University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON FOOD INSECURITY AND COPING STRATEGIES IN NADOWLI DISTRICT, UPPER WEST REGION, GHANA BY JULIANA TUOR (10442339) THIS THESIS IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF MPHIL GEOGRAPHY DEGREE JUNE, 2016 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DECLARATION I, Juliana Tuor, declare that this thesis is my own work. Apart from the relevant secondary data employed for this study which have been duly acknowledged, to the best of my knowledge, no part of this thesis has been presented by another person to any university for the award of any degree. JULIANA TUOR (STUDENT) SIGNATURE…………………….. DATE…………………………….. SUPERVISORS PROF. JOSEPH AWETORI YARO DR. JOSEPH TEYE (PRINCIPAL SUPERVISOR) (CO-SUPERVISOR) SIGNATURE………………….. SIGNATURE…..…………………………….. DATE…………………………… DATE……………..……………………… i University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DEDICATION This thesis is dedicated to my husband, Mr Naatu Francis, my beloved children; Mwinnonma Ariel Naatu, Sungviele Sterlynne Naatu and my mum Mrs. Mary Tuor. Thank you for your prayers, encouragement, advice and assistance. May God richly bless you. ii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I express my profound gratitude to the Almighty God for His grace and protection which saw me through to a successful completion of this study. I am particularly thankful to my able supervisors, Professor Joseph Awetori Yaro and Dr Joseph Teye for their invaluable contribution, motivation, patience and guidance without which the work would not have been completed. I very much appreciate the efforts of the Upper West Regional Meteorological Officer, Mr Imbeah, who gave their cooperation in bringing this work into fruition. Also, I say thank you to all my respondents and opinion leaders who made time to respond to questions set for the study. I also say thank you to all my family members, friends and loved ones for your prayers and contributions in diverse ways to make my studies a success. I specifically appreciate the support of Abudu Nuhu as well as my data collection assistants Lambert and Fadila in helping me reach the end of the road. May the peace of God that transcends human understanding be with you all. iii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ABSTRACT Food insecurity is a major development problem that is caused by a myriad of factors in the global, regional, national and local spheres of human life. Several efforts have been put in place to alleviate food insecurity globally, nationally and even locally. Despite these efforts, the situation continues to prevail and sometimes even increase in the contemporary human society. The main objective of this study is to examine the patterns of food insecurity and analyse the coping strategies households in Nadowli district use in dealing with it. The research design employed in the study was cross-sectional design which sought to obtain information that was to examine the existing status of household food insecurity and coping strategies among the small scale farmers. A total of 178 small scale farmers’ households were systematically sampled for data collection. Data was collected by use of structured questionnaire, observation and Focus Group Discussion. The findings show that households in Kuuri, Tangasie and Charisombo were food insecure and vulnerable. It was also realised that both climatic and non-climatic factors contributed to food insecurity in the study communities. As a result, households used diverse coping strategies such as reduction in number of meals, selling their livestock, borrowing from friends, youth migrating to the southern part of the country for alternative livelihoods among others as ways of dealing with food insecurity. These findings contribute to knowledge on household characteristics and national policies on climate change smart agricultural practices and food security, also, in defining who food insecure is. The study recommends ensuring effective coping and adaptation strategies to climate variability and change stresses, whilst promoting sustainable land use planning and a maintaining a manageable family size. iv University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh TABLE OF CONTENT DECLARATION ............................................................................................................................. i DEDICATION ................................................................................................................................ ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................................. iii ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................... iv TABLE OF CONTENT .................................................................................................................. v LIST OF TABLES .......................................................................................................................... x LIST OF FIGURES ....................................................................................................................... xi LIST OF PLATE........................................................................................................................... xii CHAPTER ONE ............................................................................................................................. 1 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Background to the Study ....................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Problem Statement ................................................................................................................ 4 1.3 Research Questions ............................................................................................................... 6 1.4 Research Objectives .............................................................................................................. 7 1.5 Research Hypotheses ............................................................................................................ 7 1.6 Rationale And Significance Of The Study............................................................................ 8 1.7 Outline Of The Thesis ........................................................................................................... 9 v University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER TWO .......................................................................................................................... 10 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE .................................................................................... 10 2.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 10 2.2 The Concept Of Food Security ........................................................................................... 10 2.3 The Status of Food Insecurity from Global To Local Perspective ..................................... 13 2.3.1 Global Food Insecurity ................................................................................................ 13 2.3.2 Food insecurity in the African Context ........................................................................ 15 2.4 Livelihoods and Food Security Nexus ................................................................................ 18 2.5 Causes Of Food Insecurity .................................................................................................. 21 2.6 Food Security And Households’ Coping Strategies ........................................................... 24 2.7 Conceptual Framework ....................................................................................................... 26 CHARPTER THREE .................................................................................................................... 31 PROFILE OF NADOWLI DISTRICT AND RESEARCH METHODS ..................................... 31 3.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 31 3.2 Profile of Research Area ..................................................................................................... 31 3.2.1 Location and Size ......................................................................................................... 31 3.2.2 Geology and soil .......................................................................................................... 34 3.2.3 Relief/Vegetation/ and Drainage.................................................................................. 35 3.2.4 Economic Activities of the Study Area ....................................................................... 36 vi University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.2.5 Household Structure..................................................................................................... 37 3.3 Research Design.................................................................................................................. 39 3.4 Study communities.............................................................................................................. 41 3.5 Methods Of Data Collection ............................................................................................... 42 3.5.1 Survey Method ............................................................................................................. 42 3.5.2 Focus Group Discussion and Interviews...................................................................... 43 3.6 Methods Of Data Analysis .................................................................................................. 44 3.6.1 Quantitative Method of Data Analysis ........................................................................ 44 3.6.2 Qualitative Method of Data Analysis .......................................................................... 45 3.7 Ethical Considerations ........................................................................................................ 45 3.8 Limitations Of The Study ................................................................................................... 46 CHAPTER FOUR ......................................................................................................................... 48 THE FINDINGS ........................................................................................................................... 48 4.0 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 48 4.1 Socio-Demographic Background Of Respondents ............................................................. 48 4.2 Household Livelihood Activities And Food Insecurity ...................................................... 50 4.2.1 Main Livelihood Activities .......................................................................................... 50 4.2.3 Household Food Security Classification and Status .................................................... 53 4.2.4 Sources of Food for Households .................................................................................. 55 vii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.3 Causes Of Household Food Insecurity ............................................................................... 58 4.3.1 Environmental and Socio-Economic Reasons for Food Insecurity ............................. 58 4.3.2 Climatic Causes ........................................................................................................... 61 4.4 Coping Strategies And Food Insecurity Nexus ................................................................... 69 4.4.1 Household Coping Strategies ....................................................................................... 69 CHAPTER FIVE .......................................................................................................................... 74 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ....................................................................... 74 5.1 The Livelihoods Profiles And Patterns Of Food Insecurity ................................................ 74 5.1.1 The causes of food insecurity ...................................................................................... 75 5.1.2 The coping strategies for dealing with food insecurity ................................................ 76 5.2 The Livelihoods Profiles And Patterns Of Food Insecurity ................................................ 76 5.2.1 The causes of food insecurity ...................................................................................... 76 5.2.2 The coping strategies for dealing with food insecurity ................................................ 77 5.3 Recommendations From The Study.................................................................................... 78 5.3.1 Maintaining manageable and productive household socio-demographic structures ... 78 5.3.2 Promoting Community-Based Participatory Actions .................................................. 79 5.3.2 Ensure effective coping and adaptation strategies to climate variability and change stresses .................................................................................................................................. 79 5.4 Suggestions For Further Research ...................................................................................... 81 viii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................. 82 APPENDICES .............................................................................................................................. 95 APPENDIX A ............................................................................................................................... 95 APPENDIX B ............................................................................................................................. 105 ix University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF TABLES Table 3.1: Sample Size Determination ......................................................................................... 43 Table 4.1: Demographic Characteristics of Respondents ............................................................. 49 Table 4.2: Food Security Status in Relation to Socio-Demographic Characteristics ................... 50 Table 4.3: Main Livelihood Source of Income ............................................................................. 52 Table 4.4: Food security Status and Categories ............................................................................ 54 Table 4.5: Household Food Security/Insecurity Classification and Status ................................... 54 Table 4.6: Status of Food Insecurity and Sources of Food crop ................................................... 56 Table 4.7: Chi-square Test for Status of Food Insecurity and Sources of Food Crop .................. 57 Table 4.8: Causes of Bad Yields in the Nadowli District ............................................................. 61 Table 4.9: Perception of Households about Food Security by Ranking ....................................... 65 Table 4.10: Chi-Square Tests for Change in Rainfall/Temperature and Perception of Food Security ....................................................................................................................... 65 Table 4.11: Regression Analysis of Climatic and Non-climatic Factors Influencing Food Insecurity..................................................................................................................... 67 Table 4.12: Relative Frequency of Coping Strategies .................................................................. 71 Table 4.13: Correlation Coefficients for Household Food Insecurity and Coping Strategies ..... 72 x University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF FIGURES Fig. 2.1: A Conceptual Model Illustrating Household Food Consumption Approach Adapted from WFP (2006) ..................................................................................................... 27 Fig. 2.2: A Conceptual Framework Illustrating Household Coping Strategies and Food Insecurity.................................................................................................................. 29 Fig 3.1: Map of Study Area in National and District Context ...................................................... 33 Fig 4.1: Local Perception of Rainfall Pattern and Temperature Changes .................................... 63 Fig 4.2: Mean Monthly Rainfall and Temperature for Regional Weather Station ...................... 64 xi University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF PLATE Plate 4.1: Effects of Drought due to Changing Rainfall and Temperature on Food Crops at Tangasie ...................................................................................................................... 64 xii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background to the Study Food insecurity has been understood by many development thinkers as the unavailability of food in the world marketplace and on the food production systems of developing countries; to live in dignity has become a major challenge in many rural communities. Every year millions of people die in deprived communities because they are too poor and suffer from food insecurity (Adjei et al 2012; Sachs, 2005). This situation is particularly so in Africa and South-East Asia where overwhelming number of the absolutely poor people reside (Africa Progress Panel, 2012: 37; CARE, 2011: 1). In many cases, food insecurity, hunger and disease occurrence, inter alia are major manifestations of poverty in many sub-Sahara African countries (Adjei, 2008). The incidences of food insecurity and poverty are particularly devastating in developing countries and a lot of resources are being channelled towards programs aimed at eradicating food insecurity by various international organizations and government of the developing nations. Adequate nutrition is the first requirement for development (Frederick, 2014). Without proper nutrition, children are stunted mentally, physically, and socially; and adults are faced with lives that fall short of their potential to the detriment of society as a whole. In terms of food insecurity, 852 million people worldwide are still chronically undernourished. Food insecurity is a global phenomenon but with marked regional variations. It has been estimated that in 2011 – 2013, a total of 842 million people (12% prevalence of undernourishment) or around one in eight people in the world have been suffering from chronic hunger, regularly not getting enough food to conduct an active life. The share of developed regions was put together at 15 million people (less 1 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh than 5% prevalence). A greater proportion of hungry people- 827 million of them – live in developing countries with a prevalence of undernourishment estimated at 14.3 percent (FAO, In sub-Saharan Africa, 222.7 million people (28.4% prevalence) are reported to be undernourished/facing food crises (FAO, IFAD & WFP. 2013: 8). Paradoxically, it has been reported that most of the food insecure in sub-Saharan Africa are rural food producers but net purchasers of food rather than sellers (FAO, 2012: 81; Kuwornu et al. (2013: 26) Consequently, diverse conceptualization of theories and concepts has played and continued to be pivotal in the debate of food insecurity and coping strategies across the globe. The World Food Summit of 1996 described food insecure households as those whose members do not have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life (Aiga & Dhur, 2006). Despite the right of every man, woman and child to be free from effects of food insecurity (including household food insecurity) being declared during the World Food Conference of 1974 (Kabui, 2012), these effects linger in the global society. Household food insecurity is one of the major catastrophes in Sub-Saharan Africa. According to WFP (2009), farm family households in semi-arid areas practice livestock