University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh UNIVERISTY OF GHANA, LEGON CENTRE FOR MIGRATION STUDIES MIGRATION AND INTEGRATION: UNDERSTANDING THE EXPERIENCES OF RURAL-URBAN MIGRANTS IN MADINA BY PHILIMOND KUSI-APPIAH (10311018) THIS DISSERTATION IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON, IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF MASTER OF ARTS MIGRATION STUDIES DEGREE JULY, 2018 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DECLARATION I, Philimond Kusi-Appiah, hereby declare that, except For references to other people’s work which have been duly acknowledged, this dissertation is the result of my own research and has neither in part nor in whole been presented for any degree. ……………………………………….. ……………………………… PHILIMOND KUSI-APPIAH DATE (STUDENT) THIS RESERCH WORK WAS UNDERTAKEN UNDER THE SUPERVISION OF ………………………………………….. ……………………………… DR. MARY BOATEMAA SETRANA DATE (SUPERVISOR) i University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DEDICATION This work is dedicated to Elizabeth Konadu-Yiadom and Owura Ossei-Adjeikum ii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I would first of all like to thank the Almighty God for grace, guidance and strength that have enabled me to successfully finish my work. I deem it a great honour to express my sincerest and profound appreciation to all those who provided me with invaluable support throughout this study. I would also like to thank the Centre for Migration Studies and my course mates for their support throughout my studies. Special thanks go to my supervisor, Dr. Mary Boatemaa Setrana at the Centre for Migration Studies, University of Ghana, for her constructive criticism, comments, corrections, advice and suggestions in the course of this work. My gratitude further goes to my parents, Mr. Ebenezer Kusi-Appiah and Mad. Florence Ama Konadu, who laboured to make my education a success. Again, my earnest and deepest appreciation goes to my bosom friends, Owuraku Ossei- Adjekum, Solomon Amoakwah, Eric Kyei-Baffour and Marvin Obeng Antwi, who have contributed greatly towards my education. Not forgetting my Godmother, Madam Elizabeth Konadu-Yiadom, who assisted me financially in my course of study. Many special thanks go to the respondents who took part in the study. iii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ABSTRACT Migration and integration experiences nexus as a phenomenon has not only been internal but international due to the increase and the presence of migrants at destination across the globe. In Ghana, rural-urban migration is on the ascendancy and migrant integration experiences are of immense concern. The objective of the study was to explore the migration and integration experiences of rural-urban migrants in Madina, Accra. Mixed method was adopted as the research design. Sixty (60) respondents were sampled for the study. The instruments used were questionnaire and interviews. Five (5) participants were selected for interview. Some of the merging themes during the interview are types of social network relied on during and after migrant migration processes, migrants integration strategies and those involved in the migration process. It was evident from the findings of the study that most of the rural-urban migrants were males within workable age with the majority of them identifying their pull and push factors as the quest for better living in urban centres. Others also identified educational opportunities, access to better social amenities amongst other factors as the driving force behind their movement away from home. It was further revealed in the qualitative studies that these migrants upon arrival in the city are faced with a series of problems before they are finally able to settle after persistent struggles. The most predominant challenge was identified to be accommodation and employment problems. They therefore depend on social networks for assistance, support from friends and sometimes their own efforts. Migrants upon arrival in the host community pointed out that aside the problem of securing accommodation as a major challenge, cultural and religious adjustment during their rural-urban migrant integration process is also another thing to consider. iv University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh After a series of hard struggles, some respondents revealed to have successfully been integrated into the city and have gained the capacity to send remittances to their families back home. The study recommends that government intervene to ease the plight of these rural-urban migrants by liaising with its stakeholders and private organisations to build affordable housing at the urban centres to reduce accommodation deficit and create remunerating employment to help migrants integrate successfully. v University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION ............................................................................................................................... i DEDICATION .................................................................................................................................. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ................................................................................................................ iii ABSTRACT ..................................................................................................................................... iv LIST OF TABLES ......................................................................................................................... viii LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................................... x LIST OF ABBBREVIATION........................................................................................................... xi CHAPTER ONE .............................................................................................................................. 1 1.1 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................... 1 1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT .......................................................................................................... 4 1.3 AIMS /OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY ...................................................................................... 5 1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY ............................................................................................. 5 1.5 ORGANISATION OF THE STUDY ........................................................................................... 5 CHAPTER TWO............................................................................................................................. 7 LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................................... 7 2.1 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................... 7 2.2 SOCIAL NETWORK THEORY.................................................................................................. 7 2.3 INTEGRATION THEORY ......................................................................................................... 8 2.3.1 Settling of Migrants .................................................................................................................. 9 2.3.2 Renegotiation of Identity ......................................................................................................... 10 2.3.3 Development of a sense of belonging ....................................................................................... 11 2.3.4 Development of Social Relationships / Network ....................................................................... 11 2.3.5 Means and confidence of migrants to exercise rights over resources ....................................... 12 2.4 MIGRANT INTEGRATION EXPERIENCES ........................................................................... 13 2.5 INTERNAL MIGRATION IN GHANA .................................................................................... 15 2.6 RURAL-URBAN MIGRATION IN GHANA ............................................................................ 16 2.7 FACTORS MOTIVATING RURAL-URBAN MIGRATION .................................................... 17 2.8 EXPERIENCES AND CHALLENGES OF RURAL-URBAN MIGRANTS IN THE PROCESS OF INTEGRATION ........................................................................................................................ 21 vi University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER THREE....................................................................................................................... 24 METHODOLOGY ........................................................................................................................ 24 3.1 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................... 24 3.2 STUDY AREA .......................................................................................................................... 24 3.3 RESEARCH DESIGN ............................................................................................................... 25 3.4 TARGET POPULATION AND SAMPLING TECHNIQUE ..................................................... 26 3.5 SOURCES OF DATA ............................................................................................................... 27 3.6 DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURE ....................................................................................... 28 3.7 QUANTITATIVE DATA COLLECTION ................................................................................. 29 3.7.1 Questionnaire Administration ................................................................................................. 29 3.8 QUALITATIVE DATA COLLECTION .................................................................................... 29 3.8.2 In-depth Interviews ................................................................................................................. 29 3.9 DATA ANALYSIS ................................................................................................................... 30 3.9.1 Quantitative data analysis........................................................................................................ 30 3.9.2 Qualitative data analysis ......................................................................................................... 30 3.10 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS.............................................................................................. 31 3.11 LIMITATION OF THE STUDY.............................................................................................. 31 CHAPTER FOUR ......................................................................................................................... 32 SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS AND MIGRATION PROCESSES OF THE RURAL-URBAN MIGRANTS ..................................................................................................... 32 4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 32 4.1.2 Sex of respondents .................................................................................................................. 32 4.1.3 Age of respondents before and after migration ........................................................................ 32 4.1.4 Marital status of respondents before and after migration .......................................................... 34 4.1.5 Religious affiliation of respondents ......................................................................................... 35 4.1.6 Educational status of respondents before and after migration ................................................... 35 4.1.7 Current occupation by sex of respondents ............................................................................... 36 4.1.8 Current occupation by age of respondent ................................................................................. 37 4.1.9 Regions respondents migrated from ........................................................................................ 40 4.2.0 Push factors motivating respondents to migrate ....................................................................... 40 4.2.1 Push factors motivating respondents by sex ............................................................................. 41 4.2.3. Factors attracting settlement in the study area ......................................................................... 43 vii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.2.4. Factors attracting settlement in Madina by sex ....................................................................... 44 4.3.1 Type of associations relied on by respondents at the destination .............................................. 45 4.3.2 Type of social network by assistance received ......................................................................... 46 4.3.3 Financier of migration and the cost involved ........................................................................... 48 4.3.4 Migration decision-making process ......................................................................................... 50 CHAPTER FIVE ........................................................................................................................... 52 LIVELIHOOD STRATEGIES AND INTEGRATION EXPERIENCES ................................... 52 5.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 52 5.1 Initial Support at destination ...................................................................................................... 52 5.1.2 Household sizes at both origin and destination ........................................................................ 54 5.1.3 Social networks relied on for current jobs at the destination..................................................... 54 5.1.4 Time spent in getting job at the destination.............................................................................. 56 5.1.5 Type of Associations and how they assisted respondents in integration ................................... 57 5.1.6 Respondent’s modes of contacting home and how it influences integration.............................. 58 5.1.7 Type of remittances and its related characteristics ................................................................... 60 5.1.8 Cash remittances sent by sex of respondents ........................................................................... 62 5.1.9 Challenges of the respondents’ integration at destination ......................................................... 63 5.2 Improvement of respondents’ livelihood as a result of migration ................................................ 65 CHAPTER SIX.............................................................................................................................. 67 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION ...................................................... 67 6.0 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................... 67 6.1 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS ..................................................................................................... 67 6.2 CONCLUSION ......................................................................................................................... 68 6.3 RECOMMENDATION ............................................................................................................. 70 REFERENCES................................................................................................................................ 72 APPENDIX 1 .................................................................................................................................. 87 APPENDIX 2 .................................................................................................................................. 95 viii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF TABLES Table 4.1: Sex of respondents .............................................................................................. 32 Table 4.2: Age of respondents before and after migration .................................................... 33 Table 4.3: Marital status before and after migration ............................................................. 34 Table 4.4: Educational status before and after migration ...................................................... 36 Table 4.5: Current occupation by sex of respondents ........................................................... 37 Table 4.6: Current occupation by age of respondent ............................................................ 39 Table 4.7: Regions migrated from by respondents ............................................................... 40 Table 4.8: Factors that motivated respondents to migrate (Push Factors) ............................. 41 Table 4.9: Push factors for motivating respondents to move by sex. .................................... 42 Table 4.10: Factors attracting settlement in the study area ................................................... 43 Table 4.11: Factors attracting settlement in Madina by sex .................................................. 44 Table 4.12 Type of associations relied on by respondents at the destination......................... 46 Table 4.13 Type of social network and the kind of assistance received at their destination. . 47 Table 4.12: Financier of migration and cost involved .......................................................... 49 Table 5.1: Household size occupied by respondents at the origin and destination. ............... 54 Table 5.2: Social networks relied on for current jobs at the destination ................................ 55 Table 5.3: Time spent before securing a first job at destination ............................................ 56 Table 5.4: Type of Associations and how often they assisted respondents in integration ...... 58 Table 5.5: Respondent’s modes of contacting home and how it influences integration ......... 59 Table 5.6: Type of remittances and related characteristics ................................................... 61 Table 5.6: Cash remittances by sex of respondents .............................................................. 63 Table 5.7: Migrant integration challenges ............................................................................ 64 ix University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF FIGURES Figure 4.1.2: Religious affiliation of respondents ................................................................ 35 Figure 4.1.3: Assistance sought in migration-decision making ............................................. 51 Figure 5.1.1: Whom did you stay with at the destination? .................................................... 