies( returns) in activities that are productive because they view their village as a place to rest and produce children. Also, studies by Durand, Kandel, Parrado, and Massey (1996) and Taylor, Arango, Hugo, Kouaouci, Massey and Pellegrino (1996), expounded that Mexican migrants have the high tendency to invest in housing than activities that will multiple the households incomes and activities. De Brauw and Rozelle (2008) also conducted research to know if migration equates investment in production or increases households‟ consumptions, and they found out that in poorer communities, migration leads to rising in consumption investments and they concluded that there is no relationship between out-migration and investment in productive activities. On the contrary, numerous studies done shows that migration participation of household shapes investment in fishing and its related activities in migrant-sending areas. For instance, labour migration to agricultural and fishing fields in South Africa according to Lucas (1987), projected a positive impact of remittance from migrants in the acquisition of cattle and fishing productions in migrant-sending regions. In a similar fashion, Dustmann and Kirchkamp (2002), posited in a study done in Turkey that, migrants have the high intention to be involved in the entrepreneurial sector upon return, thus, raising capital to start or finance their ventures or businesses in the source area. Also, a study conducted in Ghana by Black, King, and Tiemoko (2003) saw a similar outcome but were on small and medium enterprises or businesses among returned migrants. Also, in rural Egypt, Adams (1991) found out a direct link between remittance flow and investment in lands, fishing activities and others where the economic benefits are higher in the local economy than in other sectors. In another narrative, De Brauw and Rozelle (2008) used NELM to assess the effect of Chinese migration on migrants‟ households and their community development. Varying migration effects were measured and results recorded shown that out-migration has a negative 30 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh consequence on household livelihood income in the source areas even though it did not affect agricultural productions. This shows that remittance sent by migrants to their households went to supplement the effect of labour lost that contribute significantly to households‟ livelihood strategies. In the same zeal, Rozelle, Taylor and De Brauw (1999), also stipulated that, the growth in rural migration in China as a result of imperfect market structure, hence remittance received by households members were used to compensate labour lost and enhance households‟ agricultural activities such as buying of fishing gears, nets and among others. Mendola (2005), in her studies in Bangladesh, researched on out-migration decisions and its effects on households activities at the migrant-sending communities by projecting decisions by the household on whether to adopt new technological advances in agriculture. In the end, she found out that, out-migration (Internal migration) either temporal or permanent tends to compete to increase local livelihood activities of left-behind family members. In addition, expenses on building projects via remittances can trigger local building business, increasing their service demands as well as the general development of the migrant‟s community. Generally, the viewpoint that remittances are used purposely for household consumption and not for agricultural (fishing) investment such as fishing production, boat construction, nets and among others is examined by empirical facts, and sometimes findings are non-monetary in nature and solely dependent on the type of migration. Moreover, the difference between investment and consumption may be difficult to distinguish in terms of remittances usage. For example, the use of remittances in paying school fees may not seems to be an investment in the short-run, though it may be in the long run. Adams (2010) work in Guatemala established that households that received remittances spent lesser margins on consumptions and a greater percentage of their remittances went into investment products especially on housing and education. In addition, expenses on building projects via remittances can trigger 31 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh local building business, increasing their service demands as well as labour market (Mendola, 2012). Notably, remittances are said to have a potential cost on migrant-sending households as a result of moral behaviour on the part of left-behind household members (Azam & Gubert, 2006). Some scholars have debated that migrants with profitable works may render remaining households members to forgo their livelihood or productive activities and basically live on receipts of remittances (see Gubert, F 2000; Germenji & Swinnend; 2004). However, left- behind households members may increase their investment habit in order to attract more remittance (de Janvry et al., 1992). 2.9 Effects of out-migration on fishing households A careful search into the narratives that deal with the nexus between migration and fishing growth continued to be few. The relationship between fishing and migration bond is historical with its effects being positive or negative depending on the outcome of migration processes. According to Aworemi et al., (2011) in research, they conducted in Nigeria that, out- migration is a bi-problematic phenomenon affecting both the sending communities as well as the destination areas. They further explained that districts suffer from out-migration due to the fact that the active and energetic adults and youth who are required to stay in their community or municipality and work towards the development of fishing industry in their particular locality and the district in general move to other destinations. Labour lost caused by out-migration is a key determinant process in declining fish production, marketing, and sales. Its implication is severe since the greater portion of the fishing work which is energy driven is now left for the aged to manage (Angba, 2003, De Haan 1999) posited that out-migration does not always equate to the drastic change in fishing 32 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh and its related activities of the sending areas but usually, it helps create a balance in terms of people‟s livelihoods. However, migrant fishing households normally have less labour force for fishing activities and in a situation where the productivity of a migrant is relatively high than other household members before migrating, the household output will decline. This reduction in household output is even worse when the migrant is skilled, educated and strong in terms of household activities than other household members. Also, Rozelle et al. (1999) and De Brauw and Rozelle (2003) reported positive adverse effects of labour loss in agricultural activities of which fishing is no exception. Moreover, it was also found that labour migration has serious consequences on household fishing income. Apart from the above evidence discussed that out-migration affects both household labour and fish production as well as income, some researchers have argued that out-migration has a positive effect on migrant fishing households. For example, Taylor et al. (2003), espoused that, the reduction or loss in fish production due to labour out-migration may be supplemented by the receipts of remittance from migrants which are used to acquire fishing tools and equipment or even hire labour for the household. In the short-run migrants are unable to remit because it is possible they have not settled well, however, in the long-term when the migrant has adjusted well in the destination area, fish production increases through investment and remittance received (De Haas, 2001). Also, De Brauw and Rozelle (2003) contended that remittances received by migrants households go to the extent to compensate for the loss of labour in the household by increasing directly to households income hence high fish production. IFAD in 2007 postulated that migration has a high tendency to create a positive impact on migrants‟ households and their community by increasing the households‟ purchasing power to acquire consumable and non-consumable goods. 33 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh In furtherance, Fasoranti (2009) research in Nigeria, Ondo state shows that over 80% of the participants of the study confirmed that household member‟s migration led to land being freed creating larger space for agricultural activities to take place and this consequently increased farming and productivity. This nuanced view exhibited in the literature indicated that migration affects or impacts are time and space specific. The effects of migration on migrant fishing household may have negative impacts due to increased labour migration by household members but in the long run, the effect may be positive if the flow of remittance and investment in fishing and its related activities improve. Deshingkar (2004) posited after reviewing some papers on labour migration in Asia that labour lost due to migration may or may not have any effects on migrant household agricultural production and remittance receipts may or may not also encourage households to acquire assets which may or not have any effects on migrant fishing households‟ fish production and incomes. 2.10 Summary The chapter dealt with the conceptual framework for the study and also reviews significant literature on migration in Ghana and elsewhere. The theories elucidated in the chapter originated from a variety of disciplines. A major critique of migration theories is that just a theory cannot fully explain all migration cases. The theories used above-incorporated social, economic and other characteristics of the migrant based on experiences elsewhere. In spite of this, the theories were used as a basic framework for the research. Receipts of remittances have both negative and positive effects on the household as espoused by two schools of thought, thus the developmental pessimist and optimists. The positive aspects of remittances from the literature dealt with improving the standard of living of migrant households which have resultant effects on the economy of migrant-sending areas, however, the negative effects of remittances, on the other hand, posited the gap created between the poor and rich 34 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh households (Adams, 2006). Also, there is more literature on international remittances global than internal remittances (SSRC form, 2012). However, there is dearth in the literature on return migration. With regards to gender and migration, women are empowered when males are absent but in contemporary times women are migrating more than their male counterparts. Very few studies have asserted that migration leads to an increase in male households. 35 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER THREE STUDY AREA AND METHODOLOGY 3.0 Introduction The chapter is on the methodological design used, the sampling technique employed and the data collection techniques used data analysis and interpretation. Ethical issues relevant to this study are also presented. The chapter concludes with the limitations of the study 3.1 Description of the study area Location The study area, Ningo-Prampram was created out of the then Dangme West District into Shai-Osudoku and Ningo-Prampram districts by the legislation instrument ( LI 2132) in 2012 and Local Government Act of 1993 ( Act 462). The district is found in Greater Accra Region and it covers a total land surface of about 622.2 square kilometers. The district is located 15kilometres to the East of Tema and about 40 kilometers from Accra. The district is bounded in the North by Shai-Osudoku District, South by the Gulf of Guinea, in the East by Ada East district and West by Kpone-Katamanso District. The total population of the district is 70,923 out of which 47.3 percent are male and 52.7 percent female. The total household population is 68,521 of which males are 47.2 percent and females 52.7 percent. The highest proportions of the household population are children (37.9%), followed by heads (21.3%), grandchildren (13.5%), other relatives (9.2%) and spouses (8.4%) The district has a coastline stretching over 37 kilometers which gives the district vast fishing potential of which most households in the district are taking advantage (GSS, 2014:11). 36 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Relief and drainage The district forms the central portion of the Accra plains. The relief is generally gentle and undulating, a low plain with heights not exceeding 70 meters. The plains are punctuated in isolated areas by a few prominent inselbergs, isolated hills, outliers and knolls scattered erratically over the area. Ancient igneous rocks underlie the major part of the district. Strongly metamorphosed ancient sediments occur along the western boundary. There are also important areas of relatively young unconsolidated sediments in the south and southeast. Dahomeyan gneiss and schists occupy most of the plains proper. Basic gneiss forms a number of large inselbergs (isolated rocky hills) in the north and center of the belt. Small rock outcrops are also common in the north close to the inselbergs but are rare in the south and southeast. The general pattern of drainage in the Ningo-Prampram district is dendritic with most of the streams taking their source from the Akwapim range which also serves as a watershed and flows in a northwest to southwest directions into lagoons on the coast. Flowing over a fairly low terrain, most of the streams have carved wide valleys for themselves which are left dry for most parts of the year. The very seasonal nature of most of the streams caused by high temperatures and equally high insulation levels have encouraged the creation of a number of artificial dams and ponds of varying size, used for irrigation and for the watering of livestock. Prominent among these is the Dawhenya dam on the Dekyidor stream which provides ample water for irrigation farming, particularly, rice and vegetables. 37 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Climate The south-eastern coastal plain of Ghana, which encompasses the Ningo-Prampram district, is one of the hottest and driest parts of the country. Temperatures are however subjected to occasional and minimal moderating influences along the coast and altitudinal influences affected by the Akwapim range in the northwest. Temperatures are appreciably high for most parts of the year with the highest during the main dry season (November – March) and lowest during the short dry season (July – August). The maximum temperature is 40 0 C. The almost complete absence of cloud cover for most parts of the year gives way to very high rates of evaporation which leaves most parts of the district dry and with parched soils. The combined effects of high temperatures and high insulation levels, on the other hand, are of invaluable asset to the salt-making industry, as they account for the high and rapid rates of stalinization and crystallization crucial for the winning of salt. They also provide enormous potentials for solar power development. Rainfall is generally very low with most of the rains being very erratic in coming mostly between September and November. The mean annual rainfall increases from 762.5 milliliters in the coast to 1,220 milliliters in the northern parts of the district. District economy The Ningo-Prampram district is largely rural. The predominance of rural population reflects in the occupational distribution with agriculture as the dominant occupation. About 90 percent of the total land area is arable land and about 25 percent is mainly savannah grassland suitable for livestock farming. The major crops grown in the district are cassava, maize, mango, banana, vegetables (tomato, okro, pepper) and rice. The district border on the Gulf of 38 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Guinea with a coastline stretching over 37 kilometers gives the district vast fishing potential. This potential is currently under great exploitation by many households in the district. Irrigation agriculture is practiced on a medium scale in the district. About 15.6 percent of crop farmers are engaged in irrigation agriculture under the Dawhenya Irrigation Scheme with the remaining depending on rain (rain fed agriculture). The total land area at the scheme site is 480 hectares. Currently, the developed area of the scheme is 240 hectares. The main Irrigation Scheme has reservoir with a capacity of 5.6 million cubic meters of water for irrigation. The farmers have organized themselves into co-operative societies which are registered under the Department of Co - operatives. There are a number of manufacturing activities in the district that provide employment opportunities for the people. The activities cover production of agricultural inputs (e.g. RANNAH Fish Feed Company), carpentry (e.g. MELGREP Company), block making companies and small scale aluminium industries that produce cooking utensils. Although agriculture dominates in the district, the leading sectors in terms of revenue to the district Assembly and remunerations to workers is the housing development sector. Financial reports from the District Assembly indicate that the highest contribution to internally generated revenue comes from building permit applications and fines. This is followed closely by business operating permits(GSS, 2014:8-11). 3.2 The research design For any research to be undertaken successfully, there is the need for research design to aid in achieving the main objectives of the study, and this according to Lolig (2005) refers to the plan approach or strategy of investigation created or made to collect data and obtain answers to research questions or problems 39 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh This research employed the mixed-method research approach (qualitative and quantitative) for the study. This method of research has gained attention in recent years especially in Africa and in areas where there is little or no information on the phenomenon under study (Ajaero & Onokala,2013). A mixed-method approach (qualitative and quantitative) provides a better explanation and understanding of a research problem than using a single research approach (Creswell, 2010). To better appreciate social research problem, it is vital to use at least two methods which are complementary in nature as each approach tackles different sectors of the same phenomenon (Ennew & Boyden, 1997). Concurrently, using qualitative and quantitative research design made it easier for the researcher to make a comprehensive analysis and it also provided an in- depth understanding of the effects of migration on fishing Households. According to Johnson and Onwuegbuzie (2004), mixed methods have the potential and capacity to complement the merits and demerits of each method and also ensure efficient and effective research outcomes. In this regards, the quantitative research adopted to obtain wider responses in order to find out the district‟s assertion on the effects of migration on fishing households in Ningo-Prampram as well as the socio-demographic characteristics of the respondents. The qualitative research approach, on the other hand, focused on in-depth interviews with two chief fishermen, two migrant household heads, and one focus group discussion each for both chief fishermen and household heads who had adequate knowledge on migration and fishing related activities. This research approach complemented the advantage and disadvantage of the other, hence increasing the validity of the research findings (Teye, 2012, Bryman, 2007; Creswell, 2009) 40 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.3 Target Population This study focused on migrant fishing households (household heads) in the district since this group of person has adequate information with regards to the research aim. 3.3.1 Inclusion Criteria Participants (males and females) of the study were not less than (18) years of age and were residents of the district. Again, migrant fishing households where a member of the household had migrated to engaged in fishing activities for more than a year. In these households, the household heads or any responsible adult was engaged in the study. This is because household members or heads were in a better position to answer relevant questions regarding the effects of migration on their households. The other groups of individuals are the opinion leaders (chief fishermen) who are endowed with knowledge on fish production and its related activities. 3.3.2 Exclusion Criteria Anyone who is not an opinion leader and migrant fishing households head at the time of the research were not selected for the study. 3.4 Sample and sampling procedure 3.4.1 Sample size A gatekeeper who had prior knowledge and information on migrant fishing households assisted the student researcher by conducting a baseline study to develop a list of migrant fishing households out of which a total of 842 migrant fishing households were identified as the sample frame. A mathematical formula by Miller and Brewer (2003) was used to determine the sample size from the sample frame. 41 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh At the end of the calculation as detail below a total of 271 fishing households formed the sample size for the quantitative study. The formula is as follows; Where „N‟= Sample frame n = Sample Size α = Confidence Interval 95% was chosen as the level of confidence interval for the study and 5% as the margin of error. This was due to the fact that the study targeted humans as participants whose correctness to information is liable to biases as compared to the physical sciences. According to the formula, N= 842 and α = Therefore Hence n =271.1755 (271). The outcome deduced from the formula above gave the sample size of 271 migrant fishing households given the confidence level and the margin of error above. Hence 271 fishing households were sampled and used for the study in the district. 42 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.4.2 Sampling Procedure With the help of gatekeeper who had prior knowledge and information on migrant fishing households, assisted the student researcher by conducting a baseline study to develop a list of migrant fishing households out of which a total of 842 migrant fishing households were identified as the sample frame. This study used a systematic sampling technique to select participants (migrant-fishing households) for the study and the sample interval ( ) was determined by dividing the population of migrant-fishing households with the sample size obtained. The second stage of the systematic sampling involved simple random sampling. The random sampling process was employed when the first number is picked between one (1) and the interval ( ) number using simple random sampling technique. In this process, the first number to the interval ( ) number was written on a piece of paper, folded into a box and mixed carefully. At this point, the researcher picked the first number from the box which forms the basis for selecting the remaining participants with the same interval ( ). Finally, the interval ( ) term was continually used to select from the list of migrant households until the required sample total was obtained. Randomization process of this sampling method was done to give each participant of the population an equal chance to be picked in the sample and it also helped to prevent biased representation of the population of migrant fishing households which forms the basis for generalization to be made. (Branner, 1992; Bourke, 2014).Also, random sampling does not only equate fair and accurate representation of the sample population but it allows the researcher to establish a significant association between the sample and the population (Neuman, 2000). 43 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 3.4.1: Systematic sampling technique process The Remittance Sample Margin Sample Initial Sample Unit District s receiving Size Of Error Intervals=Pop Number Fishing ulation/Sampl Selected Households e Size Randomly Ningo- 842 271 0.05 842/271=3th 18 18,21,24,27,30,33 Prampram ,36,39,41,44,47… … Source: Researcher’s own construct (2019) With regards to the qualitative data, the purposive sampling technique was used to select two household heads and two chief fishermen for the in-depth-interview as well as one focus group discussion each for both groups of chief fishermen(males only) and household heads (both males and females) consisting of six to eight individuals. This process was deliberate because it was appropriate in selecting persons who had in-depth information important for the study (Patton, 2000; Tongo, 2007). 