production to mitigate crop losses. However, low numbers of livestock and their poor body conditions (as a result of extended trekking in search of water and pasture) has caused a 50% decline in their value. Furthermore, these households are also depending on undesirable mitigation strategies against their household food insecurity, such as charcoal production, which further degrade the environment and endanger future food production. It is significant to emphasize that, food is the most basic of human needs for survival, health and productivity. It is thus the foundation for human and economic development. Food security, 2 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh defined as individuals and households having an all-time access to sufficient, safe, nutritious food to maintain a healthy and active life is an important component of human welfare and development which must be safeguarded and sustained by the world, nations, districts, villages, households and individuals. Survival requires some form of access to food without which the most immediate effect will be hunger and the lives of many would be in jeopardy. Throughout history, great strides have been made with regards to food security which gained prominence in the 1970s, and have since been given considerable attention with differential rates of success over the world (Yaro, 2004). Apparently, empirical evidence in the case of Ghana draws similarity in the global and sub-Sahara Africa situation. According to the statistics of World Food Programme (2009), about 1.2 million people, representing 5% of the population of Ghana are food insecure and 2 million people are vulnerable to become food insecure in an event of any natural or man-made shock. The changing climatic pattern and over reliance on rain-fed agriculture pose a serious food security challenge to Ghana. The United Nation estimate has projected that over the next 20 years demand for food will exceed 50%. Ironically, Boko et al., (2007) revealed that yields from Africa’s rain-fed farm production may decrease by 50% as a result of changes in climatic conditions by 2020. In the midst of this challenging statistics, the population of Ghana is growing at a rate of 2.5 percent (3.5% in Central Region) yet agricultural growth is fluctuating. Agricultural sector of the economy recorded a decline in growth rate from 5.3 in 2010 to 0.8 in 2011 (GSS, 2012). Thus, the study area Nadowli district depicts a typical rural economy dominated by the agricultural sector with three-quarters of households in the Upper West Region who still rely on their own produced grains for food, complemented by occasional purchase of some food items (WFP, 2012). The unpredictable nature of food insecurity is creating a landscape where 3 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh households develop more pro-active livelihood strategies from immediate coping strategies and the potentials for dry land resources to sustain livelihoods. The role of local knowledge as a factor for adapting to dry land conditions by exploiting seasonality and local diversity has contributed towards the pursuance of coping strategies (Quaye, 2008). Due to varying degrees of wealth among households, different coping behaviours are adopted by households at different poverty levels. 1.2 Problem Statement In Ghana, agriculture remains a very important economic activity due to its association with food security, employment generation and poverty reduction (Baiphethi and Jacobs, 2009). Agriculture is described as the primary pillar of development - a major contributor to the economy, providing 45 per cent of all export earnings, 12 per cent of tax revenue, the main employer of the Ghanaian population, supporting at least 80 per cent of the total population economically through farming, distribution of farm produce and provision of other services to the agricultural sector (Duncan, 2004). However, in recent times, the contribution of the agricultural sector to national growth and food security has been dwindling. For example, the sector contributed 36.6 per cent of the GDP in 2004, 36 per cent in 2005, 35.8 per cent in 2006, 31 per cent in 2009 and 30.2 per cent in 2010 (Kuwornu et al 2011). Ironically, despite the potential of agriculture in supporting sustainable growth and development, the incidence and severity of food insecurity amongst rural inhabitants engaged in farming activities are much higher than its occurrence among other socio-economic groups. About 70% of those living on less than US$1 a day are located in rural areas confirming food insecurity and 4 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh poverty as a rural phenomenon. This paradox has often been attributed to traditional agricultural practices and climate change impacts on food security. With these agricultural vulnerabilities, most people in rural areas have resorted to coping strategies against food insecurity. These coping strategies serve as alternative livelihood sources during the off farm and long dry seasons (Kayanula and Quartey, 2000). Out of the about 1.2 million people (i.e 5% of Ghana’s population) who are food insecure, thirty four percent (34%) of the population are in Upper West region, followed by Upper East with 15% and Northern region with 10%, amounting to approximately 453,000 people (WFP, 2009). Household food insecurity is an issue in Nadowli because there are perceptions that there is unpredictable (unclear onset) rains and increase in temperature. Also, declining soil fertility in the area is alarming due significantly to change in weather conditions such as frequent drought and floods, increase in pest and disease incidence linked to warming, poor food storage facilities, poor harvest, increase in household size inter alia. The inhabitants in Nadowli district have continued to experience frequent household food insecurity, in spite of national food policy formulation in alleviating household food insecurity especially among small scale farmers through local agricultural food production (Nadowli District Profile, 2010). Small scale farmers are important players in alleviating household food insecurity by increasing household food access, availability and utilization through their subsistent own crop production. However, own crop production has not played a key role as the main source of household food in Nadowli (Nadowli District Profile, 2010). Food insecurity has the tendency to change the livelihood activities of most households. The people engage in different activities all year round. 5 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh However, all the activities can be classified as food-related, social or economic as it intensifies the notion that farming is the main livelihood activity. While food insecurity has become an issue of increasing concern in the study areas noted above, few studies have closely assessed the current trends and underlying determinants of this situation which indicates research gaps that need to be addressed, (Yaro 2004; DAEA Household Survey, 2008 as cited in UNDP, 2010: 30). For instance, previous studies by Siri et al. (2005) on coping strategies of small-scale farmers have argued that these strategies vary between households and also over time according to choices, objectives, opportunities and constraints. Consequently, much still remains to be understood concerning the linkages between emerging threats to rural households’ livelihood activities and food security, status of household food insecurity and coping strategies among small scale farming households in the Nadowli District and their ability to effectively cope. Due to the aforementioned assumptions, the study on food insecurity and coping strategies among household farmers in Nadowli District of Upper West Region was deemed necessary for verification on the field. 1.3 Research Questions The study was guided by the following research questions: 1. What is the state of food insecurity vis-à-vis livelihood activities and poverty situation of households in the Nadowli District? 2. What are the causes of food insecurity and experiences in the study area? 3. What coping strategies do households adopt in dealing with food insecurity? 6 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.4 Research Objectives The main objective of this study is to examine the causes of food insecurity and analyse the coping strategies that households in the Nadowli district adopt in dealing with the situation. Specifically, the study seeks to: 1. Provide an understanding of the state of food insecurity and livelihood activities in the Nadowli district. 2. Ascertain the causes of food insecurity based on perception of households in Nadowli district. 3. Examine coping strategies adopted by households in order to survive. 1.5 Research Hypotheses The following hypotheses were stated in the null form for the study: 1. The ability of households to have an all year round food to meet their nutritional requirements has no significant relationship with their livelihood activity at 0.05 level of significance. 2. Different factors have been attributed to the cause of food insecurity among households including climatic and non-climatic, whilst it is assumed that climatic conditions have no major significant relationship with household food insecurity at 0.05 level. 3. Coping strategies at different households’ level cannot be attributed to food insecurity at 0.05 level of significance. 7 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.6 Rationale and Significance of the Study The research justification was underpinned by the theoretical and practical significance of food insecurity and coping strategies. The research sought to bring into perspective an examination of the various concepts and theories, other related literature pertaining to food insecurity and coping strategies pursued by farming households as part of efforts by the global and national front to achieve the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs); at least for implementation. The basic justification for the research was that, not much work has been done on drawing the linkage between food insecurity and the complex mitigation strategies pursued by households in the study area. The study establishes the status of household food insecurity and coping strategies among small scale farming households in Nadowli District of Upper West Region. The findings of the study will be shared and discussed in Nadowli District food security stakeholder meetings. This will help build capacity among the small scale farmers concerning household food insecurity and coping strategy issues. The findings will also be shared with the Ministry of Food and Agriculture to provide relevant input in policy making in the area of household food insecurity and small scale farming practices. The findings will provide relevant data to local NGOs in planning food aid support programmes. The findings will also contribute to the body of knowledge in the academia and may provide insights on food security gaps for further academic research. 8 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.7 Outline of the Thesis The study has been organized into six chapters. Chapter one of this study comprises: the background of the research, the problem statement, research questions, objectives of the research, rationale/significance of the study, and organization of the study. Chapter two contains theoretical reviews and conceptual issues including the concept of food insecurity and coping strategies. Chapter three sets out the study area, methodology and provide the activities and phases that were necessary for completion of the study, whiles Chapter four looks at the key findings in relation to the objectives. Finally, chapter five presents summary, conclusion and recommendations. 9 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER TWO REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 2.1 Introduction This chapter examines both theoretical and empirical literature related to the study. The chapter reviews relevant contributions by other authors on food insecurity and coping strategies debate. It is very important to get a clear picture of the theoretical and conceptual basis of the literature in order to understand its relevance to households of farming communities in Ghana. The review helps this study both to build on the strengths of existing studies, and to evaluate weaknesses against the research questions. It investigates food security concept, status of food insecurity from global to local perspective, livelihood activities and food security nexus, causes of food insecurity, coping strategies and food security debate are reviewed in this chapter. 2.2 The Concept of Food Security According to Sarracino (2010: 3), it has been emphasized that the concept of food insecurity appears to be complicated and complex to be meaningfully and effectively explained by a single factor or a single academic discipline. As a result, broad and various theoretical perspectives have been propounded and refined overtime in the attempt to bring us closer to understand the basics and direction of food insecurity. Thus it is worthy of note that theorizing and conceptualizing food security and famine have evolved and proceeded along a historical linear trajectory; reflecting major time epochs and socio-economic conditions. Again, Omosa (1998) argued in his works that, food is one of the most debated of basic needs, yet perhaps the least resolved of them all. The term “food security” originated in international 10 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh development literature in the 1960s and 1970s and its definition has undergone significant transformations since then. Over time a large number of different definitions have been proposed (Hoddinott 1999). The concept has evolved and expanded over time to integrate a wide range of food-related issues and to more completely reflect the complexity of the role of food in human society. Early definitions were almost exclusively concerned with national food availability or the ability of a nation or region to assure a year round adequate food supply to meet requirements, and food security was conceived as the adequacy of these stocks. Such a conceptualization of food security overlooks household level food access. However, in the early 1980s there was a shift in thinking about food security, influenced by the concept of “food entitlement” or regarding food as a basic right. Accordingly, analyses started to include the concept of stability or secured food access as a fundamental component. This evolution of thinking reflects the attitude that society's goals should reach beyond the ability of a country to produce and import enough food. Consequently, the issues of households are becoming more and more the center of the food security concept. The term “food security” gained prominence after the World Food Conference in 1974. Food security is defined as “access by all people at all times to enough food for an active and healthy life” (World Bank, 1986). This definition provided a standard for further definitions and addresses the issues of availability, accessibility, as well as utilization of food for healthy living. The World Bank (1986) definition was subsequently augmented by FAO to include the nutritional value and food preferences. FAO (1996) defined food security as a situation when all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for a healthy and active life. It can also mean a situation that exists when all people, at all times, have physical, social and economic access to 11 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh sufficient, safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life. Based on this definition, four food security dimensions can be identified: food availability, economic and physical access to food, food utilization and stability over time. The dimensions of food security on the other hand make it clear that the concept of food problem is a complex one with many implications. Maxwell and Frankenberger (1992) distilled a range of definitions of food security into the phrase “secure access at all times to enough food”. The conceptualization of food security goals by Koc et al., (1999) goes beyond the adequacy of food quantity and quality and extends into the “four A’s”: availability, accessibility, acceptability, and adequacy. Availability connotes the physical presence (supply) of food in large amounts, accessibility addresses the demand for the food and suggests sufficient purchasing power or ability to acquire quality food at all times. Acceptability addresses food's cultural and symbolic value, stipulating that the food available and accessible should be affordable and sociocultural acceptable with respect to individuals’ cultural traditions. Adequacy is usually defined in terms of the long-term sustainability of food systems (quality, in the broadest sense). Weaver and Hadley (2009) further argued that food insecurity is a broader concept that encompasses not only lack of food, but also situations in which individuals feel that their future food supply may be threatened and, in the face of this recognition, alter their dietary intake or their behaviours. In this way a person can be consuming sufficient food calories but still be experiencing anxiety and depression over future food. Depending on the time dimension, food insecurity can be either “chronic” or “transitory.” With chronic food insecurity, there is a continuous food shortage caused by the household’s inability to acquire food. It therefore afflicts households that persistently lack the ability to either buy food 12 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh or produce their own. On the other hand, transitory food insecurity refers to a temporary decline in household access to food, caused by instability in food production, drought, short-term variability in food prices, or/and income shortfalls. The level of analysis is also particularly important in understanding the use of the term food security. As noted earlier, many definitions of food security may be found in the literature. In this thesis, household level food security refers to the ability of a household to secure year round access to an adequate supply of nutritious and safe food to meet the dietary needs of all members of the household either through own production or through purchases (Callens and Seifert 2003, Ewumbu 2011). In the Nadowli context, the essential aspect of food security is access to food. 2.3 The Status of Food Insecurity from Global To Local Perspective 2.3.1 Global Food Insecurity About 850 million people in the world are undernourished - since the 1990-92 base periods for the World Food Summit efforts geared towards reducing hunger; of particular concern are hunger hotspots, marked by the widespread persistence and prevalence of food insecurity, especially in protracted crises. As of May 2006, 39 countries in the world were experiencing serious food emergencies and required external assistance for dealing with critical food insecurity (Food Security Policy Brief, 2006). In another perspective issues of food insecurity have become topical around the globe, albeit growing attention in the world media and expanding aid efforts by many organisations, the world household food insecurity continues to worsen as many communities struggle with daily hunger and starvation (Project Concern International, 2009). One factor according to the World Bank 13 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (2008) view is the rise in prices of the world staple foods (wheat, rice and corn). It is established that inflation of wheat is 120% and rice is 75% (ibid). Another factor is poverty. An estimated 100 million people have fallen into poverty in the last two years for instance in 2007, Afghanistan households were spending 75% of their income on food (World Bank, 2008). Again, Kabui (2012) asserted by citing some cases in developing countries that, dependence on food imports also influences the global food insecurity. A case in point is Haiti where over 80% of staple rice is imported. The result of it is that over half of the country’s population is under- nourished and 24% of children suffer chronic malnutrition (Kabui, 2012). Fresh food exports, for instance the export of horticulture produce from Ghana to Europe for monetary gains has resulted in the country importing a significant proportion of its staple food such as rice, ultimately leaving the country exposed to the spiralling world food prices. Moreover, the climate change due to global warming has influenced world household food insecurity. El-ninos and La- ninas hamper good crop production in Latin America and the Sub-Saharan Africa. Droughts caused by La-ninas have caused household food insecurity especially in Ethiopia where 7 million people are classified as food insecure and a further 10 million classified as prone to drought, (ibid). Other factors that contribute to household food insecurity in the world include: Shift to more non-agricultural technology, politics, environmental degradation, insecurity and high population growth (Kabui, 2012). Furthermore, the Food and Agricultural Organization in their 2008 report were of the perspective that the implications of food insecurity cannot be underestimated, in that several consequences of global household food insecurity have manifested themselves. Demand for food aid is a serious consequence of the food insecurity. Each year, 10% of Burundi’s population requires food aid, 14 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (FAO, 2008). Another consequence is poor health status exemplified in Benin, whereby almost a quarter of children below 5 years are underweight, (ibid). There are also increased malnutrition rates globally whereby in 2004, the global malnutrition was 15%, (WHO, 2004). 