53 Figure 5.1.2: Improvement of livelihood as a result of migration ......................................... 65 x University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF ABBBREVIATION AIDS Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome EU European Union GSS Ghana Statistical Service HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus IOM International Organisation for Migration MDA Ministries, Department and Agencies MDG Millennium Development Goals NADMO National Disaster Management Organisation NGO Non-Governmental Organisation NOV/DEC November December SPSS Social Policy and Statistical Science UN DESA United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs WB World Bank WEF World Economic Forum xi University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER ONE 1.1 INTRODUCTION Migration is one of the driving forces of human progress and development (De Haas, 2009:5). From time immemorial, people have always been on the move seeking to integrate into new societies. It is observed that more people move internally than across borders with the most recent data on internal migrants having a global estimate of 740m people (World Migration Report, 2018).It is imperative for various governments to understand the dynamics of migration and its various manifestations in order to better manage the evolving migration phenomenon and at the same time handle various issues associated with the acceptance and provision of varied needs of migrants. Several reasons account for the desire of people to migrate to other places. Some of these reasons are related to economics and prosperity, conflicts and violence, inequality, demography and a mere change in environment (World Migration Report, 2018). According to Odotei (1992), while a greater number of people move to new destinations in search of better employment opportunities, quality standards of living and other economic reasons, an overwhelming number of people are forced to move from their homes due to compelling reasons such as natural and chemical disasters, persecution, and conflicts (World Migration Report, 2018). There are four directions of internal migration and these are urban-urban migration, urban- rural migration, rural-rural migration and rural-urban migration. Rural-Urban migration, specifically, has become an issue of contention in most developing countries (Deshingkar & Natali as cited by Dang, 2016). Various empirical literature gathered as evidence reveal that there are positive and negative effects of internal migration on migrants themselves and the 1 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh host and home communities. Positive impacts on the economy of host countries include contribution to economic development, reduction in poverty, and the release of idle labour from rural areas to urban centres. Impact on migrants includes migration as a strategy to reduce poverty and of standards of living (Dang, 2016). However, people who move from their home countries in search of new settlements are faced with various forms of hardships and difficulties before they are finally able to find their feet in the new environment while a number of them after hard toils and struggles return to their home countries. One aspect of migration is what has come to be known as migrant integration. Penninx and Gavces-Mascarenes (2014) defined migrant integration as the process of migrants becoming an accepted part of their new community. They categorised integration into three logical dimensions: legal-political, socio-economic and cultural-religious dimensions. The socio- economic dimension refers to migrants’ equal access to and participation in employment, accommodation and health care in the host country. The legal-political dimension is basically the right granted to immigrants to take part in decision making without any exclusionary measures or discrimination at the receiving society. More so, the cultural-religious dimension refers to migrants’ capability to assimilate or practise their culture and religion in the host country without restriction. The integration concept is the process of adopting new ways of life, gaining access to higher statuses and positions, establishing social relationships and networks, developing a sense of belonging, and negotiating a new identity in the host community. It is a negotiation process between the host community and the migrants with greater power in the hands of the receiving society. Migrants sometimes face discrimination at their destination which affects their migration and integration experiences. In most cases, majority groups subject the migrant minority groups to labour market segregation and residential segregation. Migrant 2 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh workers are denied rights with respect to the labour market, residence, social security, culture and political participation at their destination (Mantouvalou, 2013). The conditions at the destination are contributing factors to determine whether one will migrate and after one has migrated, how migrant will integrate are dependent on variable at the destination. A study by Twumasi-Ankrah (1995) and Awumbila et al. (2008) revealed that rural-urban migration is the most dominant in Ghana. Rural-urban migration refers to people moving from rural areas to settle in urban areas in search of employment and other incentives. A rural area is defined as a population with less than 5000 persons at a particular locality while an urban area is defined as a population with 5000 or more persons at a particular locality (GSS, 2013). According to Songsore (2003), rural-urban migration with human growth is marked as one of the unresolved factors to rapid urbanisation in Ghana. Most people migrate within Ghana from rural areas to the urban areas for many reasons. In Ghana, rural-urban migration is on ascendancy. Accra, the capital of Ghana, is considered the business centre in the whole of the country. Access to better health care, employment, better education, better security protection and most private enterprises are all centred in the urban centres. Also, some migrate to the cities for marriages, joining family members or friends while others migrate to Accra as a stepping stone to travel overseas. Madina, the focus of this study, is a suburb of Greater Accra and close to the central business areas in the capital and has attracted many migrants. . The target of migrants upon arrival in host countries are the urban centres (Yajalin, 2015). The most daunting challenge for urban centres, however, is to enhance the living conditions of migrants from their early settlement, help them to adapt to the new city culture, and render assistance to migrants who wish to be integrated into the cities or go back home. Flowing from this, the study sought to explore the migration and integration experiences of the rural-urban migrants in Madina. The study employed a mixed 3 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh method approach to unravel its objectives. For the purpose of this study, integration is defined as an enduring process of assimilation and reception of migrants in the fundamental establishment, customs and relations of the host community Heckmann (2005). 1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT Numerous researches have been undertaken by scholars on rural-urban migration in developing countries. (Harris and Todaro, 1970; Hoopengardner, 1974; Lall Selod & Shalizi 2006 and Tacoli et al., 2015). The existing literature has looked at the systematic process of how migrants are accepted and integrated into host communities and how they struggle to make ends meet. Also, a significant number of literature has been carried out on internal migration which observed a rapid increase in rural-urban migration in developing countries (Awumbila et al, 2008; Osei-Boateng, & Ampratwum, 2011; Kwankye, 2012; Awumbila et al 2014; Tascoli et al, 2015). While adequate studies have been conducted on rural-urban migration in various sub-regions and what pulls them to the urban centres, most researches have failed to explore the way of life of rural migrants, what they go through and the untold story of how they struggle to fit into the new atmosphere. The story of their survival and how they cope with daily challenges remains inadequately studied. Most of these studies conducted on rural-urban migration and its related aspects have been carried out using either qualitative or quantitative approaches (Kwankye, 2012; Awumbila et al 2014; Amoako and Apusigah, 2013; Adaawen and Owusu, 2013). However, only a handful of these studies have adopted both quantitative and qualitative approaches for studying integration processes of rural-urban migrants in a Ghanaian context. This dissertation adopts the mixed approach in identifying the phenomenon but providing statistical evidence to back the findings of the study for further understanding of the migration and integration processes of rural-urban migrants in Ghana using Madina as a case study. 4 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.3 AIMS /OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY The main objective of the research is to explore the migration and integration experiences of rural-urban migrants in Madina. The specific objectives of the research are: 1. To describe the socio-demographic characteristics of rural-urban migrants in Madina. 2. To explore the migration process and factors motivating rural-urban migrants to settle in Madina. 3. To examine the integration processes of rural-urban migrants in Madina. 4. To analyse the challenges rural-urban migrants face integrating into Madina. 1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY The findings of the study will inform the International Organisation for Migration (IOM), Ministry of Local Government, Department of Urban Management and other agencies to better understand the migration phenomenon in Ghana and devise a strategic development plan regarding the management of rural-urban migration to support migrant integration in Ghana. Also, the study will contribute to the limited literature on the integration experiences of rural-urban migrants in Ghana and Africa at large and can serve as a future reference for researchers studying a phenomenon related to the research topic. 1.5 ORGANISATION OF THE STUDY The work is organised into six chapters. The first chapter comprises the background of the study, statement of the problem, the aim and specific objectives, significance of the study and delimitation of the study. Chapter two is a review of relevant literature on integration of migrants and theoretical framework for the study. Chapter Three looks at the methodological approach of the study. This methodical approach includes the study area, the design 5 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh employed for the study (research design), target population and sampling technique, data collection procedures, data analysis, ethical consideration used and limitations during the field work. Chapter four discusses the objectives of the study such as migrants’ integration strategies, the type of social network relied on during and after their migration process, who was involved in their decision to migrate and how they migrated to secure their jobs. Chapter five provides discussions of findings on the rest of the objectives under the following themes: social network relied on, types of associations and types of remittances. Finally, Chapter six discusses the summary and conclusion and makes some recommendations. 6 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 INTRODUCTION In order to achieve the aims and objectives of the study, this chapter seeks to review existing relevant theories and an empirical review on migration and migrant integration experiences. The outline of the chapter is as follows: The social network theory, the integration theory, migrant integration experiences, internal migration in Ghana, rural-urban migration in Ghana, factors motivating rural-urban migration and the experiences and challenges of rural-urban migrants in the process of integration. 2.2 SOCIAL NETWORK THEORY According to Fussell (2012: 25-52), migration networks add three more key principles into developing the theories of the process of migration. These key principles are interpreting the forces of differential migration; predicting migration in future, since migrant social relationships give rise to more migrants from time to time; helps to reconcile a key theoretical variation between the preliminary causation of migration and its continuation and dissemination in space. It has been proposed that the social network theory seeks to focus on the interpersonal bonds linking migrants and residents in both home and host areas through ties of kindred, alliance and shared community of origin (Massey et al, 1993). Wasserman and Faust (1994), in examining the social network concept, stated that the fundamental basis of the social network theory is on the opinion that all features of life involve human relations in the society. Moreover, according to Teye (2013), the establishment of social networks are based on dependency on one another. He suggests that due to the inadequacy of resources, many people in the economic, social and political 7 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh processes resort to working with one another towards attaining their corporate goals and this is what leads to the development of social networks. Boyed (1989) defined migrant networks as the repetitive sets of social bonds that tied non-migrants and migrants together within a network of exchanged responsibilities that can be used to accelerate the adjustment, entry and employment at destination points. According to Boyd and Nowak (2012), migrant networks are of three types: individual and family networks, illegitimate migrant network and labour networks. They further discuss the gender-specific classification of all networks, and the regular contribution of women in building and maintaining individual networks. Migrant social connections at particular destinations may serve as an important resource for potential migrants in the facilitation of their movement. Thus, network establishments bring about increased migration as they reduce the risks and costs involved in movement, and raise the expected net returns to migration (Massey, 1988). Also, people do not move to places where there are more economic opportunities but to places where they can receive help from other migrants. Migrants social networks sometimes serve as ‘bridgeheads’ in accelerating future migration but may create restrictions (Bocker 1994; De Haas 2003), being reluctant to extend any form of assistance to potential migrants. People moving because they have a contact at the destination area will lead to migrants clustering (Awumbila, Owusu and Teye, 2014). Migrants are provided with information and contacts by their networks at the destination and the origin. Also, migrants receive assistance in terms of accommodation, employment, financial support and other livelihood support. 2.3 INTEGRATION THEORY As defined by Phillimore (2012), the integration process refers to a gradual process from the time migrants settle down in the host community to the time migrants familiarise themselves 8 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh with the new place and get accepted to finally, the period where he or she is given access to resources such as shelter, work and education. The steps involved in the process are: Settling of migrants Renegotiation of identity Development of sense of belonging Development of social networks Means and confidence to exercise rights over resources Source: Phillimore, 2012- Theory of integration 2.3.1 Settling of Migrants According to Phillimore (2012), settling of migrants is the first step in the integration process of migrants being synced into their new environment or atmosphere. Where migrants first choose to settle has a significant influence on their success or otherwise in the city. Most migrants move away from their hometowns on the word of relatives in the urban centres and easily settle down when they come through in fulfilling their promises. Others who walk in ‘blind’ with no relatives or friends in the cities tend to have severe shelter and comfort problems as they end up sleeping at hazardous places and creating slums where they are eventually chased out by city guards and are exposed to armed robbery attacks with some ending up as rape victims. Some of these migrants would rent the front of stores since they are unable to afford accommodation at their initial stages of life in the city and have to work for a long time before acquiring the means to rent a decent room. Generally, it takes quite a 9 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh number of years for rural urban migrants to settle down in urban centres. However, some migrants who are not able to cope with the difficult challenges in urban settlements end up giving up and returning home (Phillimore, 2013: 682 - 700) 2.3.2 Renegotiation of Identity The next stage in the integration process is the renegotiation of identity between rural urban migrants and the host community. After settling down using various means, migrants move to create new identities for themselves. They do this after coming to a realisation that life in the city is different from life in the rural areas. They, therefore, rid themselves of attitudes and traits that may portray them as rural migrants at any point in time (Awumbila, 2007). They learn how things are done in the cities. For example, they learn how communication is constructed and also discover new ways of life. This is where people lose their culture all in the name of city life (Kwankye, 2015). According to Kwankye et al. (2015), people who move to the cities with the aim of changing their social status mostly go through a wild process under this stage. They do their best to learn to change almost everything about themselves including how they dress, speak and some to the point of changing their looks. Yakubu (2017) asserts that normally, this process can be allowed to take its course by giving it time. It eventually happens to the migrants without them necessarily targeting to change how they are. Life in the city changes rural migrants and does not need special or dedicated attention paid to it to make it happen. Kwankye et al. (2015) oppose this notion that attitudes and habits are not automated to change all by themselves unless one is determined to. However, it is possible that migrants may have certain parts of themselves changed to suit the new atmosphere but this is limited to their way of dressing and looks as these changes are influenced by favourable living conditions in the city (Phillimore, 2012). 