44 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.5 Data collection 3.5.1 Instruments for the data collection Both quantitative and qualitative data were collected from the respondents. Instruments for the data collections included semi-structured questionnaires with both open-ended and closed questions, which helped in gathering information from respondents in the survey. For the qualitative data, both in-depth interview guides and focus group discussions were used to gather data from chief fishermen and household heads. The in-depth interviews were conducted to find out the meanings for the outcome of the survey. The focus group discussions were also conducted to get group information and varying dimensions in examining and understanding the phenomenon under study. These individuals and groups were purposively selected as interviewees for the interview and participants for focus group discussions. Each interview lasted between 30minutes to about 40 minutes. The focus group discussion took between 35minutes to about 55minutes. This allowed the investigator to obtain more information in a lengthy conversation with respondents in the interviews as well as confirmation and contradictions on issues discussed in the focus group sessions. The interviews were conducted face-to-face with interviewees which mainly focused on the areas such as migration process and contacts, the effects of out-migration and its impacts on migrant households. For the focus group discussions, the services of a moderator were used and questions were read out in English and translated into Ga for participants who had difficulties in understanding the questions in English. One defect of both the in-depth interviews and focus group discussions was that only a few respondents participated, therefore, its findings cannot be generalized. Both the interview guides and focus group discussions for qualitative data is mostly beneficial for discovering feelings and attitudes and also to capture issues that will not be gathered by administering of the questionnaires 45 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (Preskill & Jones, 2009) and this was realized by the qualitative methods used in the study. The main purpose of the 3.5.2 Pretesting of instrument A pretest was done at Jamestown in the Greater Accra Region of Ghana prior to the administration of the research instrument and this made it possible for the investigator to check for reliability clarity and precision of the instrument before data collection in the study area. As was posited by Saunder et. al., (2007), pretesting instruments enables the researcher to determine the appropriateness of questionnaires or interview guide to reduce the likelihood of respondents not answering or understanding the questions properly. Also, pretest enabled the researcher to make projections with respect to the amount of time to be used in administering the instruments and it helped in making improvements in the final instruments before actual data collection commenced. 3.5.3 Procedure for data collection The investigator, before collecting information from Ningo-Prampram, first took a visit to the district to purposely to familiarise with the study area. The opinion leaders (chief fishermen) in the district were informed and permission was needed in order to have access to fishing households. An introductory letter from the Center for Migration Studies and the student researchers identity card were shown to the opinion leaders to support the genuineness of the study. Migrant household heads were visited at their various homes and sometimes at the shore and the purpose of the study was explained to them and they were assured of the confidentiality of their responses and afterward, their cooperation solicited. The instrument was administered to them in English and Ga depending on what respondents deemed appropriate to communicate. The researcher expressed his gratitude for the 46 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh respondent‟s time, patience and contribution. This process was repeated continually for each respondent until the sample size was obtained. 3.6 Data analysis 3.6.1 Quantitative data analysis After questionnaires administered to respondents were retrieved, each questionnaire was checked, coded and analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS version 20) software. Analytical tools such as descriptive and inferential statistics which included frequency, percentage, cross-tabulation, and chi-square test were used for the analysis 3.6.2Qualitative data analysis All interviews were carried out in English and Ga which was the common language both researcher and respondent could communicate. Thus interviews recorded were transcribed without any difficulties. The interviews were then coded, put into themes by referring to the objectives. This helped to categorize and analyze the themes such as out-migration effects on household fishing activities, remittances usage, change in gender role and among others thereby reducing many words into coherent and logical phrases. This supported the explanations of the quantitative data. Also, the use of pseudonyms was necessary for protecting the identity and in ensuring the confidentiality of the respondents. 3.7 Ethical considerations Ethical considerations play a vital role in research processes. It is the responsibility of the researcher to protect and ensure the security and welfare of the participants especially when identifying the research problem and research participant, data collection process, analysis of data and interpretation as well as writing, presenting and the distribution of the research report (Creswell, 2009). Ethics in research is considered as a key element in research because 47 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh it functions as a self-check parameter for decision making and helps in outlining research businesses. The creation of ethical codes in social science research aids in sustaining the integrity of the profession outlines the expected conduct of members and protect the welfare of research respondents. Moreover, ethical codes give professional direction when confronting ethical issues that generate problems or create puzzling situations. As a result, the researcher first applied for ethical clearance from the Ethics Committee for the Humanities (ECH) at the University of Ghana and clearance was obtained with Serial number ECH110/18-19 before going to the field to collect data. Every research has a responsibility towards the safety and wellbeing of the research respondents and must ensure that their rights and opinions are respected at all occasions. As a result, efforts were put in place to ensure that the rights of respondents were not infringed upon. The ethical consideration of the study was upheld at all time as the researcher‟s student identity card was shown to household heads and chief fishermen in the municipality as it facilitated in obtaining their consent to assist and the reasons for them to assist in providing information for the study. Furthermore, the respondent‟s anonymity was assured during the data collection processes and data collected were also treated with the utmost confidentiality. Recorded voices from the respondents in the interviews and focus group discussions were treated confidentially at the end of the discussions. Data was collected at the most convenient time for respondents. 3.8 Research Experience and limitations Like any other academic research, this study was not without constraints especially in the process of administering the questionnaires and conducting the interviews and focus group discussions. They included the following: 48 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1. Most of the migrant fishing household heads demanded financial gains before they could fully cooperate and engage effectively in the survey but the researcher was unable to give respondents cash due to ethical considerations so. However, the researcher thanked respondents who voluntarily agreed and devoted their time to participate in the study 2. It was also difficult getting the respondents who were most of the time at sea or absent from their household and those who were present found it difficult to concentrate and participate in the study especially some of the chief fishermen who double as active fishermen and custodian of the fishers. 3. The researcher engaged the services of research assistants in order to speed up the data collection process but also because of their competence in the local language. All research assistants were properly trained prior to administering questionnaires 4. Some of the household heads did not cooperate for the fear that information given out could be used for taxing them and wanted to opt-out from the research, however, in line with ethical considerations, such people were allowed to withdraw their participation, after they were still hesitant to take part despite the researcher‟s assurances that the information will be treated with confidence. 3.2.1 Summary This section outlined the methodological underpinning of the study in addition to the profile of the study area. The study employed the mixed-method approach with the study population constituting of migrant fishing household with a sample size of 271 using the mathematical formula by Miller and Brewer (2003) was used to determine the sample size from the sample frame. The quantitative data was entered using SPSS and results presented in tables, charts, graphs and among others.Prior to the collection of the data ethical consideration was obtained at Ethics Committee for the Humanities (ECH) at the University of Ghana The entire data 49 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh was collected for a period of three months and analyzed by the use of SPSS and thematic analysis. 50 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FOUR SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF THE MIGRANT FISHING HOUSEHOLDS AND IMPLICATION ON LIVELIHOOD 4.0 Introduction In order to understand the effects of migration on migrant fishing households and community development, it is important to identify the socio-demographic characteristics of the sampled population. Migration is selective and a continuous process (Norman et al., 2005; Cattaneo, 2007) in terms of demographic variables like age, sex, marital status and social factors consisting of religion, education, occupation among others. This chapter, therefore, discussed the demographic characteristics of migrant fishing households as the basis to analyse factors that affect households and community development. Appropriate diagrams have been used to represent the information to help provide a better understanding of the data gathered from the field. 4.1 Composition of household Historically, household headship is likened to the economic provider of the household (Biddlecom & Kramarow, 1998) and in this study, most of the households were headed by males as asserted by the respondents. Table 4.1.1 shows data on household composition. Out of 271 migrant fishing households sampled for the study, more than half (53.9%) of the households had members within the age range of 6 to 10. A little over two-fifth (41.7) of the households had members within the age range 1 to 5. Less than ten percent of the households also had members within the age range 11 to 15 (4.1%) and 15 and above (0.4%). Higher household composition could have a positive association on the flow of remittances to migrant households as well as labour 51 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh availabilities for household fishing and its related activities (Sena & Massey, 2005). Again, male households members in the district who were within 1 and 3 were less than three- quarters (73.1%) of the total male household members whilst more than one-fifth (24.0%) of the male members of the households fell within 4 and 6, and less than ten (10) percent of the male members of the households were within 6 and above. Additionally, a little over three- fifth of the female members of migrant fishing households were within 1 and 3. A third (33.9%) of the female members of the household were within 4 and 6 and again, less than ten (10) percent of the female household members were 6 and above as observed from the table. This data shows that for the category of 1 to 3 members of the households, male members were 10.7 more (73.1- 62.4) than female members of the households; however, female members of the households were more (33.9% and 3.7%) than their male counterparts(24.0% and 3.0%) on households composition category for 4 to 6 and 6+ respectively. Also, according to the respondents of the study, male household heads were likely to be more than their female counterparts in the households and this could be attributed to the tradition of the district where males are viewed as the heads of the household responsible for the welfare of the household, and whose duties include settling of household disputes and paying of fees among others. Also, the number of household members could have an effect on household migrants to remit into their household. A large number of household members serve as a source of surplus labour for the household. This finding is consistent with Cooks‟ (1999) study in China, which espoused that household endowment in terms of its composition, demography and number of household members has a significant effect on household labour and productivity. 52 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.1.1: Composition of household variables Frequency(n=271) Percent (%) Number of 1-5 113 41.7 household members 6-10 146 53.9 11-15 11 4.1 15+ 1 0.4 Total 271 100.0 Number of males in 1-3 198 73.1 the households 4-6 65 24.0 6+ 8 3.0 Total 271 100 Number of females 1-3 169 62.4 in the household 4-6 92 33.9 6+ 10 3.7 Total 271 100.0 Source: Field Survey, 2019 4.2 Sex characteristics of Respondents (Migrant Fishing Household Head (MFHH)) Table 4.1.2 shows the distribution of sex of respondents in the study area. A careful observation from the table shows that there were more male household heads than females. Out of a total of 271 migrant fishing households selected, 142(52.4%) were headed by males while 129(47.6%) were headed by females. 53 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.1.2: Sex of MFHH Sex Frequency(n=271) Percent (%) Male 142 52.4 Female 129 47.6 Total 271 100.0 Source: Field Survey, 2019 4.3: Age distribution of MFHH As shown in Table 4.1.3, the working class were within the age range of 25-39, which forms a little over two-fifth (42.1%) of the total number of respondents in the study area. Less than ten percent (10%) of the respondents constituted the age cohort 45-49 and 50+ respectively. This implies that most of the households were headed by household members between the ages of 40-49 years and this could be attributed to the out-migration of the youth (20-39). This confirms Awumbila‟s (2011) study, which posited that out-migration is active among the youth who form the working class. 54 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.1.3: Age of Distribution of MFHH Age Frequency (n=271) Percent (%) 25-29 11 4.1 30-34 45 16.6 35-39 58 21.4 40-44 132 48.7 45-49 21 7.7 50+ 4 1.5 Total 271 100.0 Source: Field Survey, 2019 4.4: Marital status of MFHH Table 4.1.4 presents the marital status information on respondents. A little over two-fifth (42.4%) of the respondents were in the consensual union while 30.3 percent were married. A little over one in every five respondents of the study were separated (21.4%). Again, the distribution of marital status further indicates that the rest of the respondents (household‟s heads) were widowed (4.4%), and never married (1.5%). This implies that household heads who were married were likely to receive more remittance from their spouses to help in satisfying household needs. Also, the high incidence of consensual union is not surprising since the majority of the household heads are co-habitant, and this is attributed to the moving nature of migrant fishers and the length of time(years) they spend at the destination centres. 55 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.1.4: Marital status of MFHH Marital status Frequency(n=271) Percent (%) Married 82 30.3 Consensual union 115 42.4 Separated 58 21.4 Widowed 12 4.4 Never married 4 1.5 TOTAL 271 100.0 Source: Field Survey, 2019 4.5 Educational status of MFHH Information on educational status is presented in Table 4.1.5. It was evidential that a little more than half (50.6%) had had education up to the primary level while more than one-third (37.6%) of the same respondents had no formal education. Respondents who had attained Middle, JHS/SHS and Tertiary education recorded just 7.0, 3.7, 0.4 and 0.7 percent respectively. Again, the even distribution of educational levels among respondents (62.4%) implies that a fairly high number of household heads had education at the primary level and this could be attributed to free access to primary education at the rural level. 56 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.1.5: Educational status of MFHH Education Frequency(n=271) Percent (%) No education 102 37.6 Primary 137 50.6 JHS/JSS 19 7.0 Middle 10 3.7 SHS/SSS 1 0.4 Tertiary 2 0.7 Total 271 100.0 Source: Field Survey, 2019 4.6 Employment level of Respondents Employment levels among respondents in the study area were explored. A majority (88.5%) of the respondents were mainly employed as fishers and fishmongers. This confirms the assertion by Odotei (2001), that the Ningo-Prampram District is a fishing dominated municipality. Less than ten percent of the respondents from the households were engaged in Net-weaving (0.7%), Boat manufacturing (2.6%) and Trading (8.1%). Also, apart from the main employment engaged in by respondents, some resorted to other economic activities such as farming, construction work, petty trading and among others. With regard to the secondary employment status, more than a third (37.6%) of the respondents were into farming for their extra income while the rest engaged in similar secondary employment. The implication is that most household heads in the district undertook these economic activities and other livelihood strategies to ensure a constant flow of income in their households in order to augment the proceeds from fishing. Also, fishing is seasonal and as a result during the lean season (November to March), households engage in other income ventures. 57 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.1.6: Employment status of Household Heads Employment Type Frequency (n=271) Percent (%) Fishing 147 54.2 Main employment Fishmonger 93 34.3 Type Net weaver 2 0.7 Boat manufacturer 7 2.6 Trading 22 8.1 Total 271 100.0 Secondary Farming 102 37.6 employment Type Construction work 18 6.6 Petty trader 72 26.6 Others 79 29.2 Total 271 100.0 Source: Field Survey, 2019 4.7 Religious Affiliation of MFHH Information on the religious affiliation of respondents was also ascertained. Christians formed the largest faith as compared to other religions. Christians of all Christian denominations made up 77.1 percent of the total respondents. The population of traditional believers in the district still had some level of influence and strength in the district. This could be seen in the number of fetish houses scattered all over the municipality, especially along the coast of the district. Muslims constituted 5.5 percent of the total responses obtained. This implies that though Christians formed the majority in the district, the traditional belief had great significance on fishing activities.Libation is usually poured for migrated households to protect the out-migrants and sometimes before and after fishing. 58 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.1.7: Religious Affiliation of MFHH Religion Frequency (n= 271) Percent No Religion 7 2.6 Catholic 17 6.3 Pentecost 121 44.6 Other Christians 71 26.2 Islam 15 5.5 Traditional 30 11.1 Others 10 3.7 Total 271 100.0 Source: Field Survey, 2019 4.8 MFHHs Place of birth Figure 4.1 presents information on the birthplace of respondents. According to the Figure, the majority (87.5%) of the respondents were born in the district. With respect to those born outside the district, more than ten percent (12.5%) resided in the study area. This implies that even though the district is an out-migration area per the study as indicated by the respondents, it has also become the destination area for most people, especially fishers from neighbouring coastal fishing towns like Ada, Teshie and James Town among others. This could be as a result of its geographical positioning as well as the nature of its coast serving as landing or docking sites for fishing boats from near and distant places. This was confirmed during an in- depth interview with a chief fisherman: There are a lot of people who come here to fish just as we travel elsewhere to fish. When some come, they don't want to leave because of how hospitable we are to them. Also, we have great and vast coastline which attract people from near and far places to dock, rest and continue fishing. This is no surprise to be seeing numerous boats and th canoes on our shore. (Chief fisherman, Ningo,5 July, 2019) 59 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 4.1: MFHHs Place of birth Source: Field Survey, 2019 4.9 Number of out-migrants from Migrant Fishing Households In figure 4.2, a third (33.2%) of the respondents had two (2) migrants in the households. More than a fourth of the households had three (3) migrants (25.5%) and four (4) and above(25.8%). However, less than twenty percent (15.5%) of the households had one (1) migrant. The high number of migrants from the households could be due to the seasonal nature of fishing and the presence of other migrants from other places who troop into the district to compete with local people or natives for the few available fish and fishing-related jobs. The overall implication is that the number of migrants from the household and the community is most likely to affect the socio-economic status of left-behind household members as well as the development in the community. However, some studies have posited that the high proportion of migrants moving from a particular household or community does not lead to a better life for migrants and migrant households but it is highly dependent on the determinants associated with the destination (Kandel et al., 1996). According to the 60 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh respondents, the more out-migrants a household has, the more it is able to satisfy households needs and this what one household head had to say: Households that have many migrants are wealthier than households with only one migrant and this is because more out-migrants in those households provide more supporting hands for the households through remittances received by household th members. (Householdhead,Ningo, 5 July,2019). Figure 4.2: Number of out-migrants from migrant fishing households Source: Field Survey, 2019 4.1.1 Out-migrated children who could have contributed to fishing and its related activities Migrated children within migrant fishing households were explored in order to obtain information on children who could have helped in household fishing activities and production. With regard to the ages of the children, more than half (60.9%) of the children who were within the age category 1 to 6 were male whilst two-fifth(39.1%) were females. A similar outcome was obtained for age category 7 to 12. However, female children were more than three-fifth (64.1%) of their male(35.9%) counterparts in age category 13 and above The high incidence of respondents having children migrating from their households is as a result of the better fishing economy elsewhere. In many households, left-behind parents stated that their children supported the households with remittances. 