2.3.2 Food insecurity in the African Context At continent level, food and nutrition security remain Africa’s most fundamental challenges. According to the FAO (2010), the number of Africans who are undernourished has been on the rise for decades and stood at about 279 million people lacking economic and physical access to the food required to lead a healthy and productive life in 2010. In many countries in the Sub- Saharan region, the number of people living below the poverty line is actually rising, and this trend is directly affecting the ability of the population to obtain sufficient food to live a healthy life. Like most of the developed countries, various countries in Africa have experienced the devastating effects of household food insecurity; for instance, Cameroon in West Africa, Egypt in Northern Africa, Ethiopia in the Eastern Africa and South Africa in the extreme Southern Africa. The World Food Programme (WFP) describes Cameroon as a food insecure country, and has further demonstrated that food intake in households is lower now than in the early 1980s. The result of this is that 19% of young children in the country are underweight and child mortality rate is rising rather than falling (Oneworld.net (US) 2009). Egypt produces half of its demand for wheat. In spite of the average food production, the country is exposed to the escalating food prices due to its wheat imports. It is classified as the number one importer of the produce in the world. The country also has a high population growth rate of 15 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2% per annum. Moreover, the desert terrain of the Sahara limits crop production. A report by the World Bank indicates that the baladi bread subsidy costs Egyptian government almost $ 3.5 million per annum (Oneworld.net (US), 2009). Ethiopia experiences serious household food insecurity. Over 7 million people out of Ethiopia’s population of 76.9 million people are classified as food insecure; and a further 10 million people are identified as prone to drought. High population growth rate in the country increases the food insecurity further (Chu, 2009). Although South Africa produces bumper harvests especially in the 2007/08 season, it has been affected by high food prices in the declining world economy (Oneworld.net (US), 2009). In spite of the gloomy picture about food insecurity on the African continent, Ghana was one of four countries (Malawi, Angola and Rwanda) that were claimed to have met the MDG target in 2013, and subsequently the WFS target (FAO et al.,2015). The Global Hunger Index (GHI), which statistically computes multiple dimensions of hunger in countries annually, declared that Ghana had reduced hunger by 67.84% between 1990 and 2013 (FAO et al., 2014; UNECA, AU, AfDB, 2014). The reason for Ghana’s phenomenal performance could be traced to concerted implementation of food production strategies such as the Food and Agriculture Sector Development Program (FASDEP). In addition, the country escaped the food riots partly due to sustained democracy and was implemented sustained food production and livelihood interventions. Further, modest economic growth experienced within the period translated into high purchasing power, which ultimately led to decline in the Population of undernourishment (FAO et al., 2015). 16 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Significantly, national, regional and GHI averages have often masked unfavourable local statistics. For instance, a study on comprehensive food security and vulnerability analysis conducted by World Food Programme (WFP), the Government of Ghana (GoG) and partners in Northern Ghana showed significantly different statistics from the national average. While the national GHI was 8.9% in 2012 (FAO,2012), the study found that 28%, 10% and 16% of households in Upper East, Northern and Upper West Regions (UWR), respectively were either severely or moderately food insecure (WFP & MoFA, 2012). Other studies such as Hesselberg & Yaro (2006), Kuuire, et al. (2013) and Nyantakyi-Frimpong & Bezner-Kerr (2014) have all identified the devastating food insecurity situation in the northern part of Ghana that suggest that national statistics may not be presenting the reality on the ground. Food security in the region follows a long-standing development divide between the northern and the southern parts of Ghana as a result of government neglect (Songsore, 2011). The northern regions of Ghana, especially the Upper East regions and UWRs, for the past 30 years have experienced high climate variability resulting in floods, droughts, bushfires, high winds and rain storms. Specific examples include the floods of 2007 and 2008, and long droughts in the late 1970s and early 1980s known as the Great Sahelian Droughts (Mahama & Rademacher-Schulz, 2012).. Hence, the scales and units of food security analyses are related to the pillars of food insecurity. While global regional and national level conceptualization and examination and examination of food security center on food availability and utilization, units of analyses below the national level typically examine food accessibility in addition to food availability and utilization. The capacity of global, national, community, households and individuals to sustain food security 17 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh status at all times is a key factor in the analysis of food security (Sonnino, 2014; Maxwell & Smith, 1992).It is these disparities that have motivated this research to examine the implication of food insecurity and coping strategies in the Nadowli District. 2.4 Livelihoods and Food Security Nexus A secure livelihood is the main goal of peasants using farm and non-farm activities, which together provide a variety of procurement strategies for food and cash. A livelihood comprises the capabilities, assets and activities required for means of living. A livelihood is sustainable when it can cope with and recover from stresses and shocks and maintain or enhance its capability and assets, while not undermining the natural resource base (Chambers & Conway, 1992). Secure livelihoods are prerequisites for ensuring food security. There is a broadening of the scope of the term food security beyond the conventional world and regional food supply adequacy thesis to the individual and household levels with focus on access (Sen, 1981) Maxwell (2001) explained livelihood in a context in which people acquire food, income and other tangible and intangible assets necessary to ensure their material and spiritual wellbeing is generally referred to under the broad term of ‘livelihood construction’. Ensuring food security was long thought to be the main objective of such livelihood construction. However, according to Maxwell, since the 1950s, the food security literature has evolved significantly. The level of analysis has shifted from production to consumption; the scope has widened from the narrow ‘food first’ stance to broader non-food ‘livelihood’ objectives; and subjective perceptions have been increasingly recognised alongside objective measures of food security (Maxwell 2001). These paradigm shifts have mirrored trends in agricultural policy (Delgado 1995). 18 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Differently, assuring food provision was long thought to be a household’s first priority. The psychologist Abraham Maslow suggested that basic needs such as food and security must be met before an individual focuses his motivation on ‘higher’ needs (Maslow 1946). This gave rise to the Basic Human Needs (BHN) paradigm of the 1970s, arguing for a more direct approach to meeting nutrition, health, and education requirements, as opposed to the ‘trickle-down’ approach of earlier agricultural policies (Delgado 1995). The BHN paradigm gave smallholder farmers priority, as reflected through the emphasis of African national policies on food production for increased self-sufficiency (Eicher and Baker 1992). However since the 1970s there has been an increasing shift from production-to consumption- focused policy, with an according change in the level of analysis from the global- to national-, household and finally to the individual level (Maxwell 2001). It was based on the realisation that food provision needn’t necessarily be assured by home-grown food production, but can also be met by acquiring food in exchange for labour, through purchase, or through social networks. Rural surveys conclusively demonstrated that few households relied fully on subsistence farming, with many in fact being net buyers of food (Barrett et al.2001). Amartya Sen’s seminal work on the underlying causes of the 1943 Bengali famine identified three ways people obtain food, involving the ‘mapping’ or converting of the household’s assets into food through own production; through exchange of goods for food via the market; or through food transfers from relatives or via food aid (Sen 1981). An entitlement failure can therefore result through four mechanisms (Osmani 1999): endowment loss (loss of assets); food production failure; trade- based exchange failure (the ratio of food prices to commodity prices or to labour wages is too high to obtain sufficient food) or employment-based exchange failure (too little wage received in exchange for labour); or through transfer failure (food no longer received from relatives or as 19 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh food aid). By including production as well as demand, the entitlement approach examines the food available to a household at the equilibrium of supply and demand (Osmani 1999). Conceptualising food access via entitlements sparked a large volume of research on the importance of farm- and non-farm income (exchange failure) and remittances (transfer failure). Entitlement theory has had important consequences for agricultural policy, highlighting that national food production levels matching the basic calorific needs of the population are not sufficient to ensure food security if there is unequal food distribution within a country. This situation occurred during the Ethiopian Wollo famine, where food production actually increased at a national scale in the year of the famine (Sen 1999a). Importantly, Sen moved away from comparing supply and demand at a national level, to undertaking a disaggregated analysis, by examining the entitlement sets of different socioeconomic classes (Osmani 1999). By doing this, he drew attention to who did and did not have access to food, even if all faced the same availability of food at a national level. The policy shift to food access is often accredited to Amartya Sen, although the idea was also found in nutrition planning at the time (Berg 1973, Joy 1973, Levinson 1974). Suffice to say, in the 1980s and 1990s, food security analysis underwent a further shift from the narrower ‘food first’ stance to a broader ‘livelihoods’ focus. Entitlement theory originally had not recognised the fact that people often choose to go hungry to avoid asset liquidation (Devereux, 2001), a finding first demonstrated during the Darfur famine of 1984-85 (De Waal, 1989). These results were later widely confirmed by the sequence in which coping strategies were adopted, demonstrating priorities other than food provision, such as the maintenance of livelihoods (Davies 1993, Frankenberger and Goldstein 1990). The shift to a broader 20 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ‘livelihoods’ focus mirrored an earlier change from objective to subjective indicators in the poverty literature: the feeling of deprivation was found to be just as important as objective. 2.5 Causes of Food Insecurity Factors that cause food insecurity: The factors that cause food insecurity are wide and vary from place to place but in this literature the following major causes will be discussed population growth (household family size), natural disaster (rainfall variability) and socio-economic factors. The debate on the causes of food insecurity has waged on for long because of dynamism of these factors from one geographical setting to the other. This has brought about divergent views; it is on this premise that, Marquette (1997) espoused the population growth concept that there are two competing theories regarding the relationship between population growth and food insecurity. According to Malthusian theory the growth of human populations always tends to outstrip the productive capabilities of land resources. Population increases in a geometric progression while food production increases in arithmetic progression. Therefore, unless population increase is checked, it tends to outstrip food production and famine or starvation will occur at the household level. Thus Malthus developed the theory of rapid population as a cause of food shortage or famine. Malthus‟ theory, however, is critics of this theory disagreed on the basis that it failed to consider the technological improvements in agriculture which would enhance productivity (Marquette, 1997). Different argument is also forwarded by claiming that population growth will create a condition for expanding labour force in agriculture and food production. According to this thinking, population growth is a stimulant to productivity. Society is better off with a large population than 21 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh with a small as a result of their being more knowledge creators in a large population. Ester Boserup argues that population growth can create a kind of crisis situation that stimulates the invention of new technology. Shrinking supplies of land and other natural resources would provide motivation to invent better means of utilizing scarce resources or to discover substitute for them. This assumption bases its argument on the principle of “necessity is the mother of invention” (Brehanu, 2001). In general, population pressure has become a factor in accelerating food insecurity in situations where: all accessible land is fully under cultivation; failures to improve upon the old methods of cultivation; and opportunity for alternatives employment are absent (Brehanu, 2001) Additionally, besides age as a demographic factor that determines household food security; where households with youthful head are likely to be more food secure than households with aged and women are prone to food insecurity. The age of a household head is expected to have a bearing on the food security status of that household by way of his/her labour efforts in productivity (Babatunde et al. as cited in Kuwornu et al., 2013: 34). As it is noted, younger and energetic household heads have the ability and would usually put more farmland (that is if this is available) under cultivation as well as seek and obtain non-farm or off-farm jobs than older and weaker ones. However, it is found by Arena and Anyaei (as cited in Kuwornu et al., 2013: 34) that older heads of households are more secure than the younger ones. Viewed differently in a sense, the increasingly young population in developing countries will influence agriculture (in terms of they being attracted to agricultural activity or not) (Collodi, & M‟Cormack, 2009: 1). In other jurisdiction, the level of education is another important socio-demographic factor that could have a bearing on household food security (or insecurity) status. Educated households 22 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh have been shown as noted by Shaikh (as cited in Kuwornu, et al., 2013: 35) generally to be better positioned to manage farm related issues such as the processing and application of information passed on to them than the less educated ones. Also, extensive studies have been done on the impact of household size on food security. Generally, the trend shows that larger household sizes are more likely to be food insecure than smaller ones. According to Sindhu et al. (as cited in Bashir, Schilizzi &Pandit 2012: 5), in India an increase in one household member increases that family’s chances of insecurity by 49%. In a similar vein, Bashir, et al. (2012: 4) found out among small farmers in Pakistan that an increase by one member in a family size decreases the chances of food security by 26%. The impact of population growth is manifested on farm size; and it leads to high land fragmentation thereby small landholdings and finally reduces productivity. On the other hand some authors try to argue that small land holding do not have impact on country economy for example china people land holding and even lower than Ghana but their economy growing rapidly. The above discussion on the influence of population dynamics focuses on increasing household sizes and income status on food security. However, as noted by Sen’s entitlement approach, other sources such as working for food and food assistance may also determine a household food security status. Again other authors strongly argued along the line of natural disasters such as drought, climate change and flooding are said to reduce food and livestock production for a particular period. In the case of Nadowli District, there is no doubt that rainfall variability has created severe food shortages. For instance according to the World Bank (2006), the whole Ethiopian economy is dependent on rainfall and data on rainfall variation and GDP growth from 1982 to 2000 illustrate 23 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh that there is a positive correlation between the two. Thus, natural disasters have obvious negative impacts on food production and even on the economic performance of the country and thereby bringing food insecurity (Vadala, 2009). 