10 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.3.3 Development of a sense of belonging Under this stage, it is believed that the rural-urban migrant is settled down and is working on gaining a new identity. In order to thrive in the new atmosphere, the rural migrant has to feel accepted in his or her newly found community. Failure at this step of the process has resulted in most migrants returning to their home communities with the feeling of not belonging to the urban centres. Ager & Strang (2004) suggest that a sense of belonging may come in the form of good luck in daily activities giving the migrant an impression that things are going well already. A hard luck may discourage efforts of migrants to survive and impede this stage of the integration process. Sam (2011) points out that the environment within which migrants settle influences this step massively. This stage has influenced the decision of most migrants to settle in slum areas where almost everyone living in the area is a migrant. This makes them ‘feel at home’ and it fosters the next stage in the integration process. (Phillimore, 2012). The urge to feel belonged may cause migrants to move to the stage of building social networks and relationships quicker in some people than in others. 2.3.4 Development of Social Relationships / Network How do migrants socially adapt to their host communities after developing a sense of belonging? The next step in the integration process is the socialisation and creation of relationships between migrants and non-migrants as well as other migrants within the host communities. In some cases, some migrants are considered to have the ‘urban life’ already in them, which makes them find it easy to integrate themselves more easily into the host country. This kind of people are mostly the well-educated type, young and extroverts, and are quite familiar with some parts of the host community due to secondary school education or are in other ways familiar with the place. Cardwell as cited by Yakubu (2017) conducted a study which revealed that more than 50% of the sampled rural urban migrants were faced 11 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh with some problems in adjusting to life in the city and building social rapport. He concluded that these groups of migrants are more likely to survive than the rest of the population with larger problems of integration. Liebenow as cited by Yakubu, (2017) adds that these people have psyched themselves both psychologically and physically against shortcomings that may impede their survival in the urban centres. They tend to get rid of their rural background and every act that may give them up in public as rural migrants. This category of people normally has a strong sense of orientation and would do anything to assimilate themselves into their ‘new home’. They tend to move to places of social gathering, interact actively with the home society by engaging in community works and exhibiting high levels of commitment, make friends and establish connections and good rapport within a short period of time. 2.3.5 Means and confidence of migrants to exercise rights over resources The final stage of the migration-integration process is the evolvement of rural-urban migrants to act as citizens as they are. Although there have been movements away from home, it is still within the jurisdictions of Ghana. According to Fullin and Emilio (2011), it is understandable that migrants’ integration at this level seems to be quite aggressive and extreme in the sense that they try to rub shoulders with non-migrants and urban residents over amenities and other national rights and resources. They strive to acquire a means of livelihood at this stage and to take advantage of what they are entitled to. This is the stage where migrants search for jobs, access to medical facilities, education, and use of other social and public amenities. It must be noted that this process could be still undergone by the migrant who has not yet settled but has just arrived in the city. This discrepancy has accounted for the inability of models and theories of integration to be universally acceptable (Phillimore, 2011:1). 12 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The theories of the integration process continue to be a hotly debatable subject as scholars continue to identify new trends of the integration theory and modify existing literature. Others believe that the relation of the integration theory to human behaviour makes it too complicated to be studied and accurately predicted (Cheung and Phillimore, 2013). Scholars such as Phillimore, Ager and Strang continue the concept of integration by identifying and analysing various dimensions and principles which are being used as basis for arguments and amended literature on the concept. One factor that continues to drive and increase awareness of the subject of migrant integration is the incorporation of the concept into government policies to take care of migrants, particularly refugees. (Phillimore, 2012). 2.4 MIGRANT INTEGRATION EXPERIENCES Migrants become more integrated in their destination areas when they stay for a longer period of time, making it harder for them to return to their home country. This conforms to Harris and Todaro’s Neoclassical Migration Theory which states that individuals, in their attempt to make themselves useful, move to a different place where their productiveness can be utilised (Massey et al. 1998; Todaro and Maruszko, 1987; Harris and Todaro, 1970). Migrants whose expectations are fulfilled at the destination are believed to remain and successfully integrated. They are expected to be more productive than in their places of origin. Such expectations include migrants’ ability to find employment and accommodation and get assistance from social networks. Migrants who return are seen as integration failures while those that stay are seen to be successfully integrated (Bauer and Zimmermann 1998; Sjaastad 1962). In summary, “winners” settle, “losers” return. Also, according to Wiesbrock (2013), lucrative jobs, equal rights to goods and services, fluency in host country’s language, adoption of way of life and political involvement of migrants identified as the major aspects where integration programs and policies are designed 13 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh within the geographical location like EU. The analysis of migrant identity is key as it is difficult to develop a sense of belonging if one is not allowed to integrate. There are restrictions for migrants integrating into their receiving countries. The restrictions placed on migrants may be expressed in many different ways. Some of these restrictions include residence permits granted to immigrants for a short period of time, lawful restrictions for different groups of residents, legitimate citizens and illegal immigrants which are found in host countries such as Spain. More so, there are other imperceptible factors that are considered restrictions faced by migrants and residents of migrant descent (Hellgren, 2015). Ethnic discrimination and subtle racism affect integration and this usually happens at both societal and personal scopes: obtain housing and employment privileges, inclination to be identical with residents of the receiving country (Lamont and Molnar, 2002). According to Arrighi (2007), poverty and ethnic discrimination are considered signs of unsuccessful integration. According to IOM (2015), there are dynamic two-way procedures for successful integration. These involve mutual adaptation of migrants and the receiving society based on values of protecting the fundamental human rights, respect, acceptance and non-discrimination. Migrants who have acquired new skills, knowledge and accumulated capital, in addition to securing accommodation and contributing to the development of their receiving country, will be regarded as being successfully integrated. (IOM, 2012). Moreover, Scholars such as Peixoto (2011); Bonifazi and Marini (2014) and Godenau et al. (2014) studied the process of settlement and integration of migrants in their receiving countries after the 2008 global economic recession. The effect of the economic downturn resulted in crisis on immigrants’ labour market inclusion. The economic recession affected residents’ attitudes towards immigrants (Arango, 2013; Billiet, Meuleman and De Wiitte, 2014) and caused return 14 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh migration (Marcu, 2013). The individual characteristics such as nationality, race, ethnic background, level of skills and gender contributed to integration experiences of migrants in crisis period (Marchetti, 2017). Decline in economic activity on society will affect the migration patterns of migrants and their settlement experiences. On migration and integration nexus, Esteves et al.’s (2017) studies on Portugal revealed that regardless of the systems that had been put in place to maintain the assets, the economic hardship still affected immigrants, and their incorporation into the labour market was not assured. This affected the living conditions of migrants who, as a result, developed two basic approaches to cope with the breakdown of the economy. These strategies are the ‘wait and see’ attitude relating to ‘in situ options’, and social network support and ‘mobility options’ with plans of migrating to another place. 2.5 INTERNAL MIGRATION IN GHANA Migration in Ghana has been internal since the days of colonial rule. Owing to the activities of mining of minerals and farming of cash crops like cocoa, people trooped in from different parts of the country as recruits hired by the colonial masters to work at the mines and on plantations (Agyei & Ofosu-Mensah, 2009). The Ghana Living Standard Survey round 6 estimated that 98 percent of the migrants move internally. The Greater Accra Region and Ashanti Region are the major destination areas for migrants with 53 percent and 23 percent respectively. Greater Accra attracts migrants mostly from Ashanti, Volta, Upper East and West and the Northern regions (GSS, 2014). In the year 2000, it was estimated that about 740 million persons were regarded as internal migrants (UNDP, 2009). According to Bell and Charles-Edwards (2013), there are about 763 million internal migrants worldwide, which is three times the total number of migrants who move across international boundaries. In a study by Anarfi and Kwankye (2010), it was observed that Ghana’s internal migration stock 15 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh was estimated over 3.3 Million in 2005. Internal migration in Ghana has contributed to shaping the nature of both host and home communities and this is greater than any other cause in the human movement. (Oderth, 2002). Black et al. (2004) contend that internal migration is the most common migratory movement in West Africa. There are many causes that drive migrants to move internally and internationally. In Ghana, the causes have usually been economic factors, political factors and social factors and environmental factors such as poverty, access to better health and education services, and employment (Awumbila et al., 2011). According to the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), internal migration, in comparison with international migration, has a greater capacity to bring down the rate of poverty (Siddiqui, 2004) and to contribute to the economic growth in Ghana. 2.6 RURAL-URBAN MIGRATION IN GHANA The term rural-urban migration refers to the movement of people from the rural areas to the cities or urban areas with the hope of finding better means of living (Min-Harris, 2010). According to Week (1989), it was the natural order which takes care of that part of the labour force needed at the urban centres but held up at the rural areas and yet unemployed. However, Deshingkar & Grimm (2005) reveal that in recent times, rural- urban migration has evolved to become a social canker. Opponents against the migration according to Yang (2008), argue that rural-urban migration is responsible for the increased rate in social vices and the problem of overpopulation resulting in creation of slums in the cities. Yang (2008) further asserts that movement of people within the boundaries of the same country is the commonest type of migration in third world countries such as Ghana, even though there may be other forms. The statistical data on migration in Ghana from the Ghana Statistical Service in the year 2010 confirms this with some facts and figures. According to 16 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh the GSS, the total migrant population as of 2012 was 26.3%. Also, 34.5% of people residing in urban centres are rural migrants. With the 2000 - 2010 growth rates as basis, the GSS made projections using the exponential method to forecast migration growth in Ghana for the next decade. From the projections of the GSS, it was revealed that 1.9 million off the total population will be recorded as migrants in the next ten years, indicating that the urban centres are the target of Ghana’s problem of overpopulation and this number will increase by a significant margin in the next few years. According to Kwankye (2012); Agyei et al 2015 as cited by Yakubu (2017) in recent times, migration of people from the north to the south of Ghana has been mostly dominated by active women in their youthful ages (mostly between the ages of 14-40 years) who have little or no education. . In relation to education, various studies have shown that a significant number of migrants sampled for related studies lacked some form of formal education with those with an educational background having completed secondary school as the highest level of education (Yakubu 2017). 2.7 FACTORS MOTIVATING RURAL-URBAN MIGRATION Migration has been seen as the means by which people move away from a place of less comfort to a better place for greener pastures. Lindius et al. (2014) point out that some of the factors that inform the decision of rural migrants are the absence of lucrative jobs, lack of credit facilities, market avenues and resources. Awumbila (2011) reveals that what causes migrants to move from rural areas to the cities may be categorised under environmental, social, economic and political factors. Bhasan and Anim (2005) add socio-cultural factors as some of the factors responsible for rural-urban migration. According to Awumbila and Ardayfio-Schandor (2008), economic factors such as poverty in the rural areas resulting from lack of employment and low standards of living are the leading causes of what is chasing 17 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh people out of rural areas in Ghana. Other scholars further add that, small scale farming is perhaps the most dominant work in rural areas, which leads to low productivity and eventually low income from farming activities, thus influencing the decision of migrants to move to urban centres for better perceived offers. Next to economic factors are environmental factors. Marchiori et al. (2010) revealed in a study that more than two and a half million people have been displaced from their homes owing to climatic changes in Sub-Saharan Africa between 1960 and 2000. This situation becomes a major concern in developing countries such as Ghana and the Ivory Coast where the economy mostly depends on the primary sector. In Ghana, for instance, a study conducted by Abdul-Korah in 2007 revealed that during dry seasons, migration from rural centres to the cities are high due to the absence of rainfall to aid farming activities. People then move to find something else to do in the urban centres. Mbonile & Lihawa (1996) maintain that natural disasters such as droughts, floods and bushfires decrease the rearing of animals and growing of crops, thereby taking the workforce from the rural centres to the urban centres for unrelated farming jobs. Berg (2007) also asserts that there has been a trend in migration from the Northern sectors to the Southern sectors of Ghana which can be attributed to seasonal changes. Van der Geest et al. (2010), in a study in Ghana, found environmental factors as key motivating factors of rural-urban migration from the northern sectors to the middle and southern parts of Ghana during “busy” seasons. He further noticed that there is a positive correlation between poor rain patterns and low agricultural production, and migration from the North to other parts of Ghana. According to the GSS (2012), 70 percent of the people in Northern Ghana are engaged in agricultural activities. Conflict is also another contributory factor that forces people to migrate. Some of the rural areas of the Northern and Volta North have been involved in a series of conflicts (Awedoba, 18 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2010; Tonah, 2012). Conflict breeds insecurity and people sometimes migrate when they feel insecure. It has been proven by scholars that perhaps the most significant factor in influencing rural-urban migration is the economic factor; however, the need for comfort and better social amenities such as potable sources of water, access to quality education, availability of electricity and good health care amongst others have been seen to foster the movement of people to urban centres. (Anarfi 1991; Arthur 1993 as Cited by Yakubu 2017). Further research on what influences the movement of people to urban centres shows that socio-cultural factors account for quite a number of these movements. Black (2011) demonstrates in a study that societal values and norms about the concept of migration as well as the perceptions of people on migration are all motivating factors that inform migrant’s decision to move to urban centres. Moreover, high expectations of youngsters have not only caused brain drain problems but have also resulted in most cases of rural-urban migration. This factor has been pulling more youth from the rural areas to urban centres. Awumbila (2014) finds that most people who move from the Northern sectors of Ghana to Accra and Kumasi with the aim of changing how people think about them return with stories of their lives about their struggles and how exaggerative migration to urban centres have been depicted and perceived. Further to this, a survey on the standard of living of Ghanaians has shown that domestic factors rather than economic factors have been the major causes of migration to urban centres (Agyei et al., 2015). More than 50% of migrants would cite marital and other domestic issues as their reasons for moving to the urban centres (GSS 2014: 40 - 45). That is to say, although economic factors such as the search for employment opportunities influence migrants’ decisions, the main aim of migrants is to secure good jobs to gain income to take care of domestic responsibilities back at home. The role of higher education in increasing the chances of securing lucrative jobs in future thereby increasing future earnings and enhancing 19 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh the standard of living cannot be overemphasised. Recent studies have shown that most of the migrants within the southern parts of Ghana have not had access to higher education thereby preventing them from gaining access to better employment opportunities, a situation that leaves them with no option than to migrate to urban centres for hard struggles (Agyei et al., 2015). The problem of lack of higher education on the part of migrants is highly attributable to financial constraints to take care of academic expenses. The effect of this is the inability of migrants to secure lucrative and long term jobs even in the urban centres but resort to tedious but less paying jobs which makes it difficult for them to take care of accommodation, inculcate savings habit and take care of other essential expenses (Gbortsu, 1995). In Vargas-Lundius, Basu, and Suttie’s (2014) study, they claim that significant factors pulling rural outmigration are lack of decent rural employment opportunities, limited resources and market, lack of social amenities (electricity, health, and education) and insecurity. Studies by Yakubu (2017) noted that people who migrate from the undeveloped areas of the north to the developed areas are young, have little education and with low financial backgrounds. Also, in relation to the decision making of migrants, most of them made the decision to migrate on their own with the consent of their parents before migrating. In some cases, parents assisted their children to migrate while a few others were encouraged by their extended family and friends. In effect, about 78.7 percent of the participants informed or discussed their decision to migrate to urban areas with their household members, specifically with their parents or guardians. Moreover, the expectations of migrants at their destination also influence their migration decisions. 