University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh INFLUENCE OF ADVERTISING ON AUDIENCE BODY IMAGE PERCEPTIONS BY EILEEN DEKOMWIN NAAZIE 10243637 “THIS THESIS IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF Mphil in COMMUNICATION STUDIES DEGREE JULY 2019 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DECLARATION I declare that the work contained in this study was carried out by the researcher and has not been previously published by any other researcher. All works cited to facilitate the discussion within this study have been duly acknowledged. ………………….. ……………………… Eileen Dekomwin Naazie Dr. Abena Animwaa Yeboah-Banin (Student) (Supervisor) i University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DEDICATION “You are my sunshine, my only sunshine, you make me happy when skies are grey, You’d never know dear how much I LOVE YOU!!! ” My dearest Allegra, you have been my source of inspiration. Thank you for understanding my long absences away from you. Your hugs and kisses have brought me peace and spurred me on this journey. I love you my Ally Booboo, My Ally Sunshine. Naa Bubu, We loved you before we met you and will continue to love you as you smile down on us. Rest well our sweetest angel. ii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS It has not been an easy road and all thanks be to God for the strength and fortitude to endure and forge ahead. For the good health, wisdom and all answered prayers I am forever grateful. To answered prayers through St Thomas Aquinas and St Joseph of Cupertino may your good work continue. To my parents Prof and Mrs. Naazie, what will I have done without you? Your constant support, prayers and encouragement and reminder of your love have brought me thus far. My dearest siblings and family who stepped up when I needed them the most I say God bless you. My dearest Ally thank you for being the most understanding baby, for forgiving me for the all the long periods away from you and still loving me. You are my little wonder woman. My supervisor, I am appreciative for the constant attention, encouragement and all the help in making sure that I realized my potential. Thank you and God bless you for pushing me to be above average. Your Range Rover shall surely come. My gratitude would not be complete if I did not acknowledge Dr. Tietaah, Fidelis and Silas. I pray God rewards you in a very special way for the constant support. Shady Gang - Eugene, Ann Marie, Roger, Nathaniel and Lena - my people, my rides or die, my sounding board, my konkonsa group, my lifter uppers, my nonsense people, the ones I met along the way. You’ve become the many more siblings I never had. Lena, Lena, Lena!!! I call your name three times because in you I found a sister and gained three more sisters. Without you, this journey would have been by far a very boring one. Through the ups and downs you have stuck by me and right now all I can say is thank you. iii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION.......................................................................................................................................... i DEDICATION............................................................................................................................................. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...................................................................................................................... iii LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................................................... vii LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................................................. viii ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................................ ix CHAPTER ONE ......................................................................................................................................... 1 1.0 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................. 1 1.1 BACKGROUND ................................................................................................................................... 1 1.1.2 ADVERTISING AS A CULTURE TRANSMITTER .................................................................... 2 1.1.3 CULTURAL PERSPECTIVES OF BEAUTY ................................................................................ 3 1.1.4 ADVERTISING, MEDIA HEGEMONY AND NOTIONS OF BEAUTY. .................................. 5 1.1.5 ADVERTISING IMAGES, GENDER AND AUDIENCE BODY PERCEPTIONS ................... 6 1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT .................................................................................................................. 7 1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY ......................................................................................................... 8 1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS .................................................................................................................. 9 1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY ..................................................................................................... 9 1.6 ORGANISATION OF THE STUDY ................................................................................................ 10 1.7 DEFINITION OF TERMS ................................................................................................................. 11 1.8 CHAPTER SUMMARY ..................................................................................................................... 11 CHAPTER TWO ...................................................................................................................................... 13 THEORITICAL FRAMEWORK ........................................................................................................... 13 2.0 Introduction ......................................................................................................................................... 13 2.1 Social Comparison Theory ................................................................................................................. 13 2.2 RELATED STUDIES ......................................................................................................................... 17 2.3 Media Exposure and Internalization of Idealized Images ............................................................... 22 2.4 Body Surveillance ................................................................................................................................ 25 2.5 Advertising Literacy ........................................................................................................................... 27 2.6 Gendered Effects of Idealized Advertising Images .......................................................................... 28 2.7 Hypotheses Development .................................................................................................................... 29 2.7.0 Main Effects Hypotheses ................................................................................................................. 29 2.7.1Exposure and Internalization ............................................................................................................ 29 iv University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.7.2 Internalization and Body Surveillance ............................................................................................. 30 2.7.3 Gender differences in Internalization and Body Surveillance ........................................................ 31 2.7.4 The moderating role of advertising literacy over the exposure-internalization link ...................... 32 2.8. Conceptual Model .............................................................................................................................. 33 2.9 Chapter Summary .............................................................................................................................. 34 CHAPTER THREE .................................................................................................................................. 34 METHODOLOGY ................................................................................................................................... 35 3.0 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................... 35 3.1 SETTING OF THE STUDY .............................................................................................................. 35 3.2 RESEARCH DESIGN ........................................................................................................................ 36 3.3 SAMPLE SIZE AND SAMPLING PROCEDURE ......................................................................... 36 3.4 INSTRUMENT ................................................................................................................................... 39 3.4.0 DEMOGRAPHICS .......................................................................................................................... 39 3.4.1 IDEALIZED IMAGES .................................................................................................................... 40 3.4.2 INTERNALIZATION OF BEAUTY IDEALS ............................................................................. 40 3.4.3 ADVERTISING LITERACY ......................................................................................................... 40 3.4.4 BODY SURVEILLANCE ............................................................................................................... 41 3.4.5 EXPOSURE TO IDEALIZED ADVERTISING IMAGES ......................................................... 41 3.5 PRETESTING ..................................................................................................................................... 41 3.6 DATA COLLECTION ....................................................................................................................... 42 3.7 DATA ANALYSIS .............................................................................................................................. 42 3.8 CHAPTER SUMMARY ..................................................................................................................... 42 CHAPTER FOUR ..................................................................................................................................... 43 FINDINGS ................................................................................................................................................. 43 4.0 Introduction ......................................................................................................................................... 44 4.1 SAMPLE DESCRIPTION ................................................................................................................. 44 4.1.1 IDEALIZED IMAGES .................................................................................................................... 45 4.1.2 ADVERTISING ENGAGEMENT ................................................................................................. 46 4.2 MEASURE ASSESSMENT AND DEVELOPMENT ..................................................................... 47 4.2.1 Factor Analysis Model ..................................................................................................................... 48 4.3. Convergent and Discriminant Validity ............................................................................................ 50 4.4 HYPOTHESES TESTING ................................................................................................................. 52 4.5 Post hoc analysis .................................................................................................................................. 62 v University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.6 Empirical model .................................................................................................................................. 64 4.7 Chapter Summary .............................................................................................................................. 65 CHAPTER FIVE ...................................................................................................................................... 66 DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS ................................................................................................................. 66 5.0 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................... 66 5.1 The Nature of the Relationship between Exposure to Idealized Images and Internalization ...... 68 5.2 The Moderating Role of Advertising Literacy ................................................................................. 69 5.3 Audience Responses to Idealized Images .......................................................................................... 70 5.4 Gender and Audience Responses to Idealized Advertising Images ................................................ 70 5. 5 Gender, Idealized Advertising Images and Self- presentation ....................................................... 71 5.6 Chapter Summary .............................................................................................................................. 72 CHAPTER SIX ......................................................................................................................................... 72 CONCLUSIONS ....................................................................................................................................... 73 6.0 Introduction ......................................................................................................................................... 73 6.1 Summary of main findings ................................................................................................................. 73 6.2 Implications of Findings ..................................................................................................................... 74 6.3 Study Recommendations .................................................................................................................... 75 6.4 Limitations of the Study ..................................................................................................................... 76 6.5 Chapter Summary .............................................................................................................................. 77 REFERENCES .......................................................................................................................................... 77 APPENDIX A ............................................................................................................................................ 89 SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE FOR WOMEN ...................................................................................... 89 APPENDIX B ............................................................................................................................................ 94 SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE FOR MEN ............................................................................................. 94 vi University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Summary of Key Literature Reviewed 17 Table 2: Advertising Engagement across Media 45 Table 3: Results from Exploratory Factor Analysis 49 Table 4: Results from Final Factor Analysis 50 Table 5: Results from Reliability Testing 51 Table 6: Results from Discriminant Validity Test 52 Table 7: Model Summary for Hypothesis One 53 Table 8: ANOVA Table for Hypothesis One 54 Table 9: Coefficients Table for Hypothesis One 54 Table 10: Model Summary for Hypothesis Two 55 Table 11: ANOVA Table for Hypothesis Two 55 Table 12: Coefficients Table for Hypothesis Two 56 Table 13: Group Statistics Table for Hypothesis Three 57 Table 14: Independent Samples Test for Hypothesis Three 58 Table 15: Independent Samples Test for Hypothesis Four 59 Table 16: Model Summary for Hypothesis Five 60 Table 17: ANOVA Table for Hypothesis Five 60 Table 18: Coefficients Table for Hypothesis Five 61 Table 19: Summary of the Hypothesis Test Results 62 Table 20: ANOVA Table for Post hoc Analysis 63 Table 21: Coefficients Table for Post hoc Analysis 64 Table 22: Summary of Findings 67 vii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Conceptual Model 34 Figure 2: Age of Respondents 45 Figure 3: Idealized Images in Ghana 46 Figure 4: Empirical Model 65 viii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ABSTRACT This is a quantitative study using the survey method to gauge the effects idealized images in advertising have on respondents’ body image. Using the Social Comparison Theory as theoretical background, this study looked into whether individuals were affected by the idealized images employed in advertising. The objective of the study was to explore if Ghanaians suffer body image issues after being exposed to idealized images in advertisements as indicated in literature from other countries. A survey of three hundred and six male and female resident undergraduate students of the University of Ghana was undertaken. Two sets of questionnaires, adjusted to suit each gender, were used in in collecting data. Findings from the study indicated that mere exposure to such images did not have an effect on internalization, suggesting that something else other than exposure was causing respondents to internalize these ideals. Once they internalize these beauty ideals, however, it was linked to the degree to which individuals begun to question and monitor their body’s appearance. The study also showed that males and females did not differ in their acceptance of advertising beauty ideals but rather in how they looked at themselves to be meeting the requirements of such ideals. Once internalization of advertising beauty ideals takes place, women surveilled their bodies more than men did. Finally, the study drew from previous research to test a possible moderating influence of advertising literacy on the relationship between exposure and internalization. Contrary to literature suggesting that advertising literacy would mitigate the effects of exposure to idealized images, findings indicated that advertising literacy did not have any such effect among the sample studied. ix University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.0 INTRODUCTION This section serves as the introductory chapter. It contains the background, statement of the problem, objectives, hypotheses, significance of the study and the summary of the chapter. 