2.6 Food Security and Households’ Coping Strategies Throughout history one of the most widespread phenomena in all civilizations was the constant fear of the lack of food. This was true for both relatively advanced civilizations and for more primitive, less developed areas of the globe. This notwithstanding, achieving food security is a significant and growing challenge in the developing world and highly critical to alleviating poverty. People’s health and education and their ability to work, assert their rights and achieve equality are compromised by not having food security. The past half-century has seen marked growth in food production, allowing for a dramatic decrease in the proportion of the world’s people that are hungry, despite a doubling of the total population (World Bank, World Development Report 2008, and FAOSTAT 2009). Nevertheless, more than one in seven people today still do not have access to sufficient protein and energy from their diet, and even more suffer from some form of micronutrient malnourishment (FAO, Rome, 2009). Consequently various concepts and debates of coping strategies have evolved. Maxwell et al. (2008) defined coping strategies as how households adapt to the presence or threat of food shortages, and the person within the household who has primary responsibility for preparing and serving meals is asked a series of questions regarding how households are responding to food shortages. The impact of household food insecurity can be minimized post its occurrence through coping strategies. Coping strategies are 'ex post' measures in that they seek to reduce the impact 24 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh of a negative event once it has happened (Rose, 2008). Households adopt and develop diversified coping strategies and sequential responses through which people used at times of decline in food availability. Degnew (1993) defined coping strategies as “mechanisms by which households or community members meet their relief and recovery needs, and adjust to future disaster-related risks by themselves without outside support”. Households use different means to cope when a food crisis hits them. Their coping mechanisms are adapted depending on how bad the crisis are and what is available to help them manage their situation. Some sell their assets, look for part time work, turn to their social network, venture into income generating activities, engage in food for work activities and others get food relief from NGOs and the government (Chlembo,2004; cited in Bedeke, 2012). Among coping strategies are relying on less preferred/inexpensive food; borrowing food, or relying on help from friends or relatives; gathering wild food, sale of livestock or assets, hunting or harvesting immature crops; consuming seed stock held for the next season; sending household members to eat elsewhere; limiting portion size at meal times; restricting adult consumption in favour of small children; reducing the number of meals eaten in a day; skipping entire days without eating and begging from neighbours or friends (Mjonono, Ngidi & Hendriks, 2009). In contrast according to Maxwell et al. (2008), an increased reliance on coping strategies is associated with lower food availability and the higher the weighted sums of coping strategies, the more a household is food insecure. One way of calculating a weighted sum of different coping strategies, (where the weights reflect the frequency of use by the household) is to make the weights consecutive, so that "often" is counted as a 4, "sometimes" is counted as a 3, "rarely" is counted as a 2, and "never" is counted as a 1. The higher the sum, the more food insecure the 25 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh household is. Calculating a weighted sum of these different coping strategies, where the weights reflect the frequency of use and the severity of the household's response is to ascribe a weight of 1 to the use of strategies such as eating less preferred foods, reducing portion sizes served to household members, reducing the quantity of food served to adults and reducing the quantity of food served to children, a weight of 2 is ascribed to skipping meals and a weight of 3 to skipping eating all day (ibid). Different ascribing of scores is used because coping strategies vary in severity, and therefore, a household where no one eats for an entire day is clearly more food insecure than one where people have simply switched from consuming rice to cassava, (Maxwell, et al., 2008). 2.7 Conceptual Framework 2.7.1 Conceptual Framework for Household Food Consumption Approach Household Food Consumption Approach model that uses dietary diversity, food frequency and food sources as household proxy indicators of household food insecurity (household food availability, access and utilization) to estimate the severity or status of household food security (See Figure 2.1). 26 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh FFoooodd Coonnssuumppttitioionn Grrroouuppss Hoouussseehhoolldld Diieiettatarryry Diiviveerrsrssiitityty ceptable Hoouussseehhoolldld Diieiettatarryry Diiviveerrsrssiitityty F Faarrm ssiizzee •• FFaarrmllaanndd SSiizzee •• Tyyppeess ooff Crrooppss Cuullttiivvaatteedd •• Amoouunntt ooff FFoooodd Exxppeecctteedd SSttaattuuss ooff Hoouusseehhoolldd Foooodd IInnsseeccuurriittyy •• Amoouunntt ooff FFoooodd Haarrvveesstteedd • • Moonntthhss ooff Hoouusseehhoolldd FFoooodd PPrroovviissiioonniinngg •• Crroopp Loossss Miittiiggaattiioonn Inseccuurriittyy Meecchhaanniissmss •• Drroouugghhttss aanndd FFllooooddss •• FFooooddss Coonnssuumeedd iinn 2244 Hoouurr Reeccaalll •• Nuumbbeerr ooff Meeaallss iinn 2244 Hoouurr Reeccaalll •• FFrreeqquueennccyy ooff FFoooodd Coonnssuumppttiioonn iinn tthhee pprreevviioouuss 77 Daayyss •• SSoouurrcceess ooff FFooooddss Foooodd SSeeccuurriittyy Grroouuppss Household Food Sources Fig. 2.1: A Conceptual Model Illustrating Household Food Consumption Approach Adapted from WFP (2006) 27 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.7.2 Conceptual Framework for Household Coping Strategies and Food Insecurity The conceptual framework (see Figure: 2.2) used in this research is based on the World Food Program’s (2006) ‘Household Food Consumption Approach model’ that uses food sustainability throughout the year, amount of harvest, dietary diversity, food frequency and food sources as proxy indicators of household food insecurity (household food availability, access and utilization) to estimate the severity or status of household food insecurity. These indicators interacts with other variables: food sufficiency in terms of the amount of grains produced and store per year, having a large livestock herd, farmland size, and types of crops cultivated, food insecure months, drought and flood occurrence, food aid and coping strategies as indicated in Figure 2.1. The reason for adapting the conceptual model in Figure 2.1 is because issues of major causes of food insecurity and coping strategies were not clearly projected into the framework. Thus, this study sought to integrate, the major causes of food insecurity, food sources, household food security status and diverse coping strategies for a comprehensive analysis of the variables in terms of their interaction. In household food security assessments and conceptualisation, the ability of households to provide adequate food for the needs of all members is the main focus. Emphasis shifts from production of adequate stocks, capacity to acquire food when needed to availability of asserts and other resources that can be turned into household capacities to acquire food (Maxwell &Smith, 1992;Maxwell, 1996; Pinstrup-Andersen, 2009). 28 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Major causes Population gro wth (Family Status of size) Livestock Household Food Availability production security of food Socio- & ● Food Security economic & Access to Natural food ●Vulnerability to dis aster Food Insecurity (ra infall and Crop temperature production ●Food Insecurity pa tterns) ●Local Perceptions ● Droughts ● F loods Coping Strategies ●F armland ●crop modification ●Frequency of Food Consumption ●diversification of income activities ●Reduce expenditure ●Seasonal migration ●Charcoal burn ing among women others ●Selling of assets ●Rely on exter nal help Fig. 2.2: A Conceptual Framework Illustrating H ousehold Coping Strategies and Food Insecurity. Source: Adapted from: WFP . (2006) 29 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Household food insecurity condition does not happen in a vacuum, this is due to the differential impact of climate and non-climatic factors on small scale farming households. These major factors include natural occurrences (rainfall and temperature) variability, population growth (family size), and socio-economic respectively. Again, the adverse impact or the reverse on livestock and crop production tend to affect availability of food, access to food and utilization; the resultant effect is on household food security, vulnerability to food insecurity and finally rendering households into condition of food insecurity. The situation where households are not able to access adequate food nutritional requirements for the general wellbeing of the family poses threats to food insecurity; hence households resort to complex coping strategies such as: reduction in expenditure, crop modification, and reduction in frequency of food consumption among others Figure 2.1. 30 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHARPTER THREE STUDY AREA AND RESEARCH METHODS 3.1 Introduction This chapter focuses on the biophysical and socio-economic characteristics of the District. The features highlighted include: location, demographic and household characteristics, healthcare services and economic activities. The chapter also describes the research methodology adopted in carrying out this study. It discusses the research design, data sources, data type, method of data collection, units of data analysis, sampling techniques, data analysis and presentation, ethical consideration and limitations. 3.2 Study Area 3.2.1 Location and Size Nadowli district is centrally located in the heart of the Upper West region of Ghana. It lies between latitude 11’ 30’ and 10’ 20’ north and longitude 3’ 10’ and 2’10’ west. It is bordered to the south by Wa Municipal Assembly, west by Burkina Faso, north by Jirapa district and to the east by the Sissala West district. It covers a total land area of 2,742.50km and extends from the Billi bridge (4km from Wa) to the Dapuori bridge (almost 12km from Jirapa). The district was restructured in July 2012, being reduced in size due to the creation of a new district in the northern part of the old district. According to the 1984 population census, the district had a population of 65529.The 2000 Population and Housing Census put the population of the district at 82716 this gives the district a population growth rate of 1.5 % per annum which 31 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh is below the regional and national growth rates of 2.3% and 2.7% respectively. This growth trend shows that all other things being equal the district’s population will double in 43 years’ time. Nonetheless with this rate of population growth, there is still pressure on existing socio- economic infrastructure. Thus, there is the need for efforts to be channelled to meet the demands of the population while putting measures in place to check increases in tins growth rate. In 2010, the Nadowli district had a total population of 96,400 according to the population and housing census. Between 1984 and 2000, the annual growth rate was at 1.5 per cent, where as it was at 1.6 per cent between 2000 and 2010. The distribution according to age groups throughout the years is 45 per cent of the population aged between 0 and 14 years, 49 per cent of the economically active population and 6 per cent elderly people. The literacy rate in the district is as follows: 69.5 per cent of men and 83.3 per cent of women are illiterate (Ghana Statistical Service, 2005). The main language spoken is Dagaare. About 70% of the people have access to drinking, however at certain times of the year, water stops flowing compelling people to use unsafe water from streams, pond and rivers (NadowliDistrict Assembly, 2010). 32 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Fig 3.1: Map of Study Area in National and District Context Source: Author’s Own Construct. June 2015 33 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.2.2 Geology and soil There are three main types of rocks in the district. These are Birimian and granite to the west and some parts of the east and basement complex to the east (Nadowli district Profile, 2010). These rocks hold a considerable quantity of water, which is a good potential for the drilling of boreholes and the sinking of wells. Current studies have revealed large mineral deposits, which is a potential for mining activities. The soil types that dominate in the district are laterite, sandy and sandy loam (savanna ochrosols). The Nadowli District Profile’s statement about soil quality reads as follows: “They are generally poor in organic matter and nutrients as a result of the absence of serious vegetative cover due to bush burning, overgrazing, over cultivation and protracted erosion and are heavily leached” (Nadowli District Profile, 2010b:20). This assessment coincides with findings from the Duadzes study on land use and land cover changes in the UWR (2004), which states that soils in the Savannah ecosystem are in general of low fertility. Soils under closed and open woodland are of higher quality than soils under cultivated area. Duadze explains this particular low fertility under farmland by human-induced land degradation due to poor soil management practices leading to increased run-off, soil erosion and “soil mining”. The latter refers to “the removal and storage of mineral nutrients by crops in the harvestable parts” (Duadze 2004: 172). Many farmers are not able to use fertilizers to balance the losses in nutrients. Relatively fertile soils, sandy loams, occur to the east of the district around Kojokpere, Issa and Tabiesi. They support the growth of crops such as yams, cereals, legumes and rice. Soils in the west are generally poor and support limited agricultural activity. 34 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.2.3 Relief/Vegetation/ and Drainage The district lies within the tropical continental or guinea savannah woodland characterized by shrubs and grassland with scattered medium sized trees. Some economic trees found in the district are kapok, shear, baobab, mango and dawadawa, which are tolerant to both fire and drought. These trees are a major source of income to households particularly women who play important roles in the provision of household needs and these economic trees provide a potential for the establishment of processing industries to increase employment opportunities for the people. The district has a mean annual temperature of 32C and a mean monthly temperature ranging from 36C in March to 27C in August. The annual rainfall is confined to six months, starting from May to October and in some cases lasting until the end of October, and is unevenly distributed. Mean annual rainfall is about 1,100 mm and peaking around August. From October to March, there is little or no rain, and this long dry season is accompanied by the dry north-eastern Harmattan winds (Nadowli District Mid Term Development Plan 2010). In addition, high temperatures, dry conditions and Marmaton winds encourage bush fires. The district lies within the tropical continental zone and annual rainfall is confined to 6 months starting from May to September and unevenly distributed. Mean annual rainfall is about 110mm with its peak around August. From October to March there is little or no rain and this long dry season is made harsh by the dry north-eastern Harmattan winds. This unfavourable climatic condition promotes only rain fed agriculture and has been the major reason for the prevailing food insecurity which is a major problem facing farmers. This climatic condition calls for the construction of dams and dug outs to support irrigation agriculture to reduce migration of the youth to the southern parts of the country in search of employment. 35 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The topography of the district is low lying and undulating at altitudes ranging between 150m- 300m above sea level though some parts average 600m. There are few rivers and streams with seasonal droughts which prevent dry season farming resulting in low crop output levels and food insecurity. Human activities, particularly annual routine bush burning, inappropriate farming practices, indiscriminate tree felling for fuel wood and charcoal and poor animal husbandry practices have led to increasing loss of the vegetative cover of the district, which in effect, has given way to soil erosion and depletion of soil fertility. Farming along and in watercourses has also brought about the silting of water bodies like dams and ponds and destruction of the vegetation protecting the water bodies. In addition, road construction coupled with sand and gravel winning has caused a great dent in the natural environment. Currently, the quest for the protection of the natural environment is gradually taking roots in the district. A manifestation of this is the existence of women groups in agro-forestry District wide. Economic trees like cashew and mango plantations are also gaining grounds in the district Individuals have also adopted (lie habit of planting Lees around their buildings. 3.2.4 Economic Activities of the Study Area Subsistence agriculture constitutes the main economic activity in the Nadowli District, employing about 85 per cent of the active population in this sector (Nadowli District Plan 2010). Commerce (service) and industry account for 14 per cent and 1 per cent of the population respectively. The plan also indicates that food crop production in this sector largely remains subsistence with low output levels. Nonetheless there are a few significant trading centres with petty trading, as an important economic activity carried out in small scale in every area in the 36 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh District. There are no large plantation holdings in the district. Major food crops cultivated are millet, sorghum (guinea corn), maize, cowpea and yam, while cash crops include groundnuts, soybeans, cassava, tiger nuts and chili pepper. The Nadowli District Development Plan states that about 75 per cent of farmers use traditional methods of farming (cutlass and hoe) and are highly dependent on rainfall for crop production. Only 25 per cent of farmers make use of tractor services, animal drawn implements and irrigation. The conclusion of the district development planner is that “these methods of farming do not only lead to the depletion of the soils, but also result in low yield which is responsible for the low income and hence low standard of living, as well as food insecurity in the District” (Nadowli District Development Plan, 2010: 27). Peasants farm plots both far away from the communities and around their houses, these are so-called bush and compound farms. The vast majority of farmers practice mixed/intercropping. 3.2.5 Household Structure Households in the Nadowli District as in other parts of northern Ghana are based on male-headed units of extended families. This means that the most senior male acts as the family head. He has control over other members of the household including their labour (Abdul-Korah, 2004). He also has control over the most important resource, land. The perception is that men fought for the land and should have the right to own and use it. Within the household, there is a division of labour based on sex and age. For instance, while men are responsible for clearing the land and generally taking care of the farm, women are responsible for sowing and harvesting, cooking and child care (Pickbourn, 2011). 