Students’ academic freedom in 
African universities and democratic 
enhancement

Kwadwo Appiagyei-Atua*
Associate Professor of Law, University of Ghana, Legon, Accra, Ghana
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3118-2383

Summary 
This article makes a case for the need to recognise students’ right to
academic freedom as a necessary and vital component in the academic
freedom matrix in addition to that of the university and academics. It
seeks to affirm this position by exposing the various categories of rights
that students are entitled to enjoy on and off campus. The conclusion
reached is that the academic freedom of the three actors (university,
academics, students) are indivisible, interdependent and interconnected;
and that the suppression of students’ right to academic freedom has the
consequence of denying them the right to engage democratically on the
university campus which could spill over into their involvement in
realpolitik in the real world. 

Key words: academic freedom; students’ rights; Kampala Declaration;
University of Ghana

1 Introduction 

Students’ right to academic freedom in Africa has been given little
attention in the literature and in regional instruments such as the
1990 Kampala Declaration on Intellectual Freedom and Social
Responsibility (Kampala Declaration). Where it is addressed, it is done
only tangentially, that is, when it coincides with the interests of the
university or academics. Subsequently, academic freedom for
students on the continent continues to suffer abuse and neglect,

AFRICAN HUMAN RIGHTS LAW JOURNAL

* LLB (Hons) (Ghana) BL (Ghana School of Law) LLM (Dalhousie, Canada) DCL
(McGill, Canada); kappiagyeiatua@ug.edu.gh. The author is grateful to the
European Union for granting the Marie Curie Fellowship which enabled research
to be conducted at the University of Lincoln, United Kingdom.

 To cite: K Appiagyei-Atua ‘Students’ academic freedom in African universities and democratic 
enhancement’ (2019) 19 African Human Rights Law Journal 151-166

http://dx.doi.org/10.17159/1996-2096/2019/v19n1a8



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especially as African universities increasingly submit to pressures to
corporatise the university, and where the principal violations no
longer are directly by the state but by the university management
(against academics and students) and academics (against students). 

The analysis is applied to the case of the University of Ghana and
the conclusion reached is that this development denies students the
right and opportunity to engage democratically and to be involved in
university affairs and in the way in which knowledge is produced and
shared. When these democratic rights are violated in this way,
students graduate from the university with a compromised
understanding of democracy and human rights. This compromised
understanding subsequently informs their behaviour in their
communities, workplaces as well as in politics. In the end, the denial
of students’ academic freedom is likely to have a negative impact on
democratisation in Africa.

The article begins by asking who the recipients of the right to
academic freedom are, and discusses why students are sidelined in the
process. A matrix is posited that identifies this relationship. A brief
historical survey is undertaken to establish the context in which
students came to acquire the right to enjoy academic freedom in pre-
colonial Africa, Europe and the United States of America. The
discussion then proceeds to an examination of two Africa-made
documents on academic freedom, namely, the Dar es Salaam
Declaration on Academic Freedom and Social Responsibility of
Academics (Dar es Salaam Declaration) and the Kampala Declaration.
The 1966 ILO/UNESCO Recommendation Concerning the Status of
Teachers (ILO/UNESCO Recommendation) and the 1997 UNESCO
Recommendation Concerning the Status of Higher Education
Teaching Personnel (1997 UNESCO Recommendation) are further
used to determine the extent to which students’ right to academic
freedom is recognised. This analysis is placed in the context of the
relationship between academic freedom and the right to education
and the way in which this relationship creates space for democratic
enhancement, not only on the campus but in society. In this context,
the work analyses how the denial of students’ academic freedom
affects the development of a democratic culture in society.

The final part of the article involves a practical application of the
rights and freedoms enshrined in the documents and the extent to
which the law is able to enhance the enjoyment and exercise of these
rights and freedoms.