20 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.8 EXPERIENCES AND CHALLENGES OF RURAL-URBAN MIGRANTS IN THE PROCESS OF INTEGRATION A number of researches have been undertaken on challenges migrants face in urban centres ranging from shelter, means of livelihood, job opportunities and health conditions among others. Rig et al. (2014) identified that rural migrants depend largely on income from hard labour as well as informal and unskilled labour jobs with high risk, yet with meagre wages. An unfortunate incident which results in injury or any other form of health hazard will lead to huge medical expenses which may lead to the migrant losing huge sums of money and starting from the scratch all over again. This seems to be the way of life of most migrants in the urban centres. The problem of shelter to rural migrants in Ghana, for instance, cannot be emphasised. Upon arrival in the major cities, migrants are unable to afford accommodation bills and, therefore, end up sleeping on the streets, in front of stores, under bridges and overheads. Also, the elderly population with an immigrant background might face additional problems such as lower retirement pensions due to the short working length of service or the absence of family networks that could provide care due to the breaking effects of immigration on social networks .Access to houses seems to be another major challenge even for non-migrants with lucrative jobs (Ponzo, 2010). Migrants who do not have relatives in urban centres are forced to adopt severe means of getting decent accommodation. According to Kwankye et al. (2007), major problems associated with rural urban migration to the southern parts of Ghana include nature of work, low income, expensive accommodation, caretakers taking advantage of migrants, city guards harassing people amongst many others. Waddington (2003) points out that some of the challenges faced by migrants in sub-Saharan Africa are unpaid overtime jobs, meagre wages, delayed or unpaid salaries, and other various threats faced by rural-urban 21 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh migrants. Findings of Kwankye et al. (2007) identify the commonest form of rural urban migration challenges in Ghana as the delay in payment of wages and low income. Migrants are forced to take up informal jobs due to their inability to secure and perform other formal kinds of work to earn sufficient income for themselves. They work to raise money to feed themselves and barely have enough left to save or take care of other basic needs such as medical bills, rent and clothing.( Min-Harris 2010). In South Africa, cultural capital is adopted by migrants as a means of dealing with financial problems. Migrants perform jobs with no educational requirements. They may engage in activities that are learnt at their rural homes such as carving and moulding of cultural artefacts and bead making to gain income (Dumet, 2015). In their quest to find ways of improving their finances, migrants generally go in for inferior items and also limit their daily expenditure to mostly basic needs. (Hussain, 2005). Bah et al. (2003) observe that migrants in urban Ghana devise similar strategies and means of survival compared with migrants in urban areas in countries like Nigeria. They mostly migrate to the urban centres with promise of shelter and better jobs from relatives and friends only to discover the realities of urban life but would not wish to go back regardless of the situation. They then resort to exposing themselves to health hazards and risks in the event of finding the perceived good life they have always sought. The above reviewed literature on rural-urban migrant challenges only discuss problems that migrants go through to survive but fails to identify the relationship they build with non- migrants and residents of urban centres, how they get accepted or rejected at work places, how they are intimidated and cast away in many ways in their daily endeavours, how they become the first point of call for law enforcement agencies in dealing with crime, the issue of 22 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh homeless women on the streets who are molested and engage in prostitution and how others end up engaging in criminal activities as means of survival. The general perception of the public about migrants is the doorway to better exploring and understanding the numerous challenges they face and how they are treated as migrants in urban centres. They, however, manage to cope with all these challenges and strive to survive each day at a time. 23 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY 3.1 INTRODUCTION This aspect of the study gives a detailed explanation of the research methodology used for the study. This comprises the study area, research design, the target population, sample and sampling techniques, the sources of data, instrument for data collection, data processing and analysis, ethical consideration and the limitations of the study. 3.2 STUDY AREA The study was carried out in Madina, which is located in the La Nkwantanang Madina Municipal District in the Greater Accra Region of Ghana. Madina lies between longitude 5° 39’30’’ and 5°40’30’’ and latitude 0°9’30’’ and 0°11 on a general elevation of about 200 ft above mean sea level. It is ranked 12th on the list of the most populated areas in Ghana with an overall population of 111,926162 as at 2010 census (GSS, 2012). The town is one of the fastest growing sub-urban settlements in Ghana which is found in the Accra plains 10 miles at the north-east of the Accra-Dodowa road. It is 2 miles away from the University of Ghana, Legon. Residents have diverse religious backgrounds such as Islam, Christianity and traditional religion. The community is one of the many areas in Greater Accra with high concentrations of migrants from the North. Madina has one of the big markets which serve the other surrounding communities. Wednesdays and Saturdays are the two major market days of the week for trading in Madina. The choice of the study setting is informed by the fact that it harbours a lot of immigrants in the country. Madina is a community with people from diverse religious and socio-cultural backgrounds. International migrants from neighbouring countries such as the Ivory Coast, Nigeria and 24 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Togo are found in Madina (GSS, 2014). However, the greater composition of the migrants is from the ten regions of Ghana. Sixty five point seven percent (65.7 %) of people residing in Madina are migrants (both internal and international migrants), with non-Ghanaians constituting 3.2 percent. In terms of age distribution, 13.0 % are in the age bracket of 20 – 24. The Eastern Region has the highest proportion of the migrants with 30 percent while the Upper West has the lowest with 1.4 percent. GSS reports show the following are migrant’s duration of residence in Madina , less than one year, between 1- 4 years, 5 – 9, 10 – 19 years and 20 and above years indicates 15.4 percent, 30.7 percent, 14.8 percent respectively in Madina. There are more females with the 51.5 percent as compared with 48.5 percent males. Madina has a number of facilities such as a police station, a number of banks, post office, clinics, day care centres, primary and junior high schools, senior high schools and secondary/technical schools (GSS, 2014: 16- 20). 3.3 RESEARCH DESIGN The study employed a descriptive survey design using a mixed approach. The rationale for a descriptive survey design is to observe, describe and document aspects of a situation as it naturally takes place (Sarantakos, 2005). The essence of combining both types of data for carrying out research work is on the grounds that both methods are insufficient by themselves to cover the direction and features of the case study; thus, a mixed approach would better explore the research topic and arrive at a more accurate finding by not only describing the phenomenon but also testing values and numbers generated from data sources. According to Creswell (2014), the study as related to understanding human behaviour to some extent should be able to possess the characteristic of being adjustable and modifiable as and when necessary due to the unpredictable nature of humans and how we behave. This would ensure that results are not biased to strictly conform to the researcher’s expectation but 25 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh has incorporated the respondents’ feelings and views adequately into the analysis and arrival of the study findings (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011: 41). In a nutshell, the mixed approach is the best approach in order to obtain comprehensive knowledge and understanding of the complex nature of migrants’ integration phenomenon in the Madina Community. Each approach complements the strengths and weaknesses of the other and it also improves the authenticity and accuracy of the study results by examining similar situations in diverse ways and can provide improved instruments for data collection and research findings (Bryman, 2012; Creswell, 2009; Teye, 2012). 3.4 TARGET POPULATION AND SAMPLING TECHNIQUE Madina was selected for the study because it is a cosmopolitan community which harbours many migrants both internal and international. Madina is closer to other business centres in the capital city, Accra. The target population for the study were rural-urban migrants who are resident at Madina. In selecting the sample for the study, screener survey method was adopted to select rural-urban migrants from the non-migrants. Screener survey is questionnaire used as a tool to help screen and select appropriate respondents for a given study. A set of questions was developed to distinguish or select the intended participants from the non-participants (Martin, 2006). The researcher screened the people at the study area through interviews to select participants. The screener survey method helped to identify rural- urban migrants, afterward the simple random sampling technique was used to select participants for the study. This helped the researcher to select a sample for the study from the total rural-urban migrant population in the area under study. Participants were selected randomly without any bias since they all had an equal chance of being selected for the study (Easton and McColl, 1997). Also, owing to time constraints, sixty (60) participants (37 males 26 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh and 23 females) were sampled for the study. Using this approach, a total of 60 questionnaires were administered and all 60 retrieved In choosing the participants for the in-depth interview, some of the participants who expressed key knowledge of the subject matter were purposively sampled. In the study, purposive sampling allowed the researcher to select respondents for the study depending on the understanding of specified attributes of the sample that best describes the target population (Berg, 2004). This sampling technique helped the researcher to apply his own discretion in choosing occurrences that will aid in providing answers to the research questions and satisfy the objectives. The selected study sample is mostly small but provides enough insight relative to study cases (Neuman, 2003). The purposive sampling technique was further used in identifying rural-urban migrants from the sample frame for an in-depth interview. Therefore, 5 rural urban migrants in Madina were interviewed using in-depth interview guide. Purposive sampling according to Kumekpo (2002) has to do with the deliberate picking of respondents who satisfy some qualities for a given research. Specific features required of these respondents may not be randomly distributed in the universe, hence they may not be obtained through a random sampling procedure. To go by random sampling which requires greater representativeness and based on the probability theory of randomness, respondents who might not be useful to the study could be selected which will ultimately affect the conclusions that result from the study thereby rendering the study irrelevant. 3.5 SOURCES OF DATA To better answer the research questions and achieve the objectives of this study, the researcher adopted both primary and secondary data for the analysis. The primary sources of 27 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh data were questionnaires administered to respondents (rural-urban migrants) selected for the study, and in-depth interviews. Secondary data reports from the Ghana Statistical Service, publications from internet sources and other relevant works on the topic under study such as findings from related thesis and other institutional articles. Journals and reports were analysed to arrive at the findings of the research. 3.6 DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURE Interviews and questionnaires were adopted for the collection of primary data for this research. The instrument used for data collection under the quantitative approach was questionnaires. In the qualitative approach, in-depth interview guides were used as the instruments for collection of data. A pre-test was carried out on the questionnaire to ensure that data collection would be successful by identifying and providing solutions to certain challenges that were likely to be faced by the researcher such as clarity of questions and translating questionnaires into understandable languages for respondents. A better version of the questionnaire and interview guide was finally developed integrating the results from the pre-tests. Respondents were contacted at the comfort of their homes and at times at their workplaces at convenient times informed by the pre-test conducted. The consent of respondents throughout the interview was sought on activities such as recording of discussions. These recordings were later transcribed adequately and included in the final analysis. Where respondents were not willing to be taped, relevant systematic notes were duly taken in addition to the answers provided to the interview guides. 28 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.7 QUANTITATIVE DATA COLLECTION 3.7.1 Questionnaire Administration The objectives of the study warranted that the researcher interacted with migrants on a one on one basis to discuss their way of life away from their home, to ascertain reasons for their migration, how they have been accepted into the various communities they find themselves as well as the challenges they face in their daily lives as migrants. Questionnaires were issued to the respondents and duly supervised. The quantitative data were made up of both open and close-ended semi structured questionnaire. The questions gave the respondents a range of options to select the most appropriate answers from them. This was structured to gain responses in the following areas;  Their socio-demographical characteristics  Migration processes and factors motivating rural-urban migrants to migrate  Respondents’ integration experience  Impact of migration on their livelihood  Challenges faced with integrating 3.8 QUALITATIVE DATA COLLECTION 3.8.2 In-depth Interviews Interviews were employed as the major instrument of data collection in order to provide detailed information to better understand the migration and integration process. Qualitatively, the in-depth interviews were conducted with the help of the interview guide. The in-depth interviews were semi-structured and they allowed for flexibility in the researchers’ interaction with the participants. The researcher had more opportunity to ask questions and 29 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh probe for additional information. Five (5) participants were interviewed. Findings from in- depth studies cannot be generalised. Interviews were semi-structured to ensure that key areas relevant to the study were fully captured and at the same time give some level of limited freedom to the respondents to discuss other aspects of their lives relevant to the topic they wished to discuss. This was to ensure free and effective flow of discussion. 3.9 DATA ANALYSIS 3.9.1 Quantitative data analysis After the successive interview sessions were conducted with satisfactory answers provided to the administered questionnaire and interview guides, the data collected were prepared for further processing. The collected data were manually sorted, tabulating and organized. The organized data was then arranged and keyed into the SPSS computer software version 20.0. This served as data to be analysed in arriving at the findings of the research. After inputting the data obtained into the SPSS, it served as the basis for descriptive statistics in the form of tables, charts as well as cross tabulation. 