37 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Within Dagaaba society a trend towards nuclear families is perceived. Van der Geest explains: “There seems to be a trend away from large three-to-four-generation households. Although these generations often still live together in the same compound, brothers, fathers, cousins and uncles increasingly separate their farms and granaries“(2004: 103). Power is ascribed to men, and the allocation of resources, status and duties between men and women is determined by factors such as descent, succession and paternity. Access to land is therefore mediated by men, who tend to control the decision-making powers of the allocation of resources within the household. In spite of recognizing the role women play in farming, women do not have direct access to land but can be given family land to do their independent farming (Adeetuk, 1995 cited in Abdul-Korah, 2004). Women’s access to land was and still is linked to their status as married women. According to a study from MoFA on gender and agricultural development (2001), women in the three northern regions held only two per cent of land (having a social organization based on patrilineal descent), while women in Brong-Ahafo (having a social organization based on matrilineal descent) held up to 50 percent of land (MoFA, 2007 in: Iddrisu, 2010: 12). Land accessed by female farmers is usually smaller and of poor soil quality. Social organization in Northern Ghana is thus based on patrilineal descent. Gender relations are never static and women, being in a subordinate position, always found ways to challenge and change their position within the family and their communities. During the colonial and post- colonial period, gender relations changed (Abdul-Korah, 2011) and are still changing. One major factor of this is the increasing amount of female migration since the 1980s. 38 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.3 Research Design The cross-sectional research design was the design adopted for the research. It focuses on vital facts about people and their beliefs, opinions, attitudes, motives and behaviours, and simply describes and provides understanding of a phenomenon (Creswell, 2005). This design is also adopted because it is useful in obtaining an overall picture of a situation as it stands at the time of study. In addition a cross section study design allows for the decision on what to find out, the study population to be identified and selection of the sample size. The study used mixed method approach of qualitative and quantitative research tools. The quantitative method was used because it provided the numerical strength while the qualitative added value to it through explanation and ensured direct involvement of participants in shaping the research. Creswell & Plano (2011: 1) further argues that the quantitative approach on one hand is a strong research tool that calls for maximum trust in numbers that equally depicts opinions or concepts. The quantitative approach works best when one wants precise statistical answers to carefully define questions on topics which are thoroughly understood. Golafshani (2003) explains that quantitative research allows the researcher to familiarize him/herself with the problem or concept to be studied, and perhaps generate hypotheses to be tested. Nonetheless, Gatrell (2002) contend that a quantitative approach that focuses almost exclusively on aggregate spatial patterns of variables does not actually give attention to what the points or dots on the map or numbers in a table really represent. The qualitative approach on the other hand uses words and critical observations to express a reality describing people in ordinary situations (Krueger, 1994 cited in Sundong (2005). For 39 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh instance Creswell (2009: 205) notes that qualitative methods are quite useful in constructing or developing theories or conceptual frameworks or in refining theories through preliminary testing. However, in the qualitative method, the challenge is that the interviewer himself is the instrument in the qualitative research. Hence the quality of the research and the subsequent output of the work grossly depend on the in-depth experience, knowledge and skills of the researcher. After assessing the strength and weakness of both qualitative and quantitative methods, it was concluded that, combining the two methods for this study is paramount. Using the qualitative method created the opportunity to assess the understanding of respondents about food insecurity, perceptions on causes of food insecurity, and their adaption strategies. The qualitative approach also helped to obtain in-depth information about causes of food insecurity and coping strategies from MOFA, opinion leaders and key informants because questions were asked in an open-ended manner, given the respondents the opportunity to freely express themselves. The study collected data from both primary and secondary sources. The primary sources of data involved first-hand field data from the respondents. The primary data were collected from the heads of households, opinion leaders and officials in the selected communities. In the data collection process too, secondary data were obtained from government agencies, the Municipal Assembly reports , food security related documents, journals, working papers, books and records and publications of government institutions in the selected communities. Rainfall data were gathered from the Synoptic Weather Station in Wa, and agricultural data from the Wa regional office of the Ministry of Agriculture. Secondary data serves as a guide throughout the whole research process in that it provides the researcher with what other researchers have 40 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh discovered concerning the topic at hand. Boyne (2007) argued that, using secondary data gives a researcher an upper hand in the research to evaluate information prior to use rather than a researcher who only relies on primary data. He added that reviewing earlier work done gives the researcher the required information on the subject matter. 3.4 Study communities The selected villages used for empirical data collection Tangasie, Kuuri and Chari-sombo were selected due to several reasons from the literature. All three communities are within a 15 km radius of each other thus allowing for minimal differences in the agro-ecological setting and livelihood activities. The communities are inhabited by one ethnic group and thus are relatively homogenous. It is known that people’s livelihood largely depend on agriculture; rainfall is reported to be variable; migration has been a common phenomenon with the presence of a large number of seasonal migrants (Rademacherschlz et al., 2012 ) which qualify this district for the study; and poverty levels have remained high due to Ghana's structural adjustment policies which have had their greatest negative impacts on the distant northern poor because of the limited number of exportable crops and the area's peripheral status (Songsore & Denkabe, 1995; Songsore, 1992). Also, poorer regions, especially in the savannah north, have more food insecure peasants than the rainforest south in Ghana (Yaro, 2010). The region has suffered from several droughts and floods in the past. Other studies and experts suggest Jirapa and Lawra-Nandom districts of the same region to be considered for this research but they have bigger towns and thus being more urbanized, Nadowli however is considered a purely rural district. Another reason for the selection of this site is the existence of only a few irrigation facilities. 41 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.5 Methods of Data Collection 3.5.1 Survey Method Questionnaires are frequently used in a survey research and consist of series of questions on a topic about which the respondent’s opinion are sought (Sommer and Sommer, 1991). Questionnaires were therefore administered to heads of households in the various communities for the primary data collection. This was done to solicit data on the livelihood activities, perceptions on causes and coping strategies. Both closed and opened ended questions were asked. The questionnaire were carefully structured and designed according to the objectives of the study. Respondents were visited from house to house in the study communities for adequate and relevant data. In each case, questions were structured and read out to respondents. This was necessary to ensure that data collection process was interactive and that respondents understood the questions put to them. This was also done because majority of the people within the target group were semi-literates; hence, a direct and face to face interaction with them made data collection more efficient and reliable. 3.5.1.1 SAMPLING The sample size of the study was 201 households. These households were selected randomly but within the households the respondents were selected purposively to include either a male and female household head. The study applied simple random sampling (probability) and purposive techniques (non-probability). This is the most common sampling method used to select households within an area and also to ensure even sampling from the homogenous population of households in the study area. Again, in arriving at the sample size households were computed with the aid of Saunder et.al (2007) formula for sample size determination to arrive at a sample 42 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh size of 201 respondents for the study area as illustrated in Table 3.1. The margin of error was estimated at 5 percent (0.05). Table 3.1: Sample Size Determination Community Number of households Sample size Tangasie =81/(1+0.2025) 67 Kuuri =84/(1.21) 69 Chari-Sombo =78/(1.195) 65 Total N=243 SS= 201 Saunder’s formula n= N/ (1+N (a) 2) Where: n= sample size N= total number of households a= margin of error was used to arrive at the sample size for the study (Saunder et al, 2007). SELECTION OF INTERVIEWEES The study purposively selected personnel from the Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MOFA), Meteorological department, opinion leaders in the selected communities, small scale farmers Data were collected on issues of food insecurity and livelihood activities, perception on causes of food insecurity and coping strategies. The study employed the Focus group, expert interview technic. 3.5.2 Focus Group Discussion and Interviews Focus group discussions were conducted with heads of households for male and female as separate groups at Tangasie, Charisombo and Kuuri. The discussions focused on issues of livelihood activities, understanding of food insecurity, causes, and coping strategies in times of food insecurity. In all six Focus Group Discussions (FGD) were held, two in each of the three communities namely Tangasie, Kuuri and Charisombo for both male and female household head 43 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh groups. In each case an average of eight participants were involved. These focus group discussions gave the advantage of encouraging participants to discuss and explore issues among themselves and to share their experiences on food insecurity from their communities and their adaption strategies. In addition, in-depth interviews were conducted with the MOFA officials and other key informants in the study communities for primary data. In effect, the method provided substantial information and provided an opportunity to identify and explore respondents’ perceptions; livelihood activities, causes and experiences, and coping strategies against food insecurity (see World Health Organization, 2005). The sessions were moderated by the researcher and all discussions were held in the Dagaari language. Both the male and female groups had discussions on the themes; understanding of climate change, perception about causes, and coping strategies used in these times. 3.6 Methods of Data Analysis 3.6.1 Quantitative Method of Data Analysis Quantitative data were analysed with cross-tabulation and chi-square test, multiple regression model analysis and Pearson correlation. Descriptive statistical tools such as frequency and percentage charts, line charts were also employed with the aid of the Statistical Product for Service Solution (SPSS).These tools were employed to organize the research findings. All coded responses were grouped under specific variables. This method was employed to observe the frequencies and percentages of certain responses under each of the variables. Following the use of Excel software for deriving percentage distributions, percentages were approximated into whole numbers. 44 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.6.2 Qualitative Method of Data Analysis Performing qualitative data analysis basically involves dismantling, segmenting and reassembling data to form meaningful findings in order to draw inferences (Boeije 2010). As such, content analysis based on common themes and direct quotes from respondents were employed in the analysis of the qualitative data. Sarantakos (2005) as quoted in Wahyuni (2012) observed that a common approach to the interpretation of meanings from textual data is using content analysis. Qualitative content analysis concentrates on portraying reality by discovering meanings from the textual data. Wahyuni (2012) maintained that in practice, qualitative content analysis uses a coding method. Coding refers to the assignment of a code representing the core topic or theme of each category of data to formulate general opinions. Thus, through the Focus Group Discussions (FGD), the opinion of respondents on such indicators as livelihood activities, perceptions and causes of food insecurity, and coping strategies in the selected communities were transcribed and carefully examined, summarized and presented in words. Where necessary, photographs were used to give a visual image of the situation being described. 3.7 Ethical Considerations Permission was sought from the officials of the District Assembly to consult the officials of the MOFA and meteorological department at the regional office. Besides, contacts were made with traditional rulers and assembly men of the selected communities to inform them of the purpose of the study and to seek their consent. All participants gave their consent prior to being interviewed and participation was strictly voluntary. Wahyuni (2012) recommends that the researcher starts off the interview by briefly explaining the aim of the interview and emphasizing 45 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh the confidentiality, anonymity and the voluntary nature of the study. With the participant’s permission, each interview was recorded and treated as confidential. To protect the identity of respondents, the study made use of special, labels to identify any particular respondent. Again, it must be emphasized that photographs used in this study were all taken with consent of the respondents. 3.8 Challenges Encountered in the Field The following limitations were encountered during the research considering the fact that a mix of socio-empirical methods had to be applied. The first major limitation of the study was the unwillingness of some respondents to answer some of the questions. The research assistants were from the study area. On the one hand, the researcher was very familiar with people´s situations in rural areas and spoke the local language; conversely, participants anticipating their descent and familiarity with the situation were sometimes reluctant to provide detailed information, as they expected the research assistant to already have an understanding of their situation. These problems were overcome by explaining to the respondents that the research team wanted to learn from them and get to know their specific perspectives and perceptions. The household survey instrument includes a household definition stressing that household members consist of a man, his wife and their unmarried children living together and forming a nuclear household. They farm together, have one granary and cook and eat together (vander Geest, 2004). For this case study, this definition turned out to be a limitation as most relatives, normally live under the same roof, eat together and pool their resources including absent 46 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh members who have not established their own family with wife and children yet (De Haas, 2003). Here, the norm was several generations and households often live together in one compound, eat together and pool their resources including absent members making it difficult to determine household membership whiles in others smaller family units were found. Within the definition by, van der Geest household members who were away were rarely captured as well as whole compounds with differently composed household member units. This was assessed as a serious limitation by the research team. We often interviewed relatively young household heads. Another challenge was the length of the questionnaire, which lasted between thirty minutes and one hour. As a result, fatigue set in for many of the respondents. The researchers had to use encouraging words as a way of maintaining the interest of the respondents. The timing of research, which started in the second quarter of the year precisely from April to May, coincided with the preparation of the land for rains that is in general a very busy time for men and women since most of the people migrated to other parts of Ghana. Women in particular were very busy with basket weaving and pottery and thus were reluctant to spend many hours in Participatory Rural Appraisal sessions and other research activities. These notwithstanding, it is unlikely that these challenges will significantly alter the main conclusions and recommendations. 47 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FOUR THE FINDINGS, RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS 4.0 Introduction The central focus of this chapter is to present results and discussions of the study. Broadly the chapter presents a brief biographic data of study participants, state of food insecurity, causes and perceptions, and coping strategies adopted. 