1.1 BACKGROUND In contemporary times, it is almost impossible to consume any kind of media product without being faced with an advertisement. From primetime television, through music videos, magazines, and the World Wide Web, media consumers are frequently exposed to adverts. Organizations resort to advertising their goods and services so that they can influence consumers to patronize what they have to offer. Emphasis is placed on the consumer and what may draw their attention to make them purchase goods or services. Advertisers have come to believe that physically attractive models are persuasive and draw the attention of consumers to their brands (Bower & Landreth, 2001). The idea is that physically attractive advertising models represent images that audiences aspire to (Bibi & Grydeland, 2014). For this reason, advertisers use physically attractive models who represent idealized beauty notions to draw the attention of the consumer to what they have to offer as well as give them a more competitive edge over competing brands Erdogan (1999). Keeping in mind that traditional notions of beauty vary across cultures, the use of such idealized models and images can present challenges for the audience. This is especially so where the beauty University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ideals used in such adverts reflect beauty notions from other countries. The use of such models has been found to affect consumers, and their self-assessed worthiness (Sohn &Youn, 2013). Dyer states that though formal advertising began in industrialized countries, it spread through colonialism to other nations. When colonial traders imported goods from their countries into colonies, advertising was their way of informing their targets of their products. Such adverts however contained images that pertained to their culture (Dyer, 2015.p. 64). The images used by colonial traders in their ads were not limited to scenery or ambience but also emphasis was placed on the models and their looks, which included their clothing, hairstyles, body size and skin complexion. 1.1.2 ADVERTISING AS A CULTURE TRANSMITTER Taylor (1920) defined “culture as that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, acts, morals, law, custom and other capabilities and habits acquired by individuals as members of society.” Scholars such as Wijsen (1999) regard culture as a learned behaviour, which is passed on from generation to generation and can change with time. Jorda (2010) asserts that in contemporary times there are powerful vehicles through which new values are popularized and transmitted with speed and effectiveness. He points to advertising as one of such vehicles, which plays a very important role in cultural socialization. As Duran puts it, advertising is a major transmitter culture and models in ads consistently present to us ways of behaviour that make uniform our way of being (Duran, 1992). Advertising as a cultural transmitter has led to the assumption that advertising is a cultural artifact. Eguizábal (2009) states that global culture cannot be imagined without certain symbols from multinationals such as Coca-Cola, Nike and Yves Saint-Laurent suggesting that advertising creates and transmits culture, which translates into new social habits and customs. 2 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Vives suggests that advertising is like telling consumers: “have you noticed what is happening in the world?” (Vives, 2005. P. 169) Thus, Vives believes that advertising has monumental social importance because it wields great power to alter cultures, which includes the perception of self. 1.1.3 CULTURAL PERSPECTIVES OF BEAUTY Beauty or physical attractiveness is a subjectively elusive concept that has seen varied definitions by different scholars. According to Ibanga (2017), beauty is an essential and luxurious commodity that is not ubiquitous but is rather firmly implanted in cultural contexts. This because the perception of physical attractiveness is a culturally embedded concept which varies from culture to culture. For instance, western ideals of beauty vary from those of African people. Even within the African setting, southern African ideals may differ from western African ideals. Matiza (2013) asserts that the European view of beauty emphasizes women who are slim and tall whereas in the African sense “a huge woman with big breasts and big buttocks is considered to be an ideal beautiful African woman”. Calogero et al (2007), assert that western cultures place importance on the external features of a person with the emphasis being on body weight and shape. Harrison (2003) and Groesz, Levine and Murnen (2002) have also stated that the western ideal glorifies thinness but this thinness now includes the need for a flat tummy with a thin waist, rounded hips, well-developed breast, flawless skin, long legs, well-defined muscles. With regard to men, western cultures privilege muscularity and lean body (Ridgeway & Tylka, 2005). Again, Tiggemann, Martins and Kirkbride, (2007) agree the western ideal is one concerned with being lean, muscular and tall. In the African setting, however the ideals of physical attractiveness differ. Scholars such as Hunter and Davis (1992) defined a black (African) man’s attractiveness by their personal relations and responsibility to self, family, their social community. Hammond and Mat-tis (2005) also assert the 3 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh fact that for African man it was key to be responsible and accountable for their actions. In the same vein, Chaney (2009) found that black (African) men describe their attractiveness as encompassing a display of maturity, responsibility and self-awareness. However, African women, beauty notions historically emphasized functional value. For instance, a young girl’s full and rounded breasts suggest she is ready for the breastfeeding responsibilities that come with childbirth (Oloruntoba-Oju, 2007). Similarly, Muhammad (1993, p, 52) demonstrates that in his study of physical attractiveness (beauty) among the people of Sudan, concluded that beauty encompasses “good behaviour, skills knowledge, dress as well as physical features.” Beyond good behaviour, skills knowledge, dress as well as physical features, there are non-functional notions such as dark and shiny skin and heavy calves as has been described in folktales and popular music (Oloruntoba-Oju, 2007). To elaborate non-functional notions of beauty an example is the case of the popular 1960’s Ghanaian highlife song “Serwaa Akoto” where the singer extols the virtues of beauty his sister possessed. He showers praise on her because of her calm and demure nature and self- respect. He believes that her beauty has a calming and peaceful effect on those around her such that there would never be the sound of a gun in her presence. The virtues he extols are ones of both physical and attitudinal beauty, which means beauty goes beyond the physical. Clearly, notions of physical attractiveness vary with culture and can be deduced that looks by themselves may not be core definitions of beauty in many African cultures as the signs of beauty often also have functional purposes. Thus African notions of beauty contrasts with non-African cultures where looks play a central role in beauty and attractiveness. Matiza (2013) re-echoes a popular saying that “Beauty lies in the eyes of the beholder.” By this logic, the internal and external look combined is what Africans will be looking at in order to be considered beautiful. However, 4 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh for cultures such as western and European, the internal is of little cause in being considered beautiful or handsome. 1.1.4 ADVERTISING, MEDIA HEGEMONY AND NOTIONS OF BEAUTY. Antonio Gramsci describes hegemony as the “process of moral, philosophical and political leadership that a social group attains only with the active consent of other important social groups” (Gramsci, 1971 as cited in Artz & Murphy, 2003. p. 1). Gramsci is of the view that the real power is only achieved by convincing the lesser powers to see the world through their eyes. Viewing the world through the eyes of the super power is what Collins et al (2004) refer to as generating a shared “common sense”. This shared common sense entices developing nations to copy the examples of the economically advanced and powerful ones. Magder (2003) asserts that one of the ways through which the western world and Europe create and maintain dominance of a common worldview is by the use of global media system, whereby most information stems from them to developing nations and this information propagates western-based ideals throughout the world. Media content often mirror the ideas and viewpoint of the dominant western culture rather than of the many divergent perspectives found in the universal society. Media content that mirrors the idea and viewpoint of the dominant western culture translates to the advertising domain where adverts portray western physical attractiveness ideals. Through the spread of westerns ways of doing business and promoting brands, advertising practitioners in developing countries such as Ghana have imbibed western business and advertising ideals as the dominant worldview (Nyamnjoh, 2015). Such worldview has found its way into local advertising content. Thus while local adverts still show models that exemplify traditional Ghanaian beauty 5 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ideals, they are also replete with western beauty ideals. For instance, scanning through Ghanaian ads, one would be faced with models with very slender bodies, fairer or almost mulatto- looking skin colour. These models are seen with heavily made up faces, western styled clothing, straight hairstyles achieved by virtue of wearing wigs and weaves. With regard, to men they are portrayed with lean bodies, bare-chested and showing their abdominal muscles as well as having a lot of facial hair groomed to perfection. 1.1.5 ADVERTISING IMAGES, GENDER AND AUDIENCE BODY PERCEPTIONS Advertising and the images employed in ads play an outstanding role in molding the cultural and social idea of what physical attractiveness must look like and this influences audiences’ attitudes towards their bodies. This influence is achieved through social comparisons with one’s self and advertising images (Bordo, 2003). The advertising images employed imply that certain ideals are accessible through diet exercise, accessories as well as fashionable clothing, make-up and weight-management activities such as detoxification (Ogle &Thornburg, 2003). However, according to Gustafson, Popovich and Thomsen (1999), though it is effective from an advertising perspective to use physically good looking models, the utilization of such models is a highly delicate issue for women. This is because according to Lerner, Orlos and Knapp (1976), the sense of self for women unlike for men is based primarily on a females’ sense of physical attractiveness. Thus, the physical attractiveness of a woman is a prompter for her to compare herself to idealized images which she has come to believe are the societal standard because of the physical perfection these ideals tend to portray (Richins,1991). Previous research by scholars signpost images utilized in ads as having a negative influence on women’s body image, self-esteem 6 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh as well as state of mind, and make them engage in appearance management ( Hargreaves & Tiggermann, 2003. 2004; Jung & Lennon, 2003). Previous research also shows that men whose beauty notions have not historically been constructed to emphasize the physical are also susceptible to advertising effects. Pope et al (2000) explored issues of obsession pertaining to male body and found that ads, irrespective of what they sell, used male models with muscular bodies and washboard abs only achievable by the use of drugs. According to Pope et al, as ads focus on men’s body they have become increasingly engrossed in their muscularity. This change is the development of the Adonis complex, which is the bodily aesthetic norm. Hellmich (2000) is of the view that men are being consistently and continuously exposed to idealized images and have to deal with the increasing exploitation of their bodies, which have the same adverse effects that women have suffered for years when it comes to the exposure to idealized images. 1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT Advertising has been generating and reinforcing western and Eurocentric body image as the ideal and up to standard social benchmark that audiences should mimic (Killbourne, 1999). Across various advertising media, audiences are greeted with thin bodies, flowing long hair and fairer skin targeting women, whereas there are muscular bodies with defined chiseled abdominal muscles and well-groomed facial hair for men. Due to the pervasive nature of ads with such models, audience members are believed to internalize these body ideals and thus take steps to achieve same. Sohn and Youn (2013) argue that the body types shown in ads are so impractical that only 5% of women in the population would be able to attain that type of body and looks. The inability to attain such looks and bodies may lead to audience members being dissatisfied with their bodies and adopting what in their view amount to remedial actions, which may be harmful. Researchers have explored 7 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh these issues including a rising interest in men’s body image research (McNeil & Firman, 2014; Galioto & Crowther, 2013) The possible negative impacts that unattainable images in adverts have on audiences (Venkat & Ogden, 2002) make the issue worthy of further exploration, especially given the growing trend towards the use of models whose beauty standards do not reflect cultural beauty notions. Existing scholarship on the issue, however, focuses on Caucasian women with little attention on people from Africa or African descent, where hegemonic beauty notions contradict traditional ones. Secondly, existing knowledge that discusses these issues with respect to males are also few and tend to be biased towards studying Caucasian men (Hogg, 2003). Thus, a lot remains to be understood as to how beauty notions of African individuals are shaped by those depicted in ads. It is with this in mind that this study sought to explore whether or not young Ghanaians who are exposed to hegemonic ideas of beauty in ads internalize such ideas as standard and whether the acceptance of such ideals play any part in their self-assessments and self-presentation efforts. 1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY The overarching purpose of this study is to explore if Ghanaians suffer body image issues after being exposed to idealized images in advertisements as indicated in literature from other countries. Specifically, the study seeks to establish:  Whether exposure to idealized images shapes an acceptance of such images as representing standards of beauty.  Whether individuals’ responses to idealized images have any implications for their self- presentation. 8 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh  Whether there are individual differences among Ghanaian males and females’ responses to idealized images.  Whether the relationship between exposure to and internalization of idealized advertising images is subject to any moderating influences. 1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS This study seeks to answer the following questions:  What is the nature of the relationship between exposure to idealized advertising images and the acceptance of such images as beauty standards?  Do Ghanaian advertising audiences’ responses to idealized images have an effect on how they view and present themselves?  Do males and females differ in their responses to idealized advertising images?  Are there any boundary conditions that moderate the relationship between exposure to idealized advertising images and audience responses? 1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY There are scores of studies which focus on the repercussions of idealized advertising images on women of races that ascribe to western ideals of what being physically attractive must look like (see: Engeln-Maddox, 2005, Becker, 2004 and Luther,2009). However, very few of those studies look at races that do not ascribe to such beauty ideals and its resulting outcomes. Doing this study in Ghana where the notions of beauty differ from those of the West presents opportunity to contribute to literature on how received notions of beauty reflect in audience members’ self- evaluation and presentation. 9 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Secondly, existing studies have a bias on female audiences and their responses to idealized advertising images. This study’s inclusion and analysis of the effects of idealized advertising images on male audiences will add to the emerging growing body-image literature. Specifically, this study enables understanding of such effects among an African male sample. In doing this, the study also enables the understanding of the gender-based differences between men and women through comparative analysis. Finally, the study is expected to draw the attention of advertising practitioners to the kind of power they wield over viewers and how they may or may not make viewers develop body image issues especially when it comes to their choice in model selection, the kind of copy written and treatment given to scripts for ads. Findings of the study may also throw light on how regulators such as the National Media Commission may institute measures to curb any negative effects that hegemonic advertising ideals have on viewers. 1.6 ORGANISATION OF THE STUDY This study is organized into Six Chapters. Chapter one introduces the study and lays down the background of the study. It also presents the problem, objectives as well the thrust of the study. The second chapter discusses the Social Comparison Theory which the theory on which this study is based on. Related studies were also reviewed in this chapter and hypotheses were presented based on findings from existing literature. Chapter Three, deals with the methodology employed in undertaking the study including sampling, data collection and analysis. Chapter Four presents the findings of the study while Chapter Five discusses of the findings. Finally, Chapter Six concludes the study by summarizing the findings, outlining some of its limitations and providing some recommendations for future studies. 10 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.7 DEFINITION OF TERMS For the purpose of this study, the following concepts were defined operationally to mean as follows; Body image: “one’s attitudes and perceptions about one’s own body and physical appearance”. Idealized images: Pictures portraying a standard of perfection, exaggerated and unrealistic, which may differ from one's own appearance or those of the generality of the population. Internalization: “the extent to which an individual cognitively buys into socially defined ideals of attractiveness” Body Surveillance: is defined it “as monitoring one’s appearance by checking” how it compares to ideal body standards Advertising Literacy: The ability to recognize, evaluate and critically analyze as well as understand adverts as commercial information aimed at influencing the audience Exposure to idealized advertising images: is referred to as the degree to which audience members have come into contact with idealized images in adverts. 1.8 CHAPTER SUMMARY This chapter has introduced the study and the problem it seeks to address. The chapter touched on advertising as a transmitter of culture, varied cultural perspectives of beauty. There was also an overview on how advertising and media hegemony influenced notions of beauty (physical attractiveness) as well as how advertising images affect audience body perceptions. Within the chapter, the problem, which this study seeks to explore, was introduced along with the objectives, research questions and significance of the study. 11 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 12 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER TWO THEORITICAL FRAMEWORK 2.0 Introduction This chapter seeks to examine the theory that underpins this study. Most of the studies reviewed used the Social Comparison Theory to analyze how exposure to idealized images in the media affect body image perceptions of audiences. Accordingly, the theory was used in this study as the basis for understanding the issues this study sought to explore. 