61 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.1.8: Out-migrated children who could have contributed to fishing and its related activities Number of children Age of Frequency (n=271) Percent (%) children 10-15 Male 140 60.9 Female 1-6 90 39.1 Total 230 100.00 16-21 Male 7-12 14 35.9 Female 25 64.1 Total 39 100.0 Male 13+ 2 100.0 21+ Female 0 0.0 Total 2 100.0 Source: Field Survey, 2019 4.1.2 Socio-Demographic characteristics of out-migrants Sex of out-migrants Information on the sex of out-migrant is also presented in Table 4.2.1. From the Table, more than three-quarters (79%) of the migrants were males as compared to female migrants who made up 20.7 percent. This is due to the fact that in the district, there is high migration incidence among men than female, and this is as a result of the energy-driven nature of fishing and its related works. 62 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.2.1 Sex of out-migrants Sex of migrants Frequency(n=271) Percent (%) Male 215 79.3 Female 56 20.7 Total 271 100 Source: Field Survey, 2019 Age of out-migrants In terms of the out-migrants, close to half (45.8%) were between the ages of 20 and 24 years. More than one-fourth (26.2%) of the out-migrants were within the ages 15 to 19, and ages from 25 to 29 and 30 and above recorded less than twenty percent. This implies that a majority (72%) of the out-migrants fell within the ages of 15 to 24, which gives a glaring picture of how significant migration is strategised to ensure efficient survival of households and household members. This assertion by the respondents is consistent with Awumbila‟s (2011) study, which stipulated that out-migration is more common and frequent among young people than the aged. Table 4.2.2 Age of Out-migrants Variables Age group Frequency(n=271) Percent (%) Age of migrants 15-19 71 26.2 20-24 124 45.8 25-29 45 16.6 30+ 31 11.4 Total 271 100.0 Source: Field Survey, 2019 63 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Educational levels of out-migrants From Table 4.2.3, more than one-fifth (28.0%) of the out-migrants had no formal education. More than half (64.9%) of the out-migrants had formal education from primary to JHS/Middle level and less than ten percent had education from vocational/technical/communication skills to the tertiary level. This implies that with a high incidence of formal education among the out-migrants, most of them could easily adopt and integrate into the communities they reside in as well as learn new ways or methods of fishing and trading in fish. Table 4.2.3 Educational levels of out-migrants Variables Frequency (n=271) Percent (%) The educational None 76 28.0 level of the out- Primary 112 41.3 migrants Middle/JHS 64 23.6 VOC/Tech/comm 11 4.1 O/A Level/SHS 3 1.1 Tertiary 5 1.8 Total 271 100.0 Source: Field Survey, 2019 Marital status of out-migrants The marital status of out-migrants was ascertained and information presented in table 4.2.4. Close to two-fifth (39.5%) of the respondents mentioned that out-migrants were married before migrating. More than a third (36.2%) of the respondents also stated that out-migrants were never married before moving. Divorced, separated and consensual union just recorded 5.2, 1.8 and 17.3 percents respectively. This implies that the married and never married out- migrants had a high tendency of remitting to their households than the other marital status. 64 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.2.4 Marital status of out-migrants Variables Frequency(n=271) Percent (%) Marital status of Never Married 98 36.2 migrants Married 107 39.5 Divorced 14 5.2 Separated 5 1.8 consensual 47 17.3 Total 271 100.0 Source: Field Survey, 2019 The employment level of out-migrants The outcome of the Table 4.2.5 shows the distribution of the employment level of out- migrants. An overwhelming majority (87.8%) of the respondents cited fishing as the main occupation of out-migrants. Less than ten (10) percent of the out-migrants were engaged in farming, trading, teaching, artisanship and other activities. This reveals that most out- migrants were actively involved in fishing and its related activities as a means of survival and livelihood for their households. Table 4.2.5 Employment level of out-migrants Variables Frequency(n=271) Percent (%) The main Farming 8 3.0 employment level of Trading 17 6.3 out-migrants Teaching 6 2.2 Fishing 238 87.8 Artisan 1 0.4 Others 1 0.4 Total 271 100.0 Source: Field Survey, 2019 Relationship of out-migrants to the Migrant Household With regard to out-migrants‟ relationship to the household heads, more than half(55.4%) of the respondents espoused that out-migrants were children to the household heads whilst close to a third (27.7%) of the respondents stated that out-migrants were spouses to the household 65 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh heads. Son/daughter-in-law, grandchild and Head of the household recorded less than ten(10) percent. The outcome of the study reveals that out-migrants who are married and single are more likely to remit to their households than those who are grandchildren and parents-in-law among others. This finding supports the assertion by Senne et al. (2011) that, migrants tend to remit to their households when their relationship to the head is a spouse and parent. Table 4.2.6 Relationship of out-migrants to the Household Variables Frequency Percent (%) (n=271) Migrant Head 2 0.7 relationship to Spouse 75 27.7 the household Parent 150 55.4 head Grandchild 6 2.2 Son/daughter in law 26 9.6 Total 271 100.0 Source: Field Survey, 2019 4.1.3 Socio-Demographic characteristics of remittance recipients Sex of recipient of remittance Table 4.2.7 presents information on the sex of recipients of remittance in the households. Out of a total of 271 respondents selected for the study, more than half (63.8) of the respondents pointed out females as the recipients of remittances. A little over a third mentioned male household members as the recipients of remittances. This is due to the familial duties of females as they care for the welfare of the household in general as a result of their relationship with the household could range from being children, parents, grandparents, son- daughter in-laws to household members. In effect, even though males continue to be the head of households, women or female members of the household are seen as the most recipients of household remittances. This finding is in line with IOM report (2007) on Guatemala and Columbia which espoused that, 63 percent of the main recipients of remittances are women 66 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh whilst in Columbia, women constituted 70 percent of the recipients of remittances. The general implication for this outcome is that, received remittances to females are used for familial purposes since most decision making process with respect to household needs rest on them. This is what was expressed by one of the respondents : There are a lot of people who receive cash and other items from out-migrants frequently. In this household, cash remittance from our out-migrants to cater for children and the aged but in most cases the women in this receive remittances more than their male counterparts and this is as a result of their care nature and it is also believed that when it comes to household income, they are the best manager th (Household head,Prampram,5 July, 2019) Table 4.2.7 Sex of the recipients Sex of recipient Frequency(n=271) Percent (%) Male 98 36.2 Female 173 63.8 Total 271 100.0 Source: Field Survey, 2019 Age of Remittances recipients Table 4.2.8 also gives information on the ages of remittances recipients. A little over a third (33.5%) of remittances recipients were within the ages of 15 to 29 years while a little over two-fifth of the recipients of remittances were within 30 to 34 years. Ages from 35 to 39, 40 to 44 and 45 and above recorded just 17.1, 6.3, and 1.5 percent respectively. This shows that an overwhelming majority (89.8%) of remittances recipients were between the ages of 20 and 39, who formed the working work class of the households. 67 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.2.8 Age of remittances recipients Variables Age group Frequency(n=271) Percent(%) Age of remittances 15-19 5 1.8 recipients 20-24 28 10.3 25-29 58 21.4 30-34 111 41.0 35-39 48 17.1 40-44 17 6.3 45+ 4 1.5 Total 271 100.0 Source: Field Survey, 2019 The educational level of remittances recipients This section describes the level of education of remittances recipients. With regard to the remittance recipients, out of 271 households sampled for the study, 36.5 percent of the recipients of remittances had no education and a greater proportion (62.4%) of the same respondents had formal education up to the middle/JHS level. For attainment in vocational/communication /technical skills, O/A level/SHS and Tertiary, recipients of remittances recorded less than 5 percent of the total responses. This reveals that, in terms of new technological innovations especially in terms of fishing, more household members are likely to adapt to changes that come with it. 68 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.2.9 Educational levels of recipients of remittances and Migrants Variables Frequency(n=271) Percent(%) The educational None 99 36.5 level of Remittance Primary 125 46.5 Recipients Middle/JHS 43 15.9 VOC/Tech/comm 1 0.4 O/A Level/SHS 2 0.7 Tertiary 1 0.4 Total 271. 100.0 Source: Field Survey, 2019 Marital status of remittance recipients From the table 4.3.1, most (37.6%) of the recipients of remittances were in a consensual relationship whilst a little over a third (33.6) were married. More than one-fifth(21.4) of the respondents also asserted separated as the marital status of remittances recipients. Less than ten (10) percent of the respondents mentioned widowed and never married as their marital status. Table 4.3.1 Marital status of the recipients of remittances Variables Frequency(n=271) Percent (%) Marital status Married 91 33.6 Remittance recipients Consensual union 102 37.6 Separated 58 21.4 Widowed 14 5.2 Never married 6 2.2 Total 271 100.0 Source: Field Survey, 2019 69 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Employment status of Recipients of remittances and Migrants Table 4.3.2 shows the distribution of employment level among remittances recipients. Close to three-fourth (71.2%) of remittances recipients engaged in fishing as their main source of income. Moreover, among remittances recipients, Farming, Trading, Teaching, Pupil/Student/Apprentice, Artisan, Unemployed and Retired just recorded 10.3, 15.1, 0.4, 0.4, 1.5, 0.4 and 0.7 percents respectively. Again, apart from the main employment status of remittances recipients, the secondary level of employment of remittances recipients were also explored to find out whether household members engaged in other forms of livelihood. Close to half (49.1%) of remittances recipients were engaged in trading activities aside their main occupation. Over one-fifth (24.4%) of remittances recipients were actively involved in farming and food vending (11.8%). Less than ten percent of remittances recipients engaged in the other secondary forms of work. This implies that the district's closeness to the economic hub of Tema and its environs could enable household members to actively trade with people in Tema and its surrounding communities. Thus, finished products are bought and sold in the district for extra household income aside fishing. Table 4.3.3Employment status of Recipients of remittances and Migrants Variable Frequency(n=271 Percent (%) The main 28 10.3 employment level of Trading 41 15.1 Recipient of Teaching 1 0.4 remittance Fishing 193 71.2 Pupil/student/Apprentice 1 0.4 Artisan Farming 4 1.5 Unemployed 1 0.4 Retired 2 0.7 Total 271 100.0 Source: Field Survey, 2019 70 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Relationship of Remittances recipients to the Household In terms of remittances recipients‟ relationship to household heads, more than three-quarters (77.9%) of remittances recipients were household heads whilst 8.9 percent of the household heads were spouses to remittances recipients. Less than ten (10) percent of the respondents mentioned that out-migrants were child, grandchild, parents, parent-in-law and son/daughter in- law to the household head. This implies that more parents are likely to encourage their children to move to places where the fishing economy is thriving well in order to remit to support the household income. Table 4.3.4 Relationship of remittances recipients to the household Variables Frequency(n=271) Percent (%) Recipient of Head 211 77.9 remittance Spouse 24 8.9 relationship to Child 15 5.5 Household Grandchild 2 0.7 Head Parent 3 1.1 Parent in-law 10 3.7 Son/daughter-in-law 6 2.2 Total 271 100.0 Source: Field Survey, 2019 Place of residence of migrants More than half (52%) of the migrants of the households were residing in the Western Region of Ghana. The Central and Volta regions recorded the same proportion (15.9%) of remitters living in both regions. The number of migrants from the Greater Accra and Eastern regions recorded less than ten percent of the total responses obtained. 71 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.3.5 Migrants place of residence Place of residence Frequency(n=271) Percent (%) Greater Accra 11 4.1 Central 68 25.09 Western 141 52.0 Eastern 8 3.0 Volta 43 15.9 Total 271 100.0 Source: Field Survey, 2019 4.1.4 Summary In a nutshell, the chapter explained the statistics of some aspects of the socio-demographic characteristics of respondents in the study area. This included sex of household heads where the majority were males, educational attainment by household heads, and marital status among others. It was observed that unlike in other studies where women were the household heads as a result of migration, this is different because even though male migration is higher, a greater number of males were still household heads. Also, the majority of the household heads were within the ages of 40-44 years, and this could also be attributed to the massive out-migration of the working class which falls within the ages 25-39 and this confirms Awumbila‟s (2011) study which indicated the high involvement of the youth in migration. This study confirms studies that stipulated that the majority of household members who receive remittances are women and this is due to their familial duties. Also, migrant relationship to the household influenced the flow of remittances. 72 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FIVE MIGRATION PROCESSES, CONTACTS AND REMITTANCES EFFECTS ON THE MIGRANT FISHING HOUSEHOLDS (MFH) 5.0 Introduction This chapter addresses the following objectives: the migration processes and contact, and the role of remittances on migrant households.In order to better appreciate and understand the role of remittances in migrant households, it is very important to identify some aspects of migration processes and contacts. This chapter has been divided into the following sections: 5.1 Migration decision-making processes within MFH There are several reasons that motivate an individual or person to migrate and studies have shown that migration decision making processes are based on two levels: the individual level and the household level (Massey et., 1993). From the respondents, the whole process of migration traverses from the individual to the headship of the household and due to the nature of household activities. especially fishing, more males than females are often chosen to travel. However, women are chosen to assist in the welfare business of migrants at destination areas. From table 5.1.1, more than half (60.1%) of the total respondents of the study alluded that people‟s decision to migrate was made by both the migrants and their household members. Close to a third (29.9%) of the respondents agreed to personal decision making whilst the rest of the decision-making processes were less than 10 percent. This implies that the majority of the respondents in the study area consider decisions that are related to migration as dependent on the migrants and their households. One household head had this to say: 73 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Some of the migrants in this household initiated their own decision to move but the return migrants here support them by giving them advice. Some household members can refuse a family member‟s approval to migrate and they have the power to choose a household member who is deemed fit to survive in other destinations apart from the th district (Household Head,Prampram,5 July, 2019) Another had this to say: In this community, anyone who has the resources and wants to migrate, we support that individual. We sometimes give them money and food items to help them on their journey because the outcome of their migration will be beneficial to their household th and even the migrant themselves. (Chief fisherman,Ningo,5 July,2019). The assertion by the respondents as captured in the statements above that decision to migrate depends on both individual and the household was also depicted in the case study below Box 1: Case 1: Narration of migration processes in the household heads A 45 year-old fisherman and a household head in Ningo narrated that migration decision-making processes were done at the individual and the household level.According to this man, anyone who wants to migrate first has to consult the wife, that is if the individual is married, but if he is not married he consults the household head about his intention to migrate.The household head, in consultation with other elders or members of the household, discusses and analyses the cost and benefits of the individual‟s migration intention to travel to other areas. Upon consultation and deliberations, a decision is made for the individual to move depending on the number of benefits that the household will derive from the whole process of migration. However, at times, there is a little misunderstanding on destination areas chosen by the household and where the individual wants to move to but at the end of the day the final decision to move rests on the individual though. This finding supports the view that migration is dependent on the individual as he or she is seen as rational maximising opportunities (Lee, 1966) and households are seen as a single entity or unit responsible for household migration decision making as a form to diversify household risk and income as well as the whole processes of migration is seen as insurance, hence, the most profitable how member is selected to migrate (Stack, 1991). 74 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table: 5.1.1 Migration Decision making in migrant fishing households Migration decision Frequency (n=271) Percent (%) Personal Decision 81 29.9 Family/household decision 26 9.6 Both 163 60.1 Others 1 0.4 Total 271 100.0 Source: Field Survey, 2019 5.2 Destination areas of the out-migrants. Destinations of migrants were explored and the result is shown in Table 5.1.2. The result indicates that close to half (48.0%) of the respondents were of the view that migrants were in the Western Region of Ghana. A little over one-fifth (20.7%) of the migrants preferred the Volta Region as their destination area. Again, more than ten percent (11.4%) of the migrants migrated to the Central Region. A lower proportion (9.6%, 6.6%, 3.0%, 3.0 % and 0.7%) was recorded for Others, Greater Accra, Eastern and Region not stated respectively. The high incidence of migration to the western part of Ghana by community fisher folks is due to the geography as well the climatic conditions of the destination areas, which provide a high presence of fish and enabling sites for boat landing. This was re-echoed during an in-depth interview when one household head stated that: The nature of our work is driven by the presence of fish and to ensure that your family is secure and fed throughout the year, we move to Takoradi and Axim and sometimes go as far as Senegal and Guinea because of fish abundance in these places and I, for instance, spent 1 to 3 years in Dakar fishing, and sent some money before coming. th (Household Head,Ningo,5 July, 2019). Another had this to say: Oh yeah! For fishing, we don‟t have one place that we fish. We are influenced by the movement of fish and as a result of that, we have a lot of our household members who have lived in Keta, Lome, and Benin for more than three years now….even though they sometimes complain via phone calls and returned migrants that fishing businesses had fallen in their destination areas, they still believe that their current 75 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh location is better than this place in terms of conditions for fishing (Household th head,Prampram, 5 July,2019) Table 5.1.2: Destinations of the out-migrantss Region Frequency(n=271) Percent (%) Greater Accra 18 6.6 Central 31 11.4 Volta 56 20.7 Eastern 8 3.0 Western 130 48.0 Others 26 9.6 Region not stated 2 0.7 Total 271 100.0 Source: Field Survey, 2019 5.3 Household contact with the out-migrant Some studies (Chort et al., 2012; Mohapatra & Ratha, 2011; Chêne, 2008) have asserted that migrants maintain contact with their households and left behind family members as well their community as a whole. Migration contacts and networks are the key determinants for the flow of remittances and community development. For this reason, information on households contacts with their migrants was explored and results shown in table 5.1.3. From the table, an overwhelming majority (96.7%) of the respondents were of the view that, migrantsmaintained contact with their left-behind family and community members. Few (3.3%) of the respondents were of the view that their household did not have any contact with their migrants. The implication is that most household members consider their contact with migrant fishers as a way of augmenting their household livelihood strategy as well as diversifying household income. This could be attributed to the unpredictable economic conditions in the district. As captured in this quotation from Nene Lartey, Household heads 76 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh focus group participant supported the view that migrant maintains contact with left-behind family members: In my household, we do hear from our people who have traveled and staying in other places through phone calls. They sometimes also visit. They sometimes send us money as a gift and some for paying off our electricity bills. This makes it easier for th us to get extra money to satisfy other household needs (Household head,Prampram,5 July2019) Table 5.1.3: Household contact with migrants Variable Frequency Percent Yes 262 96.7 No 9 3.3 Total 271 100.0 Source: Field Survey, 2019 5.4 Ways in which Households maintain contact with migrants In order to ascertain the means by which households maintain contact with their migrants, information was gathered and results presented in table 5.1.4. From the table, close to two- fifth (39.9%) of the respondents alluded that households maintained contacts with out- migrants through visits. More than a third (36.2%) asserted that they contacted their migrants through phone calls. A little over one-fifth (21.8%) maintained that they also contacted their migrants through Returnees. Less than five (5) percent of the respondents stated that they used other ways to contact their migrants. This implies that most of the migrants in the households contact their family members by visiting them and this could be attributed to the yearly fish festival held in the community. Also, it could be associated with the loss of household member which demands that members from far and near come home. However, technological advancement in telecommunication has made it possible for people in the community to contact out-migrants through the use of transnational facilitators such as the 77 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh mobile/phone calls. The following statement was shared during a focus group discussion held for male household heads: As people migrate from our house to other coastal fishing communities for opportunities to increase household income, it is always important for us household members to maintain contact with them, and this enables us to know their welfare and also to know whether they are making progress….These acts are done by their frequency visit to the household and those with some level of income who have access to mobile through calling us from time to time…… some also contact us th through return migrants (Female household head,Ningo,5 