4.1 Socio-Demographic Background of Respondents Essentially, the socio-demographic characteristics of respondents directly or indirectly impact on food insecurity and coping strategies issues. Thus, Table 4.1 gives a general description of the respondents’ demographic characteristics background. Similar to other rural communities in Ghana, there is generally low level of formal education amongst the inhabitants of the study communities. About 43 percent of the respondents have had different levels of basic education with only 8 percent having received secondary education. Also, about 49 percent has not had any form of formal education. Despite their generally low levels of education, it was found that all the respondents were engaged in one economic activity or another. No respondent acknowledged was unemployed taking into cognizance food insecurity issues, the data shows that majority of the respondents were engaged in subsistence farming and/or petty trading. The low level of education of the rural households in the study area was found to limit their livelihood choices which may negatively affect the welfare of their households. The results further reveal an averagely large household size amongst the respondents. From Table 4.1, 51 percent of the total respondents have household sizes close 48 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh to seven members, whereas 29 percent of the respondents have household sizes close to 10 members. It is worth noting that the large household sizes are as a result of the high number of children born to the households involved in the study. This implies more food is required to feed the growing population of family’s size albeit threats of food insecurity. The findings of this study are in confirmation of the findings of Foresight (2009) (as cited in Collodi, & M‟Cormack, 2009: 1). which stresses that, a country’s population growth rate, family size, and age-sex composition may have wide ranging implications for socio-economic indicators including poverty and food security (NDPC, 2010:18; GSS, 2013: 50). This view highlights the significant relationships between population and other critical factors (threats) such as climate change, land availability and the increasing influence they have on humankind in terms of coping strategies. Table 4.1: Demographic Characteristics of Respondents Variable Category Frequency Percent below 20 years 2 1.1 20 – 39 years 73 41.0 Age 40 – 59 years 94 52.8 60 years and above 9 5.0 Total 178 100 Primary 31 17.4 JHS/Middle school 45 25.2 Educational level SSS/SHS 14 7.8 No formal education 88 49.4 Total 178 100 Occupation Employed 178 100 Unemployed 0 0 Total 178 100 2-4 27 15.1 Size of household 5-7 91 51.1 8-10 52 29.2 10 and above 8 4.4 Total 178 100 Source: Field Data (2015) 49 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Again the study sought to verify whether socio-demographic characteristics of household respondents have any influence on food security status. Thus from Table 4.2 it was realized that households with formal education and gainfully employed are more food secure (45.4%) than those with no formal education (18.1%). Households with low household size in the study area more food secure (13.6%) compared with high household size, whilst the youthful age group are also more food secure as against the aged cohort. This implies formal education is a strong determinant of food security status of households, and to a large extent family size and age level. The findings from this study support the conceptual frame work in Figure 2.1 which establishes the linkage between household food insecurity and socio-demographic characteristics. Table 4.2: Food Security Status by Socio-Demographic Characteristics Education Household size Age Category Had No formal Low High Aged Youthful Total Formal education household household age size size Food Frequency 20 8 6 0 3 7 44 security Percent 45.4 18.1 13.6 0 6.8 15.9 100 Moderately Frequency 2 7 5 8 6 2 30 food Percent 6.6 23.3 16.6 26.6 20 6.6 100 insecure Food Frequency 0 20 10 30 10 6 76 insecure Percent Extremely Frequency 0 6 2 10 10 0 28 food Percent 0 21.4 7.1 35.7 35.7 0 100 insecure Source: Field Data (2015) 4.2 Household Livelihood Activities and Food Insecurity 4.2.1 Main Livelihood Activities Table 4.3 shows that respondents were engaged in several activities in the study area including: crop farming, animal husbandry, trading and commerce, civil servants among others. This 50 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh indicates that none of the respondents was unemployed as captured on the aforementioned background characteristics of household respondents (see Table 4.1). It was realised from Table 4.2 that, the dominant livelihood activity among respondents in all the three communities is crop farming which was undertaken by about 69, 67, and 70 percent in Tangasie, Kuuri and Charisombo respectively. This was followed by civil service dominant in Kuuri and Chari- sombo with the same percentage for both communities about 13 percent. Not only this, Trading and commerce was much more in Kuuri than in Tangasie and Charisombo. The situation was however different in the case of Tangasie, where animal husbandry was the next dominant livelihood activity. Again household respondents in the study area were equally engaged in other auxiliary livelihood activities taking into consideration food insecurity threats (12.5%). However, fishing had the least percentage with 3 percent in Charisombo and none in Tangasie and Kuuri. Only one fisherman was identified in Charisombo and none in the other two communities. This is due to inadequate irrigation schemes such as dams in the study area and this situation poses a threat to food security especially in the lean season. The study findings are thus supportive of studies by Frederick (2014) that, throughout rural Africa, natural resources are owned or controlled (de facto) by private individuals, households, extended families or lineage groups, communities, ethnic groups or “tribes”, and the state. As such, rural farm households in the sub-Sahara Africa are compelled to engage in diverse crop production as different communities elsewhere to meet sustainably the increasing challenge of the climate change threat. 51 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.3: Main Livelihood Activities Community Livelihood activity Frequency Percent Tangasie Crop farming 75 69.4 Animal Husbandry 23 21.2 Petty trading 3 2.7 Civil servant 7 6.4 Total 108 100 Kuuri Crop farming 20 66.7 Animal Husbandry 3 10 Petty trading 3 10 Civil servant 4 13.3 Total 30 100 Chari Sombo Crop farming 28 70 Animal Husbandry 1 2.5 Petty trading 1 2.5 Civil servant 5 12.5 Other 5 12.5 Total 40 100 Source: Author’s Field Data, (2015) Concerning livelihoods in the last 5 to 10 years, a 45 year old household head from Kuuri had this to say: “We experience food shortage every year by June. This has mainly been due to poor harvest arising from unfavourable rainfall. By June each year, our food stock runs out and we have no money to buy any foodstuff. The household relies on the sale of livestock and Shea butter to get a little money to buy food. We, the adults, are also compelled to reduce the amount of food we take daily. During this period we are lucky to have wild fruits such as yellow berry and Shea fruits.” 52 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh This, according to some respondents, could go on until August when early maize and groundnuts are harvested. 4.2.3 Household Food Security Classification and Status This survey sought to incorporate both methodologies adopted by Nanama & Karim (2007) in FANTA/Cornell ranking procedure and the one by Bickel et al (2000) in the US household food security scale to classify households selected for the survey into groups ranging from food secure to food insecure households. The four classifications which were based on the actual meaning of the questions adopted in the FANTA/Cornell ranking procedure was adopted in this survey mainly due to two reasons: (a) an African setting for both surveys (similar geographic locations and socio-economic conditions for Ghana and Burkina Faso) and (b) both surveys did not differentiate between households with children and those without children. This notwithstanding, this survey resorted to using the seventeen (17) questions on coping strategies under Section B of the survey questionnaire (Appendix A) and a similar scale (as depicted on Table 4.3.2) that corresponds with the 18-item coping strategies questions adopted by Bickel et al (2000). Most of the households we contacted had children (persons less than 18 years) and therefore a similar scaling under “Households with Children” (Table 4.3.2) was used. Each question is scored “1” for an affirmative response and “0” if otherwise and by combining the two approaches we obtain the food security status classification Table 4.4 53 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.4: Food security Status and Categories Number of Affirmative Code Category Responses (Out of 17) 0 – 3 1 Food Secure 4 – 8 2 Moderately food insecure 9 – 13 3 Food insecure 14 – 17 4 Extremely food insecure Source; Field Data, 2015 Table 4.5: Household Food Security/Insecurity Classification and Status Affirmative Category Household Food Security Status response (out Tangasie Kuuri Chari-sombo of 17) 0-3 Food secure 4.9% - 10.0% 4-8 Moderately food insecure 13.6% 27.3% 56.7% 9-13 Food insecure 60.0% 68.2% 16.7% 14-17 Extremely food insecure 21.5% 4.5% 16.7% Source: Field Data (2015) From the classification in Table 4.5, it was realised that majority of the households across the communities fell into the bracket of food insecurity. For instance, most of the households especially those in Tangasie (60.0%) and Kuuri (68.2%) were food insecure. The results show that in Chari-sombo, majority (56.7%) of households were moderately food insecure. With some households falling under extremely food insecure positions representing; Tangasie (21.0%), Kuuri (4.5%) and Charisombo (16.7%). This implies that majority of the households in the study were food insecure. Per the classification, households that could be classified as food secure in the three communities on the average were not up to 10.0%. A 30 year old woman at Charisombo expressed that: 54 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ‘My household used to get enough food to feed with surplus, these days harvest from the farm cannot be predicted. Our food security is very bad due to that I cook lunch before heading out, and then kids will eat alone at lunch. In the evening I will reheat the same food two meals a day’ if the harvests stay poor I fear for my children’s future’. The study findings confirm the work of World Food Programme and Ministry of Food and Agriculture (2012) cited in Yaro and Hesselberg (2006) that indicates how rural households northern part of the country experiences a high degree of food insecurity, whilst the southern and middle zones have a relatively low incidence of food insecurity (Hesselberg & Yaro, 2006; WFP & MoFA, 2012). 4.2.4 Sources of Food for Households Food crop farming was selected as an indicator for sources of food crop because it was the main livelihood activity among households in the study communities. Thus, it was ascertained from Table 4.6 that, majority of food insecure households that is about 59 percent sourced food crop from free relief food. This category received food aid because they were likely to be poor therefore could not afford to purchase food crop from the market. This proposition is supported by Kuwornu et al (2011) which stipulates that limited accessibility of food by food insecure households is linked to poverty despite the potential of agriculture in supporting sustainable growth and development, the incidence and severity of poverty amongst rural inhabitants engaged in farming activities are much higher than its occurrence among other socio-economic groups. About 70% of those living on less than US$1 a day are located in rural areas confirming poverty as a rural phenomenon. 55 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Similarly, majority of households vulnerable to food insecurity also sourced their food crop from market (47.2%), while the main source of food crop for the relatively few food secure households was own production (53.5%) and the market (35.7%). Farming (own food production) did not act as the main source of food among majority of the households because their crops did not yield enough food for sustained consumption. The drought experienced in October/December dry season of 2010 caused this. This is in support of Mjonono et al (2009) that low crop production reduced the availability of food for consumption and exposed farmers in Nadowli District to threats of food insecurity into getting food from other sources, such as purchases. Table 4.6: Status of Food Insecurity and Sources of Food crop Variable Sources of Food Crop Status of Free food Own External Market Relief Total insecurity Category production support Food Food Frequency 28 3 0 45 76 insecure Percent 36.8 3.9 0 59.2 100 Frequency 35 25 10 4 74 Vulnerable to food insecurity Percent 47.2 33.7 13.5 5.4 100 Frequency 10 15 0 3 28 Food secure Percent 35.7 53.5 0 10.7 100 Total Frequency 73 43 10 52 178 Percent 41.0 24.1 5.6 29.2 100 Source: Author’s Field Data, (2015) The results in Table 4.6 implies that, majority of the households in the study area were food insecure and vulnerable to food insecurity. This condition has compelled most of the respondents to resort to sourcing food from free relief food, and other external support systems; due partly 56 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh but significantly to own food crop shortage. Concerning food shortage in the last 5 to 10 years, A 45 year old household head from Kuuri had this to say “We have experienced food shortage every year by June. This has mainly been due to poor harvest arising from unfavourable rainfall. By June each year, our food stock runs out and we have no money to buy any foodstuff. The household relies on the sale of livestock and Shea butter to get a little money to buy food. We, the adults, are also compelled to reduce the amount of food we take daily. During this period we also rely on wild fruits such as yellow berry and Shea fruits. This situation could go on until August when early maize and groundnuts are being harvested.” Table 4.7: Chi-square Test for Status of Food Insecurity and Sources of Food Crop Asymp. Category Value Df Sig. (2- sided) 19.436a Pearson Chi-Square 2 0.002 15.129 Likelihood Ratio 2 0.000 13.512 Linear-by-Linear 1 0.001 Association N of Valid Cases 178 Source: Author’s Field Data, (2015) More importantly, conducting a chi-square test of independence shows that the relationship between household food insecurity and livelihood activities. This is because the statistics from Table 4.7 shows that the Pearson chi-square value 19.436a with a P.value of 0.002 at 0.05 level of significance implies there is a significant relationship between food insecurity and livelihood 57 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh activities. One can reject the null hypothesis for the study that, there is no significant relationship between household food insecurity and livelihood activities. The results further support the assertion by Chambers & Conway (1992) that, a secure livelihood is the main goal of peasants using farm and non-farm activities, which together provide a variety of procurement strategies for food and cash. A livelihood is sustainable when it can cope with and recover from stresses and shocks and maintain or enhance its capability and assets, while not undermining the natural resource base. Secure livelihoods are prerequisites for ensuring food security. This argument shows a distinct contrast to food security situation of farming households in the Nadowli District. 4.3 Causes of Household Food Insecurity The study assessed social, economic, physical and climatic reasons for food security in the study area. 4.3.1 Environmental and Socio-Economic Reasons for Food Insecurity Significantly, the debate on causes of bad yields vis-à-vis livelihood activity has waged on for a long time due partly to the direct adverse effect it has on food security and the dynamism of these factors from one spatial location to the other. The assumption is that bad harvest is often perceived and attributed to different causal factors among farming households. It was realised from Table 4.8 that, 12 percent of the respondents indicated declining soil fertility associated with frequent drought to be one of the major causes of food insecurity. Again this agrees with Duadze (2004), that Soil fertility in the Upper West Region indeed decreased 58 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh especially on farm land. Whiles (7.9%) indicated increase in pest and diseases incidence linked to warming. Also, a significant number of household heads (6.2 %) attributed high cost of fertilizer to be the cause of bad yields with poor agricultural practices such as continuous use of the same land and bad roads constituting about 5 percent. The least constituting about 3 percent respondents attributed it to bad roads as shown in Table 4.8. These results imply that, there exist two-prong factors that significantly affect food crop farming activities adversely in the study area that is climatic and non-climatic factors. It is important to further note that what is more glaring to most of these small scale farming households in the Nadowli District is the issue of climatic differentials in terms of unreliable rainfall and rise in temperature levels and thus influences food insecurity. The views of the majority who reported that land available to them has been decreasing can be summarized by what was said by one of them in a focus group discussion: ‘Land for cultivation is owned by the whole family. As family size increases land is put under different uses aside farming and even the available land for farming is seriously constrained. Looking for cultivable land elsewhere goes with high cost in terms of what one may have to spend to get it and the distance factor. This has been an emerging concern that threatens food security and incomes’. These results further support the conceptual framework from Figure 2.1 which explains how non-climatic factors negatively affect crop and livestock production in the study area. Similarly, observation from results in Table 4.8 and on the field further revealed that, household heads in the study area stressed that any problem that limits harvest causes a bad year but 59 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh changes in rainfall pattern coupled with rising temperature and infertile soil are key among many other factors of food insecurity. Most commonly, farmers described this problem of food insecurity mainly on bad weather conditions; the amount of distribution of rainfall and sunshine. They emphasized that when there is strong sunshine the soil will dry fast and the crop will burn easily. It was further realised that participants’ perceptions of causes of food insecurity included: Non-climatic factors such as low soil fertility, increased pest and diseases, poor agricultural practices such as continuous use of the same land, lack of farm implements, traditional farming methods/lack of modern farming techniques, poverty, shortage of labour, bad roads, unemployment, cultivation of traditional crops, as well as poor health of their animals. The findings from this study for instance supports the argument by FAO (2012:16) that, the interconnections between food insecurity and the climate change phenomenon are complex, uncertain and varied. Thus, risks such as droughts, floods, pests and animal diseases, puts stress on natural resources (particularly water) which may result from weather variability and biodiversity hence threatens productivity in various regions of the world. Again the study findings confirmed studies by Rockstrom et al., (2009) that, food insecurity and climate change are presenting an overarching challenge that greatly affects human well-being and socio- economic advancement of communities the world over and small scale farmers in Nadowli District are not an exception. The results further support the conceptual framework of Figure 2.1 which explains the flow of how rainfall and temperature affects crops and livestock production resulting in food insecurity. 