2.1 Social Comparison Theory The Social Comparison Theory propounded by Leon Festinger in 1954, asserts, “that individuals have the urge to measure their opinions and abilities”, and in an environment that lacks unbiased and non-social criteria, people tend to partake in social comparison. What this means is that people begin to measure their abilities and opinions to those of others because they are social beings and thus want to fit in; such comparisons however are undertaken with people of similarity. Social comparisons can take place in an array of issues including both desired and undesired behaviours and attitudes. Scholars have also suggested that comparisons are not only to do with opinions and abilities but also encompasses physical looks and even eating habits (Morrison et al, 2004). The social comparisons individuals engage in may also vary depending on directionality. For instance, some may be upward comparisons whereas others may be downward comparisons. 13 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Downward comparison happens when the individual juxtaposes himself or herself to another who is worse off than they are or whom they believe themselves to be better positioned than on an issue of interest. Morrison et al (2004) state that when this happens it enhances the subjective wellbeing of the individual in the area in which the comparison is being made. In other words, downward comparisons may contribute to positive self-perceptions (Bunnk et al, 1990). Relative to how audiences engage with adverts and the idealized images in them, the theory suggests that when an audience member compares him or herself to the idealized images they are exposed to and feel that they are better than the model; they tend to have good feelings about themselves (Durkin, Paxton and Sorbello, 2007). In contrast, upward comparison may decrease individual wellbeing because the object of the comparison is deemed to fare better on the issue of interest than the individual conducting the comparison (Morrison et al, 2004). According to the theory, objects along with the issues that are the basis of the comparison may also be either particularistic or universalistic. Universalistic targets are those seen as “distant sources of influence such as mass media.” These universalistic targets are deemed to evoke pressure from individuals to comply with “idealistic standards of attractiveness” rather than particularistic targets such as family and friends (Luther, 2009). It is within this context of the universalistic basis of comparison that this study employs the theory. According to Luther (2009), the social environment we find ourselves in prompts the process of comparison even when, individuals do not actively seek to undertake such comparison. In the case of media and advertising, it appears that exposure to idealized images will activate unconscious 14 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh comparisons that audience members use to assess how they measure up to the models selling solutions, dreams and aspirations to them. As Krayer et al (2008) argue, social comparisons activate three responses - self-evaluation, self- improvement and self-enhancement. Self-evaluations happen when individuals gather information about their status relative to others when it comes to social expectations. For instance, faced with a beautiful advertising model, the audience member may initiate a self-evaluation exercise where individuals equate their physical appearance to those of the model. There is also the self- improvement where individuals gather information from their comparison on how to improve certain characteristics or correct particular handicaps they have relative to the comparison object. This may take the form of, for instance, learning how to be more attractive. Finally, there is the self-enhancement which Krayer et al (2008) assert that it is the discounting of information which individuals feel are not relevant to them in terms of models used in ads. These three responses to social comparison maybe be intercepted by advertising literacy, because advertising literacy interventions are designed to elicit the viewing of idealized images with a critical mindset, which aids in the mitigation of the consequences of exposure to such images (Levine and Harrison, 2004). By implication, audiences’ exposure to advertising images is not to be taken for granted as such exposure may lead to self-assessments that can have consequences for their well-being. To the extent that audiences view advertising models as representing socially constructed and accepted beauty ideals (Holstrom, 2004), such comparison should motivate people to improve themselves if they deem themselves to be lacking against that standard. Dittmar and Howard (2004) suggest that being exposed to idealized images allows consumers to draw an analogy between themselves and the models used in the media. Interestingly, models in ads often portray 15 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh unattainable standards of beauty as their looks are significantly altered with the help of digital enhancement software such as Photoshop and adobe premiere (Levine & Smolak, 1996). For places such as Ghana, challenges posed by these increasingly idealized and enhanced beauty portrayals given their deviation from traditionally held notions of beauty may be higher. Historically male and female beauty ideas in Ghana include expectations of social character, which conform to community standards and communicate purpose, values and morals. Thus Ghanaian (African) notions of beauty transcend the physical and highlight attitudes and demeanor of individuals (Calogero et al, 2007). Advertising models increasingly present different ideals where non-African criteria are the norm (Bryant 2013). That being the case, the comparisons that audiences are invited to engage in and encouraged to seek corrective measures, through the purchase of advertised products is bound to produce dissonance. In this light, many scholars (see Richins 1991; Luther, 2009; Dittmar & Howard, 2004; Holstrom, 2004) have employed the social comparison theory to explain body image perceptions and their links to media representations and images. For instance, Strahan, Wilson, Cressman, & Buote (2006) in their study found that men made more downward comparisons rather than upwards in terms of appearance when they compared themselves to others than to models. Similarly, Karazsia and Crowther (2009) were of the view that body comparisons by men were only done with targets perceived more similar than with other targets such as models. However, these studies treat members of the audience as a homogenous group of people affected uniformly by exposure to idealized images. They do not take into account the fact comparisons in either direction (downward or upward) may not take place because the models used may not have the looks audience aspire to have, especially where their physical looks may not be what is considered as attractive within their cultural contexts. 16 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.2 RELATED STUDIES This section reviews studies on the use of idealized images in ads as well the outcomes of exposure to such images. In addition, studies on self-objectification, body surveillance and body shaming are reviewed. The findings from the various studies reviewed when put together draw a big picture of how individuals are influenced by the use of idealized images in the media. Following the initial review of the literature, two main issues emerged. In the first instance, it is found that research material on African men and women and their exposure to advertising beauty ideals and the subsequent effects of that exposure is scant. Studies, which look into the use of idealized images and its subsequent effects on the audience members’ body image, tend to focus on Caucasian samples or cultures whose notions of physical beauty conforms to the dominant images portrayed in the media (Hogg, 2012). Secondly, while the literature is replete with studies on advertising influences on women’s body image issues (see: Poorani, 2012; Sohn &Youn, 2013; Thompson & Stice, 2001; Vadenbosch & Eggermont, (2012), when it comes to men it is an emerging field of research. Below, the evidence from existing literature is presented. 17 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 1: Key Summary of Literature Reviewed Title PROBLEM VARIABLES METHOD THEORY FINDINGS “Irving, L. M., & Berel, S. R. Whether advertising Body image Experiment Social The findings suggested (2001). Comparison of Media- literacy intervention measures, comparison that advertising literacy Literacy Programs to Strengthen could promote Media interventions was College Womens Resistance To advertising skepticism, skepticism, effective, however, Media Images. Psychology of which may lead to the Intentions to extensive, longer-term Women Quarterly, 25(2), 103- reduction of negative engage in interventions are needed 111.” body image issues. media activism and Affect. “Grabe, S., Ward, L. M., & They explored whether Media Meta-Analysis Nil Their findings were in Hyde, J. S. (2008). The role of exposure to mass media exposure, support of the notion that the media in body image depicting the thin-ideal Internalization exposure to media images concerns among women: A body had a link to body and Eating depicting the thin-ideal meta-analysis of experimental image disturbance in behaviours and body is related to body and correlational studies. women. disorders image concerns for Psychological Bulletin, 134(3), women. 460-476. doi:10.1037/0033- 2909.134.3.460” “Posavac, H. D., Posavac, S. S., They looked at whether Media Experiment Nil Findings suggested that & Posavac, E. J. (1998). exposure to idealized Exposure and individuals exposed to Exposure to Media Images of images lead to women Body idealized images develop Female Attractiveness and being dissatisfied with dissatisfaction concerns pertaining to Concern with Body Weight their bodies. weight and looks. But this Among Young Women. Sex may not be same for other Roles, 38(3/4), 187-201. ethnicities doi:10.1023/a:1018729015490” 18 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh “Monro, F., & Huon, G. (2005). They tried to determine Media Experiment Nil They came to a conlusion Media-portrayed idealized whether exposure to exposure, that no increase in body images, body shame, and idealized images internalization, anxiety and shame their appearance anxiety. increased appearance appearance study suggested that International Journal of Eating anxiety and body shame anxiety and audiences do focus their Disorders, 38(1), 85-90. body shame attention on the models in doi:10.1002/eat.20153” adverts. , “Vandenbosch, L., & Among adolescent girls, Media Survey Self- Findings signposted that Eggermont, S. (2012). they examined the exposure, Objectifi- internalization, self- Understanding Sexual relationship exposure to internalization, cation objectification and body Objectification: certain types of sexually self- surveillance were related A Comprehensive Approach objectifying media had objectification to exposure. Exposure Toward Media Exposure and with internalization of and body has an indirect effect on Girls Internalization of Beauty beauty ideals, self- surveillance body surveillance Ideals, Self-Objectification, and objectification and body Body Surveillance. Journal of surveillance. Communication, 62(5), 869-887. doi:10.1111/j.1460- 2466.2012.01667.x” “Agliata, D., & Tantleff-Dunn, They studied the effects Media Experiment Social Findings were indicative S. (2004). The Impact of Media of media exposure on exposure, Compariso of the fact that exposure Exposure on Males Body Image. male’s body image. internalization, n to idealized images in ads Journal of Social and Clinical physical led to depression and Psychology, 23(1), 7-22.” appearance higher levels of muscle comparison and dissatisfaction. body dissatisfaction 19 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh “Levine, M., & Harrison, K. The effects exposure to Media Experiment Social Findings concluded that (2004). Media's Role in the idealized media has on exposure, Compariso the ideals portrayed in perpetuation and prevention of individuals, and how to internalization n mass media are deemed negative body image and mitigate the effects of and media as attainable and disordered eating. In Handbook exposure. literacy individuals aspire and of Eating Disorders and Obesity work towards such ideal (pp. 695-717). John Wiley and appearances, which lead Sons.” to dissatisfaction in one’s body. “Jones, D. C., Vigfusdottir, T. They looked at how the Exposure and Survey Social They found that there was H., & Lee, Y. (2004). Body three dimensions of Internalization Compariso the need to take into Image and the Appearance appearance culture which n account biological Culture Among Adolescent Girls include media exposure contributions as well as and Boys: An Examination of affect internalization and sociocultural factors Friend Conversations, Peer body image when talking about the Criticism, Appearance dissatisfaction effects of exposure Magazines, and the Internalization of Appearance Ideals. Journal of Adolescent Research, 19(3), 323–339.” “Guðnadóttir, U., & Their study tested the Exposure, Survey Consumer Findings indicative of the Garðarsdóttir, R. B. (2014). The association between internalization, Culture fact that there is a strong influence of materialism and materialistic and body- materialistic Impact association between ideal body internalization on perfect ideals and body values, Body Model materialistic values and body-dissatisfaction and body- dissatisfaction and mass index, internalization which shaping behaviors of young men excessive body shaping body marries consumer culture, and women: Support for the behaviours dissatisfaction the body‐perfect and the Consumer Culture Impact and body material good life ideal Model. Scandinavian Journal of shaping Psychology, 55(2), 151-159.” behaviours 20 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh “Roberts, J.A., & Roberts, C. A. The study looked into Internalization, Experiment Social Model size had no (2015). Does Thin Always Sell? whether the size of the exposure and Compariso significant effect on how The Moderating Role of Thin model had an influence advertising n effective the is and Ideal Internalization on on the effectiveness of effectiveness women who had Advertising Effectiveness” the ad and if internalized beauty ideals internalization of ideals were rather more moderates the receptive to models of a relationship small size as compared to models of an average size “Schooler, D., Ward, L. M., Explores the association Exposure, Survey Social Findings indicated a Merriwether, A., & Caruthers, A. between television Body esteem, Compariso correlation between (2004). Who's that Girl: viewing and body image body image n media use and body Television's Role in the Body among women and ethnic dissatisfaction. Very little Image Development of Young identity attention has placed on White and Black Women. the race Psychology of Women Quarterly, 8(1), 38-47.” “Daye, C. A., Webb, J. B., & Explored the correlation Caregiver Survey Self- Findings indicated a Jafari, N. (2014). Exploring self- between caregiver eating eating objectifi- positive correlation compassion as a refuge against messages and self- messages, cation between caregiver eating recalling the body-related objectification and Objectified messages and body shaming of caregiver eating whether self-compassion body shame and a negative messages on dimensions of moderated the consciousness relationship with self- objectified body consciousness relationship and Self- compassion in college women. Body Image, compassion. 11(4), 547-556. doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2014.08.00 1” 21 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.3 Media Exposure and Internalization of Idealized Images Countless studies have been conducted when it comes to the acceptance of beauty ideals. Across these studies, it appears that exposure to idealized images is a key point (McCabe et al, 2007; Ogden & Murray. 1996; Silverstein, 1986). However, findings on the effects of such exposure are mixed. For instance, Grabe et al (2008) assert that exposure to beauty ideals in advertising leads to different outcomes, which maybe negative and related to body image. Some of these negative outcomes are excessive dieting, eating disorders, internalization of far from realistic beauty ideals, self-objectification, body shaming and body surveillance as well as muscle dysmorphia. Posavac, Posavac and Posavac (1998), in an experiment, looked into whether exposure to idealized images leads to women being discontent with their bodies. The main purpose of the study was to explore if all women were affected on an equal level after being exposed to media that used idealized images. This is because they were of the view that some women may not experience dissatisfaction with their looks because their body type are markedly different from those of the models. There is also the fact that some women are more confident in the skills and abilities they possess which is independent of physical attractiveness. Findings suggest that individuals exposed to idealized images develop concerns pertaining to weight and looks. This was especially so among those who compared their appearance to those of advertising models, which they believed were standard. Monro and Huon (2005) in their study of female university students tried to determine whether exposure to idealized images increased appearance anxiety and body shame. While they found no 22 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh increase in body anxiety and shame, their study suggested that audiences do focus their attention on the models in adverts. In addition, scholars like Vandenbosch & Eggermont (2012) investigated the role exposure to sexually objectifying mass media products such as music television, primetime television programs and fashion magazines, as well as social networking sites played in the internalization of beauty ideals, self-objectification, and body surveillance among adolescent girls. Findings indicated that participants in their study after comparing themselves to the idealized images valued their appearance-based attributes over their competence-based attributes, which meant that they were affected by the images they had been exposed to. They came to a head that exposure to such images led to dissatisfaction among women who maintained that they did not meet the standard portrayed in visual mass media content that used such images. Vandenbosch & Eggermont (2012) further stated that the use of such images play a huge role in how consumers perceive their bodies and subsequent psychological outcomes that might stem from that perception. Across these studies on the effects of idealized beauty ideals in adverts, however, Agliata and Tantleef-Dunn (2004) have noted that few studies looked the distinctness between men and women. Their study of a male sample revealed a positive correlation between exposure and dissatisfaction with body satisfaction, and anxiety. The means by which these effects take place according to Thompson and Stice (2001) is internalization. They define internalization as the “extent to which