July,2019) Another has a different view in the same focus group discussion It is not always true that people maintain contact with their household when they travel….my own brother who was a fisherman in this community before migrating has been away for the past thirteen years now…He does not visit nor call because according to one returnee, he believes that the household members will bewitch him when he comes to visit or even call household members about their welfare. This is very worrying for somebody who was raised in this community to have such an th unrealistic idea about where he comes from (Male household head,Prampram,5 July,2019) Table 5.1.4 Ways in which Households maintain contact with migrants Variables Frequency(n=271) Percent (%) Through visit 108 39.9 Phone/mobile calls 98 36.2 Returnees 59 21.8 Others 6 2.2 Total 271 100.0 Source: Field Survey, 2019 78 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5.5 Frequency of the out-migrants’ contact with Migrant Fishing Household In a ranked order, respondents of the study were of the view that, the period in which migrant fishers maintain contact with their household and community are Quarterly (35.4%), Yearly (32.1%), Weekly (20.0%), and Monthly (10.7%) and Don‟t remember (11.5%). The implication is that most migrants prefer to stay off contact with left-behind members until they have enough money to send home. This could be attributed to the long hours in fishing and stay at the destination area. This is what one Chief fisherman in Ningo has to stay: Some people like to call their family members from time to time but the majority of the fishers would like to have enough money before contacting home and they do that because they don‟t want a situation where household members will demand th something and they have no cash to support (Chief fisherman, Ningo,5 July,2019) Table 5.1.5: Frequency of migrant fishers’ contact with household Period Frequency(n=271) Percent (%) Weekly 55 20.3 Monthly 29 10.7 Quarterly 96 35.4 Yearly 87 32.1 Don‟t remember 4 1.5 Total 271 100.0 Source: Field Survey, 2019 5.6 Pull factors attracting migrants to destination areas The motivating factors serving as pull factors for out-migration from the study included fishing employment opportunities, good fishing economy, fulfilling tradition, new technologies of fishing and others. Based on the percentage shown from table 5.1.6, the most significant pull factors in a ranked order are good fishing economy (26.3%), Fishing employment opportunities ( 24.6%), Fulfilling tradition ( 21.18%), New technologies of 79 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh fishing ( 15.7%) and other ( 11.6%). The higher proportion of respondents who were of the view that a good fishing economy pulls migrant fishers from the community could be attributed to the disparity in price in terms of fish harvest as well as the low cost of production and good local government policies favouring fishers at the destination centres. The following were expressed on pull factors attracting migrants by respondents: Fishers in this community migrate elsewhere to fish because there are high returns for their money and cost of production is relatively cheaper if you compare it to this place. We easily sell fish faster in Takoradi than here since most fishmongers like th buying fish on credit because they know us. (Chief fisherman, Prampram,5 July,2019) My brother and the son migrated to Keta and its surrounding communities to fish because there is a job for fishing and people from all walks of life go there to trade and because of that they are able to sell their fish quick and make money faster and th easier (Household Head,Prampram,5 July 2019). This finding is consistent with the push-pull model of migration as asserted by Lee (1966) and De Haas(2008) that people move to areas where they can fully maximise opportunities and improve their household income. Table: 5.1.6 Pull factors attracting migrants to other areas Response (n=271) Pull factors N Percent (%) Fishing employment opportunities 243 24.6 Good fishing economy 260 26.3 Fulfilling tradition 215 21.8 New techniques of fishing 155 15.7 Others 115 11.6 Source: Fieldwork, 2019 **Multiple responses 80 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5.7 Employment status of migrants before migrating. Data on migrant employment status were explored and results shown in table 5.1.7. From the table, the majority (98.5%) of respondents of the study were of the view that migrant fishers were employed before migrating. Less than 10 percent of the respondents mentioned that migrant fishers were not actively engaged in any form of occupation. This implies that migrants move due to poor fishing conditions, low prices for their catch and high cost of fishing in the community compared to elsewhere Table: 5.1.7 Employment status of the out-migrants before migrating Variable Frequency(n=271) Percent (%) Yes 267 98.5 No 4 1.5 Total 271 100.0 Source: Field Survey, 2019 5.8 Kind of employment before migration Migrants were engaged in a number of activities before migrating and these activities or work served as a source of livelihood for them and their households. Even though a number of households were fishing, there were some household members who were engaged in other livelihood activities such as government work and had been transferred to other districts. Table 5.1.8 presents information on the kind of employment before migration. An overwhelming majority (83.0%) of the respondents of study stated that migrant fishers were employed in fishing before migrating. A little over ten percent (11.8) of the respondents were within unpaid family work. The remaining forms of employment were less than 10 percent. This reveals that the high proportion in fishing and its related activities indicates that most community and household members depend on fishing as the greater source of household 81 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh income and livelihood and the reason for people moving could be attributed to fishing opportunities elsewhere. This what one chief fisher had to say: The only job most of us know in this community is fishing and almost all the people who migrated from this community where actively involve fishing as it brings more th money to the family (Chief fisherman, Ningo,5 July,2019) Another had this to say: We do fishing and every member of the family contributes to it since it is the only livelihood we know. Migrant fishers in this household were doing fishing in this th household before migrating to Elimina and other places (Household Head,Ningo,5 July, 2019) Table: 5.1.8 Kind of employment before household fishers migrate Employment Type Frequency(n=271) Percent (%) Fishing 225 83.0 Paid family business 4 1.5 Unpaid family work 32 11.8 Government work 4 1.5 Others 6 2.2 Total 271 100.0 Source: Field Survey, 2019 5.9 Frequency of remittances Remittances are of enormous importance to the household members. The effect of remittance on a community depends on the complex and frequent nature of remittance receipts (Varges- Lundius et al., 2008) as well as allocations. It is in this line that respondents‟ views on the subject were derived from the field. Table 5.1.9 shows that more than two-fifth (42.1%) of the respondents received remittances on a monthly basis. More than a third (36.5%) of the respondents received remittance yearly while 14.8 percent received remittances on a weekly basis. Those who received remittance 82 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh on a daily and others just recorded 5.2 and 0.7 percent respectively. This observation is consistent with SSRC Forum Report (2012), which posited that the receipts of internal remittances are more frequent as households need it to pay for household bills, undertake household projects and among others. The general implication is that the majority of the Household members depend on remittance for household income whilst others receive it to supplement their household finance. This was confirmed by Narh, a household head in Prampram: I normally receive money from my brother and his son who are residing in Komenda almost every month to help in his building project and I sometimes use some for my own personal things. They are not the only people who send us money in this house, my son in Axim usually gives me money at the end of every year as a gift and am retired too. Another had this to say: Honestly speaking, we receive most of our income from family members who are living outside this district, sometimes on a monthly or weekly basis, depending on how the market goes for them at their destination since fishing is a very difficult and th unpredictable job (Naa Ayaley, household head,5 ,July, 2019) Table 5.1.9: Frequency of remittances Period Frequency(n=271) Percent (%) Daily 14 5.2 Weekly 40 14.8 Monthly 114 42.1 Yearly 99 36.5 Others 2 0.7 Total 271 100.0 Source: Field Survey, 2019 83 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5.10 Ways of cash remittances transfer by out-migrants Cash remittance can be sent through various channels such as the banks, mobile money outlets, from returnees and among others. In order to verify these claims, data questions on ways in which household members received cash from their migrants were asked and information gathered was presented in table 5.2.1. Close to half (48.3%) of the respondents of the study asserted that they received cash remittances from their migrants through Returnees. More than two-fifth (48.3%) of the respondents mentioned mobile money outlets as the channel through which they received money from their migrants. Again, less than ten (10) percent of the respondents stated Banks and others as ways migrants send cash. The general implication for this is that, even though there is the presence banks in the district, most households prefer to receive money through Returnees and mobile money outlets. The reason could be attributed to the cumbersome nature of proceeding sent cash to a household member. What this means is that through returnees and mobile money outlets, households could receive cash at any time. These statements were made during a focus group discussions with chief fishermen: Apart from clothes and foodstuffs that we normally receive from our people outside the community, we also receive money too from them through several channels. It always best to get your money from people how have returned from where our people are because I see that as safe since there are no charges on the money like the way the rural bank and the mobile money people do and besides the one bringing too is from this community and sometimes knows the urgent mission of the cash (chief th fisherman, Prampram 5 July,2019) Another had a different opinion: Oh yes, we receive a lot of money from our people in this community to undertake projects, chop money, pay school fees and electricity bill but the challenges we face is that at times money given to returnees never reaches its destination.Some spend it on their home and others report that the monies are stolen….. I think to me the safest place to receive money is the money irrespective of the “wahala” we go through......because the stories with regard to money sent via returnees are becoming th money (Chief fisherman, Prampram,5 July2019) 84 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 5.2.1 Medium of transferring cash remittance by out-migrants to receiving households Variables Frequency(n=271) Percent (%) Banks 20 7.4 Mobile money outlet 111 41.0 From returnees 131 48.3 Others 9 3.3 Total 271 100.0 Source: Field Survey, 2019 5.11 Cash amount sent by migrants From table 5.2.2, more than a half (53.1%) of the respondents of the study received cash remittances between 100-400 Ghana cedis. Close to a third 33.2% of the respondents received between 500-800 cedis while less than 20 percent of the respondents were within the cash range 900-1400+. The overall implication for this is that the majority of the respondents received a small amount from their family members (100-400 Ghana cedis), which is equivalent to 18 to 75 US dollars. This could be attributed to the ever-present needs of the households in trying to satisfy the demand of each individual household member. This view was confirmed in a focus group discussion for household Heads in Ningo. Tettey, for instance, mentioned that: We receive money from our brothers who are fishing elsewhere apart from this community. The monies are not big enough to do other things aside using it to buy food and paying medical bills Another also had this to say in a focus group discussion: I often get money from my sons who are employed by my friend in Axim and to be honest, they tell me that things are hard these days so they normally send me 200 Ghana cedis for my upkeep since am retired and wife is no more. (Household th head,Ningo,5 July 2019) 85 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh This finding confirms the assertion by Teye et al. (2017) that the quantum of internal remittances is relatively low but its frequencies are high. Table 5.2.2: Cash Amount sent by Migrants Amount range(₵) Frequency(n=271) Percent (%) 100-400 144 53.1 500-800 90 33.2 900-1400 30 11.1 1400+ 7 2.6 Total 271 100.0 Source: Field Survey, 2019 5.12 Other types of items received by households at the origin Studies have shown that migrants remit to their household not only cash but also non- monetary items like food items, clothes, skills and ideas learnt from their destination areas. These items come through various means or channels such as from Returnees, post box, through transport and the migrant when he or she visits home. In table 5.1.3, a little over half (52.8%) of the respondents were of the view that they received unprocessed foodstuffs from migrant fishers. More than one-fifth (22.9%) of the respondents mentioned that apart from cash remittances, they also received new ideas of fishing from returned migrants, aand about 10.8 percent received clothing items whilst less than percent constituted others (8.1%) and don‟t remember (5.9%). This implies that the majority of the respondents ascertained that inasmuch as they received cash, they also received social and kind remittances in addition. This confirms Mazzucato‟s (2009) and Levitt‟s (1998) study in Ghana, which expound that migrants remit non-cash items which come in the form of material items and skills learnt from the destination areas. This assertion was also confirmed in a focus group discussion conducted for household heads in Prampram: 86 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh We do receive money from migrants in this community but apart from the money we also get foodstuffs from them too….During festive periods, husbands and sons who are elsewhere fishing do sometimes buy dresses and clothes for their wives and th children when they return(Household head,5 July,2019) Another also had this to say in a focus group discussion. Money is not the only thing migrants send us but they have skills which they have taught us from the places they are fishing now. We appreciate these skills because they have given us new ways of doing things, which is a little better than what we know in this community and this has increased our yields in a way. (Household th head,5 July,2019) Table 5.2.3: Type of items received Items Frequency(n=271) Percent (%) Clothing 28 10.3 Unprocessed foodstuffs 143 52.8 New ideas for fishing 62 22.9 Others 22 8.1 Don‟t remember 16 5.9 Total 271 100.0 Source: Field Survey, 2019 5.13 Usage of remittance In Ghana, internal remittances over the years have received a little more attention as compared to international remittances (Castaldo, Deshingkar & Mckay, 2012). These internal remittances help in raising the living standard of left-behind household members as well as narrowing the gap between the rich and poor communities (Asante, 1995). This assertion is most withdrawn from the usage of remittances sent by migrants either in the form of cash or goods (Castaldo et al., 2012). From table 5.3.2, the most important uses of remittances in a ranked order are consumption of food(14.4%),payingofutilities(13.3%),Business(12.8%)Education(12.7%),fishingactivities(12 87 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh .1%),Housing ( 9.0%), Self-help Project (8.0%), social event (6.9%), Gift, Present and other transfer (6.0%) and other expenditure ( 4.7%). The implication is that remittances received are basically used for household consumption of food and payment of utilities such as hospital bills and electricity among others. This finding is consistent with the World Bank Report (2005), which concluded that receipts of remittances are consumed by household needs such as food, utilities as well as investment in the education of children and household members. The following views were expressed on the usage of remittances by respondents: We normally look forward to my son who lives in Winneba to send us some money to help in paying school fees for his children and most importantly to pay our light bills, th as you can see am old and cannot fish anymore. (Household head,Ningo,5 July,2019) I receive money from my husband who is currently staying and fishing in Moree. Even though he is not around, the monies he sends through his friends who return home is sometimes used for buying food. The household and I use some to buy drugs th for myself and children (Female Household in Prampram,5 July,2019) The result of the study contradicts that of Taylor et al.‟s (2003) views that loss of output from fishing and its related activities due to decline in labour availability as a result of out- migration is usually complemented for wholly or partially by remittances from migrants which are used to purchase fishing inputs or hired labour for fishing. 88 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 5.2.4: Household Usage of remittance Responses( n=271) Usage of remittance N Percent (%) Consumption of Food 261 14.4 Housing 163 9.0 Education 230 12.7 Fishing activities 220 12.1 Utilities 241 13.3 Social Event 125 6.9 Self-help Project 145 8.0 Gifts Presents and other transfer 109 6.0 Business 232 12.8 Other Expenditure 85 4.7 Source: Field survey, 2019. ** Multiple responses 5.14 Percentage distribution of usage of remittance by sex of recipients of remittances Table 5.2.5 shows the relationship between sex of recipients of remittances and the usage of remittances derived from migration by households. In terms of usage of remittances on consumption of food, housing, education, fishing activities, utilities, social events, Self-help projects, gift presents and other expenditure, both sexes were unanimous but was higher (98.9%, 65.3%, 90.5% 86.3%, 91.6% 48.4%, 58.9%, 44.2% and 40.0%) among males than their female ( 96.5%, 58.4%,83.2%, 79.8%, 89.0%, 45.7%, 51.4 % 38.7% and 27.2%) counterparts respectively. This reveals that, a greater proportion of male respondent‟s view that, receipts of remittances gave them an extra-income in performing their roles as breadwinners, socially constructed by their communities, even though a greater proportion of remittances were received by their female counterparts for familial purposes. This. However, there is significance association (χ2=4.511, df=1, P=0.027 and χ2=3.916, df=1, P=0.033) between sex of recipient of remittances and remittances usage on business and other 89 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh expenditure respectively as shown in table 5.2.5. The overall implication is that females are more likely to invest their received monies into lucrative household businesses as well as use some on other household needs that are deemed necessary for the household. The following views were shared by a 56 year-old female household head and a 45 year-old male household head in Prampram respectively: My children in Keta send money to me often and I sometimes put part of the money in my clothing business, especially during the lean season when fish production is low in this community. I have even used their money to buy land faor all my three sons. Our two children in Takoradi send money but not on a regular basis and when they do send, it‟s their mum who normally receives it but she can‟t use it without my concern since the boys are also my children and aside from that, it is my boat they are using in fishing Table 5.2.5: Percentage distribution of usage of remittances by sex of the recipient. Response(n=271) Usage of remittances Male Female Total χ2 test Consumption of food 94(98.9%) 167(96.5%) 261(97.4%) χ2=0.660,df= 1, p=0.519 Housing 62(65.3%) 101(58.4%) 163(60.8%) χ2=1.033,df= 2, p=0.416 Education 86(90.5%) 144(83.2%) 230(85.8%) χ2=0.995,df= 1, p=0.207 Fishing activities 82(86.3%) 138(79.8%) 220(82.1%) χ2=2.705,df= 2, P=0.223 Utilities 87(91.6%) 154(89.0%) 241(89.9%) χ2=1.801,df= 2, P=0.355 Social event 46(48.4%) 79(45.7%) 125(46.6%) χ2=0.041,df= 1, P=0.470 Self-help Project 56(58.9%) 89(51.4%) 145(54.1%) χ2=0.816,df= 1, P=0.219 Gift Presents and other transfers 42(44.2%) 67(38.7%) 109(40.7%) χ2=0.444,df= 1, P=0.295 Business 78(82.1%) 154(89.0%) 232(86.6%) χ2=4.511,df= 1, P=0.027(sig) Other expenditure 38(40.0%) 47(27.2%) 85(31.7%) χ2=3.916,df= 1, P=0.033(Sig) Source: Field survey, 2019 **Multiple responses possible 90 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5.15 Percent of the frequency of remittances received by Sex of out-migrants The relationship between the frequency of remittances and sex of out-migrants was collected and information presented in table 5.3.4. With regard to the male population, receipt of remittances monthly and yearly had a greater percentage followed by weekly. Daily and other forms of receipt were less than 10 percent within the same population. Also, in terms of the female population, a similar outcome was observed. The overall implication is that male migrants from the household tend to remit more frequently than their female counterparts from the households. The reason could be attributed to that fact that jobs are readily available for men than females in most of the destination areas. Also, males remit more to the household to undertake projects such as building, and investment into other businesses like farming. The chi-square result from the table 5.3.4 also shows that there is no statistical association (χ2 = 4.343, df = 5 and p-value = 0.661 0.05) between the frequency of remittances and the sex of remitters.Therefore, irrespective of the sex of the remitter, remittance(s) can be received by household members at any time. This is what one of the respondents had to say in an in-depth interview: I receive money from my two sons working as fishermen in Half-Assini and my daughter who is now a teacher in Koforidua…..My sons send me more money almost th every two weeks than their sister(Household head,Ningo,5 July,2019) One also had this to say: In this household, we are blessed to have migrants who care about the welfare of household members unlike other households and for this reason, we receive a lot of money from migrants for various purposes….on an average I would say males send us more money in this household because there are opportunities for men when they travel outside this community to fish in other coastal towns and mostly the women who send remittance are few because they find it to secure jobs and even female who send, send it as gift which in most cases are very small. (Household th head,Prampram,5 July,2019) 91 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The outcome of the study contradicts some evidence that migrant women remit more of their income to their left-behind family members than men (Chant and Radcliffe, 1992; Curran and Saguy, 2001; Tacoli, 1999). Table 5.2.6: Percentage distribution of frequency on household remittance received by sex Sex of migrant Frequency of remittances Male Female Total Daily 11(5.1%) 3(5.3%) 14(5.2%) Weekly 34(15.9%) 6(10.5%) 40(14.8%) Monthly 84(39.3%) 30(52.6%) 114(42.1%) Yearly 81(37.9%) 18(31.6%) 99(36.5%) Others 2(0.9%) 0(0.0%) 2(0.7%) Not stated 2(0.9%) 0(0.0%) 2(0.7%) Total 214(100.0%) 57(100.0%) 271(100.0%) (χ2 = 4.343, df = 5 and p-value = 0.661 0.05) Source: Field Survey, 2019 5.16 Percentage distribution of Occupation of migrants with the amount sent to the household Occupation of remitters from the households by respondents and the amount of money sent were recorded in order to find out whether one‟s kind of work has any effect on the amount of money sent to migrant