60 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.8: Causes of Bad Yields in the Nadowli District Category Frequency Percent Climate related factors 96 53.9 Unreliable rainfall coupled with rising temperatures Non-climatic factors Low soil fertility 21 11.8 Increased pest and diseases 14 7.9 Low access to farm inputs 11 6.2 Traditional farming techniques 7 3.9 Poor agricultural practices 8 4.5 Poor health of their animals 8 4.5 Cultivation of traditional crops 7 3.9 Bad Roads 6 3.4 Total 178 100.0 Source: Author’s Field Data, (2015) 4.3.2 Climatic Causes 4.3.2.1 Local Perception of Rainfall and Temperature Variability Vis-à-vis Food Insecurity Changes in rainfall patterns and amounts have led to loss of crops and reduced livestock production (Rosenzweig et al. 2002). This is particularly because of the over-dependence on rain-fed agriculture by majority of the people living in rural areas. changes in rainfall pattern has been one of the major limiting factors in agriculture production thus resulting in food insecurity and low-income generation. It is for this reason that it has been widely accepted that crop production and livestock keeping are critically important to food security and rural livelihoods. An understanding of the causes of food insecurity requires a look in to the changes in rainfall pattern since this has substantial effects on economic performance and livelihood of communities in rural areas that depend on rain-fed agriculture. Again, an increase in average temperature will adversely affect crops, especially in semi-arid regions, where already heat is a limiting factor of production (IPCC 2007). Increased 61 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh temperature also increase evaporation rates of soil and water bodies as well as evapotranspiration rate of plants, and increase chances of severe drought. It means that with warmer temperatures plants require more water. Thus, considering the aforementioned assumptions it was realised from Figure 4.1 that majority of the respondents constituting (90.1%, 77.3% and 76.7%) from Tangasie, Kuuri and Chari- sombo respectively were affirmative there have been changes in rainfall pattern and temperature levels. Whilst a relatively few of the respondents did not affirm to the view that rainfall pattern and temperature levels have changed adversely (9.9%, 22.7% and 23.3%) for the study communities Tangasie,Kuuri and Charisombo respectively as shown in Figure 4.1. It was further observed that some respondents reported that over the last 10 years from February to May the area becomes extremely hot, especially in the night, and cold in the early part of the morning. Inferring from the Focus Group Discussion and observation it was established that temperature variation does exist and support the argument that a significant number of respondents believed that temperatures had increased and that precipitation had declined. These conditions pose threats to food security in the Nadowli District. The data from the household respondents were further supported by the temperature data from regional climate station. Figure 4.2 shows the mean monthly temperatures for the last four decades and confirms respondent’s perception of an increase in mean temperatures. The hottest months of the year are February to April with mean average temperatures of more than 30°C. The mean annual temperature shows a trend of +1.6°C between 1970 and 2010.Temperature rise obviously has an impact on agriculture, leading to higher evapotranspiration, reduced soil moisture which can affect crop yield and the food security situation of households. This also 62 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh explains the food insecurity situation in the Nadowli District as illustrated in Figure 4.2.The implication of the findings from results in Figures 4.1 and 4.2 is that if there is a stability in the rainfall pattern and temperature levels it would lead to an increase in crop and livestock production (see Figure 2.1 conceptual framework) and eventually ensuring food security at the household level. Furthermore, majority of the participants during a Focus Group Discussion indicated that, there is much more heat than before. Although they were unable to provide exact temperatures, some participants also mentioned that temperatures were very high. March used to be the hottest month in Northern Ghana, but now it is difficult to say so. A 50 year old farmer from Chari- sombo indicated that: “We used to experience heat in March but from February it begins to get very hot, this in most cases is not suitable for crop production though within those times we do not experience rain but it does not motivate one to even make a dry season garden”. This was further indicated by Plate 4.1 on rainfall and temperature effects on food crops at Tangasie. Fig 4.1: Local Perception of Rainfall Pattern and Temperature Changes Source: Author’s Field Data, (2015) 63 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Fig 4.2: Mean Monthly Rainfall and Temperature for Regional Weather Station Source: Synoptic Weather Station Wa, (April, 2015) Plate 4.1: Effects of Drought on Food Crops at Tangasie Source: Field Data, (April-May, 2015) 64 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.3.2.2 Households Perceptions about Food Insecurity and Ranking In addition, it was realised from Table 4.9 rainfall and temperature variability have contributed to a very poor (54.4) and poor (34.4) food security situation among households in the study area. This implies rainfall and temperature variability contribute to food insecurity. Table 4.9: Perception of Households about Food Security. Food security situation Variable Good Fair Poor Very poor Total Category Rainfall and temperature Frequency 9 17 55 97 178 variability Percent 5.0 9.5 30.8 54.4 100 Source: Field Data, (2015) Table 4.10: Chi-Square Tests for Change in Rainfall/Temperature and Perception of Food Security Category Value Df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square 19.309a 3 0.000 Likelihood Ratio 15.438 3 0.001 Linear-by-Linear Association 15.438 3 0.001 Source: Field Data, (2015) Significantly too, most of the rural small scale farming households in the study area, attributed changes in the rainfall pattern to be the major cause of food insecurity since they depend mostly on the rain for crop cultivation. It was again observed that most respondents complained that at critical stages of the crop cycle, there was either no rain or too much rain, thus negatively affecting plant growth and crop yields which eventually affects food security situation of households. Participants also added that the onset of the rainy season has shifted from April to May. During a focus group discussion, a farmer in Tangasie explained: 65 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh “We are now struggling. Many years ago, things were better. We knew when the rains would start and end but now nobody knows. It keeps changing.” Similarly, in another FGD in Chari-sombo, a participant said: “Now nobody can predict the weather. Things don’t happen as they used to.” A 60 year old man from Kuuri also expressed that: “Rainfall was very favourable in the last 10–20 years compared to today. One could cultivate small parcels of land and harvest a lot. Today, the rainfall is very unpredictable; we would rather farm larger land sizes and harvest little,how can we feed our families throughout the year?’’ A possible explanation for this perception was found in Geest’s study (2004) that some years back in the 80s as small children, they would not automatically notice that crop yields were poor as their mothers assured them that children would have enough food to eat. Apparently, the resultant adverse effects of food insecurity that is confronted by rural households in the Nadowli is more of a situational factor and not self-inflected as such many of these households resort to diverse complex coping measures against food insecurity at household and individual level. 4.3.2.3 Relationship between Climatic Conditions and Food Insecurity With regard to the actual relationship between climatic conditions and food insecurity, it was realized that most of the climatic factors work together to impact strongly on food insecurity occurrence in the rural communities in the district as shown by the multiple regression factors in Table 4.11. Thus, unlike the relationship between adverse change in household demographic characteristics, soil infertility conditions and food insecurity, there is rather a very strong and 66 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh significant linear relationship between change in climatic conditions and food insecurity in the study areas. However, not all the non-climatic factors entered into the model were found to have significant influence on food insecurity. Such factors as educational status, income level among others in the rural Nadowli communities. However, the Beta values as indicated in Table 4.11 are low for such factors as educational status, income, soil infertility inter alia. Though the negative Beta values for the predictors show a reciprocal relationship between the Climatic factors and food insecurity, the impact of non-climatic factors are relatively not very strong. Table 4.11: Regression Analysis of Climatic and Non-climatic Factors Influencing Food Insecurity Standardized Asymp. Sig. Coefficients (2-sided) Unstandardized Model Predictors Coefficients (Constant) B Std. Error Beta Rainfall variability -0.734 0.198 -0.437 0.001 Temperature changes -0.731 0.104 -0.435 0.000 Change in household demographic -0.385 0.088 -0.109 0.000 characteristics and soil infertility Source: Author’s Field Data, (2015) 67 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Model Summary: a. Dependent Variable: Food insecurity b. Multiple correlation coefficient (R) .647 c. Coefficient of determination (R²) .419 d. Adjusted Square .407 The identified relationship existing between climatic factors and food insecurity in the rural areas shows that mere adverse change in non-climatic factors may not be a strong threat to food security. Incidence of food insecurity would only reduce if stability in rainfall variability and temperature levels led to improvement in household food security. It is also imperative to mention that, though there was a strong relationship between climatic factors and food insecurity, considering the coefficient of determination (R²), factors other than the identified climatic factors also has significant influence on food insecurity incidence. These factors may include changes in non-climatic conditions considering the observation that, most of the households whose members were susceptible to food insecurity in the rural communities commonly had the adverse effects of soil infertility, pest and diseases, increase in household size among others. The views of the majority who agreed during the Focus Group Discussion on climatic conditions can be summarised by what one of them reported: ‘There have been significant changes in the climatic conditions in the area. Rains are setting in late and amounts are generally reducing. Temperatures too are becoming relatively high and variable as compared to the past. At times you get serious drought and at times floods. These changing conditions are greatly affecting agricultural activity and food security in the area’. 68 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The results support similar studies by Edame, Ekpenyong, Fonta, and Duru, (2011), They found out that climate change in sub-Sahara Africa come with huge deleterious cost to agriculture productivity as the study examined the basic components of food security: availability, accessibility, affordability, preference, utilization and nutritional value and food systems stability. 4.4 Coping Strategies and Food Insecurity Nexus 4.4.1 Household Coping Strategies With regards to household coping strategies to deal with food insecurity in Tangasie, Charisombo, and Kuuri it was observed from the individual interview that households heads in these communities resort to coping mechanisms such as reduction of meals both in quantity and frequency, borrowing from friends, restrict consumption of adults to allow more food for children inter alia. Whilst the common practice among the youth is migration to the south for alternative livelihoods. Assessing the magnitude of a coping strategy entails measuring the frequencies of the strategy by ascribing weights, summing up the weights and then putting the result as a score (Maxwell, 2008). Weights 0, 1, 2, 3 and 4 were ascribed for this study as never, hardly, sometimes, often and always respectively. The weights were multiplied by the percentage of their frequencies and then were summed up to get scores of every coping strategy. Again, increased reliance on coping strategies is associated with lower food availability and the higher the weighted sums of coping strategies, the more a household is food insecure, (Maxwell, et al., 2008). One way of calculating a weighted sum of different coping strategies, (where the 69 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh weights reflect the frequency of use by the household) is to make the weights consecutive, so that "often" is counted as a 4, "sometimes" is counted as a 3, "rarely" is counted as a 2, and "never" is counted as a 1. The higher the sum, the more food insecure the household is. Calculating a weighted sum of these different coping strategies, where the weights reflect the frequency of use and the severity of the household's response is to ascribe a weight of 1 to the use of strategies such as eating less preferred foods, reducing portion sizes served to household members, reducing the quantity of food served to adults and reducing the quantity of food served to children, a weight of 2 is ascribed to skipping meals and a weight of 3 to skipping eating all day (ibid). Different ascribing of scores is used because coping strategies vary from one household to the other, and therefore, a household where no one eats for an entire day is clearly more food insecure than one where people have simply switched from consuming rice to cassava, (Maxwell, et al., 2008). Thus, it was found out from Table 4.12 that, reduction in size of meals had the highest score of 270.5. It was followed by reduction in the number of meals per day at 259.5 and consumption of immature crop at 170.3. The findings from this study on coping strategies confirms similar coping strategies identified by Wiley (2007) among Tharaka District households, which were: seeking assistance for food from relatives and neighbours, sale of livestock and collecting bush food by poor households. The findings therefore are implicative that small scale farmers in rural Nadowli District communities relied on a variety of coping strategies to counter their household food insecurity; which is in agreement that increased reliance on coping strategies is associated with lower food availability (Mjonono, et al., 2009). 70 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.12: Relative Frequency of Coping Strategies Coping Strategy Relative Frequency Index % Total Weights Never Hardly Sometimes Often Always Reduction in size of meals 0 4.9 39.7 35.4 20 270.5 Reduction in the number of 0.3 9.7 35 40.2 14.8 259.5 meals per day Consume immature crop 10 20 59.7 10.3 0 170.3 Restrict consumption of 29.4 10.3 45.4 14.9 0 145.8 adults to allow more for children Swapped consumption to less 25.4 24.6 39.4 0.6 10 145.2 preferred or cheaper foods Borrow food from a friend or 14.9 34 51.1 0 0 136.2 relative Out migration 24.9 25.1 45.1 4.9 0 130 Sale of milking livestock 40.3 15.1 30 14.6 0 118.9 Sale of charcoal and/or 55.9 19.3 20.0 4.8 0 73.7 firewood Source: Field Data, (2015) The discrepancy in the findings about the diverse coping strategies with regard to household food insecurity situation as shown in Table 4.10 explains that food insecurity status of respondents does correlate with coping strategies. Thus, coping strategies with regard to food insecurity could be a possible medium through which food insecurity influences the kind of mitigation measures households resort to in the study communities. Table 4.13 provides details of results on how food insecurity correlates with the complex coping mechanisms in the rural communities. With regards to coping strategies a 50 years old woman reported that: ‘I am getting older and weaker and cannot effectively work on my farm. The only way that the household food security needs are being met has been two of my sons who are formally employed. The story is different from other households who are less fortunate to have this kind of support’. 71 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.13: Correlation Coefficients for Household Food Insecurity and Coping Strategies Food Reduction of Reduction in the Out Component insecurity household size of number of meals per migration meals day Food insecurity Pearson 1 .353 .195 .322 Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) . .000 .001 .000 N 178 178 178 306 Reduction of Pearson .353 1 .496 .515 household size of Correlation meals Sig. (2-tailed) .000 . .000 .000 N 178 178 178 178 Reduction in the Pearson .195 .496 1 .446 number of meals per Correlation day Sig. (2-tailed) .001 .000 . .000 N 178 178 178 178 Out migration Pearson -.322 .515 .446 1 Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000 . N 178 178 178 178 ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). The Pearson correlation values for food insecurity to household coping mechanisms as shown in Table 4.13 revealed a positive relationship. It implies that an increase in food insecurity status would result in a correspondent increase in the different coping strategies in the rural communities in the district particularly with regard to climatic and non-climatic factors to food insecurity identified in the study communities. Similarly, the result in Table 4.13 further confirms that there is a significant correlation between food insecurity and the different coping strategies in the study area. Results from Table 4.12 and based on self-reported cases indicates that, majority of the household suffer depression (stress) as compared to the relatively non-food insecure within the study communities. This confirms findings by Maxwell et al. (2008), that an increased reliance on coping strategies is associated 72 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh with lower food availability and the higher the weighted sums of coping strategies, the more a household is food insecure This implies that, though members of the study communities were likely to suffer some form of stress (depression) irrespective of one’s socio-economic status, the poor farming household were more likely to undergo stressful conditions which were attributable to their level of food insecurity. From the data one would notice that virtually all the households are involved in the different ranges of response strategies. However, it could further be noticed that according to Watts‟s categorization, some are moderately vulnerable whereas others are highly and extremely vulnerable. This is a clear manifestation of the food insecurity situation that rural farm households are confronted with in the sense that they (the rural households) are resorting to almost all the activities/strategies identified by Watt (as cited in Frankenberger and Goldstein, 1991: 95) as proxies for food insecurity. Again it was observed from the in-depth interview with the youth group that: ‘Most of us normally resort to migrating to the south, to seek for greener pastures due to bad harvest from our farming activities. If we were having irrigation dams during the dry season it would help to a large extent. As such, out-migration is the coping strategy for many of us’. Thus the study rejects the null hypothesis that; there is no significant relationship between food insecurity and household coping strategies. 73 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FIVE SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Introduction This study sought to investigate food insecurity and coping strategies among small scale farming households in the Nadowli District. The objectives of this study were to provide an understanding of the state of food insecurity and livelihood activities in the Nadowli district; ascertain the causes of food insecurity based on perception of households in the study area; and examine households coping strategies and how they survive in dry land conditions in the midst of food insecurity. 5.1 The Livelihoods Profiles and Patterns of Food Insecurity The rural household sizes are relatively large well above the national average of five. Majority of households had no formal education, no regular income earning sources with a relatively few regular income earners. The major source of livelihood for the small scale farming households was food crop farming. There were more food insecure households, most of whom depended on food aid, while the food secure who were richer accessed food from the market when own produced food dwindled. On the whole, the relatively few food secure households relied on own food crop production. The findings support the complex relationship between food insecurity and coping strategies among households. 