an individual cognitively ‘buys into’ socially defined ideals of attractiveness and engages in behaviors designed to produce an approximation of these ideals” (pp. 181). They further state that the internalization of beauty ideals refers to the length to which individuals consider societal norms of size and appearance to be 23 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh suitable benchmark for their own appearance. These standards signpost what is deemed important for being considered physically attractive. Through internalization, audience members accept the looks of advertising models as the standard of society and compare themselves with these models in order to find out if they meet the mark society has set for being considered physically attractive. Levine and Harrison (2004) are of the view that young adults are, on a continuous basis, exposed to beauty criteria constructed by the society through mass media. These criteria are often of white women whom in mass media are considered sexually attractive and tend to emphasize these sociocultural ideals of physical attractiveness. In their study, they concluded that the ideals portrayed in mass media are deemed as attainable and that women should aspire and work towards such ideal appearances (Levine and Harrison, 2014). Jones, Vigfusdottir and Lee (2004), in re-echoing Thompson, Heinberg, Altabe and Tantleef- Dunn’s (1999) assertion that societal factors play a central role in developing and maintaining individuals’ body image. This is through the creation of an “appearance culture” which places value by reinforcing and modeling varied cultural ideals of beauty. Thompson et al (1999) are of the view that media images play a central role in creating the “appearance culture” and to a large extent impact consumer’s ideas of themselves when they internalize these beauty ideals. The internalization of such ideals represents the individual’s personal goals and the standard by which they measure themselves and others by and this accounts for the large impact the media plays on body image dissatisfaction. In that same regard, Guðnadottir and Garðarsdottir (2014) in their study accepted that exposure to “body-perfect” ideals may drive the preference to look like models used in the mass media. However, they are of the view that exposure is only partly to blame for that aspiration among young men and women but rather the kind of materialistic gain and consumer culture associated 24 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh with such images are what drive individuals to accept such ideals. In other words, individuals accept the looks of advertising models because the models portray the material gains they aim for. Studies have generally accepted several negative consequences because of the excessive use of ‘unrealistically” thin models in advertising (Roberts & Roberts, 2015). Roberts & Roberts (2015) in their study argue that in order for the ‘thin ideal’ to have a detrimental outcome it must be internalized. This means that if a woman rejects the ‘thin ideal’ it is likely not to have a negative impact on her. Using a web-based survey with female respondents, they found that high consumers of mass media were susceptible to internalizing advertising beauty ideals, which then makes them react favourably to products that are advertised. Schooler, Ward, Merriwether and Caruthers (2004) argue that African American women have the tendency to be heavy consumers of media and therefore are presumed to be most likely to be influenced by the images used in ads. African Americans interviewed in their study rejected the beauty ideals depicted in the media. Schooler et al (2004) to conclude that the media ideals being predominantly white, were rejected on the basis of their deviation from African American norms of beauty. 2.4 Body Surveillance Body surveillance and shaming are elements of the larger objectified consciousness according to scholars such as Fitzsimmons-Craft, Bardone-Cone and Kelly, (2011) and McKinley (2011). McKinley and Hyde (1996) define “body shame as the tendency to experience shame when one has not lived up to the internalized, culturally- proscribed norms of body size or weight”. Body shame they explained as an “acute affective experience stemming from perceptions of having failed to achieve narrowly-defined cultural standards of body size” (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997; 25 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh McKinley &Hyde, 1996). They further defined body surveillance as “reflecting constant monitoring one’s body and being preoccupied with worry over how one’s body appears in the eyes of others”. According to them as individuals chase elusive beauty ideals, which are considered essential by many, failure to attain these ideals exert generate scornful behaviour. This behaviour warrants shame which is either self-inflicted or by others which may manifest in the form of social shame or rejection (Goss & Allan, 2010; Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997; McKinley& Hyde, 1996; Goss & Gilbert, 2002). With such dominant social agents reinforcing such behaviour scholars are of the view that individuals find body shaming and other experiences associated with shaming unbearable and are prompted to spend time and money in trying to avoid its happening (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997; Goss & Allan, 2010; McKinley & Hyde, 1996; Goss & Gilbert, 2002). Daye, Webb and Jafari (2014) in their study of the correlations between anti-fat attitudes, body shame, fat talk, and self-compassion found that having negative views towards fatness and the frequent disclosure of self-disparaging body-related complaints in regular daily discussions signpost a compromised body image (Shannon & Mills, 2015 and Crowther & Ciesla 2014). Also, Small (2017) in her study of representation of women’s beach bodies in Australian magazines argued that individuals’ bodies are considered as an entity that needs to be managed, maintained and the overall appearance kept in a certain way. This management, maintenance and appearance of body is referred to as the “body project” by Shilling (2003). This “project” considers the body as an entity, which needs constant work in order to establish an individual’s self-identity. This body project lends to the fact that the human body is a flexible entity which can be changed and perfected to what the owners want it to be through hard work and the vigilance of on lookers (Shilling, 2003). Magazines according to Small (2017) try to coax and assure readers that it is easy 26 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh to accomplish the desired body by promoting “body panic” which includes a culture of guilt and shame. She is of the view that magazines suggest that the desired body can be achieved with ease and simplicity creating the perception that failure to attain such makes one deficient in the eyes of society. 2.5 Advertising Literacy Dittmar and Howard (2004) in their study provides evidence on how moderate to high levels of internalization and the likeliness to partake in social comparison can have a direct effect on the effects of exposure to idealized images. In addition, Cattarin, Thompson, Thomas and Williams (2000) used a manual designed to intensify social comparison, which also had a direct effect on appearance-related dissatisfaction when ads, which contained idealized images were viewed by participants this is because it inherently happens during internalization. Hogg and Fragou (2003) in their study explored how the current explanations of the looming effects of how women are portrayed in print ads on young women’s self-esteem and body image. They looked at how young women perceived themselves and self-esteem, and how these two concepts are affected which depended on their aim for social comparison, which latently happens during internalization, which could be for either self-enhancement, self-improvement or self-evaluation. Results from their study indicated that social comparison drives internalization and is an important factor which shows the influence advertising images have when consumed and interpreted. Scholars acknowledge that societal requirement for women and now men to alter their bodies and looks is not a new phenomenon. What is new is how extensive and intensive body surveillance is being undertaken. According to Gill, 2007, (p. 149) this new intensive and extensive surveillance can be described as an “obsessive preoccupation with the body.” 27 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Advertising literacy interventions have been designed to encourage women to use an analytical mindset to view media images and according to scholars like Levine and Harrison (2004), such interventions have varied levels of effectiveness. Studies like that of Halliwell, Easun and Harcourt (2011) sought to explore whether the ability to identify the artificial media images could help audiences reduce the effects of exposure to such images on their self-perceptions. Their findings suggest that audiences exposed to advertising literacy had a higher level of contentment with their bodies. In other words, videos that educated consumers on the artificial nature of media images could mitigate the risk of consumers making comparisons. Similarly, Irving and Berel (2001) examined whether advertising literacy interventions would promote and reduce negative feelings of consumers towards their bodies when exposed to idealized media images. Findings revealed that interventions had a similar level of effectiveness, which helped in raising participants doubt and their desire to look like the models in such media. Similar proof has been presented by Stice, Mazotti, Weibel and Agras (2000) and Posasvac, Posavac and Weigel (2001). However, Botta (1999) found that the critical eye women are being taught to use in viewing idealized images might not have the desired outcome. In a later study, In addition, Botta (2003) has reported that when women critically evaluated idealized images used in the media it rather increased their body image dissatisfaction. 2.6 Gendered Effects of Idealized Advertising Images Because women’s sense of self-worth is often construed to be dependent on their physical appearance (Lerner, Orlos and Knapp, 1976.), it is deemed that they would have more issues when it comes to their bodies or undertake more activities geared towards the attainment of the ideals that are portrayed in ads. Thus, it can be deduced that women are more likely to be influenced by exposure to such images because their livelihood depends on their looks. In contrast, society has 28 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh historically emphasized men’s skills and resources (Chaney, 2009) as defining their attractiveness. They are, thus, less likely to go to the same extent as women to achieve such beauty ideals. In spite of this evidence of the contrasting effects of advertising images on men and women, previous research also shows that both women and men may share something common in how they respond to advertising beauty ideals (Pope et al., 2000) 2.7 Hypotheses Development Drawing from the social comparison theory and findings of existing literature presented in the preceding discussion, this study tested a number of hypotheses relating to how idealized beauty in adverts affect audiences. 2.7.0 Main Effects Hypotheses 2.7.1Exposure and Internalization Previous research suggests a strong and linear correlation between exposure to advertised beauty ideals and their internalization as standard. Dittmar and Howard (2011) are of the view that media images lead viewers to believe that what they see is the universally accepted standard, and therefore, the standards by which they must live. Scholars such as Bryant (2013) have also provided evidence that women of colour who are regularly exposed to ads, which are heavy on Caucasian beauty ideals, tend to accept these ideals as standard. This is because it noted that ads feature people in desirable circumstances that audiences want for themselves. Hesse-Biber et al (2006) explain that individuals exposed to such ideals imbibe them and view them as the means to achieving their positive connotations. From a social comparison point of view, the consumer initiates comparison once exposure happens and this is because these ideals portray very desirable circumstances that consumers want for themselves and thus 29 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh consumers desire for these good things in life they will accept them as the standard path to attractiveness and because they want the advantages that come with it. This indicates a positive relationship between exposure and internalization, thus Holstrom (2004) is of the view that women who yearn to feel accepted in society tend to compare themselves to these images because they believe that these images signpost the standard to which they are evaluated in order to gain that acceptance. It is on the above basis that I propose that: H1: Exposure to idealized advertising images is positively related to the internalization of such images as standards of beauty 2.7.2 Internalization and Body Surveillance Literature states that the acceptance of physical looks expounded by idealized images has varied outcomes on audiences. According to Roberts and Roberts (2015), these outcomes are more often than not negative and may include body surveillance, vigilance in monitoring one’s appearance to ensure they meet with sociocultural body standards. McKinley and Hyde (1996) assert the social comparison view that individuals constantly monitor their appearance. Mundell’s (2002) findings support this view by showing that people looked more often at themselves in the mirror and compared various body parts to models and people they considered as physically good looking. This is because they have come to accept the latters’ looks as the standard to which they will be measured by. Common to body image findings among women is the fact that there is an increase in the physical comparison, which in turn lowers their satisfaction with their physical appearance. It appears that audience members use this vigilant monitoring and self-comparison to ensure they conform to 30 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh perceived social standards which they would have internalized (Aubrey, 2006; Vandenbosch and Eggermont, 2012; Stice and Shaw (2010). Based on the above, it is proposed that: H2: Individuals who internalize idealized notions of beauty in ads monitor their appearance in order to be sure they can attain such ideals 2.7.3 Gender differences in Internalization and Body Surveillance Advertising and body image research historically focuses on women (Thompson et al, 1999). However, attention to male body image has begun to gain ground (Pope, Philips & Olivardia, 2000). In one of the earliest studies that sought to look into male body image issues findings showed that 70% of respondents were conscious of visible differences between their bodies and that of the models in ads (Mishkind, Rodin, Silberstein & Striegel-Moore, 1986). Further studies by Cash (2002) concluded that men are growing more aware of body image ideals. Gulas and McKeage (2000) undertook a study in order to find out if men had similar negative outcomes towards their physical appearance, and whether they undertook steps to achieve such ideals. Findings from the study indicated that increasingly men accepted such ideals as standard to the point where they took steps such as diet and exercise, personal grooming and the likes to achieve them. These findings agree with evidence on how advertising ideals affect women (Sohn &Youn, 2013). However, there is a lack of comparative empirical evidence exploring gender- based differences limits our understanding on the issue. Given that the separate evidence on males and females suggest that both are susceptible to the effects of internalization, this study proposes that: H3: Males and females do not differ in the extent of their internalization of advertising beauty ideals 31 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Buss (1994) and Feingold (1990) assert that a woman’s social outcome is critically based on their physical attractiveness and thus any perceived discrepancy between their looks and that of the assumed societal standard is seen as a threat to their ability to climb the social ladder. Umberson and Hughes (1987) found that women who were seen as attractive by society were given more and better social opportunities as opposed to those who were not deemed as attractive. Another study by Robison-Moore (2008) indicated that women who met the established criteria of beauty are most often than not employed within middle class job sector. In contrast, men are not held to similar social pressures to be beautiful. Chaney (2009) is of the view that until very recently men’s’ quest to rise socially did not depend on their appearance but rather on their abilities or in some instances they rose up the social ladder just by virtue of being men with no questions asked. Hunter & Davis (1992) in their study were of the same view with Chaney however, what they point that Chaney fails to mention is the fact that no matter how advanced society gets there are still society’s within which such notions of the fact that a man only needs resources rather than looks to advance in society. H4: Males and females differ in the extent of their body surveillance 2.7.4 The moderating role of advertising literacy over the exposure-internalization link Due to the well-established connection between exposure to idealized images and body image perceptions, scholars (see: Stice, Weibel & Agras, 2000; Irving & Berel, 2001; Halliwell, Easun & Harcourt, 2011) believe that media literacy is a technique that could be used to mitigate the effects of exposure. Because a high media literacy empowers audiences to comprehend the working of the media and critically assess their content, it is envisaged that those higher in media literacy will be less affected by idealized images (Yamamiya et al, 2005). Accordingly, it is 32 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh anticipated that the proposed correlation between exposure and internalization will change in the face of high media literacy. Because media literate audiences will comprehend that advertising images are augmented and not necessarily realistic (Jenkins, 2015), it is expected that the hypothesized positive relationship between exposure to idealized advertising images and internalization will take on a negative tone, leading to the hypothesis that: H5: Media literacy moderates the relationship between exposure and internalization changing the direction to a negative one 2.8. Conceptual Model Based on the hypotheses above the study sought to test the conceptual model below: Fig 1 33 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.9 Chapter Summary In this chapter the theory on which this study was underpinned is explained and related studies which explored similar issues as to what this study was looking into in varied circumstances were reviewed in order to give direction. Hypotheses were also presented flowing from the literature and theory reviewed. CHAPTER THREE 34 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh METHODOLOGY 3.0 INTRODUCTION The study sought to examine how the use of idealized images in ads affected the body image perceptions of both males and females. It further looked at whether any gender differences attend such effects. This chapter presented the methodology of the study. It explained and described the strategies employed in collecting data in order to answer the research questions, thus meant to fulfill the purpose of the study. The chapter sets out the setting of the study, the research design, the sampling procedure, the data collection procedure, instruments of data collection and analytical strategies. 