3.9.2 Qualitative data analysis In depth interviews were recorded using an audio recorder and all interviews were carried out in English and Twi as the common language both researcher and respondents could communicate in. The data from the field were transcribed. This was done by listening to the recording device and writing down the responses verbatim. A thematic description of the emerging themes informed the qualitative data analysis. The results were presented based on the themes emerging from the interviews and the set objectives of the study. Some of the themes that emerged during the in-depth interview were migrants’ integration strategies, the 30 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh type of social network relied on during and after their migration process, who was involved in their decision to migrate, how they migrated to secure their jobs among others. 3.10 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS Permission was sought from the participants before the study. The right to informed consent, confidentiality, and anonymity was highly ensured in the processes of data collection. No respondent was forced to provide information that he or she felt uncomfortable with. Participation in the study was strictly voluntary. Pseudonyms were used to protect participants’ identities. Participants’ consent was sought before recording them for the interview. 3.11 LIMITATION OF THE STUDY The study was limited geographically to only Madina and did not extend beyond this area. Also, time constraint became a limitation to the study. This restricted the researcher during the interviewing of participants and other data collection techniques such as focus group discussions and field observation. To this effect, the questionnaires were organised in a way that they would gather the needed and relevant information from the participants which were required by the research objectives. Another challenge faced on the field was participants’ demand for gifts from the researcher and tiredness on the part of the participants. In addition, they also complained of how they had been interviewed many times by researchers in their areas and they see how they were benefitting from these research works. They lamented that researchers made promises to but failed to honour those promises after the research. The researcher overcame these challenges by explaining the purpose of the study to the participants (for academic purposes). 31 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FOUR SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS AND MIGRATION PROCESSES OF THE RURAL-URBAN MIGRANTS 4.1 Introduction This chapter explores the research aim by addressing the following objectives in detail: 1) The socio-demographic characteristics of rural-urban migrants in Madina 2) Identify the migration processes and factors motivating rural-urban migrants to settle at Madina 4.1.2 Sex of respondents The researcher inquired about the sex of the respondents (refer to Table 1). Out of the study sample, more than half (61.7%) were males while the remaining 38.3 percent were females. The disparity between males and females could be attributed to one’s ability to rely on it social network efficiently (Hagan, 1998: 55 – 67). Table 4.1: Sex of respondents Sex Frequency Percent Male 37 61.7 Female 23 38 Total 60 100 Source: Field work, 2018 4.1.3 Age of respondents before and after migration According to some studies, people’s ages influence their migration intentions (Godri & Felekey, 2013). It was in this vein that respondents’ ages were asked prior to their migration as well as after migration. The age distribution prior to migration indicates that more than a 32 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh one third (36.7%) fell within the workable age group 25 to 29. Again, those aged between 30 to 34 years were little over one-fourth (26.7%). This shows that more youth are involved in the migration process than the aged. However, the ages of respondents after migration were quite similar but higher among those within the age bracket 30 to 34 years followed by those aged between 25 to 29 years. The youthful nature of the population both before and after migration is consistent with a study by Awumbila (2011), which posited that the youth are involved in migration than any age categories which is inspired by economic opportunities at the destination fuelled by inadequate job prospects and poverty at migrant-sending areas. Table 4.2: Age of respondents before and after migration Variables Frequency Percent 20-24 11 18.3 25-29 22 36.7 Age of migrants before 30-34 16 26.7 leaving their home country 35-39 7 11.7 40-44 1 1.7 45+ 3 5.0 Total 60 100 20-24 7 11.7 25-29 14 23.3 Age of migrants after 30-34 24 40.0 periods of stay in 35-39 5 8.3 destination country. 40-44 2 3.3 45+ 8 13.3 Total 60 100 Source: Field work, 2018 33 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.1.4 Marital status of respondents before and after migration As regards the issue of marital status prior to migration, half of the respondents (50.0%) were never married while a little over one-third (35.0%) were married. The rest who were in consensual union, separated, divorced and widowed recorded less than twenty percent of the total population. However, the dynamics changed after respondents migrated. An assessment of marital status after respondents had migrated revealed that more than half (53.3%) of the respondents were recorded as being married, reducing the category of never married persons by more than one-fourth (50.0% -23.3%). This could be attributed to the fact that the marital status of respondents changed due to the likelihood of obtaining jobs and becoming resourceful at the destination than their origin areas. Table 4.3: Marital status before and after migration Variables Frequency Percent Marital status before Married 21 35.0 migration Never married 30 50.0 Consensual union 7 11.7 Separated 1 1.7 Divorced 1 1.7 Widowed 0 0.0 Total 60 100 Marital status after Married 32 53.3 migration Never married 14 23.3 Consensual union 4 6.7 Separated 4 6.7 Divorced 2 3.3 Widowed 3 5.0 Total 60 100 Source: Field work, 2018 34 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.1.5 Religious affiliation of respondents Figure 4.1.2 represents the religious denomination of respondents. The dominant religion of the respondent was Christianity, constituting more than half (65.0%) whereas a little less than a third (30.0%) comprised the Islamic faith. Few (5.0%) were traditionalists. The reason for this religious diversification could be attributed to religious freedom enjoyed in Ghana irrespective of your location. Figure 4.1.2: Religious affiliation of respondents Source: Field work, 2018 4.1.6 Educational status of respondents before and after migration Table 4.4 describes the educational level attained by respondents prior to their migration and after their migration. Before respondents’ migration, a little less than one-third (30.0%) had education up to the tertiary level while a little over a fourth (26.5%) had formal education up to JHS/Middle level. A proportion of the respondents (21.7%) had attained SSS/SHS level. Again, after migration, the educational level of respondents reduced with respect to JHS /Middle and SSS/SHS. However, those in Vocational or commercial or technical increased by 11.7 % of the total responses. The reason could be attributed to Government and Non- 35 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Governmental Organisations (NGOs) intervention in giving skilled training in apprenticeship and technical services to rural-urban migrants. Table 4.4: Educational status before and after migration Variables Frequency Percent Educational status before migration No education 3 5.0 Primary 5 8.3 JHS/Middle 16 26.7 SSS/SHS 13 21.7 Voc/Comm/Tech 3 5.0 Tertiary 18 30.0 Others 2 3.3 Total 60 100 Educational status after migration No education 3 5.0 Primary 5 8.3 JHS/Middle 14 23.3 SSS/SHS 8 13.3 Voc/Comm/Tech 10 16.7 Tertiary 18 30.0 Others 2 3.3 Total 60 100 Source: Field work, 2018 4.1.7 Current occupation by sex of respondents With respect to economic activities in the study area, a little over half (51.7%) of the respondents were petty traders. Among the male population, petty trading as an occupation constituted a little over two-fifth (43.2%) of the respondents while their female counterparts were more than half of the total responses. Other occupations like painters, carpenters among others were higher (27.0%) than the rest of the occupations patronised by the male 36 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh respondents. It was the same for the female respondents aside petty trading with other occupations representing 17.0 percent. Petty trading as an occupation was higher among the females than among the males. The reason may be that petty trading is the most available job at the destination and it is more associated with females than with males. However, a cross tabulation between occupation and sex revealed that there is no clear evidence of relationship between migrants’ occupation and sex. This means that getting a job at the destination does not depend on one’s sex but could depend on other qualities such as one’s skills in a particular job. Table 4.5: Current occupation by sex of respondents Occupation Sex of respondents Male Female Total Student 2 (5.4%) 0 (0.0%) 2 (3.3%) Teacher 5 (13.5%) 1 (4.3%) 6 (10.0%) Petty trader 16 (43.2%) 15 (65.2%) 31 (51.7%) Farmer 3 (8.1%) 3 (13.0%) 6 (10.0%) Craft and related trade work 1 (2.7%) 0 (0.0%) 1 (1.7%) Others 10 (27.0%) 4 (17.4%) 14 (23.3%) Total 37 (100%) 23 (100%) 60 (100%) Source: Field work, 2018 4.1.8 Current occupation by age of respondent The result of the survey indicates that within the age category of 20 to 24 years, petty trading and other occupations like painting, carpentry and welding were occupied by respondents within age bracket. With regard to the age group 25 to 39 years, petty trading as an occupation dominated with the exception of 40 years and more. However, teaching and 37 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh farming were more associated with the aged. The reason for youth involvement in petty trading could be attributed to the energy and labour demanded by such occupation. 38 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.6: Current occupation by age of respondent Occupation Age of respondent Total 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45+ Student 0(0.0%) 0(0.0%) 1(6.2%) 0(0.0%) 0(0.0%) 1(33.3%) 2(3.3%) Teacher 0(0.0%) 3(13.6%) 1(6.2%) 1(14.3%) 0(0.0%) 1(33.3%) 6(10.0%) Petty trader 8(72.7%) 10(45.5%) 10/62.5%) 3(42.9%) 0(0.0%) 0(0.0%) 31(51.7%) Farmer 0(0.0%) 3(13.6%) 1(6.2%) 1(14.3%) 0(0.0%) 1(33.3%) 6(10.0%) Craft and 1(9.1%) 0(0.0%) 0(0.0%) 0(0.0%) 0(0.0%) 0(0.0%) 1(1.7%) related trade work Others 2(18.2%) 6(27.3%) 3(18.8%) 2(28.6%) 1(100%) 0(0.0%) 14(23.3%) Total 11(100%) 22(100%) 16(100%) 7(100%) 1(100%) 3(100%) 60(100%) Source: Field work, 2018 39 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.1.9 Regions respondents migrated from The study sought to identify the regions respondents migrate from to the destination area. Out of the sampled population (60), the Northern zone (the Upper West, Upper East and Northern region were the highest in terms of percentages followed by the Ashanti Region. The rest of the regions were less than ten percent of the total outcome. The reason for the high out- migration from the Northern zone could be attributed to the regions’ being part of the poorest in Ghana (GLSS, 2014). This finding is attested in Adaawen (2013), who concludes that in Ghana more migrants from the northern part of the country increasingly move to the southern and middle belt of the country for various reasons. Table 4.7: Regions migrated from by respondents Region Frequency Percent Greater Accra 4 6.7 Ashanti 6 10.0 Brong Ahafo 4 6.7 Eastern 3 5.0 Western 3 5.0 Central 1 1.7 Northern 17 28.3 Upper East 10 16.7 Upper West 8 6.7 Volta 4 6.7 Total 60 100 Source: Field work, 2018 4.2.0 Push factors motivating respondents to migrate From Table 4.8, push factors observed to influence respondents to migrate are fewer economic opportunities (60.0%), better wage differentials (3.3%), natural disasters (5.0%), urban way of life (23.3%) and other relating factors (8.3%). Based on the percentages, it becomes clear that the majority migrated due to fewer economic opportunities at the origin. Also, 23.3% migrated as a result of urban of life, while 3.3% migrated due to better wage 40 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh differentials. According to some of the respondents, they migrated because of fewer economic opportunities (unemployment) at their place of origin. This support studies by Agarwal et al., (1997); Tanle (2003), Opare (2003) and Yeboah (2008) that, increased unemployment and fewer economic activities at the rural areas push migrants to the urban centres. Table 4.8: Factors that motivated respondents to migrate (Push Factors) Push factors Frequency Percent Less economic opportunities 36 60.0 Better wage differentials 2 3.3 Natural disaster 3 5.0 Urban way of life 14 8.3 Others 5 8.3 Total 60 100 Source: Field work, 2018 4.2.1 Push factors motivating respondents by sex Table 4.9, presents the distribution of respondents in terms of sex and factors facilitating their movement from the origin communities. A careful observation of the table indicates that for both sexes, more than half (60.0%) of the respondents migrated because of fewer economic opportunities. With regard to better wage differentials, males were 2 times (2.7% - 4.3%) less than their female counterparts. Conversely, on the issues of other opportunities, both males and females were undivided on that while that of insecurity affected the females most as compared with their male counterparts (Piper, 2005). The findings of the study are consistent with key characteristics of internal migration in Ghana where significant push factors serve as the basis for migration to the urban centres (Awumbila et al., 2011; Black et al., 2006). 41 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.9: Push factors for motivating respondents to move by sex. Push Factors Sex of respondents Male Female Total Less Economic opportunities 24 (64.9%) 12 (52.2%) 36 (60.0%) Better wage differentials 1 (2.7%) 1 (4.3%) 2 (3.3%) Natural Disaster 2 (5.4%) 1 (4.3%) 3 (5.0%) Urban way of life 7 (18.9%) 7 (30.4%) 14 (23.3%) Others 3 (8.1%) 2 (8.7%) 5 (8.3%) Total 37 (100%) 23 (100%) 60 (100%) Source: Field work, 2018 During an in-depth interview with respondents on the factors that pushed them to Madina, respondents expanded on the reasons why they migrated from their places of destination to their current place. The aim of moving away from the hardships in the origin community was identified as one of the push factors associated with migration. One of the participants had this to say: I came to Madina to improve my life and get money. My father is married to three wives and has about 17 children. So when you grow up to a stage, you are sent to the farms to work in order to get money for yourself. But the problem is, the land is not enough or sometimes the crops we get are not enough to feed an entire family. So I have come here to get money and help my mother and siblings and I have been doing my part gradually. (Respondent 3, femal.27years) One other respondent, when asked about the reason for migrating to Madina, mentioned employment and better salary. This provides further explanation to migrants’ reasons for migrating to Madina. I knew life would be difficult here but I was sure that if I came here and got a job the hardship would reduce. So I have not regretted coming here because the income I earn now is way better than what I was earning back in my hometown. (Respondent 5, Male, 28 years) 42 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.2.3. Factors attracting settlement in the study area In a ranked order, pull factors perceived to be motivating settlement at the study area are economic prospects (48.3%), easy access to social amenities (15.0%), proximity to other business centres, (11.7%) and availability of schools (8.3%). Based on the percentages, the most essential pull factor was economic prospect at the destination constituting more than two-fifth (48.3%) of the total responses. The next striking category was the availability and access to social amenities with the rest representing less than twenty percent. According to the respondents, the likelihood of getting jobs at the destination was higher as compared with the origin communities. This supports the assertion by Opare (2003) and Awumbila (2007) that migration becomes enormous when reasons to move (push) can be eliminated by immediate attractive factors at a particular destination. Table 4.10: Factors attracting settlement in the study area Pull factors at the destination Frequency Percent Economic Prospects 29 48.3 Easy access to social amenities 9 15.0 Proximity to other central business centres 7 11.7 Availability of social network 4 6.7 Better housing facilities 3 5.0 Better educational facilities 5 8.3 Family reunion 2 3.3 Others 1 1.7 Total 60 100 Source: Field work, 2018 43 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.2.4. Factors attracting settlement in Madina by sex With regard to the pull factors perceived to be attracting both sexes to the destination, it was clear that among the males, availability of jobs (43.2%), easy access to social amenities and proximity to other business centres (16.2%) and availability of social networks (8.1%) were the immediate pull factors. It was the same for the female respondents with the exception of better educational facilities (13.0%), which was higher among females than males. According to the respondents, the likelihood of getting jobs at the destination was higher as compared with the origin communities. This supports the assertion by Opare (2003) and Awumbila (2007) that migration becomes enormous when reasons to move (push) can be eliminated by immediate attractive factors at a particular destination. Table 4.11: Factors attracting settlement in Madina by sex Pull factors at the destination Sex of respondents Male Female Total Availability of jobs 16 (43.2%) 13 (56.5%) 29 (48.3%) Ease access to social amenities 6 (16.2%) 3 (13.0%) 9 (15.0%) Proximity to other central business 6 (16.2%) 1 (4.3%) 7 (11.7%) centers Availability of social network 3 (8.1%) 1 (4.3%) 4 (6.7%) Better housing facilities 2 (5.4%) 1 (4.3%) 3 (5.0%) Better educational facilities 2 (5.4%) 3 (13.0%) 5 (8.3%) Family reunion 1 (2.7%) 1 (4.3%) 2 (3.3%) Others 1 (2.7%) 0 (0.0%) 1(1.7%) Total 37 (100%) 23 (100%) 60 (100%) Source: Field work, 2018 44 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh One respondent said that he migrated because of the opportunity to access quality education. According to him, he wanted to further his education and the only way he could do that was to migrate so he could achieve his aspirations. Below is his response: It has always been my goal to go to nursing school but my results were not good because the facilities we have in our village didn’t help me. I don’t want to stay there and write it so I decided to come here [referring to Accra], to work for a while and get money then register for the NOVDEC [a West Africa Examinations for private candidates] and write the exams again. (Respondent 1, female, 20 years) One of the factors that attracted migrants to Madina is the economic prospects of trading in Madina. A respondent opined that she moved to Madina because she had heard how vibrant the business centre of Madina was and that the Madina market is one of the busiest in Accra. She, therefore, saw it as an opportunity to migrate where she could improve her economic standing. Below is what she stated: Well, I moved here from my village because I was looking for something to do that can fetch me money. I considered some places but then I decided on Madina because of the market. I heard their market was very vibrant and people patronized their businesses so I decided to come. (Respondent 4, female, 31 years) 4.3.1 Type of associations relied on by respondents at the destination With regard to integrating at the destination, many rely on associations (Antwi Bosiakoh, 2009) to help them adjust within the host community. Out of the sample population (50), two-fifth (40.0%) joined hometown associations while one-fourth (25.0%) associated themselves with fun clubs. Religious groups (20.0%) were the third force in terms of associations respondents joined. However, the rest of the associations were less than 10 percent. The reason for most respondents joining hometown associations is that these hometown associations relate and show a common resemblance of one’s identity. Studies by Portes and Jensen (1989) show that migrants receive benefit from other migrants from the same ethnic background or hometown as compared to migrants with distinct backgrounds. 