households. Table 5.3.5 indicates that with regard to 100-400 Ghana cedis as the amount sent, an overwhelming majority (88.9%) were fishers. However, a similar outcome was obtained for an amount ranging from 500-800 Ghana cedis. Furthermore, those who sent higher amounts between 100-800 Ghana cedis, 100-400 Ghana cedis were three times more(88.9%-85.6%) 92 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh compared to those who sent 500-800 Ghana cedis and their occupation is fishing. A subsequent observation from table 5.3.5 also shows that higher amounts ranging from 900- 1400 Ghana cedis and 1400 Ghana cedis and more saw a similar outcome. Also, from the table, there is no statistical relationship (χ2 = 18.684, df = 15 and p-value = 0.160 0.05) between the occupation of remitters and amounts sent to their households. Hence, regardless of one‟s work, one can send any amount to their family members. The general implication of the results reveals that left-behind household members survive due to fishing and its related activities of their migrant members residing in other fishing destinations. One household head in Prampram had this to share in that regard: Please in this community fishing is everything, though other works can be done…. to survive you need to have a relative or household member who is a fisher and lives in other fishing communities apart from where we stay in order to survive. Table 5.2.7: Occupation of out-migrants with the amount sent to migrant fishing households Occupation of Cash remittances sent(₵) migrants 100-400 500-800 900-1400 1400+ Total Farming 1(0.7%) 6(6.7%) 0(0.0%) 1(14.3%) 8(3.0%) Trading 10(6.9%) 5(5.6%) 2(6.7%) 0(0.0%) 17(6.3%) Teaching 3(2.1%) 2(2.2%) 0(0.0%) 1(14.3%) 6(2.2%) Fishing 128(88.9%) 77(85.6%) 28(93.3%) 5(71.4%) 238(87.8%) Artisan 1(0.7%) 0(0.0%) 0(0.0%) 0(0.0%) 1((0.4%) Others 1(0.7%) 0. (0.0%) 0(0.0%) 0(0.0%) 1(0.4%) Total 144(100.0%) 90(100.0%) 30(100.0%) 7(100.0%) 271(100.0%) (χ2 = 18.684, df = 15 and p-value = 0.160 0.05) Source: Field Survey, 2019 93 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5.17 Percentage distribution of cash remittance sent by marital status of remitters Amounts sent by migrants and their marital status were obtained to know whether one‟s marital status has any effect on the amount of cash sent. Table 5.2.8 shows that in terms of never married, more than a half (52.0%) of the respondents were of the view that migrants sent amounts ranging from 100-400 Ghana Cedis, followed by amounts from 500- 800(33.7%) Ghana Cedis and less than 20 percent of the Never married migrants sent higher amounts from 900 Ghana Cedis and above. Furthermore, married, divorced, separated and consensual union all saw similar outcomes but in terms of higher amounts from 900 Ghana cedis and more, married remitters were more (16.8%) than migrants who were Never married and Consensual union. The general implication of the results is that married migrants sent more money as compared to the other marital status. This could be attributed to the demands placed on males as the providers of the household income socially constructed by the traditional norms of the district.Hence there is the need for them to remit more and higher amounts of their gained income at the destination centres to ensure the smooth running of their households and continuous upkeep of their left-behind family members. A subsequent observation from table 5.3.6 also reveals that there is no significance association (χ2 = 7.806, df = 12 and p-value = 0.145 0.05) between amount of cash sent and marital status of remitters. Thus, regardless of the marital status of a remitter, he or she can send any amount deemed necessary. 94 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 5.2.8: Cash remittances sent by marital status of remitters Marital status of remitters Cash Remittances Never Consensual Sent(₵) married Married Divorced Separated Union Total 100-400 51(52.0%) 52(48.6%) 9(64.3%) 2(40.0%) 30(63.8%) 144(53.1%) 500-800 33(33.7%) 37(34.6%) 5(35.7%) 3(60.0%) 12(25.5%) 90(33.2%) 900-1400 11(11.2%) 15(14.0%) 0(0.0%) 0(0.0%) 4(8.5%) 30(11.1%) 1400+ 3(3.1%) 3(2.8%) 0(0.0%) 0(0.0%) 1(2.1%) 7(2.6%) Total 98(100.0%) 107(100.0%) 14(100.0%) 5(100.0%) 47(100.0%) 271(100.0%) (χ2 = 7.806, df = 12 and p-value = 0.145 0.05) Source: Field Survey, 2019 5.18 Percentage distribution of amount received by Sex of Recipients of remittance The amount received and sex of Recipients of Remittances were ascertained. With regard to the male population, more than two-fifth (49.0%) of the respondents mentioned 100-400 Ghana cedis as the amount received by recipients of remittances. This was followed by 36.7 percent, who received amounts ranging between 500-800 Ghana Cedis. Those who received a higher amount from 900 Ghana cedis and above were less than 20 percent with regard to the same population. It is worth mentioning that the female population also saw a similar outcome. However, those who received amounts ranging from 900 Ghana Cedis and above were less than 10 percent of the female population. received The overall implication as observed from the table is that, in terms of higher amount received, males were more than their female counterparts. However, the results show no statistical relationship (χ2 = 3.193, df = 3 and p-value = 0.609 0.05) between one's sex and the amount receivedHence, irrespective of one‟s sex, one is likely to receive any amount being sent by an out-migrant of the household 95 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 5.2.9: Amount received by sex of recipient of remittances. Sex of recipient of remittances Amount received(₵) Male Female Total 100-400 48(49.0%) 96(55.5%) 144(53.1%) 500-800 36(36.7%) 54(31.2%) 90(33.2%) 900-1400 13(13.3%) 17(9.8%) 30(11.1%) 1400+ 1(1.0%) 6(3.5%) 7(2.6%) Total 98(100.0%) 173(100.0%) 271(100.0) (χ2 = 3.193, df = 3 and p-value = 0.609 0.05) Source: Field Survey, 2019 5.19 Percentage distribution of amounts received by the number of household members (composition) Table 5.3.1 shows the relationship between amounts received by the number of household members. With regard to (1-4) household members, close to three-quarters (72.9%) received a cash amount between 100-400 Ghana cedis. A quarter (25.0%) also received an amount between 500-800 Ghana cedis. Less than five (5) percent of the respondents asserted that households with members ranging from 1 to 4 persons received higher amounts between 900 and 1400 Ghana cedis and above. Also, a household with members consisting of 5-8, 9-12, 13-16, and 17-20 recorded a similar outcome but in terms of high amounts, 13-16 household members were more.A subsequent observation from the table also indicated that there is a significant relationship (χ2 = 49.782, df = 12 and p-value = 0.00 0.05) between the amount received and the number of household composition. One household had this to share: In his household, we are many, roughly seventeen and we have a number of school- going children here too. A lot of people in this household want their demands to be satisfied, especially the aged…….our migrants know the condition of the household and because of that send more on a regular basis to satisfy some needs of household th members (Household in Ningo,5 July,2019) 96 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh This study confirms works done by Sena and Massey (2005) in Mexico, which expounded that the large size of a family and household members had more influence on household receipts of remittances as migrants frequently remit back to cater for the welfare of household members Table 5.3.1Amounts received by number of household members Response (n=271) Categorical number of household members Amount 1-4 5-8 9-12 13-16 17-20 Total received 100-400 35(72.9) 67(59.3%) 29(40.8%) 11(44.0%) 2(14.3%) 144(53.1%) 500-800 12(25.0%) 39(34.5%) 25(35.2%) 6(24.0%) 8(57.1%) 90(33.2%) 900-1400 1(2.1%) 6(5.3%) 11(15.5%) 8(32.0%) 4(28.6%) 30(11.1%) 1400+ 0(0.0%) 1(0.9%) 6(8.5%) 0(0.0%) 0(0.0%) 7(2.6%) Total 48 113 71 25 14 271 (17.7%) (41.7%) (26.2) (9.2%) (5.2%) (100.0%) (χ2 = 49.782, df = 12 and p-value = 0.00 0.05) Source: Field Survey, 2019 5.20 Household Assistance to Out-Migrants Studies have revealed that out-migration is for the migrants to remit back to their households and left-behind family members in the origin in order to supplement household income and livelihood strategies (Nguyen, Raabe & Grote, 2015; Groger & Zylberberg, 2016). However, this study shows that households in the district tend to support migrants in their destination centres too. 97 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 5.3.2 presented data on household assistance to migrants. More than a half (54.6%) of the total respondents assisted migrants from their households with childcare. This was followed by prayers (30.6%). The remaining assistances provided by the respondents to their migrants from the district were less than 10 percent. This indicates that the majority of the respondents considered childcare and Prayers offered for migrants as the most significant support they provided for migrants from their households. This could be attributed to the geographical nature of the destinations as well as the risk involved in fishing and the importance value placed on children in the community. Nene Lartei, a chief fisherman, expressed his view thus: In this community, we send our members to other coastal areas purposely to fish since it is the only job we know and those who have kids are taken care of by household members. Traditionally, everybody‟s child belongs to all household members and the th community at large ( chief fisherman,Ningo,5 July,2019) This finding is consistent with Mazzucato‟s (2009) study on return and kind of remittances sent by Ghanaian migrants. According to the study, left-behind family members do remit back to household migrants in the form of Prayers offered and goods sent (food items). Table 5.3.2: Households’ assistance to migrants Variable Frequency Percent (%) Foodstuffs 6 2.2 Prepared food items 13 4.8 Money for transport( Returnee) 20 7.4 Childcare 148 54.6 Prayer 83 30.6 Don‟t remember 1 0.4 Total 271 100.0 Source: Field Survey, 2019 98 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5.21 Effects of remittances on households According to Taylor (1999) and Kangmennaang et al. (2018,) remittances have significant effects on households which could be positive or negative. It is in this vein that the study gathered information and results presented in table 5.3.3.From the table, the most significant effects of remittance in a ranked order are improved standard of living (20.9%), migration culture(20.1%), remittances dependence(19.8%), others(19.8%) and high inflationary price (19.5%) on goods and services. The general implication is that, with regard to the positive effects of remittances received, there has been an improvement in the household standard of living by reducing or eradicating poverty and inequality. The reason could be the increasing purchase power of household members in accessing goods and services. However, with regard to the negative effects, respondents mentioned that a number of people want to migrate because of the high returns it comes with and this in the long term, has the tendency to decrease household labour when people move, especially the young and energetic ones in the households. This finding confirms the assertion by Koc and Onan (2001), who noted positive impact of remittance in alleviating poverty in migrant households in Turkey. The following statements were made during the focus group discussion with household heads: It is not a big news when a member of the household receives money from migrants as compared to the olden days where one rarely receive money and other stuff from migrants, this is because almost every weekend a son, a brother or auntie sends money for food, utilities, and other things. In fact, this has made life a little comfortable for my household members even though the current economic condition in this community is a little harsh…..on average we are far better than other households in th this community (household head,Ningo,5 July,2019) Another also expressed a different view: The inflow of remittance in our household has turned the household into a cemetery. This is because everybody wants to travel so as to make enough money and come back….this has resulted in a shortage of household labour to other destination areas. Also, prices of goods and service had also increased especially land and other fishing equipments. as for us, we can afford to buy some of the fishing tools but what of those houses that have migrants or migrants refuse to send money….is just by th grace.(Household head,Ningo,5 ,July,2019) 99 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 5.3.3: Effects of remittances on households Effects of remittances on Responses(n=271) households N Percent (%) Migration culture 183 20.1 Improved standard of living 190 20.9 Remittance dependence 180 19.8 High inflationary price 178 19.5 Others 180 19.8 Source: Field Survey, 2019 **Multiple responses 5.22 Percentage of remittance effects by the sex of household heads Effects of remittances on households and sex of household heads were explored to ascertain whether gender had any impact on the effects of remittance on the household and community as a whole. Information gathered was presented in table 5.3.4. With respect to the male population, a little over one-fifth of the respondents mentioned the improved standard of living as the effect that remittance had on their households, followed by high inflationary price (20.2%). Less than one-fourth of the male household heads asserted that remittances received led to over-dependence on remittances and migration culture among other. With regard to the female population, a similar outcome was observed for remittance effect on the improved standard of living (20.9%) just as their male counterparts. A little over one-fifth (20.4%) of the female respondents mentioned migration culture as the effect that migration created in the households, followed by Other effects of remittance. Less than twenty (20) percent of the female population posited high inflationary price and over- dependence on remittance.Again, subsequent observation from the table shows that there is no statistical relationship between the effects of remittances and sex of household heads. The overall implication is that irrespective of the sex of the household heads, the effects of remittances remain unchanged.This finding contradicts an assertion by Orozco (2005) in 100 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh southeast Asia, where female recipients of remittances had a significant effect on the households in terms of improved ways of life and decline in household poverty. Table 5.3.4: Percentage of remittances effects by the sex of household heads Effects of remittance on household Sex of household head Male Female χ2 90(19.7%) 93(20.4%) χ2=2.340,df=1, Migration culture p=0.081 Improved standard of 95(20.8%) 95(20.9%) χ2=2.833,df=2, living p=0.590 Remittance over 91(20.0%) 89(19.6%) χ2=0.730,df=1, dependence p=0.234 High inflationary price 92(20.2%) 86(18.9%) χ2=0.106,df=1, p=0.422 88(19.3%) 92(20.2%) χ2=4.075,df=2, Others p=0.107 Source: Field Survey, 2019 **Multiple responses 5.23 Summary This chapter used the findings from the study to explain migration processes and the impacts of remittances on households. According to the respondents of the study, migration decision- making processes are collectively done both by the individual and the household members. Also, the findings indicated that among the pull factors of out-migration, good fishing conditions elsewhere was the most important determinant for people‟s movement. Moreover, households‟ contact with migrants was very significant in the study as it served as a means through which remittances were received. It was observed that the sex of a migrant did not have any effect on cash remittances received. However, there was a significant difference between cash remittances and the number of household members. With regard to 101 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh the effects of remittance on the household, the majority of the respondents mentioned improved standard of living as the positive effect of remittances in alleviating poverty and increasing household purchasing powers. Respondents also asserted that migration culture among household members had increased due to the inflow of remittances. 102 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER SIX EFFECTS OF OUT-MIGRATION ON GENDERED ROLES, FISHING AND ITS RELATED ACTIVITIES 6.0 Introduction This section looks at the following objectives: examining the effects of out-migration on gendered roles, and on fishing and its related activities. The chapter first discusses the roles played by female and male members of the household before migrating and changes in their roles due to migration among others 6.1 Roles played by female migrants before migrating There were several roles that were associated with female household members before they migrated, and these include childbearing, retailers of fish, subordinates of men, caregivers and Others. Based on the observation of the results from the table in a ranked order, the most important role played by women according to the respondents of the study were Child bearer (25%), caregivers (24.7%), retailers of fish (24.6%), subordinate of men (14.4%) and Others (11.3%). The general implication for this connotes women in the households as bearers and givers of children. However, a significant number of the respondents were also of the view that women played a key role in caring for children and their household, and this could be attributed to the caregiving nature of women which is natural or biological. This is what was expressed by one household head: As we all know God has placed women in a position where they are responsible for giving birth with little effort from the men and taking care of the household is something that they learn at a younger age. They cook, wash and bath children especially when they are young and these responsibilities are pass on to female th members of the house from one generation to another(Male household head,Ningo,5 July,2019) 103 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Another has this to say: Some women are barren and have never given birth to any child but as in this community and most households in this area every child belongs to everybody….women take care of the family when it comes to issues of food and health, and they sometimes assist in paying schools fees of children who are not their own. My son, who is in SHS one, is being taken care of by my kid sis who's a trader and ever since I was advised by the doctor not to do any active work because of my th heart condition(Household head,Prampram,5 July,2019) Table 6.1.1 Roles played by female migrants before migrating Response(n=271) Female roles before migration N Percent (%) Child bearer 262 25.0 Retailers of fish 258 24.6 Subordinate of men 151 14.4 Care givers 259 24.7 Others 118 11.3 Source: Field Survey, 2019 **Multiple responses 6.2 Roles played by male migrants before migrating Roles played by male members of the household before migrating were explored and results presented in table 61.2. From the table 6.1.2, the most significant role played by males in the households were breadwinning (22.6%), Protection of the family/household(22.4%), head of the family(22.4%), disciplines children(2l.4%) and Others (11.4%). This reveals that households in the communities and the district as a whole view males as the main providers of household needs and as people whose responsibilities extended to the protection of the household. This is what was asserted by a male household head: 104 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh In this household, there are a lot of responsibilities that are demanded of you as a man. The most basic of them all are we were able to take good care of our family by providing chop monies for daily home foods, paying electricity bills and sometimes maintaining the houses we live in. Apart from your wife and children as tradition demands, you are also expected to provide for other household members as th well(Household head,Prampram,5 July,2019) A female household also had this to say: Not all men in this community provide for their family and do care about the welfare of their wife and kids and the entire extended family but those who do provide for their households are many compared to those who don‟t….providing for your household comes with some level of respect and dignity from people within the th community(Household head,Ningo,5 July,2019) Table 6.1.2 Roles played by male migrants before migrating Response(n=271) Males roles before migration N Percent (%) Breadwinner 263 22.6 Head of the family 259 22.2 Discipline children 249 21.4 Protector of the household/family 261 22.4 Others 133 11.4 Source: Field Survey, 2019 **Multiple responses 6.3 Changes in the female role in the household due to migration Data on female role change were also explored and results shown in table 6.1.3. A majority (70.5%) of the respondents were of the view that female household members assume roles of female migrants when they migrate. Fourteen (14) percent of the respondents of the study also mentioned that male members of the household took up responsibilities of women when they were absent from the households and less than 15 percent of the respondents posited that husbands doubled up their role as both sex or parents and Others. The general implication is that female members of the household assume roles of a migrated female member when she moves. However, in households where the number of females is small and 105 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh in some cases younger, the male member of the household assume the female position. This finding confirms a study by Parrenas (2002) in the Philippines where, in the absence of females due to migration, female members of the household (aunts, oldest daughter and grandmothers) assume some of the roles played by female migrants. These views were shared in a focus group discussion: In our house, women travel a lot either with their husbands or some children and sometimes they spend close to a year and a half doing fishing. Some also go to trade in Togo and Benin come back only when there is an emergency or festival. When they move most at times is my elder sister who normally takes good care of their children th and sometimes cooks for the entire family(Household head,Prampram,5 July,2019) Another also had this to say in the focus group discussion: My wife has traveled to Winneba to assist her brothers in fishing for the past one year now….our eldest daughter who is in JHS 3 is the one who has to assume certain roles that the mum was playing before moving……..But I sometimes help her in cooking th and washing(Household head,Ningo,5 July,2019) Table 6.1.3 Female role changes due to their absence from home Variable Frequency(n=271) Percent (%) Female members of the 191 70.5 household Males members of the 36 13.3 household Husband doubles up roles as 38 14.0 both parents Others 6 2.2 Total 271 100.0 Source: Field Survey, 2019 6.4 Effects of female migration on the household Female household members play a pivotal role in the management of the household, and their absence as a result of migration was observed and the results shown table. From the study, 106 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh about 97.4 percent of the respondents alluded to the fact that female absence had effects on the households. More than half (53.5%) of the respondents of the study mentioned Poor caregiving as one of the effects of the absence of women in their households. A little over one-fifth (22.1%) of the respondents were of the view that out-female migration from the household the community brought about a decrease in the household income. Increase in household savings and investment due to the feminisation of migration was 14 percent. Reduction to childbirth and No reasons given just recorded 8.5% and 1.8% respectively. The findings of the study indicate that care given to children when mother and wife migrate is affected. This implies that the absence of women from their households bring about a decline in childcare and this could be associated with poor and inadequate incentives derived by caregivers as well as behaviours exhibiting irresponsibility on the part of household members. One household head in Ningo had this to share: When men in this community migrate, we believe that their traveling brings us something home but when our women move, there is a big gap that is difficult for anyone to fill in not even their husbands, and this affects especially houses where there are a lot of children. My own sister‟s daughter is being maltreated and not taken care of well and because I am old and not working, I can‟t bring her to stay with me in my single room and this is common and very worrying in a number of homes in this th community(Household head in Ningo,5 July,2019). Another household head made this statement: Traveling and working is good for the household but when people do not find work to do at the destination areas, it becomes impossible for them to send money home and this is what is happening in my household. Many of our female migrants are not working and honestly speaking, it is very difficult to raise a child without money and home income has dropped due to a decline in fishing businesses…at times family caregivers are less motivated and frustrated and gradually decline their services (Household head in Prampram, 2019). 