2 Students in the academic freedom matrix

Academic freedom has often been defined with the focus and
attention on the academic. Thus, for example, according to Sir
Edward Boyle, 



STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC FREEDOM IN AFRICAN UNIVERSITIES     153

[a]cademic freedom means the absence of discriminatory treatment on
grounds of race, sex, religion or politics, and the right to teach according
to his own conception of fact and truth rather than according to any
predetermined orthodoxy. It involves freedom to publish and subject to the
proper performance of allotted duties, freedom to pursue whatever
personal studies are congenial.1

Alongside the academic is the university, as reflected, for example, in
Dr TB Davie’s classical definition of academic freedom as involving
‘four essential freedoms … [for the university] to determine for itself
on academic grounds who may teach, what may be taught, how it
shall be taught and who may be admitted to study’.2 

The marginal treatment given to the presence or relevance of
students’ academic freedom suffers an even greater setback where
some scholars go to the extent of refusing any form of recognition to
it. Byrne, for example, contends that ‘[t]he term “academic freedom”
should be reserved for those rights necessary for the preservation of
the unique functions of the university, particularly the goals of
disinterested scholarship and teaching ...’3

In reaction to the lopsided approach in identifying the actors in the
academic freedom equation, Metzger argues as follows:4

Undoubtedly, students fit less snugly than teachers into the constitutional
history of academic freedom. The question is: do they fit so poorly that
they ought to be ignored? In the end, it seems best to conclude that, in
the academic freedom club, students qualify as special members …
because to keep them out would be anomalous and impoverishing. 

Fuchs adds that ‘[s]tudent freedom is a traditional accompaniment to
faculty freedom as an element of academic freedom in the larger
sense’.5 McFarlane’s comment in support is that sometimes students’
academic freedom is treated as merely ‘the by-product of the
protection of the freedom of academics’.6 

1 Quoted in GR Bozzoli Academic freedom in South Africa: The open universities in
South Africa and academic freedom 1957–1974 (1974). 

2 A van de Sandt Centlivres et al (Editorial Committee) (1957) ‘The Open
Universities in South Africa: A statement of a conference of senior scholars from
the Universities of the Witwatersrand and Cape Town. Compare R Krüger ‘The
genesis and scope of academic freedom in the South African Constitution’ (2013)
8 Kagisano 5. However, in most cases academic freedom for the university is
couched as ‘institutional autonomy’.

3 JP Byrne ‘A special concern of the First Amendment’ (1989) 99 The Yale Law
Journal 251 at 262.

4 WP Metzger ‘Profession and constitution: Two definitions of academic freedom’
(1988) 66 Texas Law Review 1265.

5 RF Fuchs ‘Academic Freedom: Its basic philosophy, function and history’ in
L Joughin (ed) Academic freedom and tenure: A handbook of the American
Association of University Professors (1969) 243-44 (Appendix E).

6 B Macfarlane ‘Re-framing student academic freedom: A capability perspective’
(2012) 63 Higher Education 720.



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The above analysis, which amounts to denying academic freedom
to students, is attributed to a narrow understanding of who the rights
holders in the academic freedom equation are.7 The Lima Declaration
on Academic Freedom and Autonomy of Institutions of Higher
Education (Lima Declaration)8 fairly grants students pride of place in
its definition of academic freedom by using ‘academic community’ to
‘cover all those persons teaching, studying, researching and working
at an institution of higher education’.9 In essence, academic freedom
for the university, academics and students is indivisible,
interdependent and interconnected.

As discussed elsewhere, the state is the principal duty bearer in the
academic freedom matrix.10 It owes duties to three entities: the
university, academics and students – in that order. Therefore, as
against the state, the rights holders are the academic community.
However, in the academic freedom matrix, rights holders are also duty
bearers in their relations with the other entities in the matrix. Thus,
the university is a duty bearer in its relationship to academics and
students who serve as rights holders. Similarly, academics owe duties
to students. Therefore, in a cascading fashion, the state owes the
greatest proportion of the duties while students enjoy most rights in
their relationship with the other entities, including the state.

In light of the above, the article adopts a definition of academic
freedom as a freedom carved out for academics, higher education
institutions and students to enable access and opportunity to conduct
scientific inquiry and disseminate the findings thereof – through
teaching, publication and the application of the findings to promote
human welfare – within the limits of public order, professional ethics
and social responsibility and without restraint or the threat of
sanctions by government and other power brokers.11

3 Historical context of academic freedom 

3.1 Pre-colonial Africa

Ancient Egypt is considered the cradle of higher education, having

7 G Robinson & J Moulton ‘Academic freedom’ in LC Becker & CB Becker (eds)
Encyclopaedia of ethics (2001) 1.

8 Adopted at the 68th General Assembly of World University Service, meeting in
Lima, Peru, 6-10 September 1988, the year of the 40th anniversary of the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights.

9 Sec 1(b) Lima Declaration (n 8).
10 K Appiagyei-Atua et al ‘The capture of institutional autonomy by the political elite

and its impact on academic freedom in African universities’ (2015) 47 Higher
Education Review 48.