45 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Hometown associations are quite common among Mexican, Filipino, and some African immigrant communities in the United States, for example, and have been used as vehicles for funding infrastructural and school-building projects. They are also commonly used for exerting political or social influence in immigrants’ origin communities, such as supporting political candidates in local elections. These activities reinforce the social ties immigrants have back home, and sometimes help build new ties between immigrants and the native born (IOM, 2008: 54). Again, these studies support the claims of Silva (2006) that hometown associations, most of which operate at both the origin and at the destinations, are the most common type of migrant organisations, bringing together migrants from the same city or region in the home country and to support migrants’ integration. Table 4.12 Type of associations relied on by respondents at the destination Type of associations Frequency Percent Hometown 24 40.0 Fun clubs 15 25.0 Religious groups 12 20.0 Family and friends 5 8.3 Trade union 3 5.0 Others 1 1.7 Total 60 100 Source: Field work, 2018 4.3.2 Type of social network by assistance received As identified by the literature reviewed in this study, migrants are likely to rely on support or information from their social network as well as what type of support such social networks can offer them (Nielsen and Riddle, 2007). With respect to accommodation as an assistance, two-fifth (40.6%) relied on their friends, followed by one-fourth (25.0%) relying on no one, 46 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh thus, securing accommodation by their own means without any help from their social networks. Again, with employment as a support, the majority relied on their siblings while 45.0 percent relied on friends. With regard to the kind of support received, the most relied on networks were spouses (38.3%) and one’s self (25.0%). The reason is that in order to integrate fully, the likely support one receives largely depends on one’s ability to acquire a reliable social network. This supports the studies of Drever and Hoffmeister (2008), who discovered that nearly half of all migrant-origin job changers found their positions through ‘networks and that the most vulnerable to unemployment – the young and the less educated – were especially likely to rely on them. Also, jobs found through networks were as likely to lead to improved working conditions as jobs acquired through more formal means’ (p. 425). Table 4.13 Type of social network and the kind of assistance received at their destination. Type of Kind of assistance received at the destination social network Accommodation Employment Money Information Others Total No one 8 (25.0%) 3 (15.0%) 0 (0.0%) 4 (80.0%) 0 (0.0%) 15 (25.0%) Parents 5 (15.6%) 5 (25.0%) 1 (100%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 11 (18.3%) Friends 13 (40.6%) 9 (45.0%) 0 (0.0%) 1 (20.0%) 0 (0.0%) 23 (38.3%) Spouse 5 (15.6%) 1 (5.0%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 1 (50.0%) 7 (11.7%) Sibling 1 (3.1%) 2 (10.0%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 1 (50.0%) 4 (6.7%) Total 32 (100%) 20 (100%) 1 (100%) 5 (100%) 2 (100%) 60 (100%) Source: Field work, 2018 In-depth interviews conducted with some of the respondents seem to highlight access to social networks which helped them in their stay. Some of the assistance respondents received from these social networks included accommodation, information and sometimes access to employment. 47 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Respondent 4 shared this story: My sister stays at Madina; she has a business here so we were discussing the possibility of me moving to Accra. We shared a lot of information such as the kind of business that is viable and how I can start my business. She was the one whom I went straight to when I got to Accra. She was very good to me until I got enough money to rent my own room (Respondent 4, female 31 years) Respondent 5 had this to say: As for me I had a friend, she was my classmate who moved to Accra when we finished school. She came back to our hometown and I saw how pretty she was looking so I told her I would come to Accra. We then started talking and later I gathered money and she also topped it up and then moved to Accra. She had a one room and was kind enough to allow me to sleep with her. She helped me a lot; even she was the one who linked me to the work I am doing now….. (Respondent 5; female 25 years) 4.3.3 Financier of migration and the cost involved Contemporary migration involves a lot of financial resources, hence respondents were asked how they funded their migration processes to their various destinations. Out of the sample studied, 43.3 percent of the respondents did self-funding while a little over a fourth (21.7%) relied on parents for support. A fair number of respondents relied on their friends and spouses with less than ten percent seeking help from siblings and other associates. The over reliance on one’s self could be attributed to an individual’s own decision making as compared with the collective family decision of sending a migrant. Juxtaposing this with the cost involved, a large proportion (68.3%) of the financiers spent 100 to 500 Ghana cedis ($ 28.83 to $104.14) with a little over one-fourth contributing 600 to 1000 Ghana cedis ($124.96 to $208.27) on a migrant to the destination. The reason is that many see migration as a form of survival strategy in order to support left-behind families through sending of remittances and diversifying risks. 48 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.12: Financier of migration and cost involved Variables Frequency (N=60) Percent No one 26 43.3 Parents 13 21.7 Financier of A friend 9 15 migration Spouse 7 11.7 Sibling 3 5.0 Others 2 3.3 Total 60 100 100 – 500 41 68.3 Cost involved in the 501 – 1000 17 28.3 migration (GHC) 1001 – 1500 1 1.7 1501+ 1 1.7 Total 60 100 Source: Field work, 2018 In terms of financial support during their migration process, the in-depth interviews showed that most of the respondents self-financed their migration journey with others receiving financial support from friends at the place of destination. Here are some quotes from respondents. My parents sponsored my journey to Accra to come and stay with my elder sister since life in the village was difficult after Senior High School. I remember the money they gave me was earnings from their tomato farm. (Respondent 5; female 25 years) When I decided to travel, I didn’t inform anybody. It was my own decision so I didn’t receive any financial support from anybody. I saved money from the small small jobs I was doing and when it was enough for me, I just moved. I didn’t tell anybody (Respondent 3, femalel.27years) 49 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.3.4 Migration decision-making process Since migration decision most of the time encompasses individuals’ own capabilities, respondents were asked if they made the decisions themselves or were influenced by others. It was obvious that a little less than a third (30.0%) took migration decisions themselves while 26.7 percent relied on friends for migration advice. One-fourth (25.0%) consulted their parents with the rest of assistance constituting less than ten percent of the total responses. The reason for individual decision making could be attributed to high percentage of never married respondents and perceived economic fortunes at the destination. When respondents were asked if they made a unilateral decision to migrate to Madina or it was in conjunction with other people, the following case illustrates how migrants made the decision to migrate to Madina. Case 1: A female respondent’s decision to migrate ABC is a female respondent who had lived all her life in her hometown in the Upper West Region of Ghana and had never been to Accra. To her, the only life she knew was farming, especially after she completed Junior High School. She had been farming since then but at some point in her life she was not satisfied with life in her village and had started exploring ways to improve her life. This desire to improve her life was deepened when her childhood friend returned from Accra to visit the family. She heard about the employment opportunities in Accra from her friend. After her friend went back to Accra, she kept in touch with her, getting updates on life in the city. One day, she decided to go to her uncle and inform him of her intention to travel to Accra for employment. However, the uncle did not like that idea and refused to offer any help for her travels. She, therefore, decided to get the funds for her travels herself and come to Accra. In a month, after the meeting with her uncle, she made some sales off of her farm products, and with the help of her friend whom we mentioned earlier, she came down to Accra. She did not inform her uncle of her intention to migrate to Accra due to his disapproval of her migration. When she got to Accra after a few days, she called her uncle to inform him of her whereabouts. Source: Fieldwork, 2018 50 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Thus, based on this respondents’ narrative, sometimes they are forced not to inform any of their family members when deciding to migrate due to the opposition they face. However, they still keep them informed when they reach their destination, which is common with many migrants who move without informing anybody. Figure 4.1.3: Assistance sought in migration-decision making Source: Field work, 2018 51 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FIVE LIVELIHOOD STRATEGIES AND INTEGRATION EXPERIENCES 5.0 Introduction This chapter explores the research aim by addressing the following objectives in detail: 1) Examine the integration process of rural-urban migrants in Madina and 2) Analyse the challenges rural-urban migrants face integrating into Madina. The chapter presents information on integration strategies relied on by respondents at the study area. This consists of the role of social network played and other livelihood models depended on by respondents to ease their settlement. The chapter finally discusses challenges faced at the destination. 5.1 Initial Support at destination Figure 5.1.1 indicates that respondents’ first support upon arrival is more of personal support (35.0%). A little less than a third (30.0%) rely on friends for accommodation with the rest who were supported constituting less than twenty percent. According to the respondents who made all the arrangements themselves, they did not want to be disappointed by their social networks in aiding support for would-be migrants. 52 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 5.1.1: Whom did you stay with at the destination? Source: Field work, 2018 The in-depth interviews with respondents indicated that a lot of the respondents relied on their friends for accommodation when they migrated to the places of destination. Most of these friends were classmates who had migrated to Accra a long time ago. Thus, they were in a better position to provide support and help them settle down. However, other respondents also relied on their siblings for accommodation when they migrated to Madina. Respondent 5 said: I stayed with my elder sister who requested for my services from my parents. She was a nursing mother and all her two children were in school, so she needed someone to be around her to support her with some house chores and babysitting. I have stayed with my elder sister for almost one year now. (Respondent 3; female 25 years) Respondent 4 narrated: My sister stays at Madina; she has a business here so we were discussing the possibility of me moving to Accra. We shared a lot of information such as the kind of business that is viable and how I can start my business. She was the one whom I went straight to when I got to Accra. She was very good to me until I got enough money to rent my own room (Respondent 4, female 31 years). 53 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5.1.2 Household sizes at both origin and destination With regard to household size, the number of members, ranging from 1 to 3 was fairly the same for both the origin and destination. However, there was astronomical increase at the destination with household size of 4 to 6 with respect to the origin. The reason is that getting accommodation is challenging and expensive at the destination thereby making household size distribution higher compared to the situation at the origin. The outcome further indicates that, households constituting 7 to 9 or more members at the origin are higher compared to the destination. This could be attributed to the dominance of the external family practice at the rural areas than the urban centres. Table 5.1: Household size occupied by respondents at the origin and destination. Variables Frequency Percent 1 - 3 31 51.7 Household size at the 4 – 6 17 28.3 origin 7 – 9 7 11.7 10+ 5 8.3 Total 60 100 1 – 3 30 50.0 Household size at the 4 – 6 29 48.3 destination 7+ 1 1.7 Total 60 100 Source: Field work, 2018 5.1.3 Social networks relied on for current jobs at the destination The importance of social network as a channel which provides support for migrants is highlighted extensively in the migration literature. Out of these, respondents’ views on the network relied on for current job were explored. The table indicates that the most essential 54 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh network aside friends was self-assistance, representing 30.0 percent. The reason for the higher percentage of friends as a reliable network was as a result of difficulties and time spent in searching for jobs as new migrants as compared to friends who are already familiar with the area. Motivations for new jobs emanated from better wage differentials (56.7%) and proximity to work (30.0%). The general implication is that friends as a social network was adopted by many which aided their integration process in settling at the destination. However, with regard to other networks, employer and recruitment agencies were also relied on in securing both current and previous job. Table 5.2: Social networks relied on for current jobs at the destination Variables Frequency percent No one 18 30.0 Parent 4 6.7 A friend 26 43.3 Network relied on for Recruitment agency 7 11.7 current job Employer 1 1.7 Sibling 2 3.3 Others 2 3.3 Total 60 100 Proximity to work 18 30.0 Better wage 34 56.7 differential Reasons for new job Social security 4 6.7 benefits Others 4 6.7 Total 50 100 Source: Field work, 2018 55 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh A twenty-seven-year-old female informant shared how her sister who was already established helped her leave the shop she was working to another job. She stated that: When I came here, I got some job in a shop through a friend. However, the conditions were not right; I was closing very late and the money too was not good so my sister asked me to stop. She has since then helped me to get a work at another place and I am ok with what I receive now. (Respondent 3, female.27years) 5.1.4 Time spent in getting job at the destination Employment contributes to integration of migrants at the destination since it improves their source of income and livelihood (Van Tubergen & Flap, 2004). Hence, duration for such jobs was explored. The finding indicates that 40.0 percent of the respondents secured jobs within 2 to 4 months while less than a third (31.7%) secured jobs within a year. Just 18.0 percent secured jobs within a month. Respondents’ ability to secure jobs within a short period could be attributed to the reliance on their social networks at the destination. The results indicate how most migrants suffer within their initial periods of stay and how they are able to secure daily meals and afford accommodation during the process of searching for employment. Table 5.3: Time spent before securing a first job at destination Time Spent before securing a job Frequency Percent Within one month 11 18.3 Within 2 – 4 months 24 40.0 Within 5 – 7 months 2 3.3 Within 8 – 10 months 3 5.0 Within 11 -12 months 1 1.7 1 year and above 19 31.7 Total 60 100 Source: Field work, 2018 56 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Further qualitative assessment revealed some of the following comments from respondents: I literally had to live like a mad person with no job, no home and no food to eat. Sometimes I will walk and exhaust the little strength I have in me in search of work but to no avail. I met an old friend who introduced me to his workplace and this was after 7 months of struggles. (Respondent 15, male 31 years). I almost gave up and went back to my village after 8 months of staying here with no lucrative job. It’s been a year now. I realized I had been deceived and been made to believe a lie when I practically had to beg for a one square meal a day. I was able to secure employment after three solid months. (Respondent 14, male 33 years). My brother invited me to the city and had no problem finding a job because he had it all sorted out. It took me less than a month to find a job. (Respondent 11, male 24 years). The comments made by these respondents do not in any way compare to what they practically go through in their daily lives. Migrants who had relatives in the city and thus, migrated based on the word and assurance of their relatives had quite comforting stories to tell as compared to migrants who walked in “blind” based on tales of the city as being “the land of opportunities”.. 