107 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 6.1.4 Effects of female migration on households Ways Frequency(271) Percent (%) Poor caregiving to children 145 53.5 Reduction to the number of 23 8.5 children given birth to A decrease in household 60 22.1 income Increase in household savings 38 14.0 and investment No reasons given 5 1.8 Total 271 100.0 Source: Field Survey, 2019 6.5 In the absence of men who takes care of the household? The study sought to examine who takes up the role that men play after they have migrated from the household. Results recorded are shown table. The study reveals that out of 271 respondents, close to two-thirds (61.3%) mentioned that wives doubled up as both parents when their husbands move. Nearly a third (29.9%) of the respondents alluded that female members of the household take up male responsibilities in their absence and less than 10 percent of the respondents recorded for male members of the households and Others. This implies that women assume the position of their husbands or males when they migrate and this could be attributed to their familial duties and in most cases they are the next eldest person in the household after their males‟ migration. These views were expressed in a focus group discussion: Oh yea, women take care of the household when we travel outside. Last two years when I was in Togo, my wife was the one managing the household until I came back and even though I was outside the community, I was still managing the household through the money and other items I normally send through follow community members. My wife disciplines my four children than myself and am grateful to God th for her in my life (Male household head,Prampram,5 July,2019) 108 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Another had this to say: It is true that women especially our wives do manage the household when we migrate but honestly speaking in some households, the absence of a male or husband means freedom for the children as they whatever they want without proper supervision from their mothers and this very worrisome as it serves as a breeding space for indiscipline th to thrive (Male household head,Ningo,5 July,2019) Table 6.1.5 In the absence of men who takes care of the household? Variables Frequency Percent (%) (n=271) Wife doubles up as both 166 61.3 parents Female members of the 81 29.9 household Male members of the 17 6.3 household Others 7 2.6 Total 271 100.0 Source: Field Survey, 2019 6.6 Effects of male migration on households Socially, in the communities and the households, males were seen as the head of the family and their absence had consequences on their households. The researcher asked questions pertaining to the absence of male members of the household as a result of migration and the outcomes were obtained and shown in table. 98.9 percent of the respondents posited that males‟ absence affect the household. From the table, more than half (62%) of the respondents asserted that male migration from the household affected the income of the migrant household. A little over one-fifth (20.7%) of the respondents mentioned poor childcare as one of the effects created by the absence of men. Unable to Discipline children and Others just recorded 10.3% and 7.0% respectively. 109 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The general implication is that males‟ migration equates into higher income returns for the households and this could be attributed to the availability of opportunities such fishing jobs, ready markets and low cost of fishing production at the destination areas. Table 6.1.6 Effects of male migration on households Ways Frequency(n=271) Percent (%) Increase in household 168 62.0 income Unable to discipline children 28 10.3 Poor child care 56 20.7 Others 19 7.0 Total 271 100.0 Source: Field Survey, 2019 6.7 Out-Migration effects on fishing Fishing and its related activities are enormous in nature and, according to Allison and Ellis (2001), these activities range from its production, processing and sales, and these activities serve as a livelihood strategy adopted by various households to survive, hence the study looked at some activities in fishing, namely labour, fishing production and new ways of fishing among others. 98.9 percent of the respondents espoused that migration had a significant effect on fishing and its related activities. From the table, out of 271 respondents, more than half (55.4%) of the respondents stated labour shortage as an effect created by the outward movement of people from the community. A little over one-fifth (22.1%) of the respondents also mentioned low fish production as one of the effects of migration. A decrease in fishing activities, improved ways of fishing and not stated all scored less than 15 percent. This reveals that out-migration has a dire consequence on households and community fishing, and this could be associated to the movement of young and energetic adults and youth who are required to stay in their households and work towards the development of fishing 110 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh businesses in their communities. This finding confirms studies that found that out-migration plays a role in the decline n household labour force (Aworemi et al., 2011; Angba, 2003). The following expressions were made during a focus group discussion: Most at times when people move out from the community, you don‟t feel it immediately but when it too gets to one to two months after their departure, their absence becomes worrying to household fishing work as the number of people required to do job reduces….this makes it difficult for some household to even make th a catch and even if they the catch prices are very low(Household head,Prampram,5 July,2019) This assertion was also confirmed by another chief fisherman in the same focus group discussion: We are losing a lot of our young and strong men to fishing in other communities and this is making the whole fishing activity very difficult as there are not many people available for fishing and even those who were around have low interest in the th work(Household head,Ningo,5 July,2019) Table 6.1.7 Ways in which migration affects fishing activities Variables Frequency(n=271) Percent (%) Shortage of labour 150 55.4 Decrease in fishing activities 32 11.8 Low fishing production 60 22.1 Improved ways of fishing 26 9.6 Not stated 3 1.1 Total 271 100.0 Source: Field Survey, 2019 6.8 Percentage of female roles played before migration by sex of household Roles played by women before migrating and sex of household heads were ascertained. With regard to the male population, more than one-fifth (24.5%) of the respondents were of the view that females were child-bearers and retailers of fish respectively. This was followed by caregivers, which constituted 24.1 percent, and less than 20 percent stated subordinate of men 111 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh and Others as roles women played before migrating. A subsequent observation from the table saw a similar outcome for the female population but respondents who mentioned Others as the roles played by women were less than 12 percent. The overall implication of the results observed from the table is that in terms of subordinates of men and Other roles of women were more than their female counterparts. However, the results show that there is a statistical relationship (χ2=4.970,df=1, p=0.025 and χ2=4.817,df=1, p=0.026) between sex of household heads, childbearing and caregiving roles of women. This reveals that household members view childbearing and caregiving roles of women as the most significant functions that households and the community placed on women. These views were shared during an in- depth interview with the household heads: …Women who give birth in this community are highly respected as compared to those who are not…this is because the children help in traditional household works like the fishing we do in this household and even in some households, children are considered as gifts from God. Most household members do take good care of their members especially the little ones and the greater part of this responsibilities are done th by a female member of the home (Chief fisherman, Prampram,5 July,2019) Table 6.1.8 Percentage of female roles played before migration by sex of household female roles before migration Sex of household heads Males Females Total χ2 test Child bearer 134(24.5%) 138(25.5%) 262(25.0%) χ2=4.970,df=1, p=0.025 Retailers of fish 134(24.5%) 124(24.8%) 258(24.6%) χ2=0.457,df=1, p=0.350 Subordinate of men 80(14.6%) 71(14.2) 151(14.4) χ2=0.046,df=1, p=0.463 Care givers 132(24.1%) 127(25.3%) 259(24.7%) χ2=4.817,df=1, p=0.026 Others 67(12.2) 51(10.2%) 118(11.3%) χ2=1.608,df=1, p=1.260 Source: Field Survey, 2019 **Multiple responses 112 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6.9 Percentage of migration effects on fishing by sex of household heads Migration effects on fishing and its related activities and sex of household heads were explored and results presented in the table 6.1.9. From table 6.1.9, with regard to the male population, more than a half (53.5%) of the respondents mentioned the shortage of labour as the effect migration has on fishing. A little over one-fifth (24.6%) of the respondents mentioned low fish production as the effect that out-migration had on fishing and its related activities. Less than 15 percent were of the view that Decrease in fishing activities, improved ways of fishing and Not Stated constituted other forms of effects on fishing in the district. Again, in terms of the female population, a similar outcome was observed but less than 1 percent recorded not stated as their effects on fishing due to out-migration. A subsequent observation from the table shows that there is a significance relationship (χ2 = 4.233, df = 4 and p-value = 0.0363 0.05) between sex of household heads and the effects of migration on fishing and its related activities. The general implication is that migration has a severe impact on fishing in the households as well as the community as a whole. This is what was expressed in during a focus group discussion for chief fishermen Movement of people from this community is good for us because they are able to send money to their relatives for feeding and increasing their investment here…in as much their journeys are good it has its own effects on the whole fishing business here as workforce declines which affect our fish production and reduces peoples interest in fishing in this community th especially the young and active adults(Chief fisherman,Ningo,5 ,July,2019) Another chief fisherman had this to say in the same focus group There is an improvement in the ways that we fish in this community and this is because people who out-migrate from the district and return sometimes come along with new skills and ideas of fishing. We sometimes combine some of their learned skills and ours to fish…..but the issue here is the cost of catching fish is high and the government is not willing to subsidise the fuel for us. This made a lot of our people move to Togo and Guinea, where they said cost involved in fishing is relatively low th than in Prampram(Chief fisherman,Ningo,5 ,July,2019) 113 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 6.1.9 Percentage of migration effects on the household by sex of household heads Migration effects on household fishing Sex of household activities. Males Female Total Shortage of labour 76(53.5%) 74(57.4%) 150(55.4%) Decrease in fishing activities 16(11.3%) 16(12.4%) 32(11.8%) Low fish production 35(24.6%) 25(19.4%) 60(22.1%) Improved ways of fishing 12(8.5%) 14(10.9%) 26(9.6%) Not stated 3(2.1%) 0(0.0%) 3(1.1%) Total 142(100.0%) 129(100.0%) 100.0% (χ2 = 4.233, df = 4 and p-value = 0.0363 0.05 Source: Field Survey, 2019 6.10 Percent of male roles played before migration by sex of household Roles played by males before migration and sex of household heads were also ascertained. With regard to the male population, more than one-fifth (22.7%) of the respondents stated that males were seen as breadwinners in their household, followed by protection of the household (22.5%). A little over one-fifth of the respondents mentioned that men were regarded as Head of family/household and just a little over 20 percent alluded that men Discipline children. Less than 15 percent of the male respondents stated males engaged in Other roles before migrating. A subsequent observation with regard to the female population saw a similar outcome but in terms of Head of family/household and Discipline children, females were more than their male counterparts. Again, the findings indicate that there is a statistical association between (χ2=7.762,df=1, p=0.004 and χ2=5.940,df=1, p=0.012) sex of household heads and head of the family/household and Discipline children role of men before they migrate. The reason is that men are regarded as heads of the family and so they actively discipline children. The following were shared by 42-year-old male household head: 114 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh As demanded in this community by our forefathers, men are the heads in most households but there are houses that women are the heads and this is very rare, especially households where a number of adult males has migrated or have died and there are no adult male or the males in the household are young…..it is also our duty as family heads to ensure that every child is taken care off and kids who are departing from the right ways of doing things are straightened (Male Household th head,Prampram,5 ,July,2019). Another had this to share: My husband is the head of this family and he still provides for the family and he still does even though he is not here with as……frankly speaking the children are afraid of their father more than me because when he is around you dare not to engage deviant act, he will discipline you well well. (Female Household Head, Ningo, 2019) Table 6.2.1 Percentage of Male roles played before migration by sex of household Male roles before Sex of household heads migration Males Females Total χ2 test Breadwinner 136(22.7%) 127(22.5%) 263(22.6%) χ2=1.688,df=1, p=0.175 Head of family/household 131(21.8%) 128(22.7%) 259(22.2%) χ2=7.762,df=1, p=0.004 Discipline children 125(20.8%) 124(21.9%) 249(21.4%) χ2=5.940,df=1, p=0.012 Protector of 135(22.5) 126(22.3%) 261(22.4) χ2=1.290,df=1, household/family p=0.210 Others 73(12.2%) 60(10.6%) 133(11.4%) χ2=0.649,df=1, p=0.247 Source: Field Survey, 2019 **Multiple responses 115 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6.11 Summary This chapter discussed the effects of out-migration on fishing and gendered roles in the household. According to the respondents of the study, female out-migration in the households resulted in poor childcare and the reason given was inadequate incentives from migrant mothers or females in the form of remittance as well as a decrease in household income when women move. However, with regard to male migration, a positive outcome was recorded, citing increase in household income when men migrate and this could be attributed to job availability for males at the destination centers.In terms of the effects of out-migration on fishing and its related activities, respondents reported negative outcomes indicating a shortage of labour (55.5%) and this was attributed to the movement of young and active adults who could have contributed to fishing outputs, sales and marketing. This finding supports those of several works that have been done on the effects of households‟ activities. When active adults and young members of the household migrate, there is a shortage in the household labour force (Aworemi et al., 2011; Angba, 2003). 116 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER SEVEN SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION, AND RECOMMENDATIONS 7.0 Introduction One important area in the study of migration is out-migration as it plays a critical role in the development of households, districts and the country as a whole. Much attention has been paid to migration and development nexus over the years but with respect to out-migration and fishing households, there is a dearth of literature and most research done on fishing and migration have used either qualitative or quantitative research approach. (Dickson,1994; Odotei,1999; Kwankye,2012; Awumbila et al,2014). The study therefore sought to examine the effects of out-migration on fishing households, a case study of Ningo-Prampram district. The study also sought to determine the out-migration processes, migrants contact, the role of remittances on the households as well as investigating migration effects on gendered roles and fishing. The study adopted a mixed-method research design. The sample size was made up of 271 households selected through systematic sampling technique. The instruments used for the study was semi-structured questionnaires, Focus group, and in-interview guides.SPSS was used to analyze the quantitative data and the qualitative data was analyzed through thematic analysis. 117 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 7.1 Summary of findings In examining the effects of out-migration on the fishing household in Ningo Prampram district, five objectives guided the study in the municipality. The effects of out-migration on household were explored. Firstly, the study identified the households migration processes and reasons. Secondly, the study examined various forms of migration contact between migrants and their household. Also, the effects of remittances on the household were also determined. Fourthly, out-migration effects on gendered roles were also investigated. Final the effects of out-migration on fishing were also ascertained. The findings indicated that a majority of household heads were males but in terms of receipts of remittance, women had the majority. It was also determined that the majority of the household heads were within the age cohort of 40-49 with few household members forming the working class(25-39). This revealed that the majority of the migrants from the household were young before migrating. The study also suggested that with regards to migration decision making processes both the individual and the household collectively had a say in determining which of the household member is deemed fit to migrate. This assertions confirmed the tenet of NELM that households are seen as a unit or single entity charged with the task to select the most profitable household members to migrate in order to diversify household income, thus, households which send their members abroad or outside their community of residence do not only want to increase their income in real terms but rather to compare their income to other households as well as reduce deprivation in relation to other groups (Stark, 1991: 25). Also, among the pull factors that attract people from the households, good fishing economy and fishing employment opportunities were stated by the respondents of the study as the most significant determinant of out-migration of household member and this is in line the pull-pull 118 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh theory of migration posited that migrants or people move to areas where they can maximize their opportunities (Lee,1966). In terms of migration contact between the households and their migrants, an overwhelming majority (96.7%) of the respondents posited that household members maintain contact with their migrants and used the mode of contact was through visits, citing the highest frequency of contact on quarterly basis. The study found out that due to out-migration, receipts of remittances were used to improve the living standard of households and the reason given was that households were able to satisfy the welfare needs of household members as well as increasing the purchasing powers of migrant households. This result was consistent with studies on the effects of remittances received in improving household, reducing the inequality between the rich and poor households and poverty alleviation among migrant households (Acosta el at.,2008). The study did not found any statistical relationship between effects of remittances and the sex of household heads. however, the study found out the significance relationship between the business and other expenditure usage of remittances and sex of recipients. According to the respondents of the study, female out-migration in the households resulted in poor childcare and the reason given was inadequate incentives from migrant mothers or females in the form of remittance as well as a decrease in household income when women move. However, with regards to male migration, a positive outcome was recorded, citing increase in household income when men migrate and this was attributed to job availabilities for males at the destination centers. In terms of the effects of out-migration on fishing and its related activities, respondents reported negative outcomes indicating a shortage of labour (55.5%) and this was attributed to the movement of young and active adults who could have contributed to fishing outputs, 119 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh sales, and marketing. This finding supports several works that are done on the effects of households activities when active adults and young members of the household migrate, there is a shortage in the household labour force (Aworemi et al., 2011, Angba, 2003). 7.2 Conclusion The study makes the following conclusion based on the broad issues on the study‟s theoretical framework, methodological approach, and some key findings Out-migration in the study area generally was dominated by the youth who were within the working age. Migration decision making processes in the household was collectively done by the individual household member and the household as a whole. This assertion from the study confirms the tenet of the NELM which posited that migration decision-making rest on the household in order to diversify household income as the whole process of migration was seen insurance against unforeseen economic and social risks. There were several factors that resulted in out-migration of household members and most of the factors have been proven by numerous studies (Ackah & Medvedev, 2010, Awumbila et al, 2000; Twum-Baah et al, 1995) as a result of the high cost of fish productions and good fishing economy elsewhere and among others. In the view of the Pull-push and NELM perspectives on out-migration, households make an analysis of conditions at both the origin and the destination before making decisions to migrate. Out-migration can be successful or fail depending on the conditions at the destination areas together with how best the out- migrant combine their assets with the available livelihood. The results of the finding indicated that an overwhelming majority( 96.7%) of the respondents espoused that households maintain contacts with their out-migrants and this has also been confirmed by a number of studies(Chort, Gubert, & Senne, 2012; Mohapatra & Ratha, 2011) 120 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Remittances effects were relatively positive on households in improving the standard of living of household members in alleviating poverty and bridging the gap between the rich and the poor households. This was consistent with several works( Taylor et. al.,1999, Adams,2006 and 2008: Koc & Onan 2001) on the effect of remittances characterizing living standard of households. However, the findings on the usage of remittances asserted that receipts of remittances do not have any significant effect in supplementing labour in the migrant households and this contradicts Taylor et al (2003) views that loss of output from fishing and its related activities due to declining in labour availability as a result of out- migration are usually complemented for wholly or partially by remittances from migrants which are used to purchase fishing inputs or hired labour for fishing. Also, from the outcome of the study it was indicated that, with regards to the frequency of remittances, males remitted more than their female counterparts. This finding contradicts some evidence that migrant women remit more of their income to their left-behind family members than men (Chant and Radcliffe, 1992; Curran and Saguy, 2001; Tacoli, 1999). 