74 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5.1.1 The causes of food insecurity With respect to climate variability the analysis of the rainfall data not only show evidence of considerable variations and decreasing amounts over the study period, but temperature, trends have also shown noticeable variations and a rising trend over the study period. These trends are expected to have negative impact on agricultural productivity and thereby adversely affecting food security. Whilst non-climatic factors such as increase in household size, soil infertility, pests and diseases among others also contribute to food insecurity among households in the study area. Similarly, it was revealed that local perceptions with regard to causes of food insecurity in contrasts with biophysical observations, coincide with results from recent studies on perceptions of climate change from Burkina Faso showing a larger inter-annual variation in the rainy season and a greater inter-annual rainfall variability (Nielsen and Reenberg, 2009; Nielsen and Vigh, 2012; West et al., 2008) and results from the Glowa Volta project in the Upper East Region of Ghana (such as Laube, 2011; Laux et al., 2008). Again, there were significant relationship between household food insecurity and livelihood activity at 0.05 level of significance. The regression analysis identified an existing relationship between climatic factors and food insecurity, whilst the Pearson correlation values for food insecurity to household coping mechanisms revealed a positive and a very significant relationship at 0.01 level of significance. Based on self-reported cases, the results show that following the variability in climatic conditions and other non-climatic factors exposes majority of households in the Nadowli District to food 75 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh insecurity, whilst their ability to respond in times of this situation is minimal as indicated in the conceptual framework for the study. 5.1.2 The coping strategies for dealing with food insecurity It was found that, as a result of household food insecurity condition most of these small scale farming households in the study area resort to complex coping strategies; the main coping strategies employed by the households in the case of food shortages were reduction in size of meals, reduction in the number of meals per day and consumption of immature crop. 5.2 The Livelihoods Profiles and Patterns of Food Insecurity Household livelihoods profiles in the study communities are diverse in kind and whilst majority of households are vulnerable to food insecurity. Food cropping farming is a main livelihood activity in the study communities. 5.2.1 The causes of food insecurity Various factors accounted for food insecurity in among housholds in Tangasie, Kuuri, and Charisombo including climatic and non-climatic such as; rainfall, temperature, environmental, family size and socio-economic. However, reported cases from the farmers and observations, the conclusion was drawn that climatic changes had major effect on food insecurity in the area. 76 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5.2.2 The coping strategies for dealing with food insecurity The different coping strategies applied by households in the study communities were as a result of the food insecurity threats. This has led to youth migration to south, reduction in size of meals, adults allowing their share of meals for the children among others. The results from this study give credence to the distribution of rainfall during the rainy season is of particular importance to farmers, especially the number of “big rains” (or heavy rainfall events), the frequency of dry spells and the duration of rainfall events they form key criteria used by farmers to evaluate the nature of the season. Farmers formulate their expectations for the harvest based on observed rainfall patterns and the performance of crops during the planting period. In this study, having daily rainfall data for Wa climate station from 1953 to 2010, seasonal shifts of rainfall, annual rainfall and rainfall variability gave the researcher opportunity to analyse the distribution of rainfall during the rainy season particularly in discussing crop production, it is crucial to analyse the rainfall amounts and rainfall distribution around timing of planting and throughout the crop cycle. Again, given the constraints, it was important to investigate farmer’s perceptions of change, since their actions are based on how they perceive changes in rainfall and temperature to be the leading cause of food insecurity in the district and meteorological data alone cannot explain people’s behaviour. The datarejects the null hypotheses stated for the study that: there is no significant relationship between food insecurity and household livelihood activity; there is no significant relationship between rainfall/temperature variability and household food insecurity; and there is no significant relationship between food insecurity and household coping strategies. 77 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5.3 Recommendations from the Study Recognising the adverse impact of climatic and non-climatic factors exposing small scale farming households to food insecurity situations in the area, more can be derived to help ensure food security at the household and individual level. Based on the findings of the study therefore, the following recommendations are submitted. 5.3.1 Maintaining manageable and productive household socio-demographic structures The size, composition and structure of households are critical as they can influence food security outcomes of individual households. Households are microcosms (basic units) of the bigger society (districts and the nation at large) ― the latter are mainly aggregations of the former. There is therefore the need for attention to be given to the complexity and development of households. Measures should include the following: Government should through its relevant agencies encourage the need to keep manageable family sizes, by especially targeting rural male and female adolescent cohorts through the provision of affordable and accessible family planning and related services. Avenues such as radio broadcast could be of help; It is also important for rural education to be taken more seriously and given the necessary attention. It is useful for government to vigorously pursue and promote educational policy and programmes such as functional literacy that could help improve illiterate household heads to be more functional and help maintain strong and productive household structures. This is required since the study has shown that most of the household heads have no formal education which has 78 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh the tendency to limit their livelihood sources of income for food security from the Focus Group Discussion and observation. 5.3.2 Promoting Community-Based Participatory Actions Household food insecurity prevalence among the small scale farmers was found to be high. To alleviate the situation, development of local capacity through community-based participatory actions is suggested as a means of improving program outcomes as well as promoting human rights of household food security. Apart from providing food relief responses, the GOG together with food relief stakeholders should lay out sustainable food policies, implement them to the letter and conduct capacity building with the small scale farmers through arranging and conducting training seminars and sessions to equip the community with appropriate household food security information. 5.3.2 Ensure effective coping and adaptation strategies to climate variability and change stresses In the face of the changing climatic trends which have been shown to have adverse effects on food systems and food security, it is valuable for more education and sensitization to be mounted on the challenges posed by these climate-induced stresses in the Nadowli District. This is considered necessary to keep rural people constantly awake to the impacts of this evolving phenomenon. This could be done through an effective collaboration between lead agencies such as The Regional Meteorological office, MOFA, Traditional Authorities, Faith-Based Organizations and Compound Heads. This could be coordinated by the District Assembly. Community durbars, local radio broadcasts and religious sermons could be periodically used as 79 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh avenues for this purpose. Pictures and videos from climate related changes and impacts from different areas of the municipality and elsewhere could be used to enhance their appreciation of the real issues on the ground. Aside this information sharing approach which might not be enough, it is also valuable for more practical and frontal measures such as; the introduction of appropriate quick-maturing, drought and disease resistant, and high yielding crop varieties and animal breeds, so as to help improve agricultural productivity and food security. Soil management and water conservation techniques (for instance the provision of small scale irrigation facilities―small earth dams and dugouts) should also be developed and enhanced to help sustain and transform agriculture in rural communities to help improve the food security situation in such areas. This could be ensued through effective implementation and advancement into rural communities of government’s policies on agriculture such as irrigation development. There is also the need for local-based research to be encouraged, supported and sustained to monitor and document unfolding climate-induced events and their impact on various livelihoods support systems, with implications especially for food security so as to enhance evidence-based planning to meet local specific current and future challenges. This could be encouraged by the District Assembly, NGOs and educational institutions such as the University for Development Studies in Wa. 80 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5.4 Suggestions for Further Research The following further researches are recommended, based on the findings of the study on household food insecurity and coping strategies among small scale farmers in the Nadowli District. i. A similar study could be done covering a wider geographical region in Arid and Semi-Arid Lands. ii. 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Quoted in Evans (1998). 94 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDICES APPENDIX A QUESTIONNAIRE FOOD INSECURITY AND COPING STRATEGIES IN SEMI-ARID AREAS: THE CASE OF NADOWLI DISTRICT IN THE UPPER WEST REGION OF GHANA DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY AND RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT, UNIVERSITY OF GHANA Introduction This study is being carried out by a post- graduate student from the Department of Geography and Resource Development, University of Ghana, Legon. As a partial fulfillment of the degree of Master of Philosophy in Geography and Resource Development, the study seeks toidentify and analyze how households in Nadowli district cope with food insecurity and semi-arid conditions over time.Your views and opinions on the topic are strictly for academic purpose only. Your anonymity is assured and any information provided will be treated as confidential. I hope you will cooperate by providing the right responses to the question posed. Date of interview……/……../2015 Community……………..... Questionnaire no… 95 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Instruction: A household head or a representative of each household is required to answer on behalf of the household. Please indicate your choice or option by ticking (√), circling where appropriate or write them in the spaces provided A. BACKGROUND CHARACTERISTICS AND ASSETS 1. Village name…………………………………………. 2. Age: …………………………………………………………………………………… 3. Gender:1. Male 2. Female 4. Relation of respondent to household head (the primary decision maker in the household): 1. Household head 2. Wife of household head 3. Son/daughter of household head 4. Other (specify)……………………………………….. 5. How many years have you been living in this community? ……………………………….. 6. Size of Household (this include only residents): ……………………………………….. 7. Level of education of respondent:1. No formal education 2. Primary 3. JHS/Middle 4. SHS/’O’level/’A’level 5. Tertiary 8. Religion of respondent: 1.Muslim 2. Christian 3.Traditionalist 4.Other (specify)……………………………. 9. Main source of income: 1. Crop farming 2. Animal husbandry 3. Fishing 4. Trading and commerce 5. Civil servant 6. Other (specify)………………………………… 96 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 10. List any other sources of income…………………………………………………… 11. What was the amount of harvested crop in the year 2014………………………….. 12. How many livestock do you own? …………………………………….. 13. What was your wage earned this last year? ……………………………………….. 14. Do you own a farming land in this community? 1. Yes b. No 15. How many acres of land do you own or have permanent use of? …………………………. 16. Major items owned (Tick as many as applicable): Items Owned Assets owned- state number Number Yes No 1. Traction livestock (e.g. mule, goats, cattle, horse, oxen) 2. Car 97 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3. Plough 4. Gas/kerosene stove 5. Television 6. Radio 7. Bicycle/moped 8. Iron roofed house 9. Refrigerator 10. Cellphone B. STATE OF FOOD SECURITY 17. What is your mainstaple food? 1. TZ 2. Rice 3. Fufu 4. Banku 5. Others (specify).............................. 18. What is the main crop that constitutes the staple food? 1. Maize 2. Millet 3. Sorghum 4. Yam 5. Cassava 6. Local Rice 7. Imported rice 6. Others (specify)................................................. 19. Rank the following food crops according to priority in terms of food security for your household. Rank from 1, 2, 3, etc., with one being the topmost priority. 1. Maize 2. Millet 3. Sorghum 4. Yam 5. Cassava 6. Local Rice 98 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 7. Imported rice 8. Others (specify)............................................ 20. What other food crops serve as supplement to your main staple? 1. Groundnut 2. Beans 3. Vegetables 4. Others (specify)......................................... 21. Did your last harvest take you through the year 2014? 1. Yes 2. No 3. Don’t know 22. When did you run out of your harvest last year? 1. Between October and December 2.Between January and March 3.Between April and June 4. Between July and September 23. What could possibly account for bad harvest? .................................................................. 24. Did your household buy food last year? 1. Yes 2. No 3. Don’t know 25. When did you or your household buy food? 1. Between October and December 2.Between January and March 3. Between April and June 4. Between July and September 26. How long will the food in your store last you? 1. 1 month 2. 2 months 3. 3. Months 4. Months 5. Other (Specify)………………………………. 27. Do you expect to experience food shortage in your household this year? 1. Yes 2.No 3. Don’t know 25. How will you rate the food security situation of the household? 1. Good 2. Fair 3. Poor 4. Very poor 99 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 26. Do you expect your food security situation to change for better in the coming year? 1. Yes 2. No 3. Don’t know 27. Do you expect food situation of households in Nadowli to change for the better in the next five to ten years? 1. Yes 2.No 3.Don’t know 28. Does your household have a dry season garden 1.Yes 2. No 29. What do you grow in your dry season farm? 1. Cereals/ grains 2.Roots and tubers 3.Legumes 4. Vegetables/fruits 5.Other (specify) ………………………………….. 30. Do you or any member of the household cultivate cash crops? 1. Yes 2. No 3. Don’t know 31. What type of cash crop? 1. Cotton 2.Cashew 3. Yam 4.Soy beans 5. Other (Specify) ………………………………….. 32. Where do you store your crops after harvesting? 1. On the farm 2. In the house 3. Do not store 33. What storage method did you use? 1. Bags 2. Mud silo 3.Mat silo 4. Bam 5. Other (Specify)…………………………………. 34. Did you sell part of the harvest last year? 1. Yes 2. No 35. When did you sell the harvest? 1. Oct, Nov, Dec 2. Jan, Feb, Mar 3. Apr, May, Jun 4.Jul, Aug, Sep 100 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 36. How much did you sell it for? ………………………………………. 36. Does any member of your household have access to credit? 1. Yes 2. No 3. Don’t know 37. What was the source of the credit? 1. Rural/ Community bank 2. NGO 3. Susu group 4. From Individuals 5. Other (Specify)…………………………… 38. Do you have access to irrigation facilities? 1. Yes 2.No 39. If yes to question 38 how many acres do you have under irrigation? …………………… 40. How many volumes of yield do you cultivate under irrigation? ………………………… 42. How does irrigation farming affect your food security? 1. Positively 2. Negatively 3. Neutral 43. What are the farming practices you mostly engage in? …………………………. 44. How do you feed the family when you record poor crop yield? ............................... 101 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh B. COPING STRATEGIES 45. Which of the following coping strategies did you adopt to cope with food insecurity? For each strategy adopted, state whether it was able to help reduce food insecurity. If strategy was not adopted, can you explain why? Coping Strategy Occurrence Did strategy Frequency of occurrence (Use 1. never; help to 2. Rarely(once); 3.From time to time(2 Question? reduce food or 3 times);4.Often(5 or more times) insecurity Yes No Rely on less preferred and less expensive foods Borrow food or money (you have to repay) from friends or relatives? Purchase food on credit? Gather wild food, hunt or harvest immature crops? Consume seed stock held for next year? Send household members to eat elsewhere? Limit portion size at mealtimes Restrict consumption of adults in order for small children to eat? Feed working members of household at the expense of non-working members? Skip entire day without eating Sell high value preferred foods to purchase larger quantity of less expensive foods? Seasonal migration to urban areas Seasonal migration to other rural areas Permanent migration by some household members Exchange labour for food 102 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Sell livestock or other farm implements to purchase food Reduce expenses by changing consumption (type and number of meals 46. Has any member of your household ever migrated from this village in the last 10 years? 1. Yes 2. No 47. If a member of your household has migrated from this village in the last 10 years, complete the table below for the migrant. Name of Type of Age Gender Destination (1. Reasons for Migration Has migrant migrant migrant (use (1. Obuasi/Techima (multiple allowed) ever (indicate as codes 1. Male; 2 n; 2 Rural remitted many as Permanent; Female) community 1. Education money/Food applicable) 2 Seasonal; home? 3.Returned 3.Another Urban 2. Marriage community in Ghana 3. Declining/unreliable rainfall 1. Yes 4. Outside Ghana ( specify) 4. Rising Temperatures 2. No 5. Shortage of farming land 6. Floods 7. Lack of jobs here 8. Other (specify) 1. 2. 103 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3. 4. 5. 48. Has your household received any form of assistance from any agency/organization during periods of food insecurity? 1. Yes (state name of organization and explain nature of assistance)………………………………………………………………………………………… 2. No 104 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDIX B IN-DEPTH INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR REGIONAL EXTENTION OFFICER FROM MINISTRY OF FOOD AND AGRICULTURE (MoFA) 1. Do farmers complain about insufficient crop yields to secure the household throughout the year? 2. Do households face food shortages during the wet season prior to the next harvest season? 3. What are the staple crops produced in Nadowli? 4. How would you describe the production of these crops, is it consistent or it fluctuates? 5. What are the factors responsible for a good and bad production in a year? 6. Which crops do farmers cultivate most, is it staple crops or cash crops? 7. What could be the incentive for the increase in production of a particular crop by farmers? 8. Do farmers stand a higher chance of succeeding in a particular crop than with other crops? 105