5.1.5 Type of Associations and how they assisted respondents in integration The study sought to find out from respondents their membership to various associations and their dependency on them for integration purposes. From the table, it was identified that more than a third (38.3%) of the respondents relied on hometown associations for monthly benefits while the rest of the associations had less than twenty percent for supporting members monthly. Fun clubs and religious groups were more supportive as compared with the others. The data shows that in terms of members not belonging to any association it was unanimous for all with higher percentages. The reason, according to the respondents, is that many of them belong to such groups in their previous location and are actively involved. 57 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 5.4: Type of Associations and how often they assisted respondents in integration Dependency on Associations (N=60) Type of Daily Weekly Monthly Quarterly Annually Not a Association member Hometown 2 (3.3%) 3 (5.0%) 23(38.3%) 3 (5.0%) 0 (0.0%) 29 (48.3%) Fun club 0 (0.0%) 4 (6.7%) 3 (5.0%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 53 (88.3%) Religious 2 (3.3%) 3 (5.0%) 6 (10.0%) 1 (1.7%) 0 (0.0%) 48 (50.0%) Group Family and 0 (0.0%) 2 (3.3%) 3 (5.0%) 1 (1.7%) 0 (0.0%) 54 (90.0%) Friends Trade Union 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 2 (3.3%) 2 (3.3%) 0 (0.0%) 56 (93.3%) Others 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 60 (100%) Source: Field work, 2018 5.1.6 Respondent’s modes of contacting home and how it influences integration As a result of technological advancement, constant relationship between migrants and their left-behind families has been made easier. Half of the respondents (51.7%) contact home every week while a little less than a third (31.7%) do that every day with the overwhelming majority (70.0%) using telephone as a means of getting in touch with family members. Visiting constituted 21.7 percent of the total responses. With regard to the purpose for contacting home, checking on family well-being (58.3%) and offering financial assistance (28.3%) were the topmost priorities of their contact with household members. 58 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 5.5: Respondent’s modes of contacting home and how it influences integration Variables Frequency Percent Yes 53 88.3 Do you contact home No 7 11.7 Total 60 100 Everyday 19 31.7 How often do you Every week 31 51.7 contact Home Every month 10 16.7 Others 0 0.0 Total 60 100 Telephone 42 70.0 Means of contacting Visit 13 21.7 home Social Media 4 6.7 Family members 1 1.7 Others 0 0.0 Total 60 100 Checking family on 35 58.3 wellbeing Find out problems at 7 11.7 home Purpose for Offering assistance to 17 28.3 contacting home other family members Constant checking on 1 1.7 projects Total 60 100 Source: Field work, 2018 59 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Other reasons for migrants calling their families were revealed from the interviews. Some of the comments made by respondents are as follows: Sometimes, calling to hear from my relatives keeps me going because my younger siblings are all depending on me to bring something home to cater for food and other needs…(Respondent 19, female 23 years). 5.1.7 Type of remittances and its related characteristics The complexity and widespread effects associated with remittances mostly depend on the frequency of receipt (Vargas-Lunius et al., 2008). It is in this vein that respondents’ views were obtained. On the type of remittances sent by respondents, more than half (63.3%) sent cash while one-fourth (25.0%) remit both cash and foodstuff. The majority of the remittances (78.3%) were sent once every month with the rest of receipt in terms of duration constituting a little less than five percent. Again, mothers were the highest recipient (63.3%) followed by fathers (21.7%) with the rest representing less than ten percent (10%). The reason for mothers receiving more remittances could be as a result of their role as care takers in the absence of household heads. From the table, the most essential application of remittances sent in ranked order was household consumption (36.7%) ,school fees came next (28.7%) followed by health bills (26.7%), with the rest representing less than ten percent. The implication is that a substantial amount of the remittances sent are used for non-agricultural purposes. This is consistent with World Bank report (2005) where remittances received by households are basically used for consumption (food, clothing) as well as investment in children’s school fees, health care among others. 60 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 5.6: Type of remittances and related characteristics Variables Frequency (N=60) Percent Type of remittances Cash 38 63.3 Food stuff 7 11.7 Both 15 25.0 Total 60 100 Recipient of Father 13 21.7 remittances Mother 38 63.3 Spouse 4 6.7 Sibling 5 8.3 Others 0 0.0 Total 60 100 Frequency of Everyday 2 3.3 remittances Every week 9 15.0 Every month 47 78.3 Once a year 1 1.7 Others 1 1.7 Total 60 100 Purpose of sending Household 22 36.7 remittances consumption Health bill 16 26.7 School fees 17 28.3 Agriculture 4 6.7 investment Others 1 1.7 Total 60 100 Source: Field work, 2018 61 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Responses from the respondents during the in-depth interview revealed that cash was the most dominant type of remittances being sent to their places of origin. In terms of the frequency, it ranges from monthly to every three months. This is an indication that migrants still keep in touch with their places of origin and continue to remit to their loved ones. One respondent opined that: As for me I send mobile money to my mother every month. I don’t have that much money but I try as much as possible to at least send like 200 Ghana cedis ($42) every month. My mom has some sickness so I have to send her money to buy her medicines. But the last time I was going there, I bought some foodstuff to my family but I also gave them money when I was leaving for Accra. (Respondent 4, female 31 years) 5.1.8 Cash remittances sent by sex of respondents Table 5.6 shows the relationship between sex group and the amount sent to left-behind families. With regard to the amount sent in the range of 100 to 500 Ghana cedis, (1GhC = 4.8$), both sexes remit but males remit (94.6%) more than females (91.3%). Similarly, the number of males who cited remitting amounts of between 600 and 1000 Ghana cedis was 6 times (2.7% - 8.7%) less than their female counterparts for the same reasons. However, sending remittances over 1000 Ghana cedis ($208.27) was exclusive to males only. The reason is that males are more likely to secure jobs than their females counterparts at the destination. It is worth noting, however, that females remit more frequently than their male counterparts. This is a direct function of income because men have higher earnings and can afford to send more. Moreover, men’s propensity to remit is higher by four percent: women remit 16% of their income as against 20% by men. This may be because the percentage of married men with families in the home country is higher than that of women. Women remittance senders are also a case of gender inequality because their low income status is not commensurate with their education: overall, women are better educated than men but they earn less than males (Orcozco, 2006). 62 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 5.6: Cash remittances by sex of respondents Cash remittance Sent Sex of respondents (GHC) Males Females Total 101 – 500 35 (94.6%) 21 (91.3%) 56 (93.3%) 501– 1000 1 (2.7%) 2 (8.7%) 3 (5.0%) 1001+ 1 (2.7%) 0 (0.0%) 1 (1.7%) Total 37 (100%) 23 (100%) 60 (100%) Source: Field work, 2018 5.1.9 Challenges of the respondents’ integration at destination Host communities and migrant nexus are always accompanied by integration difficulties (Poppelaars & Scholten, 2008). With respect to specific challenges in ranked order, difficulties in securing accommodation was the highest (37.5%), followed by unhealthy competition in the economic space with indigenes (22.5%) and cultural and religious adjustment (15.0%). According to the respondents, this becomes evident when social networks they rely on fail. Economic competition transcends local to international competition and therefore indigenes of the study area are keen in protecting strategic places irrespective of whether they belong to them genuinely or not this affected their cost of living since most of the respondent’s migration intentions were economically induced. The general implication is that housing and economic integration were slightly ahead of cultural and religious adjustment with respect to all integration problems associated with the study area. 63 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 5.7: Migrant integration challenges Integration challenges Responses Percent N = 60 Difficulties in securing accommodation 30 37.5 Unhealthy competition in the economic space with 18 22.5 indigenes Cultural and religious adjustment 12 15.0 High cost of living 10 12.5 Language barrier 4 5.0 Others 6 7.5 Total 60 100 Source: Field work, 2018 Migrants who move to Madina are faced with several challenges and sometimes these challenges derail their progress. They are faced with the problem of rent where it is either the rooms are expensive or to some extent people living in temporary structures like kiosk finds it difficult to get space to settle with the structure. Due to overcrowding in the market, there is undue competition, which sometimes affects migrants. This case study tells the story of one respondent who migrated to Madina and has faced several challenges which have affected her chances of succeeding in life. At age 31 years, this respondent migrated to Madina when she was about 25 years of age. Unlike some of the respondents interviewed, she did receive some support from her siblings back in the village to travel to Accra. When she got to Accra, her aunt was already at the Madina market working and didn’t have any problem settling down. However, the challenges arose when she got pregnant. After getting pregnant, her aunt asked her to move out of the place since she was matured enough to get pregnant she should be able to take care herself. At that time, she had saved up some bit of money and therefore decided to look for a place to rent. The money she had been able to save at that time was around GHC 800 ($170). She therefore looked for accommodation and paid for 6 months’ rent. However, after the 6 months, the rent was increased and since she could not afford the new charges she had to move. She ended up staying in someone’s’ kiosk during the night. That is where she has been staying since then. Apart from the rent issues, there is not much work available in the Madina market; which is 64 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh contrary to the popular belief that Madina market is very active. Due to this, she even struggles to save money and remit some back home and feels bad. She therefore plans to move to central Accra for better employment opportunities. 5.2 Improvement of respondents’ livelihood as a result of migration Contemporary migration is seen as a survival and poverty alleviation strategy by many (Stark, 1984; Bridge, 2005). It was in this regard that respondents were asked whether migration had helped improve their lives or not. Figure 6 shows that more than half (56.7%) of the respondents said yes while the rest responded no. The reason could be that migrants see migration as wealth a accumulation strategy. Figure 5.1.2: Improvement of livelihood as a result of migration Source: Field work, 2018 Even though some migrants have been faced with challenges ever since they moved to Madina, other respondents indicated that migration had improved their lives significantly. Therefore, they are able to send money back to their villages, visit their hometowns and buy gifts for their family members. 65 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh This case study tells the story of one female migrant who believes that migration has improved her life. Jemima (pseudonym) moved to Accra at a very young age to escape from the hardships that she and her family were facing. Her parents were just farmers who couldn’t afford to even send her to school due to the economic hardship in their hometown. They were just subsistence farmers who relied on the farm produce and things become more difficult when the weather disrupts their yields. She used to roam about in her hometown just to get something and therefore when the opportunity presented itself to move to Accra, she didn’t hesitate. Her parents gave her their blessings and she came down to Accra. In the beginning, things were difficult because of the change of environment and language barrier. However, after some years things have really improved and now she earns enough money to send to her parents. She has been able to bring her sibling to come stay with her and now she takes care of her as well. She now lives in a single room which is an improvement compared to when she was sleeping in front of shops at Madina. Jemima’s story could be described as a success story of migration. Migration, under the right conditions, could help improve the livelihoods of migrants and their family members. This is seen as a survival strategy employed by people to improve their lives. 66 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER SIX SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 6.0 INTRODUCTION Integration of migrants at their various destinations has become challenging for newly arrived migrants due to the exploitation by employers in many ways. The study focused on adding to the knowledge of integration needs of migrants by examining their migration process and experiences. This chapter comprises the summary of the findings, conclusion as well as the recommendations of the study. 6.1 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS The study found that most of the rural-urban migrants were males within workable age groups constituting youthful population. In terms of education, the findings indicated diversity with a minimum of vocational and technical qualification and the highest qualification being tertiary education. The findings further indicated that both push and pull factors that aided migrants’ migration process were more economic in Nature. The push factors were fewer economic opportunities, natural disasters, and insecurity at their places of origin. The pull factors, on the other hand, were lack of access to social amenities, accommodation, school, availability of social network and economic prospects at the destination. Additionally, the findings show that for reliance on social networks for assistance, friends constituted a third of the total respondents followed by self-reliance (migrants own effort) with assistance in accommodation and employment as their top-most priority. The study also found that migration decision making was not solely done by migrants but with friends (26.7 %,) who also provided accommodation for those who relied on them for support. 67 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Furthermore, the findings show that migrants’ livelihood has improved as a result of migration. More than half (56.7%) said migration is a wealth accumulation strategy. Again, it emerged that respondents relied on their social networks for different purposes, with a significant proportion getting help from friends and siblings for jobs. In terms of associations, it was evident that respondents depended on the type that responded to their difficulties. Most of the respondents relied on hometown associations than the others. On the issue of remittances, cash ranging from 100 to 501 Ghana cedis was the most sent remittance monthly as compared with the others. Mothers were the highest recipients of the remittances. The usage of remittances was varied with a greater percentage using them as household consumption, investment on children’s education and payments of health bills. Finally, migrant’s ability to secure accommodation was a major challenge associated with their integration process, followed by one’s ability to integrate economically at the destination as well as the cultural and religious adjustment at the destination. Other serious challenges were high cost of living and language barrier. 6.2 CONCLUSION The study makes the following conclusions based on the broad issues emanating from the study’s theories, methodological approaches and some key findings. First, Rural-Urban Migration in Ghana is mostly dominated by the youth males within active age working group with the sex trend in migration shifting from a wide gap between migrations of males’ and females as more women have increasingly been studied to migrate in recent years. Pessar (2005) asserts that on a general scale, more men in developing countries migrate from places to places compared to their female counterparts. This trend is 68 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh changing in the cause of time with evidence indicating that migration in recent times has seen more women moving from developing countries to the developed world. Reasons why people migrate from rural areas to the urban centres have been studied by various scholars who have observed that voluntary and involuntary factors have accounted for this movement. However, the most identified and recorded view that has spearheaded rural-urban migration as a push factor has been described by various scholars (Awumbila et al., 2011; Black et al., 2006) as the quest for rural-urban migrants to better their lives in urban centres. The economic agony that entangles rural life in developing countries such as Ghana compels the youth to move from their places of origin in search of employment and better living conditions. Other factors that have been seen to drive rural-urban migration are access to better social amenities, accommodation, quality education, and health facilities. Awumbila & Ardayfio-Schandor, 2008; Anarfi 1991; Arthur 1993; as Cited by Yakubu 2017) Rural-urban migrants, after finding the means to transport themselves to urban centres, are faced with a series of woes and struggles and a chain of an integration process before they are able to successfully integrate themselves in the urban centres. Phillimore (2012) developed a structured model to demonstrate the gradual process through which migrants go through to be successfully integrated in their destination countries. Boyd and Nowak (2012) categorise the various survival modes that migrants rely on in the host country into individual and family networks, illegitimate migrant network and labour networks. The availability of social network helps in addressing issues of resources by depending on others through social bonding. As is evident from the results of the study, social networks dominate the various network modes as confirmed by Boyd and Nowak. 