11 K Appiagyei-Atua, K Bieter & T Karran ‘The composite theory: An African
contribution to the academic freedom discourse’ (2015) 31 South African Journal
on Human Rights 315.



STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC FREEDOM IN AFRICAN UNIVERSITIES     155

established universities in the Per-ankh (House of Light) around 2000
BCE12 and the Biblioteca Alexandrina which attracted international
scholars, including those who were recognised as ‘scholars in
residence’ at the libraries which served as important seats of learning.
One may further mention Islamic universities which evolved later on
in Egypt, such as the Al Azhar which remains in existence today,13

and Al Qarawwyin in Morocco.14

The existence of academic freedom in these institutions cannot be
denied due to its inextricable link to the university.15 As noted by
Karran, ‘the principle of academic freedom [is] an essential pre-
requisite for such an institution’.16 Therefore, as long as the university
has existed, so has academic freedom.17 In principle, the evolution of
academic freedom in Africa did not occur without recognition of
students as also possessing some form of academic freedom, such as
the freedom to write their own manuscripts and freedom of
movement which enabled them to travel to study at these centres of
learning or universities.18

3.2 Europe

In the European context, two types of universities emerged, namely,
the universitas scholarium (community of scholars (or students) in
Bologna and universitas magistrorum et scholarium (community of
teachers and scholars) in Paris. Both were formed under the
sponsorship of the medieval church and under its authority, with
faculties composed mainly of clerics.19 

According to Neave, two basic types of academic freedom emerged
in Bologna and Paris. In Bologna autonomy vested in students who

12 Y G-M Lulat A history of African higher education from antiquity to the present
(2005). The per-ankh was an institution devoted to the teaching of both
theoretical and practical arts, such as sculpture and other crafts. Lulat also writes
that it is thought that some of the Pharaohs studied there, singling out Ramses IV,
‘a literary person of considerable knowledge’.

13 Founded in 970 or 972 by the Fatimids as a centre of Islamic learning, its students
studied the Qur'an and Islamic law in detail, along with logic, grammar, rhetoric,
and how to calculate the lunar phases of the moon. It was one of the first
universities in the world and the only one to survive as a modern university to
include secular subjects in the curriculum.

14 S Hamdun & N King (eds) Ibn battuta in black Africa (1975) 52-53.
15 For a discussion on the theoretical origins of the concept, see KD Beiter ‘The

doctrinal place of the right to academic freedom under the UN Covenants on
Human Rights’ in (2011) University Values 5-7; A de Baets ‘The doctrinal place of
the right to academic freedom under the UN Covenants on human rights:
A rejoinder’ (2012) University Values 2-3; K Appiagyei-Atua ‘The theoretical origins
of academic freedom’ (2014) University Values 5-7.

16 T Karran ‘Academic freedom in Europe: Reviewing UNESCO’s recommendation’
(2009) 57 British Journal of Educational Studies 3.

17 R Quinn ‘Defending “dangerous’ minds”’ (2004) 5 Items and Issues 1.
18 Lulat (n 19).
19 W Rüegg ‘The university as a European institution’ in H de Ridder-Symoens

A history of the university in Europe Volume 1 Universities in the Middle Ages” Part of
A history of the university in Europe (2003) xix.



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hired the professors and also elected the rector. Karran notes that in
the examination of candidates for degrees, the authority of the
masters was paramount, but in all other matters the students reigned
supreme.20 Also, in Bologna, Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa issued
the Authentica Habita or Privilegium Scholasticum in 115521 to protect,
among others, the right of foreign scholars to freedom of movement,
security and their property. 

Furthermore, in Germany (then Prussia), Alexander von Humboldt
postulated the concepts of lernfreiheit (freedom to learn) and
lehrfreiheit (freedom to teach) out of which evolved the special theory
on academic freedom.22 Lernfreiheit gave students the freedom to
choose the courses they want to follow and the university at which
they want to study, thereby engaging in the cultivation of the self, a
principle embodied in the notion of bildung (self-cultivation).23

3.3 United States of America 

In the USA, influenced by the German experience,24 academic
freedom found expression in the 1915 Declaration of the American
Association of University Professors (AAUP) which, while it recognised
the lehrfreiheit and lernfreiheit principles,25 did not elaborate on or
directly recognise the rights of students. 