3.1 SETTING OF THE STUDY Ghana is a lower middle-income developing country that is seeking to become more advanced economically and socially. In order for Ghana to advance economically, successive governments have sought to open up the country to international trade, which has seen the influx of a lot of foreign material such as media content into the Ghanaian space. With the influx of foreign media content, the advertising landscape has changed to accommodate foreign ideals of how to sell and with what images. Traditionally, Ghanaian women are expected to be curvaceous, smooth skinned, demure, modest, subservient etc. to be beautiful as mentioned in several Ghanaian highlife songs such as the Rambler’s S’erwaa Akoto’ and A.B Crenstil’s ‘Sweet talks.’ Men, on the other hand, are expected to be dominant; they are expected to be providers, physically strong, and tall and thick, not muscular per se respectively, to be considered handsome. However, foreign beauty notions, which are increasingly being, applied in adverts, show, contrasting images of beauty. Women are shown to have a slim body, straight (permed and long) hair, heavy makeup etc. while 35 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh men must have lean muscular body, groomed facial hair etc. to be considered beautiful. This made Ghana an appropriate setting for a study to understand whether and how foreign beauty ideals as shown in ads shape the audience’s self-evaluations and self-presentation efforts. 3.2 RESEARCH DESIGN The study was quantitative as it sought to establish the nature, extent and consequences of the influence of advertised beauty ideals among a sample of Ghanaian advertising audiences. The survey method was used because it made it easier to sample a greater number of the population. The survey method was also preferred because it aided in getting a more accurate sample in order to gather data from which conclusions drawn can be generalized across the population. It is a widely used method in studies in this area of research as exemplified by Galioto and Crowther (2013), Luther (2009) and Gendron and Lydecker (2016). 3.3 SAMPLE SIZE AND SAMPLING PROCEDURE The study was conducted on the main campus of University of Ghana, which was chosen for its population dynamics. As a public and the largest university in Ghana, the University of Ghana and its main campus in Legon, Accra offers a microcosm of the Ghanaian population. It attracts students from all walks of life and has diversity of students of different social, cultural and economic backgrounds as well as academic inclinations. The student population presently stands at thirty-seven thousand nine hundred and forty (37,940). (Source: University of Ghana Website, 2019). Of these, twenty-two thousand eight hundred and thirteen (22,813) are undergraduates ( University of Ghana Institutional Research and Planning Office) who by virtue of their being relatively younger are more fashion conscious (Blumer, 1969) and tend to be heavy (social) media consumers (Cohen, Newton-John & Slater, 2017). They were considered appropriate for this study 36 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh because they are generally young adults, who may be susceptible to culturally driven, mass-media produced ideal images of physical beauty (Gulas & McKeage, 2000; Till & Busler, 2000). A sample of 306 undergraduate students was drawn for the study. This was appropriate for the study based on the number of items in the instrument (N = 70 items). According to Siddiqui (2013), instruments with 25 items or more require an appropriate sample size of 200 respondents and above. Attention was paid in achieving gender parity given that this study needed an equal number of respondents in order to compare findings of each sex. The sample was restricted to residential students because of their accessibility for questionnaire administration. The sample was drawn from three halls of residence on campus each selected from a zone created to demarcate the campus. All halls of residence on campus were put into three (3) zones, which were the traditional halls (Commonwealth hall, Volta hall, Legon hall, Mensah Sarbah hall and Akuafo hall) as zone one. The hostels on the northern part of campus (African Union hall, James Topp Nelson Yankah Hall, Evandy and Bani) formed zone two and the hostels on the southern part of campus (Hilla Liman, Alexander Adum Kwapong, Elizabeth Frances Sey and Jean Nelson Aka) served as zone three. There were dynamics that guided these demarcations. Fee amounts paid as residential fees for these places of residence vary and this inadvertently divides the students who reside there into three different socioeconomic groups. Facilities in the traditional halls (Zone 1) are the cheapest followed by the southern campus (Zone 2) and then the northern part of campus (Zone 3). This break down gives a fair idea of the different socio-economic status of students within these halls and this is likely to affect their outlook on various issues such as idealized images. 37 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The multistage sampling technique was utilized in selecting the respondents to whom the questionnaires was administered. Multistage sampling is a sampling method in which a population is divided into a number of groups or stages from which samples are drawn (Acharya, Prakash & Saxena, 2013). These groups are further divided from which further samples are drawn and so on. The first stage of sampling was the division of student residences into three (3) zones after which a simple random sampling procedure was applied. The names of halls in all three zones were written on paper and put into three separate containers and one selected from each. However, with the traditional halls (Zone 1) there are two single sex halls (Volta Hall and Commonwealth Hall). These single sex halls were excluded from the three halls chosen. The chosen halls were the African Union Hall (zone three) Hilla Liman Hall (Zone two) and Sarbah Hall (zone one). The sample size of 306 was drawn from the three halls with each contributing 102 (51 males and 51 females). To get the 102 for each hall, the next stage of sampling was to simple randomly select five male floors and five female floors. The random selection was done by writing all floor labels in the selected halls putting them in a bowl for random selection. The fact that five floors had been randomly selected from each hall to draw male and female respondents meant that each floor was to contribute about 10 respondents. Thus, using systematic sampling, the number of rooms on each floor was divided by 10 (sample to be drawn). The result in most cases averaged 1.5 leading to every second room being sampled. Upon arriving in each room, the beds were assigned numbers so in order to pick a respondent, a number was randomly picked and the occupant of the bed was the chosen respondent. In the case where the number picked had the respondent absent from the room, the room was skipped to the next. 38 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.4 INSTRUMENT The instrument used was a questionnaire and information sought from respondents included demographic information, internalization of beauty ideals, advertising literacy, body surveillance as well as advertising exposure. There were two separate questionnaires, one for female and the other for male respondents. Though the scope of constructs covered is the same for both genders but their measures were tailored to fit the two sexes. The instrument had a combination of metric and non-metric measures of constructs. For the demographic variables (sex and age), nominal measures were used. All other constructs were operationalized as metric and measured using Likert scales because it offers respondents the ability to express to which extent they display certain attitudes and behaviours. According to Ajzen and Fishbein (2005), behaviours and attitudes developed from experiences can be measured on a linear continuum. Likert scales offer a means of measuring the strength or intensity of such behavioural and attitudinal constructs. For the Likert scale questions, respondents would have to indicate their preference by either strongly agreeing to either strongly disagreeing to statements posed in the questionnaires. The constructs using the Likert scale are measured numerically on the ratio level. Below, details are provided of how each construct was defined and operationalized in the study. 3.4.0 DEMOGRAPHICS The demographic information required from each respondent is their age. In addition, given the sampling strategy sex of respondents was also accounted for even though not overtly asked of respondents. 39 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.4.1 IDEALIZED IMAGES In order to establish how widespread idealized images are found in local Ghanaian ads, two ads each were chosen for each gender. One of these ads each had an idealized image and respondents were asked to choose which image they saw most often in Ghanaian ads. 3.4.2 INTERNALIZATION OF BEAUTY IDEALS This construct has been defined as “the extent to which an individual considers the societal norms of size and appearance to be appropriate standards for his or her own size and appearance.” The scale used to measure this construct was the Sociocultural Attitudes towards Appearance Questionnaire-4 (SATAQ-4) defined and developed by Thompson and Stice (2001). This scale, which has statements addressing audience attitudes towards models as standards of beauty, was adapted to measure respondents’ acceptance or internalization of advertising models as standard for physical appearance. This construct was measured with respondents rating their agreement to a series of ten statements on a five-point Likert scale from “Strongly disagree” to “Strongly agree.” 3.4.3 ADVERTISING LITERACY Defined as “the ability to recognize, evaluate and understand ads and other commercial messages” (Mamelin, 2010), this construct measures whether or not respondents’ can decipher the truth in advertising and understand what messages ads try to relay to audiences. Statements such as “I think ads always tell the truth” and “I think ads are paid for by someone to influence people” are to be agreed to on a five point Likert scale. These statements examined the thought processes of respondents on their being able to know the underlying motive of the ads. The scale used was adopted from Rozendaal et al, (2016). 40 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.4.4 BODY SURVEILLANCE McKinley and Hyde in 1996 developed this construct and defined it as “monitoring one’s appearance by checking the parts considered important for the ideal body accepted by society.” Body surveillance was measured using a sub-scale of the Objectified Body Consciousness scale developed by Dakanalis et al (2015). The adapted scale used a five point Likert scale which measured activities such as time and money spent on appearance, concerns of being considered attractive the expectation of compliments and time spent looking in a mirror by respondents. 3.4.5 EXPOSURE TO IDEALIZED ADVERTISING IMAGES Vreese and Neijens (2016) define media exposure as “the extent to which audience members have encountered specific media content." The questionnaire asked respondents indicate on average on how many times a week they are exposed to media content of varied forms. For the purpose of this study, the scale was adapted to advertising content. All scales used in the study had already been developed and validated by other scholars. However, they were adapted to fit this study. 3.5 PRETESTING The questionnaire was pretested on ten accidentally selected undergraduate students comprising of five (5) male and five (5) female. It took respondents an average of twenty minutes to answer the questionnaire. Respondents answered with ease, as the language used was simple enough for them not to ask for clarification. Minor grammatical and semantic revisions were made to the instrument after the pretest. 41 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.6 DATA COLLECTION All questionnaires were self-administered because the target of the study are literate and the pretest had shown they could understand the instrument. Three field assistants were trained to aid in the data collection process. They were briefed on the sampling strategy and taken through the questionnaire section by section in order to familiarize themselves with the expectations of each section and the instructions pertaining to each section. They were also made to understand the importance of getting the consent of each respondent and to expressly inform each respondent of anonymity of their answers and the use for strict academic purposes. 3.7 DATA ANALYSIS The data collected was analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS). Descriptive analysis was done to describe the basic characteristics of the sample that had implications for the study. The next step was to follow accepted practices used in the analysis of the measures of the various constructs. Factor analysis, reliability tests and validity tests were conducted in this regard. Finally, inferential analysis was undertaken in order to test hypotheses posed by this study. Specifically, regression analysis was used to examine hypothesized main effect relationships. Independent sample T tests were also run to test the hypotheses on gender- based differences in internalization and surveillance while moderation analysis helped to explore the conditions that shape the relationships tested. 3.8 CHAPTER SUMMARY This chapter discussed the various procedures involved in data collection for the study. The sampling techniques, the various constructs and the data analysis techniques intended to be applied in this study are what are discussed in this chapter. 42 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FOUR FINDINGS 43 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.0 Introduction This chapter presents the findings of the study, which primarily examined the impact idealized advertising images have on the perception of self and the body image among the audience. The overall objective of the study was to explore if Ghanaians suffer body image issues after being exposed to idealized images in advertisements as indicated in literature elsewhere. 4.1 SAMPLE DESCRIPTION The survey sample comprised undergraduate resident students in Mensah Sarbah Hall, Hilla Limann Hall and African Union Hall of the University of Ghana. Three hundred and six (306) questionnaires were administered to respondents. A hundred per cent response rate was recorded. The sampling strategy focused on having equal representation of males and females. Accordingly, the sample distribution in terms of sex is 50:50. As can be seen from Figure 1.2, the sample for this study was predominantly made up of persons aged 18 to 28. This youthful sample is unsurprising as the population for the study was resident undergraduate students of the University of Ghana. Figure 2: Age of respondents 44 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Age of Respondents 94.4 100 2 3.6 18-28 29-39 OTHER TOTAL 4.1.1 IDEALIZED IMAGES In order to establish that respondents are exposed to and are familiar with the use of idealized images in local advertising visual media, they were asked to pick from two images (one with idealized image and another without) which one they see often. Both male and female respondents picked the idealized image as the one they are frequently exposed to in local ads. Figure 3: Idealized Images in Ghanaian Ads 45 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Idealized Images 180 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 Idealized Images Non-idealized images Total Female Male 4.1.2 ADVERTISING ENGAGEMENT Further, to be able to establish whether respondents actively engage with ads as a baseline for establishing any effects on them, respondents were asked to indicate how often they paid attention to ads. Table 2: Advertising Engagement across Media Television Internet Based Print Media Gender Response adverts % adverts % adverts % Always 110 71.90% 119 77.80% 65 42.50% Often 25 16.30% 34 22.20% 35.9 35.90% Female Seldom 18 11.80% 8 0% 21.6 21.60% Always 57 37.30% 87 56.90% 92 60.10% Often 38 24.80% 34 22.20% 25 16.30% Male Seldom 58 37.90% 32 20.9% 36 23.50% Both male and female respondents reported that they paid attention to ads. Across the two groups and media, the majority indicated that they attend to adverts all the time. Among females, 72% said they always watch TV adverts. Similarly, 77% of the sample said they engage with internet- 46 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh based ads while 42% indicated they always pay attention to newspaper ads. A similar trend of ad engagement can be seen among the male sample of which the majority indicated engagement with internet-based and print ads. The only exception in this case was TV adverts where an equal number of males indicated they always engage as those who seldom engage. Even in this case, the consideration for the proportion that said they ‘often’ engage with TV ads suggests that like the female respondents, there is high level of engagement with TV ads. 4.2 MEASURE ASSESSMENT AND DEVELOPMENT To enable a testing of the research hypotheses, it was first important that the researcher validates the data collected to ensure its suitability for analysis. Using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) Version 2.3, the researcher employed an Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) to ascertain whether the measures used properly measured the constructs under study. To assess which items would be used to measure the constructs of interest, there was a need to do an initial item selection, which involved the use of an Exploratory Factor Analysis. This EFA is an initial exploration meant to identify the number of underlying variables in a set of items (Coakes & Steed, 2003). This analytic method is considered as exploratory because the links between the items and variables (factors) are uncertain. However, since in this study, most of the items are adapted from previous studies, it was key to make sure that they were properly connected to their underlying constructs among the Ghanaian sample. Constructs in the study, exposure to idealized advertising images, internalization, body surveillance and advertising literacy, that were evaluated using multi-item scales were included in this analysis. In undertaking the initial factor analysis, the extraction method of principle axis factoring was employed along with a direct oblimin rotation. The factor analysis was used to 47 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ascertain the number of factors suitable and aid in which items among the original items needed to be maintained for use in further analysis. The factor-loading signal the strength of the relationship between the item and the latent construct and this is used to determine the convergent validity of the scales (Hair et al, 2006). According to Fen & Sabaruddin, (2008) and Hair et al (2006) factor loadings greater than 0.50 are generally needed for practical significance, and the items for a factor are retained only when the absolute size of their loading on the respective construct is equal to or above 0.50. The items, which loaded less than 0.50 were, therefore, excluded from further analysis. One exploratory factor analysis model was run containing items expected to measure four constructs. In assessing whether the sample size is adequate for the models estimated, the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin test was used. 4.2.1 Factor Analysis Model The EFA model comprised twenty-two items with an expected outcome of four factors. However, six factors were identified as table 3 shows which altogether explained with 50% of the cumulative variance in the model. Two items meant to measure literacy created another factor while the remaining two items failed to load at all. In addition, one of the five internalization items failed to load while another created a new factor altogether. Two items each of exposure and surveillance failed to load significantly. A number of decisions were taken in further analysis. First, given the need to meet the minimum three-item threshold per construct (Hair et al., 2013), the two items of ad literacy and exposure were included in a scale analysis test to see the extent of their effect on the scale’s reliability if excluded. Three of the items (Adlit 3, 4 and Expo 1) were found to be critical and so were included in subsequent analysis. All other problem items were eliminated from further analysis. Thus, seven items were excluded from subsequent analysis (Adlit 5, 6; Inter 1, 2; Sur 1,4 and Expo 4). 