69 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh From the findings gleaned from the study, it becomes clear that migrants go through a myriad of problems such as lack of decent accommodation to securing employment. It has been evident that most migrants rely on hometown associations aside their personal networks in solving these problems (Phillimore, 2012). Others also rely on friends and their own strategies since they are unable to afford accommodation at the initial stages of life in the city and have to work for a long time before acquiring decent accommodation. After years of persistent struggling, some are fortunate enough to have gone through a successful integration process and are able to send remittances to relatives in their home countries. This also emphasises the point that migration is a household strategy in many Ghanaian homes as indicated in the literature (see for example Teye, 2013). 6.3 RECOMMENDATION This study makes the following recommendations based on the findings from the study. The migration of people from the rural to the urban areas is largely due to inequality in those areas. For these reasons, government through its stakeholders should expand infrastructure and create employment in order to reduce rural–urban migration. Internal migrant associations such as hometown associations should be incorporated into the mainstream migration agenda of Ghana because of the influence these associations have over their members. Again, the government, through the local assemblies, should address push factors such as lack of jobs and poor infrastructure. Moreover, the Government of Ghana’s contribution towards affordable housing projects should include rural-urban migrants in their quest to reduce the accommodation deficit in the urban centres. 70 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Finally, relevant institutions such the National Disaster Management Organisation (NADMO) and Social Welfare should provide temporary shelter at strategic places for displaced migrants at the urban centres. 71 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh REFERENCES Abdul-Korah, G. B. (2007). ‘Where is not home?’ Dagaaba Migrants in the Brong Ahafo Region, 1980 to the Present. African Affairs, 106(422), 71-94. Adaawen, S. 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Vargas-Lundius, R., Basu, E. and David Suttie D. (2014). "Migration and Youth: Challenges and Opportunities". In Cortina, J., Taran, P. and Raphael, A. (eds). Migration and Youth: Challenges and Opportunities. Global Migration Group, UNICEF Waddington, C. (2003). ‘Livelihood outcomes of Migration for Poor People’, Sussex Centre for Migration Research Working paper. Wasserman, S. and Faust, K. (1994) Social Network Analysis: Methods and Applications. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Wiesbrock, A. (2013). 'Mandatory Retirement in the EU and the US: The Scope of Protection against Age Discrimination in Employment'. International Journal of Comparative Labour Law and Industrial Relations, Issue 3, pp. 305–324 World Economic Forum, (2017). “Migration and its impact on cities. Available at: https://www.weforum.org/docs/Migration_Impact_Cities_report_2017 World Migration Report .IOM (2018).Global Overview. Geneva: IOM. 85 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Yajalin, E. J. (2015), migration: Community consequences and individual migrant’s experiences in Agbogloshie. Yakubu. A. A. (2017). Rural-Urban Migrants and Urban Employment in Ghana: A case study of rural migrant’s from Northern Region to Kumasi. Master's thesis Global development and planning UT505 - University of Agder. Pp. 60-61 Yang, D. (2008), International migration, remittances and household investment: Evidence from Philippine migrants’ exchange rate shocks. The Economic Journal, 118: 591-630. 86 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDIX 1 UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON CENTER FOR MIGRATION STUDIES MIGRATION AND INTEGRATION: UNDERSTANDING THE EXPERIENCES OF RURAL-URBAN MIGRANTS IN MADINA I am a student of the Centre for Migration Studies, University of Ghana –Legon. I am undertaking a research project as part of my course requirements in migration studies. The study aims to investigate the MIGRATION AND INTEGRATION: UNDERSTANDING THE EXPERIENCES OF RURAL- URBAN MIGRANTS IN MADINA. I would like to ask you a few questions regarding your migration experiences and how you have integrated into the Madina community. Your participation is very important for the success of this project. ‘I would like to assure you that information you will share with me will only be used for research purposes and will not be traced back to you. You are also free not to participate or discontinue with the interview at any time. However, your input will be greatly appreciated. The survey is due to last for 45 minutes. Thank You Name (Optional)_________________________________________________ Date:_______________________________________________________________ Place of interview:______________________________________________ SECTION A: SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC INFORMATION OF THE RESPONDENTS 1. Sex : (1) Male (2) Female v v 2. Age (Current Age): _____________________________________________ 2(i) Age before leaving home country 2(ii) Age after spending years in destination country 3. What is your current marital status? (1) v Married (2) v Never Married (3) Consensual Union 4) Separated (4) Divorced (5) v Widowed v v 4. Were you married before you migrated to Accra? (1) v Y es (2) N v o 4B. If Yes, Please explain your answer ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________ 5. Did you get married after settling in Accra? (1) Yes (2) No 6. What is your religious background? 87 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (1) v Christian (2) v Muslim (3) Traditionalist (4)Others (specify)___________________v __ 7. What was your level of education before migrating to Madina? (1) No education (2) v Primary (3) v JHS/JSS (4) v SHS/SSS v (5) v Vocational/Commercial/ Technical (6) v T ertiary (7) v Other Professionals (ACCA/CA/ICT) 8. Have you received any further education since you migrated to Madina? (1) v Yes (2) v No 8(B) If Yes: What is your current level of education? (1) No education (2) v Primary (3) v JHS/JSS (4) v v SHS/SSS (5) v Vocational/Commercial/ Technical (6) v T ertiary (7) v Other Professionals (ACCA/CA/ICT) 9. What is your current occupation ?______________________________________________________ SECTION B: MIGRATION PROCESS AND FACTORS MOTIVATING RURAL- URBAN MIGRANTS TO SETTLE IN MADINA 10. When did come to Madina? _________________________________________________ 11. Where were you living before moving to Madina? ________________________________ 12. Which region did you migrated from? (1) Greater Accra (2) Ashanti (3) v Brong Ahafo (4) Eastern v v v (5) v Western (6) Central (7) v Northern (8) v Upper East v (9) v Upper West (10) v Volta 13. What are some of prevailing conditions at your place of origin that caused you to migrate to your current destination? (1) L e s s economic opportunity (2) N a t u ral disaster (3) I n s e c u rity (4) v Others Specify_________________v_ ________________________________ v v 14. What are some of the factors that motivated you to settle in Madina? (1) v Economic prospects (2) v Ease access to social amenities (3) Proximity to other Central business centers (4) A v ailability of social v network (5) v Accommodation (6) v School (7) v F amily unification (8) School (9) v Others (Specify) _______________v_ _______________ v 15. Who assisted you to migrate? (1) v No one (2) Parents (3) v A Friend (4) Spouse v 88 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (5) Sibling (6) Others Specify_____________________________________ 16. What kind of assistance did you received at Madina? (1) Accommodation (2) v Employment (3) v Money v (4) v Information (5) Others (Specify) v _____________________________________ 17. How did you financed your migration to Madina? (1) No One (2) Parents (3) A Friend (4) Spouse (5) v Sibling v (6) Others v v Spve cify_________________v_ ___________________ 18. How much was involved in your migration to Madina? ____________________________ 19. Who assisted you in taking the decision to migrate? (1) v No one (2v) Parents (v3 ) Friend (4 ) Spouse (5) Sibling (6) Others v Specify_______________v_ _____________________ SECTION C: INTEGRATION EXPERIENCES ACCOMMODATION 19. Where did you live when you first came to Greater Accra Region? __________________ 20. If different from your current location, explain why you moved? _____________________________________________________________________ ________________________ 21. Whom did you stay with? (1) v Alone (2) Parents (3) v A Friend (4) Spouse (5) E m ployer (6) Sibling (7) v Others v Specify__v ______________________ 22. What was the household size in your home country? (1) v 1-3 (2) v 4- 6 (3) v 7-9 (4) v 10+ 23. What is the current household size in your destination country? (2) v 1-3 (2) v 4- 6 (3) v 7-9 (4) v 10+ 24. Is it different from your household size now? (1) vY es (2) v No 20B. If Yes, specify_____________________________________________________ 25. What type of dwelling unit are you living in Madina? (1) Separate House (2) Semi-detached (3) Flat / Apartment v v 89 v University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (4) v Compound House (5) v Huts / Uncompleted Building (6) v Tents (7) Kiosk / Container (8) v Attached to shop (9) v Others (Specify) __________________ ECONOMIC ACTIVITY 26. Is your current occupation different from your previous occupation? (1) Yes (2) No v v 25B. If Yes, explain why? _____________________________________________________ 27. Who assisted you to find your previous job? (1) v No one (2 ) Parents (3v) Sibling (4 ) A Friend (4) R ecruitment agency (5) Employer (6) v O thers Specify__v _________________ v 28. If your current job is different from your previous job, indicate who assisted you find your current job? (1) v No one (2) Parents (3) A Friend (4) Recruitment agency v (5) Employer (6) Sibling (7) Others v Specify__________________________ v v 29. How long did it take you to find your first job upon arrival? (1) v Within one month (2) v Within 2-4 Months (3) v Within 5 -7 Months (4) v Within 8-10 months (5) v Within 11- 12 months (6) v 1 year and Above ASSOCIATION(s) 29 Are you in any association? (1) Yes (2) No 29B. If yes, Specify? v v _____________________________________________________________ 30 What benefits have you gained from the network (s) identified in 28? A. Hometown association __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________ B. Fun club __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________ C. Religious group __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________ 90 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh D. Family and Friends __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________ E. Trade union __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________ F. Others __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________ 31 Indicate how often you rely on your network(s) A. Hometown association (1) Daily (2) Weekly (3) Monthly (4) Quarterly (5) Annually (6) As and when the need arises (7) once in a while (8) Not at all (9) Others specify__________________________ B. Fun club (1) Daily (2) Weekly (3) Monthly (4) Quarterly (5) Annually (6) As and when the need arises (7) once in a while (8) Not at all (9) Others specify__________________________ C. Religious group (1) Daily (2) Weekly (3) Monthly (4) Quarterly (5) Annually (6) As and when the need arises (7) once in a while (8) Not at all (9) Others specify__________________________ D. Family and friends (1) Daily (2) Weekly (3) Monthly (4) Quarterly (5) Annually (6) As and when the need arises (7) once in a while (8) Not at all (9) Others specify__________________________ E. Trade union (1) Daily (2) Weekly (3) Monthly (4) Quarterly (5) Annually (6) As and when the need arises (7) once in a while (8) Not at all (9) Others specify__________________________ F. Others (1) Daily (2) Weekly (3) Monthly (4) Quarterly (5) Annually (6) As and when the need arises (7) once in a while (8) Not at all (9) Others specify__________________________ 32 Did you receive any information to help you integrate easily in Madina? (1) Y e s (2) N o v v 91 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 32B. If Yes, Specify the kind of information and who gave the information? _____________________________________________________________________ ______________ _____________________________________________________________________ ______________ CONTACT WITH HOME 33 Do you contact home? (1) Y e s (2) N o 34. How often do you contact hovm e? v (1) v Everyday (2) v Every week (3) v Every month (4) v Once a year 35. Through what means do you contact home? (1) Telephone (2) Visit (3) Social Media (4) Family member (s) v v v v (5) v Friends (6) v Others (Specify)________________________ 36. What is your purpose of contacting home? _____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________ ___ 37. Do you send remittances home? (1) v Y es (2) v No 38. Identify which remittances you send home? (1) v Cash (2) v Food Stuff/ Provision (3) v Others ____________________________ 39. If cash indicate the amount? _____________________________________________ 40. Who do you send the remittance to? ___________________________________ 41. How often do you send remittances home? (1) v Everyday (2) v Every week (3) v Every month (4) v Once a year (5) v Others specify __________________________________ 42. What is the purpose of remitting home? _____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________ ___ IMPACT OF MIGRATION ON THE LIVELIHOOD OF MIGRANTS AND THEIR FAMILY 43. Do you think your migration has improved your life? (1) Yv es (2) vN o If Yes, explain ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 92 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ If No, explain ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ SECTION D: CHALLENGES MIGRANTS FACE INTEGRATING For this section, migrants are expected to compare their current situation with their situation before migration 44. Do you have challenges with your accommodation in Madina compared to your place of origin? (1) Yes (2) No v v Please explain your answer ___________________________________________________________________________ _________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ __________________________ 45. Do you think competing with indigenes/other migrants in the economic space a challenge in the labour market? (1) v Yes (2) v No Explain your answer? ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________ 46. Do you think culturally and religiously you have changed some of your values because of migration? (1) v Yes (2) v No Please explain your answer? ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___ 93 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 47. What other challenges did/do you have settling / integrating in Madina? ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________ 48. Do you have any further contributions or suggestions concerning this topic? ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________ THANK YOU! 94 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDIX 2 UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON CENTER FOR MIGRATION STUDIES MIGRATION AND INTEGRATION: UNDERSTANDING THE EXPERIENCES OF RURAL-URBAN MIGRANTS IN MADINA I am a student of the Centre for Migration Studies, University of Ghana –Legon. I am undertaking a research project as part of my course requirements in migration studies. The study aims to examine MIGRATION AND INTEGRATION: UNDERSTANDING THE EXPERIENCES OF RURAL- URBAN MIGRANTS IN MADINA. I would like to ask you a few questions regarding your migration experiences and how you have integrated into the Madina community. Your participation is very important for the success of this project. ‘I would like to assure you that information you will share with me will only be used for research purposes and will not be traced back to you. You are also free not to participate or discontinue with the interview at any time. However, your input will be greatly appreciated. The survey is due to last for 45 minutes. Thank You 1. Socio-demographic details Please, tell me about yourself Probe (Age, Marital status (Before and after Migration), Educational level (level before and after migration) , Have you received further education at Madina.) 2. Migration process and factors motivating rural-urban migrant to settle in Madina Probe Who helped you to migrate? Who assisted you in your migration process? What kind of assistance? Who helped you in financing your migration to Madina? How much was involved? Which region are you from? How long have you been in Madina? What are the factors that led to your migration? Please, state some? 95 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2. INTEGRATION EXPERIENCES Accommodation Please, can you tell me why you decided to live in Madina? Did you stay with someone when you came to Madina? Whom did you stay with? What’s your household size at before and after migrating to Madina? What type of dwelling unit are you living in Madina? Economic Activity What is your current occupation? Is it different from your previous occupation? Who assisted to get your current job? and the previous? If any Associations Please, are you in any association? State? If any What benefits have you gained from the association? How did you know about Madina? Who gave you the information? 3. CONTACT WITH HOME Please, do you contact home? Place of origin. How do you contact home? How often do you contact home? Why do you contact? Do you send remittances? What kind of remittances? What do they use it for? Who do you send to? Please, can you tell me the amount? 96 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4. IMPACT OF MIGRATION ON THE LIVELIHOOD OF MIGRANT AND THEIR FAMILY Please, how has migration impacted your livelihood and family? Probe (Positive and Negative impact) How has it impacted your livelihood? 5. CHALLENGES MIGRANTS FACE INTEGRATING Please, what are some of the challenges you encounter integrating at Madina? Probe: Is Accommodation an issue? How? Has your age before and after migration affected your ability to secure a job? Is your religion or culture an issue? How? What the kind of business / job an issue for you integrating? THANK YOU 97