7.3 Recommendations This section of the thesis makes the following recommendations based on the findings of the study and assertions of the respondents in order to reduce out-migration in the households and the community as a whole. The main cause of out-migration of people from the households and the community is as a result of poor development in the community and the unattractive nature of fishing due to poor conditions with regards to the cost of production and among others. For this reason, the Ministry of fisheries and its agencies responsible for fisheries should enact policies to improve the working conditions of fishers in the district. Law ought to be pass to debar the use of heavy-duty machine such as per trolling, the use of chemicals and light in fishing as it deplete the ocean layer necessary in attracting fish in the district. Also, policies ought be to be enacted to make fishing industry more, modern and 121 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh fashionable that will look attractive and lucrative so that receipts of remittances can be plough-back into the fishing businesses in the district. New methods of Fishing farming technologies can be introduced in the households and the community to reduce out-migration of people, especially during the lean seasons fishing. This, when managed well, could lead to an abundance of fish production throughout the year in the district The Ministry of fisheries and its stakeholders can come out with policies that will debar the use of light fishing and per trolling during fishing. These practices catch both the mature and fingerlings, thereby reducing the quantity of fish. 7.4 Areas for further research Since the study focused on the Ningo-Prampram district as a single unit, there is the need for a subsequent study to look at the effects on various communities in the district. Also, research can look at the effect of migration on two districts by doing a comparative analysis. More so, a study can be done to find out the impacts of in-migration on households and community development in order to know how best the district can capitalise on in-migrants (return migrants) for the growth of the district A comparative study can also be done on the effects of migration between migrant and non- migrant fishing household to show the extent which migration affects household livelihood. 122 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh REFERENCES Abreu, A. (2012, April). The new economics of labor migration: beware of Neoclassicals bearing gifts. In Forum for social economics (Vol. 41, No. 1, pp. 46-67). Routledge. Aburto, J., Thiel, M., & Stotz, W. (2009). Allocation of effort in artisanal fisheries: The importance of migration and temporary fishing camps. Ocean & Coastal Management, 52(12), 646-654. Ackah, C., & Medvedev, D. (2010). Internal migration in Ghana: determinants and welfare impacts. The World Bank. Acosta, P., Calderon, C., Fajnzylber, P., & Lopez, H. (2008). What is the impact of international remittances on poverty and inequality in Latin America?. World Development, 36(1), 89-114. Adams Jr, R. H., & Cuecuecha, A. (2010). Remittances, household expenditure and investment in Guatemala. World Development, 38(11), 1626-1641. Adams, R. H. (1991). The effects of international remittances on poverty, inequality, and development in rural Egypt (Vol. 86). Intl Food Policy Res Inst. Adams, R. H. (2006) „Remittances and Poverty in Ghana‟, World Bank Working Paper WPS 3838, World Bank, Washington Adams, R. H. J., Cuecuecha, A., & Page, J. (2008). Remittances, consumption and investment in Ghana. The World Bank Adelman, I., & Taylor, J. E. (1990). Is structural adjustment with a human face possible? Adepoju, A. (2006). Internal and international migration within Africa. Migration in south and Southern Africa: Dynamics and determinants, 26-46. The case of Mexico. The Journal of Development Studies, 26(3), 387-407. Cerrutti, M., and Massey, D.S.(2001). “On the Auspices of Female Migration from Mexico to the United States.” Demography 38 (2): 187–200. Adger, W. N., Kelly, P. M., Winkels, A., Huy, L. Q., & Locke, C. (2002). Migration, remittances, livelihood trajectories, and social resilience. AMBIO: A Journal of the Human Environment, 31(4), 358-367. Afshar, O. A. (2003). Effects of Rural-Urban migration of Youth on Agricultural Labour Supply in Umea North Local Government Area of Abita State, Nigeria. Journal of Agricultural Research, 3(2) 77-83 Ahmed, I. I. (2000). Remittances and their economic impact in post‐ war Somaliland. Disasters, 24(4), 380-389. 123 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Ajaero, C. K., & Onokala, P. C. (2013). The effects of rural-urban migration on rural communities of southeastern Nigeria. International Journal of Population Research, 2013. Allison, E. H., & Ellis, F. (2001). The livelihoods approach and management of small-scale fisheries. Marine policy, 25(5), 377-388. Anarfi, J. K. (1993). Sexuality, migration and AIDS in Ghana. Anderson, B. (2001). Reproductive labour and migration. University of Oxford. Transnational Communities Programme. Angba, A. O. (2003). Effect of rural-urban migration of youths on agricultural labour supply in Umuahia north local government area of Abia State, Nigeria. “Journal of Agriculture and Social Research (JASR) 3.2 (2003): 77-83 Asante, Y. (1995). “Migration development interrelationships”, in Twum‐ Baah, K.A., Nabila, J.S.and Aryee, A.F. (Eds), Migration Research Study in Ghana, Ghana Statistical Service, Accra. [Google Scholar] Aworemi, J. R., Abdul-Azeez, I. A., & Opoola, N. A. (2011). An Appraisal of the Factors Influencing Rural-Urban Migration in Some Selected Local Government Areas of Lagos State Nigeria. Journal of Sustainable Development. 4 (3). Awumbila, M., Alhassan, O., Badasu, D., Bosiakoh, A. T., and Dankyi, K. E. (2011). „SocioCultural Dimensions of Migration in Ghana‟, Migration Studies Technical Paper Series 3, Centre for Migration Studies, University of Ghana Awumbila, M., Teye, J. K., Litchfield, J., Boakye-Yiadom, L., Deshingkar, P., & Quartey, P. (2015). Are migrant households better off than non-migrant households? Evidence from Ghana. Awumbila, Mariama, Teye, Joseph Kofi, Litchfield, Julie, Boakye-Yiadom, Louis, Deshingkar, Priya and Quartey, Peter(2015) Are migrant households better off than non-migrant households? Evidence from Ghana. Working Paper. Migrating out of Poverty, Brighton Azam, J. P., & Gubert, F. (2006). Migrants' remittances and the household in Africa: a review of evidence. Journal of African Economies, 15(suppl_2), 426-462. Bauer, T., & Zimmermann, K. F. (1998). Looking South and East: labour market implications of migration in Europe and LDCs. In Globalization of Labour Markets (pp. 75-103). Springer, Boston, MA. Beals, R., M. Levy and I,. Moses, 1967, Rationality and migration in Ghana, Review of Economics and Statistics 49, 480486. 124 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Beals, R., M. Levy and I,. Moses, 1967, Rationality and migration in Ghana, Review of Economics and Statistics 49, 480486. Biddlecom, A. E., & Kramarow, E. A. (1998). Household headship among married women: The roles of economic power, education, and convention. Journal of Family and Economic Issues, 19(4), 367-382. Bjarnason, T., & Thorlindsson, T. (2006). Should I stay or should I go? Migration expectations among youth in Icelandic fishing and farming communities. Journal of Rural Studies, 22(3), 290-300 Black, R., King, R., & Tiemoko, R. (2003, March). Migration, return and small enterprise development in Ghana: A route out of poverty. In International Workshop on Migration and Poverty in West Africa, University of Sussex, United Kingdom (Vol. 13). Bourke, B. (2014). Positionality: Reflecting on the Research Process, the Qualitative Report 2014 Volume 19, How to Article 18, 1-9 http Murray State University, Murray, Kentucky, USA ://www.nova.edu/ssss/QR/QR19/bourke18.pdf Boyden, J., & Ennew, J. (1997). Children in focus: a manual for participatory research with children. Rädda Barnen. Brannen, J. (2005). Economics and Social Research Council (ESRC), National Centre for Research Methods, NCRM Methods Review Paper, Mixed Methods Research, discussion paper, Institute of Education, University of London Bryman, A. (2007). Barriers to integrating quantitative and qualitative research. Journal of mixed methods research, 1(1), 8-22 Caldwell, J.C. (1968). “Determinants of Rural-Urban Migration in Ghana”, Population Studies: A Journal of Demography, 22(3), 361-377. 101 Caldwell, J.C. (1969). African Rural-Urban Migration: The Movement to Ghana‟s Towns.New York: Columbia University Press Castaldo, A., Deshingkar, P., and McKay, A. (2012). „Internal Migration, Remittances and Poverty: Evidence from Ghana and India‟. Migrating Out of Poverty Working Paper 7, University of Sussex. Castles, S., De Haas, H., & Miller, M. J. (2013). The age of migration: International population movements in the modern world. Macmillan International Higher Education Cattaneo, C. (2007). The Self-Selection in the Migration Process: What Can We Learn?. Università Carlo Cattaneo. Chant, S., & Radcliffe, S. A. (1992). Migration and development: the importance of gender. 125 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Chort, I., Gubert, F., & Senne, J. N. (2012). Migrant networks as a basis for social control: Remittance incentives among Senegalese in France and Italy. Regional Science and Urban Economics, 42(5), 858-874. Collinson, M., Tollman, S., Kahn, K., and Clark, S.(2003). “Highly Prevalent Circular Migration: Households, Mobility and Economic Status in Rural South Africa.” Connell, J., & Conway, D. (2000). Migration and remittances in island microstates: a comparative perspective on the South Pacific and the Caribbean. International journal of urban and regional research, 24(1), 52-78. Cook, S. (1999). Surplus labour and productivity in Chinese agriculture: evidence from household survey data. The Journal of Development Studies, 35(3), 16-44. Creswell, J. W. (2010), Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approach (3rd ed.): Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, CA. Creswell, J.W. (2009). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed Methods. (3rd ed,) California: Sage Publication, Inc Curran, S. R., & Saguy, A. C. (2001). Migration and cultural change: a role for gender and social networks?. Journal of International Women's Studies, 2(3), 54-77. Curran, S. R., & Saguy, A. C. (2001). Migration and cultural change: a role for gender and social networks?. Journal of International Women's Studies, 2(3), 54-77. De Brauw, A. & Rozelle S. (2003). “Migration and Household Investment in Rural China”, University of California, Davis, Department of Agricultural and Resource Economics, Davis, CA, USA De Brauw, A., & Rozelle, S. (2008). Migration and household investment in rural China. China Economic Review, 19(2), 320-335. De Haan, A. (1999). “Livelihoods and Poverty: The Role of Migration – A Critical Review of the Migration Literature”, The Journal of Development Studies, 36(2), 1-47. De Haas, H. (2007). Remittances, Migration and Social Development A Conceptual Review of the Literature. Social Policy and Development Programme Paper Number 34 De Haas, H. (2008). The myth of invasion: the inconvenient realities of African migration to Europe. Third world quarterly, 29(7), 1305-1322 De Hass, H. (2006). Migration, Remittances and Regional Development in Southern Morocco. Geoforum, 37(4), 565-580. De Janvry, A., Sadoulet, E., Fafchamps, M., & Raki, M. (1992). Structural adjustment and the peasantry in Morocco: A computable household model. European Review of Agricultural Economics, 19(4), 427-453. 126 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh De Jong, G. F. (2000). “Expectations, Gender, and Norms in Migration Decision‐ Making.” Population Studies 54 (3): 307–19. Deshingkar, P. (2004). Understanding the Implications of Migration for Pro-Poor Agricultural Growth. Paper presented at the DAC POVNET Agriculture Task Group Meeting, Helsinki, 17-18 June. Diatta, M. A., & Mbow, N. (1999). Releasing the development potential of return migration: the case of Senegal. International Migration, 37(1), 243-266. Durand, J., Kandel, W., Parrado, E. A., & Massey, D. S. (1996). International migration and development in Mexican communities. Demography, 33(2), 249-264. Dustmann, C., & Kirchkamp, O. (2002). The optimal migration duration and activity choice after re-migration. Journal of development economics, 67(2), 351-372. Ellis, F. (2000). Rural livelihoods and diversity in developing countries. Oxford university press. FAO (2013). The State of food insecurity in the world: the multiple dimensions of food security. Rome: FAO; 2013. Fasoranti, O. O. (2009). Perception of rural-urban migration selected rural communities in Ondo State, Nigeria. Bangladesh e-journal of Sociology. 6 (1) 96-105 Findley, S. E., & Sow, S. (1998). From Season to Season: Agriculture. Poverty and. Gazdar, H. (2003). “A review of Migration issues in Pakistan.” Paper Presented at the Regional Conference on Migration, Development and Pro-poor Policy Choices in Asia. Organized by the Bangladesh Refugee and Migratory Movements Research Unit. Bangladesh/DFID UK, Dhaka, 22-24 JUNE. Gbortsu, E.P.S. (1995). “Socio-Demographic Profile of Internal Migrants”. In Twum- Baah,K. A., J.S. Nabila, and A.F. Aryee (eds.), Migration Research Study in Ghana, pp.114-134, Accra: Ghana Statistical Service. Germenji, E. and Swinnen, J. 2004.”Impact of remittances on household-based farms in rural Albania”. Paper presented at the International Conference on New Perspectives on Albanian Migration and Development, Albania. Ghana Statistical Service (2000). Migration Research Study in Ghana: 1995. Internal Migration. Vol. One. Accra Ghana Statistical Survey (2014). 2010 population and housing census, District analytical report (Ningo-Prampram municipality). Ghana Statistical Service. Ghosh, J. (2009). “Migration and Gender Empowerment: Recent Trends and Emerging Issues.” Human Development Research Paper 04, United Nations Development Programme, Human Development Report Office, New York. 127 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Gröger, A., & Zylberberg, Y. (2016). Internal labor migration as a shock coping strategy: Evidence from a typhoon. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 8(2), 12353. Gubert, F. (2000). Migration, remittances and moral hazard. Evidence from the Kayes area (Western Mali). CERDI, Etudes et Documents, E. Gubert, F. (2002). Do migrants insure those who stay behind? Evidence from the Kayes area (Western Mali). Oxford Development Studies, 30(3), 267-287. Harteveld, W. (2004). Rural-to-Rural Migration and Female Livelihoods: The Case of Dagara Women in Ghana. Unpublished MA Thesis, Amsterdam, Free University. Hovy, B. (2013). “Thematic Working Group 1: Data on Migration and Remittance Flows.” PowerPoint Presentation. KNOMAD Meeting of Chairs, Vice‐ Chairs and Co‐ Chairs on Nov. 13–14. United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Washington, DC. https://ssrc.msstate.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/SSRC2012Annual..PDF file IFAD (2007). International Fund for Agricultural Development. Sending money home, Rome, Italy http://www.ifad.org/events/remittances/maps/brochure IOM and UN-INSTRAW 2007 Survey on Remittances 2007: Gender Perspectives Working Books on Migration 24, http://www.oim.org.gt/documents/ Working%20Notebook%20No.%2024.pdf I Johnson, R. B., & Onwuegbuzie, A. J. (2004). Mixed methods research: A research paradigm whose time has come. Educational researcher, 33(7), 14-26. Kangmennaang, J., Bezner-Kerr, R., & Luginaah, I. (2018). Impact of migration and remittances on household welfare among rural households in Northern and Central Malawi. Migration and Development, 7(1), 55-71. Kannan, K. P., & Hari, K. S. (2002). Kerala's gulf connection: emigration, remittances and their macroeconomic impact, 1972-2000. Kapur, D. (2005). Remittances: the new development mantra? Remittances: Development impact and future prospects, 331-60 King, A. and Schneider, B. (1991) The First Global Revolution. A Report by the Council of Rome. New York: Pantheon Books Koc, I., & Onan, I. (2001, April). The impact of remittances of international migrants on the standard of living of the left-behind families in Turkey. In Conference Proceedings, XXIV IUSSP General Conference, Salvador, Brazil (pp. 18-24). 128 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Kraan, M. (2011). More than income alone: the anlo-ewe beach seine fishery in Ghana. In Poverty Mosaics: Realities and Prospects in Small-Scale Fisheries (pp. 147-172). Springer, Dordrecht. Kramer, R. A., Simanjuntak, S. M., & Liese, C. (2002). Migration and fishing in Indonesian coastal villages. AMBIO: A Journal of the Human Environment, 31(4), 367-373 Krantz, L. (2001). The sustainable livelihood approach to poverty reduction. SIDA. Division for Policy and Socio-Economic Analysis, 44. Kwankye, S. O. (2012). Independent North–South child migration as a parental investment in Northern Ghana. Population, Space and Place, 18(5), 535-550. Lee, E. (1969). A theory of migration, migration., 282-297 Lee, E. S. (1966). A theory of migration. Demography, 3(1), 47-57. Levitt, P. (1998). Social remittances: Migration driven local-level forms of cultural diffusion. International migration review, 32(4), 926-948. Lokshin, M., Bontch-Osmolovski, M. and Glinskaya, E. 2007. Work-related migration and poverty reduction in Nepal (World Bank Policy Research Working paper 423 1). Washington DC: The World Bank Lolig, V. (2005). The Role of Rural women in ensuring household food security in the Bolgatanga and Talensi-Nabdam districts of the Upper East Region, Ghana. Unpublished Master‘s thesis. University of Ghana, Legon. Lucas, R. E. (1987). Emigration to South Africa's mines. The American Economic Review, 77(3), 313. Lucas, R.E., 2005. International migration and economic development: Lessons from low- income countries. Edward Elgar Publishing. Marquette, C. M., Koranteng, K. A., Overå, R., & Aryeetey, E. B. D. (2002). Small-scale fisheries, population dynamics, and resource use in Africa: the case of Moree, Ghana. AMBIO: A Journal of the Human Environment, 31(4), 324-337. Massey, D. S., Arango, J., Hugo, G., Kouaouci, A., Pellegrino, A., & Taylor, J. E. (1993). Theories of international migration: A review and appraisal. Population and development review, 19(3), 431-466. Mazzucato, V. (2009). Informal insurance arrangements in Ghanaian migrants‟ transnational networks: The role of reverse remittances and geographic proximity. World Development, 37(6), 1105-1115. Mendola, M. (2005). Farm Households Production Theories: a Review of'Institutional'and'Behavioural'responses. University of Milan Italy Economics Working Paper, (2005-01). 129 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Mendola, M. (2012). Rural out‐ migration and economic development at origin: A review of the evidence. Journal of International Development, 24(1), 102-122. Mensah, M. A., Korateng, K. A., Bortey, A., & Yeboah, D. A. (2006). The state of world fisheries from a fishworkers perspective: The Ghanaian situation. Miller, R. L., & Brewer, J. D. (2003). A – Z of Social Research: SAGE Publication Limited, Mines, R., & De Janvry, A. (1982). Migration to the United States and Mexican rural development: A case study. American journal of agricultural economics, 64(3), 444-454. Näre, L. (2011). The moral economy of domestic and care labour: Migrant workers in Naples, Italy. Sociology, 45(3), 396-412. Neuman, W. L. (2000). Social research methods: Qualitative and quantitative approaches. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Nguyen, L. D., Raabe, K., & Grote, U. (2015). Rural–urban migration, household vulnerability, and welfare in Vietnam. World Development, 71, 79-93. Njock, J. C., & Westlund, L. (2010). Migration, resource management and global change: Experiences from fishing communities in West and Central Africa. Marine Policy, 34(4), 752-760. Norman, P., Boyle, P., & Rees, P. (2005). Selective migration, health and deprivation: a longitudinal analysis. Social science & medicine, 60(12), 2755-2771. NPDA (2015). The Composite budget for Ningo-Prampram Municipality for the 2016 Fiscal Year. Odotei, I. (1992). The migration of Ghanaian women in the canoe fishing industry. Maritime Anthropological Studies, 5(3), 88-95. Odotei, I. (1992). The migration of Ghanaian women in the canoe fishing industry. Maritime Anthropological Studies, 5(3), 88-95. Odotei, I. (1999). Gender and traditional authority in the artisanal marine fishing industry in Ghana. Odotei, I. K. (2003). Migration, fishing, and development: a case study of Ningo. Institute of African Studies, University of Ghana, Legon. Orozco, Manuel “Regional Integration? Trends and Patterns of Remittance flows within South East Asia.” Inter-American Dialogue, Washington, DC, August 2005 Owusu, G., Agyei-Mensah, S., & Lund, R. (2008). Slums of hope and slums of despair: Mobility and livelihoods in Nima, Accra. Norsk Geografisk Tidsskrift-Norwegian Journal of Geography, 62(3), 180-190. 130 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Owusu, P. A., Asumadu-Sarkodie, S., & Ameyo, P. (2016). A review of Ghana‟s water resource management and the future prospect. Cogent Engineering, 3(1), 1164275 Patton, M.Q. (2000). Qualitative evaluation and research methods. SAGE publication. Newbury Park London New Delhi Petrozziello, A. (2011). “Feminized Financial Flows: How Gender Affects Remittances in Honduras‐ US Transnational Families.” Gender and Development 19 (1): 53–67. 2013. Gender on the Move: Working on the Migration‐ Development Nexus from a GenderPerspective. Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic: UN Women Piore, M. J. (1979). Birds of passage: migrant labor and industrial societies. Piore, M. J. (1979). Birds of passage: migrant labor and industrial societies. Porumbescu, A. (2015). Defining the new economics of labor migration theory boundaries: a sociological-level analysis of international migration. Revista de Stiinte Politice, (45), 55. Preskill, H., & Jones, N. (2009). A practical guide for engaging stakeholders in developing evaluation questions. Pretty, J. N., Morison, J. I., & Hine, R. E. (2003). Reducing food poverty by increasing agricultural sustainability in developing countries. Agriculture, ecosystems & environment, 95(1), 217-234. Quartey, P. (2006). The impact of migrant remittances on household welfare in Ghana. Quartey, P., & Blankson, T. (2003). The sources and uses of migrant remittances in Ghana. Institute of Economic Affairs (IEA) Research Report, Ghana. Rao, V. and Woolcock, M. 2007. The disciplinary monopoly in development research at the World Bank. Global Governance, 13(2): 479–84 Ravallion, M., Chen, S., & Sangraula, P. (2007). New evidence on the urbanization of global poverty. Population and Development Review, 33(4), 667-701. Retrieved on 01/12/2012 http://www.imi.ox.ac.uk/online-library/1425 Rozelle, S., Taylor, J. E., & DeBrauw, A. (1999). Migration, remittances, and agricultural productivity in China. American Economic Review, 89(2), 287-291. Rozelle, S., Taylor, J.E. & De Brauw, A., (1999). Migration, remittances, and agricultural productivity in China. American Economic Review, 89 (2), 287-291. Russell, S. S., & Teitelbaum, M. S. (1995). International migration and international trade. The World Bank. 131 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Sana, M., & Massey, D. S. (2005). Household composition, family migration, and community context: Migrant remittances in four countries. Social science quarterly, 86(2), 509-528. Sana, M., & Massey, D. S. (2005). Household composition, family migration, and community context: Migrant remittances in four countries. Social science quarterly, 86(2), 509-528. Saunders, M., Lewis, P., & Thornhill, A. (2007). Research methods for business students (4th ed.), Harlow: Prentice Hall Schoorl, J. (1998). The Analysis Generating International Migration. A multicountry approach to study the determinants of migration. In Technical Symposium on International Migration and Development: The Hague, Netherlands. Schwartz, M. L., & Notini, J. (1994). Desertification and migration: Mexico and the United States. San Francisco, CA, USA: US Commission on Immigration Reform Scoones, I. (1998). Sustainable rural livelihoods: a framework for analysis. Semyonov, M., and Gorodzeisky, A.