48 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 3: Results from Exploratory Factor Analysis Items Factor 1 2 3 4 5 6 Adlit 1 .645 Adlit 2 .945 Adlit 3 -.803 Adlit 4 -.921 Adlit 5 Adlit 6 Inter 1 -.644 Inter 2 Inter 3 -.713 Inter 4 -.718 Inter 5 -.828 Sur 1 Sur 2 .550 Sur 3 .687 Sur 4 Sur 5 .819 Sur 6 .709 Sur 7 .819 Expo 1 Expo 2 .830 Expo 3 .752 Expo 4 There was the need to run a subsequent factor model, which included fifteen items, using the same methods of extraction and rotation. The second model returned a four -factor solution with a cumulative variance of 55.4%. One item of Adlit (Adlit 1) failed to load significantly on the factor. Table 4 shows the items selected for inclusion in further analysis and their corresponding meanings. Table 4: Results from Final Factor Analysis Items Meaning Factor loading 1 2 3 4 49 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Adlit 2 I think ads always tell the truth .682 Adlit 3 I think ads tell half truths .897 Adlit 4 I think ads are paid for by someone to .870 influence people Inter 3 I think it’s important for me to -.800 physically attractive like the models Inter 4 I think the models in the ads represent -.684 my idea of beauty in terms of complexion Inter 5 In my opinion, looking like the models -.788 makes you more acceptable in society Sur 2 I invest a lot of time and money on my .586 appearance Sur 3 I am very concerned about how .712 attractive I look every time I go out Sur 5 I am very concerned if people find me .774 physically attractive or not Sur 6 I often worry whether I am the most .706 good looking person at a gathering or not Sur 7 I spend a lot of time looking at myself .648 in the mirror Expo 1 Attention to ads when watching .754 television Expo 2 Attention to ads when using social .793 media Expo 3 Attention to ads when using websites .624 4.3. Convergent and Discriminant Validity It is also important that these measures are reliable and valid to ensure their precision and applicability (Lee, 2001). The major reason for conducting reliability and validity testing of the measures was to reduce measurement errors. This is because Items that provide less than perfect validity interfere with meaningful interpretations of findings (Carlson & Herdman, 2010). To test for convergent validity, loadings of items were reviewed in order to be sure that all items loaded significantly with at least +/- 0.50. In order to test for the reliability of each construct’s measure, the Cronbach Alpha criterion was employed. According to Hair et al (2013) and Lee (2001), the Cronbach Alpha criterion is one of the most used internal consistency tools for assessing how reliable scales are. Hinton et al, (2004) are of the view that figures between 0.58 50 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh and 0.80 signify reliability. The reliability statistic for literacy, exposure, surveillance and internalization are presented in Table 5 below. As can be seen, in all cases, the reliability score was higher than the 0.60 baseline suggested by Hinton et al (2014). Among the constructs, internalization had the highest Cronbach’s alpha value (.793) whereas exposure had the lowest value of .621. Table 5: Results of reliability testing Items Cronbach Alpha Literacy .721 Adlit 2 Adlit 5 Adlit 6 Internalization .793 Inter 1 Inter 2 Inter 3 Inter 4 Body Surveillance .817 Sur2 Sur3 Sur5 Sur6 Sur7 Exposure .621 Expo1 Expo2 Expo3 The next step in the measure analysis was to assess the discriminant validity. Discriminant validity was done by computing composite measures of constructs by finding the means of the retained items. Then, using correlation analysis, the extent to which the factors discriminated among themselves was measured. Table 6: Results for Discriminant Validity Test 51 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Media literacy Internalization Exposure Surveillance Correlation Media literacy 1.000 .022 .090 .047 Internalization .022 1.000 -.116 .410 Exposure .090 -.116 1.000 -.029 Surveillance .047 .410 -.029 1.000 Indications from the results suggest that there are adequate levels of discriminant validity among the constructs because inter-construct correlation coefficients were much lower than even the - .050 recommended threshold by Hair et al (2013). After establishing that the measures generally demonstrate discriminant validity, the researcher proceeded to use the composite measures for testing the study hypotheses. 4.4 HYPOTHESES TESTING In order to test H1 and H2, the simple linear regression model was used. The linear regression model was chosen because it helped in determining the value of the dependent variable (Internalization for H1; Surveillance for H2) with respect to changes to the independent variables (Exposure for H1; Internalization for H2). Independent samples T-tests were also run to establish whether there are any remarkable differences between the men and women in their internalization of beauty ideals and the surveillance of their bodies. Finally, to test the moderation effect of advertising literacy over the hypothesized relationship between exposure to idealized advertising images and internalization, the interaction term was created by multiplying exposure with advertising literacy. There was the subsequent running of a regression model which had the exposure as the independent variable, the interaction term (Exposure x Ad literacy) as moderation variable on internalization as dependent variable. In all 52 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh cases, models run included age as a control measure. The results from testing the hypotheses are presented below. Hypothesis one predicted that the relationship between exposure to internalization was linear and positive. According to the data, this model explained little variance in the dependent variable, internalization. As the Model Summary table (Table 7) below shows, a .021 per cent variance in internalization Table 7: Model Summary for Hypothesis One Model Summary Std. Change Statistics Error of R the Square F Sig. F Adjusted Estimat Chang Chang Chang Model R R Square R Square e e e df1 df2 e 1 .144a .021 .014 .97962 .021 3.216 2 303 .041 a. Predictors: (Constant), Age of respondent, Exposure The ANOVA table (Table 8) shows that model did not significantly predict the dependent variable, internalization (F {2, 303} =3.210. p, <.041. Table 8: ANOVA Table for Hypothesis One ANOVAa Sum of Mean Model Squares df Square F Sig. 1 Regression 6.172 2 3.086 3.216 .041b Residual 290.778 303 .960 53 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Total 296.950 305 a. Dependent Variable: Internalization b. Predictors: (Constant), Age of respondent, Exposure From the Coefficients table (Table 9) below, it can be seen that a unit change in exposure was accompanied by a corresponding -.062 per cent change in internalization. This relationship was not significant. Further, contrary to the hypothesized positive relationship, the unstandardized beta coefficient was negative. Findings led to the rejection of the first hypothesis. Table 9: Coefficients Table for Hypothesis One Coefficientsa Unstandardized Standardized Collinearity Coefficients Coefficients Correlations Statistics Std. Zero- Model B Error Beta t Sig. order Partial Part Tolerance VIF 1 (Constant) 2.976 .184 16.150 .000 Age of -.167 .074 -.128 -2.242 .026 -.130 -.128 -.127 .999 1.001 respondent Exposure -.062 .055 -.063 -1.113 .267 -.067 -.064 -.063 .999 1.001 a. Dependent Variable: Internalization The second hypothesis this study explored was the existence of a linear and positive relationship between internalization of advertising beauty ideals and body surveillance. The hypothesized model explained 10.8 per cent variance in Surveillance as shown in Table 10 below, indicating its usefulness in predicting the construct. Table 10: Model Summary for Hypothesis Two Model Summary Std. Adjusted Error of Change Statistics Mode R the R Square Sig. F l R R Square Square Estimate Change F Change df1 df2 Change 1 .328a .108 .102 .88036 .108 18.325 2 303 .000 54 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh a. Predictors: (Constant), Internalization, Age of respondent Importantly, the ANOVA table (Table 11) also shows the model significantly predicted the dependent variable, Surveillance (F {2,303} =18.325. p, <.000). Table 11: ANOVA for Hypothesis Two ANOVAa Sum of Mean Model Squares df Square F Sig. 1 Regression 28.405 2 14.202 18.325 .000b Residual 234.834 303 .775 Total 263.239 305 a. Dependent Variable: Surveillance As hypothesized, the coefficients table below (Table 12) shows that a unit of change in internalization led to a 31.2% change in body surveillance. The direction of effect was also positive as expected (b =.312, p < .000). Subsequently, H2 was supported by the data. 55 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 12: Coefficients Table for Hypothesis Two Coefficientsa Unstandardized Standardized Coefficients Coefficients Correlations Collinearity Statistics Std. Zero- Toler Model B Error Beta T Sig. order Partial Part ance VIF 1 (Constant) 1.866 .172 10.869 .000 Age of .045 .067 .037 .667 .505 -.006 .038 .036 .983 1.017 respondent Internalization .312 .052 .331 6.053 .000 .326 .328 .328 .983 1.017 a. Dependent Variable: Surveillance 56 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh In the independent sample T-test which was used to test the third hypothesis (H3), exploring gender-based differences in internalization, the study found support for the hypothesis As shown below (Table13) there was no remarkable difference in the means for females (M=2.54) and males (M =2.67) when it comes to the extent of their internalization of advertising beauty ideals. Table 13: Group Statistics Table for Hypothesis Three Group Statistics Std. Std. Error Gender N Mean Deviation Mean Male 153 2.6716 0.86053 0.06957 Internalization Female 153 2.5458 1.09778 0.08875 As indicated in the table below, this outcome was under the conditions: t (304) = 1.116, p =.265. These results suggest that there is no statistically significant difference when it comes to internalization between male and females. Findings agree with the logic of H3 and therefore led to the acceptance of the hypothesis. 57 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 14: Independents Samples Test for Hypothesis Three Independent Samples Test Levene's Test for Equality of Variances t-test for Equality of Means 95% Confidence Interval of the Sig. (2- Mean Std. Error Difference F Sig. T Df tailed) Difference Difference Lower Upper Age of Equal respondent variances 2.389 .123 .757 304 .450 .065 .086 -.105 .235 assumed Equal variances .757 286.614 .450 .065 .086 -.105 .235 not assumed Internalization Equal variances 8.830 .003 1.116 304 .265 .12582 .11277 -.09609 .34772 assumed Equal variances 1.116 287.600 .265 .12582 .11277 -.09614 .34777 not assumed 58 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The second independent sample T- test was meant to test Hypothesis four exploring if there was a significant difference between men and women in the face of body surveillance. As predicted, there was a significant difference in the mean of body surveillance scores for female (M= 2.62, SD = .922) and for males (M =2.83, SD =.926), given the p-value (p = 0.045). Table 15: Independents Samples Test for Hypothesis Four Independent Samples Test Levene's Test for Equality of Variances t-test for Equality of Means 95% Confidence Interval of the Sig. (2- Mean Std. Error Difference F Sig. T df tailed) Difference Difference Lower Upper Age of Equal respondent variances 2.389 .123 .757 304 .450 .065 .086 -.105 .235 assumed Equal variances .757 286.614 .450 .065 .086 -.105 .235 not assumed Surveillance Equal variances .001 .976 2.016 304 .045 .21307 .10569 .00510 .42104 assumed Equal variances 2.016 303.996 .045 .21307 .10569 .00510 .42104 not assumed 59 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Thus, this has led to the acceptance of hypothesis four, which states that there is indeed a difference between males and females in terms of the extent of their body surveillance once they internalize advertising beauty ideals. Finally, a moderation analysis for H5 was ran to determine whether advertising literacy had an interaction effect by changing the presumed positive relationship between exposure and internalization to a negative relationship. Table 16: Model Summary for Hypothesis Five Model Summary Std. Error Change Statistics R Adjusted of the R Square F Sig. F Model R Square R Square Estimate Change Change df1 df2 Change 1 .171a .029 .016 .97862 .029 2.266 4 301 .062 a. Predictors: (Constant), Adlit, Exposure, Age of respondent, Adlitxexpo The output of the moderation analysis returned a non-significant model with the introduction of the interaction term (F {4,301} = 2.266. p, <.062) (see table below 17). Table 17: ANOVA Table for Hypothesis Five ANOVAa Sum of Mean Model Squares df Square F Sig. 1 Regression 8.681 4 2.170 2.266 .062b Residual 288.269 301 .958 Total 296.950 305 a. Dependent Variable: Internalization b. Predictors: (Constant), Adlit, Exposure, Age of respondent, Adlitxexpo The results from the interaction analysis is insignificant: (b= -0.059; p = 0.273). As shown in Table 18 below, while the direction of effects was negative as expected, the effect of the interaction term between exposure and ad literacy was not significant. 60 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 18: Coefficients Table for Hypothesis Five Coefficientsa Unstandardized Standardized Collinearity Coefficients Coefficients Correlations Statistics Std. Zero- Model B Error Beta t Sig. order Partial Part Tolerance VIF 1 (Constant) 2.193 .572 3.833 .000 Age of respondent -.169 .074 -.130 -2.280 .023 -.130 -.130 -.129 .998 1.002 Exposure .140 .193 .144 .725 .469 -.067 .042 .041 .082 12.141 Adlitxexpo -.059 .054 -.273 -1.093 .275 -.026 -.063 -.062 .052 19.367 Adlit .227 .157 .233 1.443 .150 .065 .083 .082 .124 8.097 a. Dependent Variable: Internalization 61 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh This led to the rejection of the fifth hypothesis which was exploring whether advertising Literacy changes the positive link between exposure and internalization to a negative one Below is a summary of the results from the hypotheses testing along with an empirical model depicting the relationships found Table 19: Comprehensive Summary the Hypotheses Test Results Hypothesized link Test p- Result value H1: Positive link between Exposure and Regression .267 Not Internalization supported H2: Positive link between internalization and Regression .000 Supported surveillance H3: No significant difference in means of males and Independent .265 Supported females relative to extent of internalization Samples T-test H4: Significant difference in means of males and Independent 0.045 Supported females relative to extent of surveillance Samples T-test H5: Advertising Literacy changes the positive link moderated 0.275 Not between exposure and internalization to a negative regression supported one analysis 4.5 Post hoc analysis Due to the surprising finding that exposure had no effect on internalization of idealized advertising images, there was the need to explore other explanations for how exposure may otherwise be related to internalization. Thus, the researcher conducted additional analysis on a possibility that exposure was self-moderating in its effects on internalization. In finding out if that was the case a moderation analysis was run between the exposure and internalization using exposure as the moderating variable. In order to arrive at the interaction term for the moderation analysis, the 62 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh composite measure of exposure was multiplied by itself (i.e. Exposure x Exposure). This was then regressed on internalization along with the direct effect of exposure, and age estimated control variables. The results are discussed below: The output of the moderation analysis returned a non-significant model with the introduction of the interaction term (F {3,302} = 2.141. p, <.095) (see table below 20). Table 20: ANOVA Table for Post hoc Analysis ANOVAa Sum of Mean Model Squares df Square F Sig. 1 Regression 6.183 3 2.061 2.141 .095b Residual 290.766 302 .963 Total 296.950 305 a. Dependent Variable: Internalization b. Predictors: (Constant), Age of respondent, ExpoxExpo, Exposure As shown in Table 21 below, the effect of the interaction term between exposure and exposure was not significant (b= -0.05; p = -.031) suggesting that exposure to idealized advertising images simply, and by itself, had no implications for internalization of such images as standards for beauty in society. 63 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 21: Coefficients Table for Post hoc Analysis Coefficientsa Unstandardized Standardized Coefficients Coefficients Model B Std. Error Beta t Sig. 1 (Constant) 2.938 .393 7.467 .000 Exposure2 -.032 .278 -.033 -.115 .908 ExpoxExpo -.005 .047 -.031 -.109 .914 Age of -.167 .074 -.128 -2.240 .026 respondent a. Dependent Variable: Internalization In the next chapter, possible reasons for this along with discussions of the other findings in the study are presented. 4.6 Empirical model The testing of hypothesis and their subsequent findings lead to the empirical model below: 64 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Fig 4: Empirical Model Key: X Means hypothesis not supported  Means hypothesis supported 4.7 Chapter Summary This chapter covered the reporting of findings, testing of hypothesis and presentation of the analysis. 