The AAUP finally addressed this gap by drafting and adopting the
1967 Joint Statement on Rights and Freedoms of Students. The
Preamble to the 1967 document recognises the inter-related and
indivisible nature of academic freedom for academics and students
thus, that ‘the freedom to teach and the freedom to learn are
inseparable facets of academic freedom’.26 

Additionally, the courts have affirmed and recognised some kind of
First Amendment right of academic freedom for students. In Sweezy v
New Hampshire,27 for instance, it was held that ‘[t]eachers and
students must always remain free to inquire, to study and to evaluate,
and to gain maturity and understanding; otherwise our civilization will
stagnate and die’. Also, in Healy v James28 the court concluded that

20 T Karran ‘Academic freedom: In justification of a universal ideal’ (2009) 34 Studies
in Higher Education 263.

21 De Ridder-Symoens (n 19).
22 JR Searle ‘Two concepts of academic freedom’ in EL Pincoffs (ed) The concept of

academic freedom (1972) 86.
23 Metzger (n 4) 1304-1305.
24 H Röhrs The classical German concept of the university and its influence on higher

education in the United States (1995).
25 Appendix I 1915 Declaration of Principles Academic Freedom and Academic

Tenure at 292, http://www.aaup.org/NR/rdonlyres/A6520A9D-0A9A-47B3-B550-
C006B5B224E7/0/1915Declaration.pdf (accessed 7 January 2018).

26 Para 2 of the Preamble to Appendix C Joint Statement on Rights and Freedoms of
Students (1967) reprinted with permission of the American Association of
University Professors, from Policy Documents and Reports 141 (AAUP 1984).

27 354 US 234, 250 (1957).
28 408 US 169, 181-82 (1972).



STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC FREEDOM IN AFRICAN UNIVERSITIES     157

respect for students’ right to freedom of association was a
reaffirmation of academic freedom. 

4 Dar es Salaam Declaration versus Kampala 
Declaration: What space for students?

The first attempt by African scholars to develop a policy document to
promote and protect academic freedom came in April 1990 when
delegates from six academic staff associations of Tanzanian universities
met in Dar es Salaam to proclaim the Dar es Salaam Declaration,
1990. 

The Dar es Salaam Declaration contains some progressive
provisions not only on academic freedom for universities and
academics but also for students. It does so, among others, by
adopting the term ‘academic community’ as used in the Lima
Declaration to cover all three stakeholders in the academic freedom
equation.29 Thus, there are numerous instances where, in respect of
students and their rights to academic freedom, the document refers
to the rights of all members of society to the academic community
without hindrance;30 freedom of study;31 the right of participation in
institutional governance;32 freedom of expression over national and
international issues, individually and collectively;33 and the right to
initiate, participate in and determine academic programmes of their
institutions in accordance with the highest standards of education and
the Basic Principles.34

Academics from the continent as a whole later met in Kampala,
Uganda, in November 1990, to adopt the Kampala Declaration.
However, unlike the Dar es Salaam Declaration, the Kampala
Declaration does not seem to recognise students as forming part of
the academic freedom matrix. Article 1 provides that ‘[e]very person
has the right to education and participation in intellectual activity’.
Since the right to education mainly covers students, one may argue
that the numerous references to ‘intellectuals’ or the ‘intellectual
community’ in the Kampala Declaration extend to students. However,
academics are also entitled to enjoy or exercise the right to education,
by reference to article 13(2)(e) of the International Covenant on
Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR):35

29 Para 53 of the Declaration which provides: ‘In this Declaration, unless the context
otherwise requires, “academic community” covers all those persons teaching,
studying, researching or otherwise working at an institution of higher education.’
The Declaration was made at the 68th General Assembly of World University
Service, meeting in Lima, Peru, 6-10 September 1988.

30 Para 17 of the Declaration.
31 Para 23.
32 Paras 24 & 39.
33 Para 24.
34 Para 18. See also paras 14, 25 & 35.
35 My emphasis.



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The States Parties to the present Covenant recognize that, with a view to
achieving the full realization of this right … (e) the development of a
system of schools at all levels shall be actively pursued … and the material
conditions of teaching staff shall be continuously improved. 