(2005). “Labor, Migration, Remittances, and Household Income: A Comparison between Filipino and Filipina Overseas Workers.” International Migration Review 39(1): 45–68. Senne, J. N., Chort, I., & Gubert, F. (2011). Migrant Networks as a Basis for Social Control: Remittance Obligations among Senegalese in France and Italy. Skeldon, R. (2005). Globalization, skilled migration and poverty alleviation: brain drains in context. Skeldon.R. (1997).Migration and Development a global perspective. Harlow: Longman Spaan, E. (1999). Labour circulation and socioeconomic transformation: the case of East Java Indonesia. Srivastava, R. (2005, March). India Internal Migration Links with Poverty and Development. In country paper regional conference on Migration and Development in Asia, Lanzhou, China (pp. 14-16). Stark, O. (1991). The migration of labour, Cambridge: Basic Blackwell. Stark, O., & Bloom, D. E. (1985). The new economics of labor migration. The American Economic review, 75(2), 173-178. Tacoli, C. (1999). International migration and the restructuring of gender asymmetries: Continuity and change among Filipino labor migrants in Rome. International migration review, 33(3), 658-682. 132 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Taylor, J. E. (1999). The new economics of labor migration and the role of remittances in the migration process. International Migration, 37 (1): 63-88. Taylor, J. E., Arango, J., Hugo, G., Kouaouci, A., Massey, D. S., & Pellegrino, A. (1996). International migration and community development. Population Index, 397-418. Taylor, J.E., Rozelle, S. & De Brauw, A., (2003). Migration and incomes in source communities: a new economics of migration perspective from China. Economic Development and Cultural Change, 52 (1) 75-101. Teye, J. K., Awumbila, M., & Darkwah, A. (2017). Gendered dynamics of remitting and remittance use in Northern Ghana. Migrating out of Poverty, University of Sussex, Working Paper, 48. Teye, J.K.(2012). Benefits, Challenges and Dynamism of Positionalities Associated with Mixed Methods Research in Developing Countries: Evidence from Ghana‟‟ Journal of Mixed Method Research 6(4), 379-391 Todaro, M. (1969). “A Model of Labor Migration and Urban Unemployment in Less Developed Countries.” The American Economic Review 59(1969)1:138-148. Tongo M.D.C. (2007). Purposive sampling as a tool for informant selection. Ethnobotany Research & Applications 5:147-158 Tutu, K.A. (1995). “Determinants of Internal Migration”. In Twum-Baah, K. A., J. Twum-Baah, K. A., Nabila, J. S., & Aryee, A. F. (1995). Migration research study in Ghana. UN (2005).World Urbanization Prospects. Department of Economic and Social Affairs Population Division. The 2005 Revision. United Nations New York, 2006 UN DESA(1993). Internal Migration of Women in Developing Countries: Proceedings of the United Nations ExpertMeeting on the Feminization of Internal Migration. New York: United Nations. Verhaeghe, P. P., Pattyn, E., Bracke, P., Verhaeghe, M., & Van De Putte, B. (2012). The association between network social capital and self-rated health: pouring old wine in new bottles?. Health & place, 18(2), 358-365. Wanyonyi, I. N., Wamukota, A., Mesaki, S., Guissamulo, A. T., & Ochiewo, J. (2016). Artisanal fisher migration patterns in coastal East Africa. Ocean & Coastal Management, 119, 93-108. Weeks, J. (1989). “Population”: An Introduction to Concepts and Issues. P438. World Bank (2011) World Development Indicators. Published online, accessed 7 October 2011 133 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh World Bank Group (2015). Women, Business and the Law 2016: Getting to Equal. Washington, DC: World Bank. Yang, L. (2004). “Rural Labor Migration in China and its Impacts on Rural Households‟in Essays on the Determinants and Consequences of Internal Migration. Unpublished PhD thesis, Department of Economics, University of Chicago. Yaro, J. A. (2008). Migration in West Africa: Patterns, issues and challenges. Centre for Migration Studies University of Ghana, Legon, Ghana, 1(1), 1-17. Zachariah, K. C., Mathew, E. T., & Rajan, S. I. (2001). Social, economic and demographic consequences of migration on Kerala. International migration, 39(2), 43-71. Zlotnick, H. (2003). “The Global Dimensions of Female Migration.” Migration Information Source: Data Insight. Migration Policy Institute, Washington, DC. 134 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDICES APPENDIX A FIELD INSTRUMENTS UNIVERSITY OF GHANA CENTER FOR MIGRATION STUDIES Research Topic :The Effects Of Out-Migration on Fishing Households and Community Development: A Case study of Ningo-Prampram District in the Greater Accra Region of Ghana. I am an MPhil Candidate at the Centre for Migration Studies of University of Ghana, Legon- Accra. This field research is being conducted as part of my studies. I would be grateful if you could answer the questions below. Your participation in this study is very important but it is voluntary and you can withdraw at any point. Any information provided for this study would be treated with the utmost confidentiality and for academic purposes only. Thank you. 135 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh IDENTIFICATION REGION _________________________________________________ MUNICIPALITY_______________________________________________ TOWN/VILLAGE/SETTLEMENT______________________________________________ PLACE OF INTERVIEW______________________________________________________ HOUSEHOLD NUMBER (if applicable)______________________________________ NAME OF INTERVIEWER ____________________SIGNATURE____________________ NAME OF INTERVIEWEE__________________________________________________ DATE_________________________________________________________________ START OF INTERVIEW_____________________________________________________ END OF INTERVIEW_________________ DURATION OF INTERVIEW________________ 136 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh SECTION A: SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC INFORMATION 1. Sex of household head A. Male v B.Female v 2. Age (COMPLETED YEARS/ AGE ON LAST BIRTHDAY)____________________ 3. Marital status: A. Married B.Consensual Union C. Separated v v v D. Divorced v E. Widowed v F. Never Married v 4. Religion: A. No Religion v B. Catholic v C.Pentecostal/Charismatic v D. Other Christians v E.Islam v F.Traditional v G.Other Please (Specify)______________ 5. Education A) No education v B) Primary C) JHS/JSS level D) Middle E) SHS/SSS F) Vocational/Commercial v G) Tertiary v v H) Other Professionals (ACCA/CA/ICT) v v 6. Main employment________________________________ 7. Secondary employment ________________________________ 8. How many people are in this household?............................................ 9. How many are male…………………………………. 10. How many are female……………………………………….. 137 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 11. How many children do you have in this household who contribute to Fishing activities? ________________________________ 12. How many children are away or migrated and could have been involved in fishing activities? ________________________________ 13. Were you born in Ningo-Prampram District? A. Yes B. No ( Ifv Yes Skip v v to Section B) v 14. If No to Q13, in which region were you born? A. Western B . C ventral C . G vreater Accra D . Vvolta E . E v astern v v v v v v F. Ashanti G. Brong Ahafo H . Nvorthern I. Uvpper East J.Upper West v v v v v v v v K. Other Please (Specify) ___________________________ SECTION B: SOCIO-ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF RECIPIENT HOUSEHOLD N 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Net Income 8. Other 9. Net Income o Age Se Marit Relationsh Level Main from the occupation/ from other x al ip to HH of Occupation/In main Other occupation/in Status Educ. come occupation/In income come generating come generating generating activity Generation activity activity Activity 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 138 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 8 9 1 0 Note: 1. Options for Q 2:A. Male B. Female 2. Options for Q 3. A. Never married B. Married C. Divorced D. Separated E. Widowed F. Consensual Union 3. Options for Q 4. A. Head B. Spouse C.Child D. Grandchild E. Parent / Parent-in-Law F. Son/ Daughter-in 4. Options for Q 5. A. None B. Primary C. Middle/J.H.S E.Voc/Tech/Comm. F.„O„/„A„ Level/S.H.S G.Tertiary H. Don„t Know 5. Options for Q 6 &7 A. Farming B. Trading C.Teaching D.Fishing.E.Pupil/Student/Apprentice F.Artisan G.Unemployed H.Retired I.other,specify………… SECTION C: HOUSEHOLD AND COMMUNITY KNOWLWEGE ON OUT- MIGRATION 15. Do you have migrants in this household? A) Yes B) No v v v v 16. If yes Q15, how many migrants do you have in this household………………………… 17. Where do they normally migrate to…………..? A. Western B . C ventral C. G v reater Accra D . Vvolta E . Evastern v v v v v v F. Ashanti G. Brong Ahafo H . Nvorthern I. Uvpper East J. Uvpper West v v v v v v v K. Other Please (Specify………………………………… 18. Who makes the decision to migrate in this household? A. Personal decision B .F avmily/household decision C . Bo v th Personal and family v v v v D.Others (Specify)………………v ……….. v v 139 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 19. How do they migrate? A) Air v B) Sea vC) Road D )v Rail v E) others please v v v v (Specify)………… …. 20. Were Migrant(s) in this household employed before moving? A. Yes v B.No v v v v v 21 If yes to Q20, what kind of work/job? A. Fishing B. Fvarming C.P aid family business Dv.Unpaid family work v v v v v E.Government workv F. Oth e rs (Specify)……………… ……v . v v v v 22. In your view do you think migration has any effects on fishing activities in this household? A. Yes vB.No v v v v v 23. If yes, in what ways? (No to Q22 Skip to Q24) A. Shortages of labour B. Decrease in fishing activities C. Low fish production v v v v v v v v v D. Improved ways of fishing. E. vOthers (specify)………………….. v v 24. In your opinion, what factors attract people of this area to the other fishing areas? (Multiple answers allowed) A. Fishing Employment Opportunities v v B.Good fishing Economy v v v C. Fulfilling traditional v v v D. New Techniques of fishing v v v E. Others (Specify)………………… ……v ….. v v 140 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh SECTION D: MIGRANTS CONTACT AND REMITTANCE EFFECTS ON MIGRANT HOUSEHOLDS AND THE COMMUNITY. 25. Does this household maintain contact with fisher migrant(s)? A. Yes B . N co c v v v v v v 26. If yes to Q25, how often do the migrants contact home? v v A. Once a week B. Once a month C c. Once a quarter D. Once a year c c v v c v v E. Other (specify)…………v …………… v v v v v v v v v v v 27. How do they maintain this contact? A. Through visits B . P hcone/mobile calls C . Scocial media D. Returnees v c c v v v E. other (Specify)……………v v v v v v v v v v v v 28. Has this household receive any remittances from fisher migrant(s)? A. Yes B .c NO c v v v v v v 29. If yes to Q28, how often do fisher migrant(s) remit to this household? v v A. Daily B . vWeekly C. Mv onthly D . Y c early c v v v v E. Other (specifyv)…………………v…… v v v v v v v 30. What kind of remittance did this household received from migrant fishers? A. Cash B.I nc-kind C b octh c v v v v v v v v v 28 How much does this household receive remittance from fisher migrants(s) per v v v day/week/month/year…………………… (Select one) 29. What ways do this household receive remittances from migrants? A. Banks B. Mobile money outlets C. From Returnees B. D. Others (specify)………… SECTION E: REMITTANCES RECEIVED BY HOUSEHOLD 30. Do you receive remittances from outside the region but within Ghana? A. Yes B. No 141 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 31. If yes, proceed with the following? No. of 1.Age 2.Sex 3.Marital 4.Relationship 5.Level 6.Number 7.Occupation 8.Place & 9. Total Number of Remitter Status to HH of of this region of amount of years at Education individual Residence in-cash destination „s remittances children received in this from this household person in the past 12 months. (GH¢) Note: 1. Options for Q 2:A. Male B. Female 2. Options for Q 3. A. Never married B. Married C. Divorced D. Separated E. Widowed F. Consensual Union 3. Options for Q 4. A. Head B. Spouse C.Child D. Grandchild E. Parent / Parent-in-Law F. Son/ Daughter-in 4. Options for Q 5. A. None B. Primary C. Middle/J.H.S D. Voc/Tech/Comm. E.„O„/„A„ Level/S.H.S Tertiary F. Don„t Know 5. Options for Q 7 A. Farming B. Trading C.Teaching D.Fishing. E.Pupil/Student/Apprentice F. Artisan Unemployed Retired I.other,specify………… 142 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 32. What items did this household spent remittance on with last 1 or 12 months ITEMS Estimated Value(GH 1 MONTH 1 YEAR Consumption food: (grains/cereals, meat,vegetables, soft drinks) Consumption food: non-food (clothing, footwear, furnishings, household equipment, entertainment & etc) Housing Education (school fees, uniforms, books, extra classes, T&T) Fishing activities (labour, marketing, sales , fishing tools and equipments, etc) Utilities ( water, rent,electricity, gas and others) Social Events (funerals, weddings, dowries, &others) Self-help Projects Contribution Gifts, present and other transfer Business Other Expenditure 143 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 33. Does this household receive any other things apart from cash remittances? A. Yes B.No 34. If yes to Q33, what kind of items A. Clothing v v B. Unprocessed foodst uffs v v C. New ideas of fishing. v v v D.Others specify………………. v 35. Does the household provide an y assistance to the migrant? A. Yes Bc .No v v v v v v 36. If yes to Q35, what kind of as sistance does the household provide? v A. Foodstuffs v v B. Prepared Food Items v v v C. Money for Transportation (Retuvrn Jo urney) v v D. Child Care v v v E. Prayers. v v v F. Other (Specify)…… …………… 37. What do you think are the effects of remittances on the households in this community (Multiply answers allowed?) A. Migration culture v v B. Improved standard of livingv v v C. Remittances over dependenc e v v v D. High inflationary prices on goods and s evrvice v v E. Other(specify) v v v v SECTION F: EFFECT OF OUT-MIGRATION ON GENDER ROLES. 38. What role(s) did women in this household play before migration (multiple answers allowed)? A. Child bearers v v B.Retailers of fish v v v v 144 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh C.Subordinate of men v v D.Care givers v v v E.Others (specify)………v ………… .. 39. In the absence of the women who takes care of the children A. Female Member of the household v v B. Male member of the household v v v C.Husband doubles up their roles as both parvent s v v E.Others (specify)…………………… v 40. Does the absence of women have any effect on the households? A Yes B. Nvo v v v v v 41. If yes to Q39 , in what way s. A. Poor care giving to children v v B. Reduction to children v v v C. Decrease in household income v v v D. Increase in household saving and i nvestmenvt v v Others (specify) v 42. What role(s) did men play in this house before migrating (multiple answers allowed)? A. Bread winners v v B. Head of family/householdsv v v C. Discipline children v v v D. Protector of the household/family v v E. Others specify v 43. In the absence of the man who takes care of the children in this household A. Wife doubles up role as both parents v v B. Female member of the household v v v C.Male member of the households v v v D. Others (specify)…………………………… v v 44. Is there any effect when men migrate from this household? A. Yes B . vNo v v v v v 145 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 45. If yes to Q44, how? A. Increase in household income v v B. Unable to discipline children v v v v C. Poor child care v v v D. Others (specify)……………v …………… 46. Do you think out-migratio n has any effect on school attendance on children? A. Yes Bv . No v v v 47. If yes to Q46 inv what ways. v v A. School dropout v v B. Street Child v v C.Improved School attendance v v D. Unwanted Pregnancies v v E. Others (specify)………………………. 48. Do migrant parents maintain contact with their children? A. Yes v B.No v v v 49. If yes to Q48 how often? A. Daily B .w veekly C. Mvonthly D .vYearly v v v v v 50. Does their contact with their children have any effect on school attendance? A. Yes v B. No v v v 51. If yes to Q50? In what ways A. Prevent Absenteeism v v v B. It creates bond for both parents and children v v v C. No effect on school attendance v v D. Others (Specify)………………………… IDENTIFICATION FORM 146 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh REGION _________________________________________________ DISTRICT__________________________________________________ TOWN/VILLAGE/SETTLEMENT______________________________________________ PLACE OF INTERVIEW_____________________________________________________ NAME OF INTERVIEWER________________________SIGNATURE_______________ NAME OF INTERVIEWEE___________________________________________________ DATE ___________________________________________________________________ START OF INTERVIEW __________________________________________________ END OF INTERVIEW_______________DURATION OF INTERVIEW________________ Interview Guide for chief fishermen 1. How many people in this community contribute to fishing activities ( probe for the number of fishers, migrants and non-fisher) 2. What makes people in this community move (Probe for reasons for out-migration and destination) 3. How do people in this community migrate?( Probe for who makes migration decisions) 4. Does this community maintain contact with migrant fishers ( Probe for type, frequency of contact and who they contact) 5. Do migrant fishers remit to this community ( Probe for frequency, quantum and usage and effects of remittance) 147 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6. Does this community send food items or money to migrant fishers( probe for the type of food item, frequency of the money sent and usage) 7. How does this community view the roles of men and women before out-migration (Probe for changes in gender roles, consequence etc) 8. Does out-migration have any effect on fishing activities in this community ( probe for change in labour, fish production, sales etc) 9. Finally, do you think out-migration has any effect in this community.( Probe for positive and negative outcomes of out-migration) 148 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh IDENTIFICATION FORM REGION _________________________________________________ DISTRICT__________________________________________________ TOWN/VILLAGE/SETTLEMENT______________________________________________ PLACE OF INTERVIEW______________________________________________________ NAME OF INTERVIEWER__________________________SIGNATURE______________ NAME OF INTERVIEWEE___________________________________________________ DATE _____________________________________________________________________ START OF INTERVIEW ______________________________________________________ END OF INTERVIEW _________________DURATION OF INTERVIEW______________ Interview guide for household heads 1. How many people do you have in this household ( probe for the number of migrants and non-migrants) 2. What makes people in this household move (Probe for reasons for out-migration and destination) 3. How do people in this household migrate?( Probe for who make migration decisions) 4. Does this household maintain contact with migrant fishers ( Probe for type, frequency of contact and who they contact) 149 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5. Do migrant fishers remit to this Household ( Probe for frequency, quantum and usage and effects of remittance) 6. Does this household send food items or money to migrant fishers( probe for the type of food item, frequency of the money sent and usage) 7. How does this household view the roles of men and women before out-migration (Probe for changes in gender roles, consequence etc). 8. Does out-migration have any effect on fishing activities in this household( probe for change in labour, fish production, sales etc) 9. Finally, do you think out-migration has any effect in this household.( Probe for positive and negative outcomes of out-migration) SOCIO DEMOGRAPHIC PROFILE OF RESPONDENT 150 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh No of Age of Sex of Level of Marital Type of No Place of Respondents Respondents respondents education status employm of children Birth ent Focus Group discussion for Household Heads in Ningo-Prampram district. 1. I will like everyone to introduce him/herself; can you tell us your name( probe sex,marital status,level of education etc)? 2. How many migrant fishers do you have in your household and where do they move to (probe for migration destinations ,reasons for migration, type of migrants, etc)? 3. Tell us how people in your household move (Probe for who make migration decisions) 4. Can someone tell us how migrant fishers maintain contact with household and how often they hear from him or her( Probe for contact frequency,type and who they contact)? 5. Do migrant fishers remit to your household(s) and if they do how often( Probe for quantum, frequency , flow and usage and effects of remittances) 6. Do any of the household here send money or foods to migrants( probe for type of food sent,money,etc)? 7. How are women or men roles viewed households before migration and what effects does it have on the household if one or both migrate( Probe for change of gender roles). 151 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 8. Does out-migration also have any effect on fishing activities in your households( probe change in labour, fish production,sales etc) 9. In your view do you think out-migration has any effect on migrant households in general 152 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh SOCIO DEMOGRAPHIC PROFILE OF RESPONDENT No of Age of Sex of Level of Marital Type of No Place of Respondents Respondents respondents education status employm of children Birth ent 153 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Focus Group Discussions for Opinion Leaders in the community (chief fishermen) 1. I will like everyone to introduce him/herself; can you tell us your name( probe sex,marital status,level of education etc)? 2. How many migrant fishers do you have in your community and where do they move to (probe for migration destinations ,reasons for migration, type of migrants, etc)? 3. Tell us how people in your community move (Probe for who make migration decisions) 4. Can someone tell us how migrant fishers maintain contact with commnunity members and how often they hear from him or her( Probe for contact fequency,type and who they contact)? 5. Do migrant fishers remit to this community?( Probe for quantum, frequency , flow and usage and effects of remittances). 6. Do community send money or foods to migrant fishers( probe for type of food sent,money,etc)? 7. How are women or men roles viewed in this community before migration and what effects does it have on the community if one or both migrate( Probe for change of gender roles). 8. Does out-migration also have any effect on fishing activities in your households( probe change in labour, fish production,sales etc) 9. In your view do you think out-migration has any effect on the community in general ( probe for positive and negative otcomes of out-migration) 154