65 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FIVE DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS 5.0 INTRODUCTION This chapter discusses the findings of the study, which were presented in the previous chapter, based on the objectives of the study. Based on the Social Comparison Theory, the main objective of the study was is to explore if Ghanaians suffer body image issues after being exposed to idealized images in advertisements as indicated in literature from other countries. The study therefore looked at issues of whether exposure to idealized images leads to their internalization; if internalization of such images leads to body surveillance and whether being advertising literate mitigates the effects of exposure to such images. There were certain similarities between the study findings and suggestions in previous research. However, there were also points of difference. To make the findings meaningful, this chapter discussed as well as drew inferences from and relates the findings to other studies focused on body image and advertising. The study began with the following as the research questions guiding the inquiry:  What is the nature of the relationship between exposure to idealized advertising images and the acceptance of foreign notions of beauty?  Do Ghanaian advertising audiences’ responses to idealized images have an effect on how they view themselves personally?  Are there any boundary conditions that moderate the relationship between exposure to idealized advertising images and audience responses? 66 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh  Do males and females differ in their responses to idealized advertising images? The findings from testing the hypotheses posed in this study were indicative of the following results: Table 22: Summary of Findings Hypothesized link Result H1: Positive link between Exposure and Internalization Not supported H2: Positive link between internalization and surveillance Supported H3: No significant difference in means of males and females relative to extent of Supported internalization H4: Significant difference in means of males and females relative to extent of Supported surveillance H5: Advertising Literacy changes the positive link between exposure and Not supported internalization to a negative one From the information in Table 22 above, the main findings of the study are that:  Exposure had no effect on the internalization of these beauty ideals.  Internalization of these beauty ideals led individuals to surveil their bodies.  There was no difference between men and women when it came to the internalizations of beauty ideals.  There was a difference between men and women when it came to body surveillance with women doing it more than men.  Advertising literacy does not moderate the effects exposure had on internalization The above findings are discussed below in respect with how they are connected to the objectives this study sought to explore. 67 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5.1 The Nature of the Relationship between Exposure to Idealized Images and Internalization The first objective was to explore whether exposure to idealized images shapes an acceptance of such images as representing standards of beauty. Premised on suggestions in previous studies, exposure to idealized images led individuals to internalize these ideals (Dittmar & Howard, 2011), and on the social comparison theory tenet that comparison takes place with people we find similar because individuals are social beings and thus would want to fit in (Morrison et al, 2004).Thus, once individuals undertake that comparison and they believe that person is the epitome of the society’s standard they begin to accept that ideal as standard (Holstrom, 2004), the study sought to understand, whether exposure and the inherent comparison that it may come with led to the internalization of beauty ideals. To find answers, the study tested a presumed positive relationship between exposure and internalization. Findings indicated that exposure did not have an effect on internalization within the sample. While respondents reported a very high level of advertising engagement and a high perception of the prevalence of idealized images in Ghanaian ads, such exposure does not appear to engender the internalization of the images depicted in ads. This outcome is contrary to the argument asserted by Hesse-Biber et al (2006) that individuals exposed to such ideals they imbibe them. On the contrary, the finding ties in with Posavac et al (1998) who argued that not all individuals are affected by exposure. According to them, people of different cultures whose beauty ideals directly contrast those shown in ads will not be susceptible to them. Again, these findings are along the same trajectory of those found by Monro and Huon (2005) that there was no surge in internalization, body anxiety or shame though individuals will focus their attention on the models they see in ads. It appears that it is this second perspective that pertains with this Ghanaian sample. As shown in the previous chapter, the sample does engage 68 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh with models in adverts and even recognize the differences they portray. However, it appears that is not enough to cause people to accept the ideals transmitted through adverts. In post-hoc analysis, the researcher also examined whether the link between exposure and internalization was a non- liner relationship. Based on the possibility that rather than direct and fundamental effects, there might be an optimal level of exposure, that, then leads to internalization of advertising beauty ideals. The check for a possible self-moderation of exposure (i.e. exposure multiplied by itself) returned no significant effects either. This suggests that internalization of idealized advertising images is fully immune to the extent of exposure. Possible explanations for this lack of a direct link between exposure and internalization may lie with Guðnadottir and Garðarsdottir (2014) and their suggestion that exposure is only partly to blame for the internalization of beauty ideals. According to them, it is rather the kind of materialistic gain and consumer culture associated with such images that drive individuals to accept such ideals. In the particular case of the study sample, it could also be due to sample characteristics, specifically their level of sophistication as urban-based university students. Could it be that as well-educated individuals, their levels of sophistication mitigates their willingness to freely accept beauty notions communicated through adverts. 5.2 The Moderating Role of Advertising Literacy The study further tested the possibility that the relationship between exposure to idealized images and internationalization is conditioned on or changed by the introduction of the extent of individuals’ advertising literacy. Previous research suggests that media literacy is a technique, which can mitigate the effects of exposure (Mamelin, 2010). Guided by these suggestions, and in addressing the last research objective, the study tested whether advertising literacy has a moderating influence over the relationships between exposure and internalization. The findings 69 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh from this study indicate otherwise, which is contrary to findings by Yamamiya et al (2005) that a high level of media (advertising) literacy would make individuals be less affected by exposure to idealized images. These findings also contradict that of Jenkins (2015) which asserted that audiences who are media savvy and, therefore advertising literate, would understand the fact that advertising images are augmented and not necessarily realistic. 5.3 Audience Responses to Idealized Images The second objective of the study looked at whether the acceptance of these beauty ideals led to body surveillance as a response to the acceptance of such ideals. Findings support this expectation. From the findings, it is evident that respondents engage in body surveillance and this goes to support previous research findings that advertising is a powerful social agent, which transmits certain ideals. Where individuals do not measure up to those ideals, they spend time and money in trying to achieve them. This outcome can be linked to the social comparison theory that states that individuals compare their looks and abilities as well as opinions to that of others by virtue of the fact that they are social beings with the desire to fit in the society they find themselves in. Thus, they make changes to their appearance in order to fit in or be accepted within their society. As suggested by Shilling (2003), individuals who internalize media beauty ideals come to view their bodies is a project that needs to be constantly worked on in order to establish their self-identity and measure to such ideals. 5.4 Gender and Audience Responses to Idealized Advertising Images The third objective of the study was to explore gender differences in how audiences respond to advertising beauty ideals. The findings indicated that there was no remarkable difference between male and female advertising audiences when it comes to the extent of their internalization. In other words, both men and women are susceptible to an internalization of advertising beauty ideals, 70 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh albeit the route to this, ad presented earlier is not merely by exposure to such images. This outcome was expected, given previous findings on the issue. In a study by Gulas and McKeage, (2000) found that men accepted advertising ideals as standard. This is in tandem with the findings on how women respond to or internalize beauty ideals as described by Sohn and Youn (2013). Again drawing from the social comparison theory, this is seen as stemming from universalistic targets. These universalistic targets are noted as distance sources of influence such as advertising, which evoke a strong pressure on individuals for them to comply with what is deemed as idealistic standards of attractiveness. This according to Luther (2009) happens within the social environment we find ourselves and even unconsciously. Luther (2009) further asserts that there may be some sort of comparison by members of the audience to the models because of the solutions these models are presumed to be selling and their ability to fulfill their dreams and aspirations when they look like the models. 5. 5 Gender, Idealized Advertising Images and Self- presentation The fourth objective of the study looked at whether the internalization of beauty ideals had an impact on the self- presentation of individuals. This is because according to Shilling (2003) the body as an entity, which needs to be constantly worked on in order to establish an individual’s self-identity. This lends to the fact that the human body is a flexible entity, which can be changed and perfected to what the owners want it to be through hard work and the vigilance of on lookers. Small (2017) asserts that individuals’ bodies are considered as an entity that needs to be managed, maintained and the overall appearance kept in a certain way. From this study, it was found that women undertook more body surveillance than men. According to Buss (1994) and Feingold (1990), a woman’s social outcome is critically dependent on their 71 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh level of attractiveness, thus when they do not measure up they begin to feel threatened which leads to an increase in activities undertaken to reach the mark. However, the opposite exists for men, where their basis for social acceptance does not depend on their appearance (Chaney, 2009). The view is supported by the data gathered in this study. What this means is that there is a marked difference between men and women when it comes to them surveilling their bodies after having internalized advertising beauty ideals (Roberts & Roberts, 2015). The research believes the arguments proffered by Buss (1994) and Feingold (1990) are just as relevant in Ghana as elsewhere given the general social and cultural expectation of modern Ghanaian women to be more conscious about their looks. 5.6 Chapter Summary This chapter discussed the findings of the study by linking findings to findings from other studies. In general, findings showed exposure and advertising literacy had no effect on internalization though respondents had internalized the ideals shown by advertising images. This internalization had a subsequent effect on body surveillance. Men and women did not differ when it came to the acceptance of these ideals but they differed concerning surveilling their bodies with women recording a higher level of surveillance. CHAPTER SIX 72 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CONCLUSIONS 6.0 Introduction The study based on the Social Comparison Theory sought to explore the effects of idealized images in advertising on audience body image perceptions among young Ghanaians on the University of Ghana campus. The objectives of the research were to determine if Ghanaians suffer body image issues after being exposed to idealized images in advertisements as indicated in literature from other countries. The study therefore looked at issues of whether exposure to idealized images leads to their internalization; if internalization of such images leads to body surveillance and whether being advertising literate mitigates the effects of exposure to such images. This chapter sums up the findings and discussions in the previous chapters and presents the limitations of the study along with recommendations and proposals for future research. 6.1 Summary of main findings Findings from this study showed that:  Among the study’s Ghanaian sample, and in contrast to what has been asserted by some scholars (Dittmar & Howard, 2011; Bryant, 2013; Hesse-Biber et al, 2006), exposure is not strongly linked to internalization of idealized advertising images.  Internalization of idealized images does have individuals’ surveilling their bodies more  Males and females do not differ in the extent of their internalization of idealized images in adverts, suggesting that both genders accept that the ideals that these images portray are standard in society.  Males and females differ significantly in surveilling their bodies; females engage in more body surveillance than men once internalization of advertising beauty notions takes place  Advertising literacy has no effect on the relationship between exposure and internalization. 73 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6.2 Implications of Findings The findings of the study have a number of suggestions for scholarship. First, findings from this study do not warrant claims that exposure to advertising images are to blame for the internalization of beauty ideals portrayed in them. This means that being exposed to idealized images does not necessarily mean that such images will affect the individual. Rather, other factors need to be taken into account when it comes to exposure having an effect on individuals. Different levels of analysis exploring different angles to the issue (the effect of exposure by it-self, its self-moderation and its interaction with advertising literacy) all returned insignificant links with internalization. Findings show that there is the need to examine further the role exposure plays in individuals internalizing adverting images and the consequences that come with it. From the literature, there are divergent views on the issue. For instance, Grabe et al (2008) found that exposure to beauty ideals in advertising leads to different outcomes, which maybe negative and related to body image. Guðnadottir and Garðarsdottir (2014) reported that exposure is only partly to blame for that aspiration among young men and women but rather the kind of materialistic gain and consumer culture associated with such images are what drive individuals to accept such ideals. The findings show a need for further analysis as suggested by other studies, which have noted that there is more to exposure than what the literature says. For instance, it might be that advertising exposure works in tandem with the extent of individuals’ media exposure before becoming effective in causing internalization. Secondly, maybe we need new ways of measuring advertising exposure to be able to capture its real meaning for internalization. The study’s findings that internalization of advertising beauty ideals is directly linked to body surveillance is also insightful especially for women who appear to undertake this behaviour more than men. Because women’s body is the one thing that portrays her identity and social status 74 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (Cheng 2015), there is the need to delve further into whether this happens to women, who are more enamored with consumer materialism and thus hold their bodies out as commodities. The study also brings to light the fact that though the world is changing with men and women gaining greater equality women still appear to feel the pressure to look more beautiful than men. As expected, the study finds that men and women differ when it comes to how actively they question their bodies after internalizing beauty ideas in adverts. What this means is that the traditional notions of masculinity are culturally embedded within individuals and thus it would take a whole lot more than just exposure to and the internalization of advertising beauty ideals to push Ghanaian men to habitually question their appearance. That said, the finding that men and women do not differ in the extent to which they internalize these ideals shows that men are increasingly becoming susceptible to such images and Ghanaian men are no exception to this phenomenon as is indicative of happenings in the Western world (McNeil & Firman, 2014). This suggests a need for further research to pay as much attention to males as we pay to women when it come to the effects of idealized images. As shown by social comparison theory, individuals (both men and women) engage in self-to-others comparisons. Therefore, explorations of these issues need to extend beyond females. 6.3 Study Recommendations Drawing from these findings and their implications, the following recommendations are made for the benefit of practice and policy:  Despite the fact, exposure does not drive internalization, the fact that the latter drives body surveillance calls for attention. Advertising creatives are encouraged to exercise caution in 75 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh the kinds of images the employ in their trade, this is because the audience member tends to imbibe the ideals that such images use as found by in this study.  Public education by Governmental agencies such as the National Commission for Civic Education which help individuals in establishing their self-identities separate from their looks, especially for vulnerable members of the audience. Based on the fact women surveil their bodies more, it signposts that socialization of girls and the emphasis on their looks needs to change. Socialization agents such as families, schools, churches and the media must be careful in the kind of analogies they draw between male and female especially concerning heavy emphasis on looks for females. In addition, counselling can help break the negative effects of body surveillance on women.  Communication Scholars in further studies in this regard should not treat respondents as a ubiquitous group, but rather take into account culture of respondents in order to ascertain what really works for different people.  Finally, public education on the differences between western body types and African body types should may help members of the public to accept their bodies and not question them using idealized advertising images as standards. 