Thus, the Kampala Declaration uses ‘African intellectuals’ in a way that
largely severs students from the academic freedom matrix. Where
‘community’ is used, the reference is not to ‘academic community’
but to ‘intellectual community’, such as in article 9 thereof, which
does not extend in its meaning to cover students. Therefore, in terms
of adopting an expansive approach to determine who the rights
holders of the academic freedom matrix are, the Kampala Declaration
is not a progressive document. Indeed, this Declaration gives direct
recognition of students’ rights to academic freedom in a single article,
namely, article 7, which provides as follows: 

Teaching and researching members of staff and students of
institutions of education have the right, directly and through their
elected representatives, to initiate, participate in and determine
academic programmes of their institutions in accordance with the
highest standards of education.

The only other direct mention of students in the Kampala
Declaration is indicated with reference to the symposium the
organisation of which culminated in the Kampala Declaration, which
‘called for the transformation of administrative structures, procedures
and practices in academic institutions to make these more
representative of and accountable to teachers, researchers, students
and others working within them’.36

5 Inferring rights and freedoms for students from 
duties imposed on other duty bearers

Apart from direct means of identifying rights and freedoms in the
aforementioned documents, there are other indirect ways of doing
the same; that is, by inferring these rights and freedoms from the
duties imposed on the university and academics for the sake of their
students. This approach is justified by the Hohfeldian principle that
states that rights both confer a legal advantage (as ‘claim rights’) and
impose correlative duties on any other person apart from the rights
holder. In strict legal terms, correlativity such as this between a claim
and a corresponding duty is the test of whether a legal stipulation is a
‘right in the strict sense’.37

36 Under ‘The intelligentsia and intellectual freedom’ section of the Kampala
Declaration.

37 W Hohfeld ‘Some fundamental legal conceptions as applied in judicial reasoning’
(1913) 23 Yale Law Journal 16, reprinted in W Hohfeld Some fundamental legal
conceptions as applied in judicial reasoning and other legal essays (1923) 23 at
63-64.



STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC FREEDOM IN AFRICAN UNIVERSITIES     159

The relationship between rights and duties is acknowledged by the
major international human rights instruments. For example, article 29
of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Universal Declaration)
contains a general statement of principle regarding individual duties
in international human rights law. Also, the Preambles to both the
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) and
ICESCR stipulate that ‘the individual, hav[e] duties to other individuals
and to the community to which he belongs, is under a responsibility
to strive for the promotion and observance of ... rights’. 

However, a careful examination of the Kampala Declaration reveals
that under the ‘Responsibilities’ section, none of the responsibilities
spelt out which can be converted into a right directly address students
based on the above formula. The only exception is article 19, which
provides that ‘[m]embers of the intellectual community are obliged to
discharge their roles and functions with competence, integrity and to
the best of their abilities. They should perform their duties in
accordance with ethical and highest scientific standards.’

The sidelining of students in the Kampala Declaration is
unfortunate, considering the fact that one of the motives for the
adoption of the Kampala Declaration was to counter the excesses of
the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank’s structural
adjustment policies which severely affected respect for the academic
freedom of not only academics but also universities and students in
Africa.38 Thus, a Human Rights Watch report on academic freedom in
Africa in the 1980s noted violations of human rights on African
campuses which affected students directly and indirectly:39

[S]ummary executions of students; torture; arbitrary arrest and prolonged
detention without charge or trial; imprisonment under conditions that are
cruel and degrading; restrictions on freedom of expression, assembly,
association and movement; dismissal of faculty staff; expulsion of students;
university closures; banning of student organizations and staff unions; the
prohibition of ‘political activity’ on campus; discrimination against students
on the basis of race, ethnic or regional origin; censorship of teaching and
reading materials and manipulation of curricula; refusal to grant
scholarships to politically active students; and the requirement that
students who have been implicated in political disturbances sign pledges of
‘good behaviour’ in order to resume their studies … Students and
academics were paid to inform on each other.

38 See, eg, para 1 of the Preamble to the Kampala Declaration: ‘Intellectual freedom
in Africa is currently threatened to an unprecedented degree. The historically
produced and persistent economic, political and social crisis of our continent
continues to undermine development in all spheres. The imposition of unpopular
structural adjustment programmes has been accompanied by increased political
repression, widespread poverty and intense human suffering.’

