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EXAMINING THE IMPACT OF THE YOUTH EMPLOYMENT 
AGENCY (YEA) IN THE FOURTH REPUBLIC: A CASE STUDY OF 
THE ROLE OF THE GHANAIAN YOUTH TOWARDS COMMUNITY 
POLICING UNDER THE SIXTH MODULE 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
BY 
 
IBRAHIM BASHIRU 
(ID: 10704109) 
 
 
 
 
 
AN MPhil THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF 
POLITICAL SCIENCE, UNIVERSITY OF GHANA-LEGON IN PARTIAL 
FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF A 
MASTERS DEGREE IN POLITICAL SCIENCE 
 
 
SEPTEMBER, 2020 
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DECLARATION  
 
I, Ibrahim Bashiru, humbly declare that I wrote this thesis on my own under the supervision of 
Prof. Abeeku Essuman-Johnson and Prof. Ransford Edward Gyampo, the Department of 
Political Science, University of Ghana-Legon. I hereby do state that this work is not a 
reproduction of somebody’s thesis. I have also referenced the sources of all academic materials 
(books, articles etc) cited in this work.  
 
 
                   Ibrahim Bashiru 
                               (Student) 
 
……………………………………….. 
DATE: 30/04/2021 
 
 
 
 
 
Prof. Abeeku Essuman-Johnson    Prof. Ransford Edward Gyampo 
             (First Supervisor)                        (Second Supervisor) 
     
 
 
………………………………………..  ……...……………………………….... 
 DATE: 30/04/2021                                                   DATE: 04/05/2021 
 
 
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DEDICATION  
This work is dedicated to Memuna Yamdella (my wife), my supervisors (Prof. Abeeku 
Essuman-Johnso and Prof. Ransford Edward Gyampo and my MPhil mates for their immense 
supports and directions throughout the study. Allah bless. Amen!!! 
  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 
 
I write to express my sincere gratitude to the Almighty Allah for giving me the strength and 
understanding needed to write this thesis. I, equally, write to express my sincere gratitude to 
my wife, my supervisors and friends for their support. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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TABLE OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS 
YEA                                                                             the Youth Employment Agency 
YCP                                                                                     the Youth in Cocoa Program  
MDAs                                                                                ministries, departments and agencies  
OECD                                       the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development   
BWT                                                                                             The Broken Windows Theory  
CPA                                                                                     the community protection assistants  
CETA                                                           the Comprehensive Employment and Training Act   
YEDPA                                       the 1977 Youth Employment and Demonstration Project Act  
YIEPP                                                                the Youth Incentive Entitlement Program Pilot  
JAG                                                                                         the Jobs for America’s Graduates  
JTPA                                                                                         the Job Training Partnership Act  
CED                                                                                the community economic development  
YOI                                                                                       the Youth Opportunities Initiatives  
YEI                                                                                          the Youth Employment Initiative  
YG                                                                                                               the Youth Guarantee  
YEP                                                                                          the Young Employment Package  
GYT                                                                                                 the German Youth Training  
YWS                                                                                              the Young Workers’ Scheme  
YTS                                                                                                  the Youth Training Scheme  
MYS                                                                                        the Ministry of Youth and Sports  
NYSC                                                                                     the National Youth Service Corps  
COTVET                             the Council for Technical and Vocational Education and Training  
NYEP                                                                        the National Youth Employment Program  
STEP                                                                    the Skills Training and Employment Program  
GSDI                                                                           the Ghana Skills Development Initiatives  
NVTI                                                                         the National Vocational Training Institute  
UNICEF                                                                              the United Nations Children's Fund  
UNDP                                                                   the United Nations Development Programme 
NYPD                                                                                     the New York Police Department  
CCP                                                                          the Comprehensive Communities Program  
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CAPS                                                                         the Chicago Alternative Policing Strategy  
RUC                                                                                             the Royal Ulster Constabulary  
PSNI                                                                                the Police Service of Northern Ireland  
ICITAP                          the International Criminal Investigative Training Assistance Program  
CPPA                                                        the Community Protection Personnel Association (s)  
 