6.4 Limitations of the Study This study has discovered a number of interesting things that both support and challenge what we know from previous research. However, like all others, the study has a number of weaknesses which may help future researchers look at other angles. One limitation from the study comes from the sample due to certain characteristics such as their educational level. This maybe contribute to why exposure did not have any effect on internalization. Because of their high education levels, respondents may have rationalized the fact that they do accept such ideals as not being because 76 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh they are exposed to such ideals. Future research may employ different samples of different education and socio-economic backgrounds to examine whether there may be latent demographic issues that lead to the internalization of such ideals among different samples. Future research also needs to explore what other factors lead to people internalize advertising beauty ideals beyond their extent of their exposure to them as was presumed in this study. Finally, the research was undertaken on a fairly homogenous sample (undergraduate students of the University of Ghana Campus who are resident on one campus) and may have developed shared worldviews. 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G., Phillips, K. A. & Olivardia, R. (2000). The Adonis complex: The secret crisis of male body obsession. New York, NY: Free Press Posavac, H. D., Posavac, S. S., & Posavac, E. J. (1998). Exposure to Media Images of Female Attractiveness and Concern with Body Weight Among Young Women. Sex Roles, 38(3/4), 187-201. doi:10.1023/a:1018729015490 Posavac, H. D., Posavac, S. S., & Weigel, R. G. (2001). Reducing the Impact of Media Images on Women At Risk For Body Image Disturbance: Three Targeted Interventions. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 20(3), 324-340. doi:10.1521/jscp.20.3.324.22308 Richins, M. L. (1991). Social Comparison and the Idealized Images of Advertising. Journal of Consumer Research, 18(1), 71. Doi: 10.1086/209242 Ridgeway, R. T., & Tylka, T. L. (2005). College Mens Perceptions of Ideal Body Composition and Shape. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 6(3), 209-220. doi:10.1037/1524- 9220.6.3.209 Roberts, J.A., & Roberts, C. A. (2015). Does Thin Always Sell? 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Family and Consumer Sciences Research Journal, 40(1), 58-73. doi:10.1111/j.1552- 3934.2011.02088.x 88 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDIX A SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE FOR WOMEN INFLUENCE OF ADVERTISING ON AUDIENCE BODY IMAGE PERCEPTIONS SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE Dear respondent, I am a student of the Department of Communication Studies of the University of Ghana, conducting my dissertation research on the effects of advertising on audience body image perceptions. I would appreciate it if you could take a moment to respond to my questionnaire, which should take up to thirty minutes to complete. The questionnaire covers your knowledge and perceptions about images in advertisements. Questions are accompanied by instructions for answering them. Please pay attention to these instructions. This is an academic exercise whose findings will be used for academic purposes only. Your participation is voluntary and by the protocols of University please be assured that the experiences 89 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh your share would be treated with confidentiality. Should you need to ask any further questions, please contact me using the details below. Thank you for your cooperation. Sincerely, Eileen Naazie MPhil Researcher ednaazie@gmail.com +233-202-600-008 Please indicate you participation consent by ticking the ‘yes’ box Yes CODE Below are images of different male body types commonly used in adverts in Ghana. Please select the image that best represents the type you see most often. SECTION A: Seeks information about your demographic characteristics. Please select ONE answer that fits you. This section is on your demographic characteristics. Please select ONE answer 1. Age: a) 18-28 b) 29-39 c) 40-49 d) 50-59 e) other Please indicate your answer by completing the space provided or selecting an option that best fits your position (Key: Once a week =1 More than twice a week=2 Three to Four days a week =3 Five to six days a week=4 Seven days a week 90 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Averagely, how many days in the week do you use any of these media? 1 2 3 Television Social Media The internet (websites) Newspapers or Magazines For each statement provided, please choose a number whose meaning best describes your position. (Key: Strongly Disagree = 1 Disagree = 2 Neither Agree nor Disagree = 3 Agree=4 Strongly Agree = 5) I pay attention to ads when… 1 2 3 4 5 …watching TV …using social media … visiting/ using websites … reading newspaper and magazines For the statements provided below, please select a number whose meaning best describes your position. (Key: Always= 1 Often= 2 Sometimes = 3 Seldom=4 Never= 5) When watching ads …….. 1 2 3 4 5 I often compare myself to the female models in ads I see myself as beautiful as one of the female models I think the female models are beautiful I consider women who look like the models as beautiful I think I look better than the female models in ads When watching ads …….. 1 2 3 4 5 I pay attention to the hairstyles of the female models I often compare my hairstyle to the female models in ads I think about my hairstyle in comparison to that of the female models I feel I would look more beautiful If I had the hairstyle of the female models I think the model’s hair always look better than mine When watching ads …….. 1 2 3 4 5 I often compare my clothing choice to those of female models in the ads I think I would look better in the clothes worn by the female models I think I dress better than the female models in ads I find myself wanting to dress like the female models I pay particular attention to the clothing worn by the female models When watching ads …….. 1 2 3 4 5 I compare my skin complexion to the models I think would look better with the models complexion I think the models complexion always looks better I pay attention to models of a certain skin complexion I think my skin complexion is better than the models When watching ads …….. 1 2 3 4 5 I compare my make-up ( facial and nail extensions) to that of the models I pay attention to the way the models’ makeup looks like 91 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh I think the models’ make up always looks good I feel the models make up would look better on me I think my makeup looks better than the models Please choose a number whose meaning best describes your position. (Key: Strongly Disagree = 1 Disagree = 2 neither Agree nor Disagree = 3 Agree=4 Strongly Agree = 5) As a person ……. 1 2 3 4 5 I think the female models in ads represent society’s standard of being beautiful I think it is important for me to look physically attractive like the female models I think the female models in the ads represent my idea of beauty in terms of complexion I think the models portray what is acceptable in society in terms of clothing In my opinion look like the models makes you more acceptable in society As a person 1 2 3 4 5 I want my body to look very slim like the models in the ads I think a lot about looking slim like the models in the ads I feel the constant need to look slim like the models in the ads I undertake activities that would make my body look slim like the models I actively seek information about how to make my body slim like the models As a person 1 2 2 4 5 I think a lot about having hairstyles like the female models in the ads I feel the constant need to have hairstyles like the female models in ads I want my hair to look like the models in the ads My choice of hairstyle and texture is informed by the models in the ads I sometimes wear my hair like the models in the ads As a person 1 2 3 4 5 I feel the need to have a skin complexion like the models in ads I use products that can make my skin complexion similar to that of the models in the ads I look out for information about how to change my skin complexion I change my skincare products to get a complexion like the models My choice of skin care products are informed by the complexion of the models As a person 1 2 3 4 5 I learn new makeup techniques and nail extensions trends in order to look like the models The makeup and nail extensions I wear are sometimes informed by what I see ad models wearing I feel the constant need to wear makeup and nail extensions like the models I feel more beautiful when I know I am wearing makeup and nail extensions like the models I think a lot about wearing makeup and nail extensions like the models in the ads As a person 1 2 3 4 5 I feel more beautiful when I know I am dressing like the models in the ads I feel the need to wear clothes like the models in ads When buying clothes I tend to buy what I see the models wearing I think a lot about wearing clothing like the models in ads I tend to dress like the models in the ads Please choose a number whose meaning best describes your position. (Key: Strongly Disagree = 1 Disagree = 2 neither Agree nor Disagree = 3 Agree=4 Strongly Agree = 5) As a person….. 1 2 3 4 5 92 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh I rarely think about how I look I spend a lot of time looking at myself in the mirror I invest a lot of time and money on my appearance I am very concerned about how attractive I look every time I go out I am very concerned if people find me physically attractive or not I often worry about whether I am the most attractive girl at a gathering or not I am always expecting compliments from people when I go out . Please choose a number whose meaning best describes your position (Key: Strongly Disagree = 1 Disagree = 2 neither Agree nor Disagree = 3 Agree=4 Strongly Agree = 5) As a person………. 1 2 3 4 5 When I can’t control my weight, I feel like something must be wrong with me I feel ashamed of myself when I haven’t made the effort to look my best I feel like I must be a bad person when I don’t look as good as I could I would be ashamed for people to know what I really weigh Even when I can’t control my weight, I think I’m an okay person I never worry that something is wrong with me when I am not exercising as much as I should When I’m not exercising enough, I question whether I am a good enough person When I’m not the size I think I should be, I feel ashamed Please choose a number whose meaning best describes your position (Key: Strongly Disagree = 1 Disagree = 2 neither Agree nor Disagree = 3 Agree=4 Strongly Agree = 5) As a person……. 1 2 3 4 5 I think ads are meant to make you think positively about the advertised product I think ads always tell the truth I think ads are targeted at a specific group of people at all times Celebrities are often used in ads to encourage purchase I think ads tell half truths I think the ads are paid for by someone to influence people Thank you very much for your time and ideas!!!!!!!! 93 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDIX B SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE FOR MEN INFLUENCE OF ADVERTISING ON AUDIENCE BODY IMAGE PERCEPTIONS SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE Dear respondent, I am a student of the Department of Communication Studies of the University of Ghana, conducting my dissertation research on the effects of advertising on audience body image perceptions. I would appreciate it if you could take a moment to respond to my questionnaire, which should take up to thirty minutes to complete. The questionnaire covers your knowledge and perceptions about images in advertisements. Questions are accompanied by instructions for answering them. Please pay attention to these instructions. This is an academic exercise whose findings will be used for academic purposes only. Your participation is voluntary and by the protocols of University please be assured that the experiences your share would be treated with confidentiality. Should you need to ask any further questions, please contact me using the details below. Thank you for your cooperation. 94 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Sincerely, Eileen Naazie MPhil Researcher ednaazie@gmail.com +233-202-600-008 Please indicate you participation consent by ticking the ‘yes’ box Yes CODE Below are images of different male body types commonly used in adverts in Ghana. Please select the image that best represents the type you see most often. SECTION A: Seeks information about your demographic characteristics. Please select ONE answer that fits you. 1. Age: a) 18-28 b) 29-39 c) 40-49 d) 50-59 e) Other Please indicate how many days in a week you use any of these media (Key: Once a week =Up to thrice a week=2 More than thrice a week =3 95 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 2 3 Television Social Media The internet (websites) Newspapers or Magazines 2. For the statements provided below, please select a number whose meaning best describes your position. (Key: Always= 1 Often= 2 Sometimes = 3 Seldom=4 Never= 5) I pay attention to ads when… 1 2 3 4 5 …watching TV …using social media … visiting/ using websites … reading newspapers and magazines For each statement provided, please choose a number whose meaning best describes your position. (Key: Strongly Disagree = 1 Disagree = 2 Neither Agree nor Disagree = 3 Agree=4 Strongly Agree = 5) When watching ads …….. I often compare myself to male models in ads I see myself as handsome as one of the male models I think the male models are handsome I consider men who look like the male models as handsome I think I look better than the male models in ads When watching ads …….. 1 2 3 4 5 I pay attention to the haircuts of the male models I often compare my haircut to the male models in ads I think about my hairstyle in comparison to that of the male models I feel I would look more handsome if I had the haircut of the male models I think the male models’ hair always look better than mine When watching ads …….. 1 2 3 4 5 I often compare my clothing choice to those of male models in the ads I think I would look better in the clothes worn by the male models I think I dress better than the male models in ads I find myself wanting to dress like the male models I pay particular attention to the clothing worn by the male models When watching ads …….. 1 2 3 4 5 I compare my muscles and general body build to that of the male models I think I would look better if I had the body of the male models I think the male models muscles always looks better I pay attention to male models of a certain musculature I tend to wonder whether my muscles are better than that of the male models When watching ads …….. 1 2 3 4 5 I compare my facial hair style to that of the male models I pay attention to the way the male models’ facial hair is styled I tend to think the male models’ styling of their facial hair looks good I feel the male models facial hair styles would look better on me I tend to wonder whether my facial hair style looks better than that of the male models Please choose a number whose meaning best describes your position. (Key: Strongly Disagree = 1 Disagree = 2 neither Agree nor Disagree = 3 Agree=4 Strongly Agree = 5) As a person ……. 1 2 3 4 5 96 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh I think the male models in ads represent society’s standard of being handsome I think it is important for me to look physically attractive like the male models I think the male models in the ads represent my idea of being handsome in terms of physique I think the male models portray what is acceptable in society in terms of clothing In my opinion looking like the male models makes you more acceptable in society As a person 1 2 3 4 5 I want my body to look muscular like the male models in the ads I think a lot about looking muscular like the male models in the ads I feel the constant need to look muscular like the male models in the ads I undertake activities that would make my body look muscular like the male models I actively seek information about how to make my body muscular like the male models As a person 1 2 3 4 5 I think a lot about having my facial hair styled like that of the male models in the ads I feel the constant need to have hairstyles like the male models in ads I want my hair to look like the male models in the ads My choice of hairstyle is informed by the male models in the ads I sometimes wear my hair like the male models in the ads As a person 1 2 3 4 5 I feel the need to have smooth skin like the male models in ads I use products that can make my skin smooth similar to that of the male models in the ads I look out for information about how to keep my skin smooth like the male models I change my skincare products to get a smooth skin like the male models My choice of skin care products are informed by the skin of the male models As a person……… 1 2 3 4 5 I look out for male grooming techniques to look like the male models My choice of male grooming techniques are sometimes informed by what I see in male ad models I feel the constant need to be neatly groomed like the male models I feel handsome when I know I have undertaken some male grooming techniques like the male models I think a lot about being neatly groomed like the male models in the ads As a person……. 1 2 3 4 5 I feel more handsome when I know I am dressing like the male models in the ads I feel the need to wear clothes like what I see men wear in ads When buying clothes, I tend to buy what I see the male models wearing I think a lot about wearing clothing like the male models in ads I tend to dress like the male models in the ads 6. Please choose a number whose meaning best describes your position. (Key: Strongly Disagree = 1 Disagree = 2 neither Agree nor Disagree = 3 Agree=4 Strongly Agree = 5) As a person…. 1 2 3 4 5 I rarely think about how I look I spend a lot of time looking at myself in the mirror I invest a lot of time and money on my appearance I am very concerned about how attractive I look every time I go out I am very concerned if people find me physically attractive or not I often worry about whether I am the most handsome guy at a gathering or not I am always expecting compliments from people when I go out 7. Please choose a number whose meaning best describes your position (Key: Strongly Disagree = 1 Disagree = 2 neither Agree nor Disagree = 3 Agree=4 Strongly Agree = 5) As a person………. 1 2 3 4 5 When I can’t control my weight, I feel like something must be wrong with me I feel ashamed of myself when I haven’t made the effort to look my best I feel down when I don’t look as good as I feel I could I would be ashamed for people to know what I really weigh Even when I can’t control my weight, I think I’m an okay person 97 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh I never worry that something is wrong with me when I am not exercising as much as I should When I’m not exercising enough, I question whether I am a good enough person When I’m not the size I think I should be, I feel ashamed Please choose a number whose meaning best describes your position (Key: Strongly Disagree = 1 Disagree = 2 neither Agree nor Disagree = 3 Agree=4 Strongly Agree = 5) As a person……. 1 2 3 4 5 I think ads are meant to make you think positively about the advertised product I think ads always tell the truth I think ads are targeted at a specific group of people at all times Celebrities are often used in ads to encourage purchase I think ads tell half truths I think the ads are paid for by someone to influence people Thank you very much for your time and ideas!!!!!!!! 98