39 Human Rights Watch Academic freedom and human rights abuses in Africa (Africa
Watch Report, March 1991).



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Applying the same formula of deriving rights from duties to the
1966 ILO/UNESCO Recommendation and the 1997 UNESCO
Recommendation,40 however, one is able to identify several rights
and freedoms indirectly carved out for students based on the duties
the UNESCO Recommendation imposes on the state, the university
and academics. Students’ academic freedom vis-à-vis the state
includes the protection of their right to education; the right to
demand respect for institutional autonomy for the university; as well
as respect for institutional self-governance, tenure and academic
freedom for academics.41

With respect to students’ academic freedom vis-à-vis the university,
the following are discernible: the right of access to library facilities and
modern teaching, research and information resources;42 the right to
quality and excellence in the teaching, scholarship and research
functions of the university; 43 the right to fair and just treatment,
without discrimination based on sex, nationality and racial status; 44

the right to take part in culture and to enjoy the benefits of scientific
progress and its applications within and outside the confines of the
university; and the right to participate in university governance.45

Students’ academic freedom vis-à-vis academics includes the right
to be taught effectively according to accepted professional principles
and norms; the right to a free exchange of ideas between academics
and students;46 the right of access to guidance in their studies;47 the
right to acknowledgment of scholarly work;48 the right to express
their views on (and contribute to the development of) the content of
curricula; the right to participate in university governance; and the
right to criticise the university and academics and to demand
accountability from the institution and individual lecturers.49

40 1997 UNESCO Recommendation Concerning the Status of Higher Education
Teaching Personnel in Records of the General Conference: 29th Session, Paris,
21 October to 12 November 1997, Vol 1, Resolutions (Paris: UNESCO 1997) para
74. The 1966 ILO/UNESCO Recommendation was adopted on 5 October 1966 at
a conference held in Paris at UNESCO headquarters and organised in close
cooperation with the ILO.

41 Paras 17-21 of the 1997 UNESCO Recommendation.
42 Para 22(o) ILO/UNESCO Recommendation.
43 Paras 22(b) & (d). 
44 Paras 22(f) & (g) & para 34.
45 Para 17.
46 Para 34.
47 As above.
48 As above.
49 Para 22 of the ILO/UNESCO Recommendation.



STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC FREEDOM IN AFRICAN UNIVERSITIES     161

6 Students’ academic freedom, the right to education 
and democratic enhancement

Students’ academic freedom is linked to the right to education.50 In
the General Comment under article 13 of ICESCR, the ESCR
Committee noted that ‘the right to education can only be enjoyed if
accompanied by academic freedom of staff and students’. The
Kampala Declaration confirms this in article 1 thereof.

Various international instruments express the vital relevance of
education as a tool for the promotion of human rights, peace and
democracy in the world. Among these is the Universal Declaration.
Article 26(2) of the Universal Declaration provides: 

Education shall be directed to the full development of the human
personality and to the strengthening of respect for human rights and
fundamental freedoms. It shall promote understanding, tolerance and
friendship among all nations, racial or religious groups, and shall further
the activities of the United Nations for the maintenance of peace. 

Following its adoption, the UN General Assembly proclaimed the
Universal Declaration as ‘a common standard of achievement for all
peoples and all nations, to the end that every individual and every
organ of society, keeping this Declaration constantly in mind, shall
strive by teaching and education to promote respect for these rights
and freedoms’. Due to the fundamental relevance and cardinal
importance of education for peace, justice, democracy and human
rights, article 13 of ICESCR repeats verbatim the provision in article
26(2) of the Universal Declaration quoted above. 

Thus, academic freedom is meant to promote the enjoyment of the
right to education which in turn will help in the use of education to
promote human rights, democracy, justice and the rule of law.
Consequently, the best way in which the right to education can be
applied effectively is when an environment is put in place which is
conducive to students enjoying their academic freedom. 

Indeed, academic freedom and democracy are not far removed
from each other. They enjoy a mutually reinforcing relationship:
Academic freedom engenders or supports democracy (at the
university and in society) and the other way round. 

First, academic freedom is designed to promote democracy on the
university campus. Thus, for example, article 20 of the Kampala
Declaration stipulates that ‘[m]embers of the intellectual community
have a responsibility to promote the spirit of tolerance towards
different views and positions and enhance democratic debate and
discussion’. The same document also ‘called for the promotion of
participatory and democratic methods of teaching, research and

50 Beiter (n 15) 5. See also KD Beiter The protection of the right to education by
international law (2006). See a contrary view in De Baets (n 15) 2-3. For a critique
of both approaches, see Appiagyei-Atua (n 15).



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publishing, and high professional and ethical standards’. In practice, a
pluralistic approach of encouraging students to exercise judgment in
their choice of perspective within the discipline supports democratic
relationships. Another is the emphasis placed on the value of students
having some element of choice in the teaching methods used. The
application of these democratic principles has the tendency to
produce a spin-off effect in the larger society when students graduate
and carry the practice of democracy with them.

Second, academic freedom is a tool to promote democracy in the
larger society. That is, the existence of the space for the enjoyment
and exercise of academic freedom can provide the opportunity to
expand that space to benefit the society at large in the context of the
struggle for human rights and democracy. That is, academics are
supposed to utilise their privileged positions to support democracy in
society and promote a close relationship between academia and
society (‘gown-town’ relationship). Thus, the Kampala Declaration
sets the standard as a useful reference point that the struggle for
academic freedom is an integral part of the general struggle for
human rights and democracy.51

In most African countries students have also played their role in
extending the enjoyment of academic freedom beyond the confines
of the university space to the streets in support of larger freedoms. For
example, during the clamour to return to democracy after the fall of
the Berlin Wall, students took an active part in the process, relying on
the freedoms of expression, association and assembly, among other
freedoms, which they began to assert and exercise on university
campuses.52 The Kampala Declaration unfortunately failed to
recognise the role of students in using academic freedom to promote
democracy and human rights on the university campuses as well as in
the society at large.

The application of these rights and freedoms for students is tested
against the enjoyment of academic freedom for students at the
University of Ghana, Legon.

7 Students’ academic freedom at the University of 
Ghana

Ghana is counted among 14 African countries of which the
constitutions contain specific recognition of academic freedom.
Ghana is also recognised as one of nine African countries categorised
as ‘free’ with respect to the level of respect for academic freedom in

51 Appiagyei-Atua, Bieter & Karran (n 11). 
52 C Mawuko-Yevugah ‘From resistance to acquiescence? Neoliberal reform, student

activism and political change in Ghana’ (2013) 8 Postcolonial Text 1 at 12 13. Also,
D Finlay ‘Students and politics in Ghana’ (1968) 97 Daedalus 51.



STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC FREEDOM IN AFRICAN UNIVERSITIES     163

its laws.53 Focusing on students’ academic freedom, Ghana’s laws
seeking to protect and promote students’ rights generally are
progressive. Students are recognised as forming part of an academic
community and are consequently protected against acts or omissions
that exceed the bounds of freedom of expression or academic
freedom, including, but not restricted to, those explicitly adopted.54

Also, discrimination on the grounds of nationality, race, caste,
religion, place of origin, political opinions, colour, creed or sex is
prohibited in determining admission, registration or graduation of a
student of the University, or to hold any advantage or privilege
thereof.55 Further, the Office of the Dean of Student Affairs is to take
charge of the counselling and placement of students; the provision of
chaplaincy services; the resolution of conflicts among students, and so
forth.56 One may also refer to section 10(4) of the University of Ghana
Act in terms of which some of the functions of the Office of the
Registrar include providing support and information to all staff and
students, including financial support to students, student progress
and completions, student discipline and student complaints.

In addition, students are engaged in university governance in
various ways through their Students’ Representative Council (SRC) (for
undergraduate students) facilitating SRC’s representation on
appropriate bodies and organs of the University.57 Consequently,
students are represented on various boards, committees and other
bodies, prominent among which are representation on the University
Council;58 the Board of Nominators to elect a Chancellor;59 boards of
faculties;60 the Court;61 Senate;62 the Council;63 the student
disciplinary board;64 the tutorial board;65 and the advisory board for
the Dean of Student Affairs.66 Similar rights and privileges are granted
to graduate students through their association, the Graduate Students
Association of Ghana (GRASAG).

Also, disciplinary issues are handled through the student
disciplinary board with a right of appeal to the University of Ghana

53 K Appiagyei-Atua, KD Beiter & T Karran ‘A review of academic freedom in Africa
through the prism of the UNESCO’s 1997 Recommendation’ (2016) 14 Journal of
Higher Education in Africa/Revue de l’Enseignment Supérieur en Afrique 85.

54 Sec 42(1)(iii) Statutes of the University of Ghana, 2011.
55 Sec 29(1).
56 Sec 38(2).
57 Sec 38.
58 Sec 11.
59 Sec 3(3).
60 Secs 28(8) & 25.
61 Sec 19.
62 Sec 23.
63 Sec 20.
64 Sec 43(7).
65 Sec 40(8).
66 Sec 38(5).



164                                                             (2019) 19 AFRICAN HUMAN RIGHTS LAW JOURNAL

Appeals Board, an independent dispute resolution body set up under
section 44 of the University Statute.

Academics are enjoined to respect students’ academic freedom by
making conscious efforts to refrain from promoting any political,
religious, racial or ethnic ideology in class.67 They are also to refrain
from any type of harassment or discrimination against students,68 and
should ensure that their relationships with students do not develop in
ways that can undermine objectivity in grading, evaluation or
assessment.69

However, there equally are some provisions in the University of
Ghana Act that raise questions as, in principle, they violate academic
freedom or are likely to infringe on academic freedom in practice.
These include a situation where the Dean of Student Affairs is given
the power to grant permission to students before they may join
protest marches and demonstrations, within or outside the University.
This provision clearly contravenes the decision of the Supreme Court
in the NPP v IGP case70 in which it was held that demonstrators do
not need to ask for permission from the police before they can
exercise their right to freedom of assembly. They are only expected to
inform the police. This decision culminated in the enactment of the
Public Order Act 491 of 1994.

As well, section 37(5) of the University of Ghana Act gives the Vice-
Chancellor, in consultation with the Academic Board, the power to
prescribe standards for contesting student offices. Based on this,
students whose average grades fall below a certain mark are barred
from contesting student political offices. This stipulation also violates
the constitutional right of every citizen to contest political office
without discrimination of any kind.71

Apart from the limitations mentioned above, actualising the
positive references in the law seeking to promote and protect
academic freedom for students at the University of Ghana presents
challenges for students. While the abuses suffered directly from the
state in the past have abated in most cases or have become subtler
and more indirect, the university management and academics remain
the dominant violators of the duties they owe to students. 

One of the key issues affecting university/student relations and
academic/student relations is the power dynamic which remains
largely tilted in favour of the University and the academic as against
the student. Therefore, the University and academics are able to apply
fear tactics to intimidate students on campus. While the University
and academics are able to apply swift sanctions against a student, the

67 ‘Code of conduct for academic staff of the University of Ghana’ (2011) 49
University of Ghana Special Reporter 1.6.2.

68 Code of Conduct (n 65) para 10.1.
69 Para 10.2.
70 [1992-93] GLR 586.
71 Art 42 1992 Constitution of the Republic of Ghana.



STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC FREEDOM IN AFRICAN UNIVERSITIES     165

student has limited opportunities, most often involving a complicated
process to launch complaints which may take sometimes or year or
more to resolve. During this period when students are not sure of the
outcome of the complaint, they are left in suspense which is likely to
have a negative impact on their studies.

Students are also afraid of reprisals by academics against them
should they report academics to authorities. This situation is
aggravated by the fact that in most disciplinary processes, the same
academics administer the processes. There are situations where
reports have been leaked to alleged perpetrators who in turn have
reinforced their harassment against the complaining student to abort
the process or be threatened with other negative consequences, such
as failure in a paper. Therefore, students lack trust in such mechanisms
to resolve their complaints against their lecturers and professors. Some
student representative councils are also co-opted or have weak
bargaining powers to advocate students’ rights and to seek
representation for abused students. Thus, at the end of the day,
students accept the status quo ante as the norm.

8 Conclusion

Students are among the primary recipients and users of the
knowledge produced by academics. They are also the conduit
through which knowledge is channelled to society. Therefore, they
cannot be left out of the academic freedom equation.

Because of the inter-related and interdependent nature of the
elements of academic freedom, where a particular beneficiary’s rights
are ignored, the other entities are not able to fully enjoy their rights,
and society, the ultimate beneficiaries of the enjoyment of academic
freedom, turn out to be the biggest losers. 

The article concludes that the suppression of students’ right to
academic freedom has denied many students the right and
opportunity to have a democratic engagement and involvement in
the conduct of university affairs and in the way in which knowledge is
produced and shared. The practice of this non-democratic
engagement between the university and academics, on the one hand,
and students, on the other, is the norm for some students. They
consequently leave the confines of the university after graduation with
a questionable understanding of democracy and human rights which
subsequently informs their behaviour in their communities, work place
as well as in politics. In the end, the lack of democratic engagement
with students occasioned by the denial of their academic freedom
tends to have a negative impact on the democratic programme in
Africa.

Therefore, promoting students’ rights and knowledge-sharing on
African university campuses will imbibe in the students a respect for



166                                                             (2019) 19 AFRICAN HUMAN RIGHTS LAW JOURNAL

democracy, human rights and the rule of law which they will carry
with them from the university into society. 



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