 
  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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Contents 
DECLARATION ..................................................................................................................................... ii 
DEDICATION ....................................................................................................................................... iii 
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ........................................................................................................................ iv 
TABLE OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS ...................................................................................... v 
Contents ........................................................................................................................................ vii 
ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................. xii 
CHAPTER ONE ........................................................................................................................... 1 
1.0. INTRODUCTION: .................................................................................................................. 1 
1.1. STATEMENT OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM ............................................................ 3 
1.2. JUSTIFICATION FOR CHOICE OF ACCRA AS THE SITE OF THE STUDY .......... 5 
1.3. RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: ................................................................................................ 7 
1.4.THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY: ............................................................................ 7 
1.4. THE ORGANIZATION OF THE WORK: ......................................................................... 8 
References: ..................................................................................................................................... 9 
CHAPTER TWO ........................................................................................................................ 14 
LITERATURE REVIEW........................................................................................................... 14 
2.1. STUDIES ON THE CIRCUMSTANCES SURROUNDING YOUTH 
UNEMPLOYMENT IN NORTH AMERICA, EUROPE, AND AFRICA ............................ 14 
2.2. INTRODUCTION: ................................................................................................................ 14 
2.3. NORTH AMERICA: THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA (U.S.A) AND CANADA
 ……………………………………………………….…………………………………………………………………………………14 
THE CASE OF THE U.S.A: ...................................................................................................... 14 
THE CASE OF CANADA: ........................................................................................................ 18 
2.4. EUROPE: .............................................................................................................................. 20 
2.5. AFRICA: ............................................................................................................................... 21 
2.6.THE CHALLENGES SURROUNDING THE YOUTH AND YOUTH EMPLOYMENT 
PROGRAMS IN NORTH AMERICA, EUROPE AND AFRICA ......................................... 26 
2.7. INTRODUCTION: ................................................................................................................ 26 
Lack of Skills and Labour-Markets: ......................................................................................... 26 
Poor Managements and Exclusions: ......................................................................................... 27 
Immigrations and Economic Declines: ..................................................................................... 28 
Shrinking Resources and Youth-Adult Unemployment: ......................................................... 28 
Population Explosions, Regionalism and Gender Discriminations: ....................................... 29 
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2.8. A REVIEW OF COMMUNITY POLICING IN NORTH AMERICA, EUROPE AND 
AFRICA ....................................................................................................................................... 29 
2.9. INTRODUCTION: ................................................................................................................ 29 
THE U.S.: ..................................................................................................................................... 30 
EUROPE:..................................................................................................................................... 32 
AFRICA: ...................................................................................................................................... 34 
2.1.0. A REVIEW OF THE POSITIVE IMPACTS OF COMMUNITY POLICING IN 
NORTH AMERICA, EUROPE, ASIA, CENTRAL AMERICA AND AFRICA ................. 36 
2.1.1. INTRODUCTION: ............................................................................................................. 36 
Community Policing Enhances Relations: ................................................................................ 36 
Community Policing Promotes Partnerships: .......................................................................... 37 
It Works to Reduce Disorder and Crime:................................................................................. 37 
2.1.2.A REVIEW OF THE CHALLENGES SURROUNDING THE IMPLEMENTATION 
OF COMMUNITY POLICING PROGRAMS IN NORTH AMERICA, EUROPE, ASIA, 
LATIN AMERICA, CENTRAL AMERICA AND AFRICA ................................................. 38 
2.1.3. INTRODUCTION: ............................................................................................................. 38 
The Failure of Leadership and Coordination: ......................................................................... 39 
Lack of Resources: ...................................................................................................................... 39 
Police-Corruption: ...................................................................................................................... 40 
Divided-Societies: ........................................................................................................................ 40 
Lack of Proper Training and Police-Brutality: ........................................................................ 41 
Conflict over Values and Broken-Relations: ............................................................................ 41 
References: ................................................................................................................................... 43 
CHPATER THREE .................................................................................................................... 54 
THEORETICAL/CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK ............................................................... 54 
THEORIES OF EMPLOYMENT (JOB) SECURITY/INSECURITY AND BROKEN 
WINDOWS .................................................................................................................................. 54 
2.0. INTRODUCTION: ................................................................................................................ 54 
3.1. THE THEORIES OF EMPLOYMENT (JOB) SECURITY AND INSECURITY ........ 54 
3.2. BROKEN WINDOWS: ........................................................................................................ 57 
3.3. RESEARCH QUESTIONS: ................................................................................................ 60 
References: ................................................................................................................................... 61 
CHAPTER FOUR ....................................................................................................................... 64 
METHODOLOGY ..................................................................................................................... 64 
3.0. INTRODUCTION: ................................................................................................................ 64 
4.1. Research techniques: ........................................................................................................... 64 
4.2. The Sources of Data: ............................................................................................................ 65 
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4.4. Gathering Primary Data: .................................................................................................... 66 
4.5. Interviews: ............................................................................................................................ 67 
4.6.Interview Discussion Guide and Questionnaire: ................................................................ 67 
4.7. Strategy to Store and Transcribe Data: ............................................................................. 68 
4.8. Analysis of Data: .................................................................................................................. 68 
4.9. The Reliability and Validity of the Method: ...................................................................... 69 
4.1.0 The Ethical Principles of Research: ................................................................................. 69 
4.1.1. The Mixed-Method: .......................................................................................................... 70 
4.1.2 The Mixed-Method’s Merits and Demerits: .................................................................... 70 
4.1.3. Limitations/Challenges of the Study: .............................................................................. 71 
References: ................................................................................................................................... 72 
CHAPTER FIVE ........................................................................................................................ 74 
ANALYSIS OF THE CPAs SURVEY ...................................................................................... 74 
4.0. INTRODUCTION: ................................................................................................................ 74 
5.1. Demographic characteristics of community policing assistants: ..................................... 74 
Table 4.1 Distribution of respondents by municipal area and sex: ........................................ 75 
Table 4.2 Distribution of respondents within the municipal areas by sex: ............................ 76 
Figure 4.1 Age of CPAs by sex: .................................................................................................. 77 
Figure 4.2 Marital status of CPAs by sex: ................................................................................ 78 
Figure 4.3 Highest educational level of CPAs: ......................................................................... 79 
Table 4.3 Highest educational level of CPAs by sex: ............................................................... 79 
Table 4.4 Main occupation of households of CPAs by gender: ............................................... 80 
Table 4.5 Monthly income of households of CPAs by sex, age and location: ........................ 81 
5.2. EMPLOYMENT ASPECTS OF THE YOUTH UNDER THE YEA’S 6TH MODULE:81 
Table 4.6 Income levels of CPAs in their previous employment: ........................................... 82 
Figure 4.4 Age of CPAs during recruitment by sex: ................................................................ 83 
Table 4.7 Satisfaction with salary by sex and age: ................................................................... 84 
Table 4.8 Intentions of CPAs to exit program before expiration: .......................................... 85 
Table 4.8 CPAs trained on how to set-up their own businesses by sex, age, education level 
and location: ................................................................................................................................ 86 
Table 4.9 CPAs use of special exit fund by sex, age and educational level: ........................... 87 
Table 4.10 Employment prospects of CPAs after exit by sex, age and educational level: .... 88 
Table 4.11 YEA offer guidance and counselling services to CPAs: ........................................ 90 
Figure 4.7 Personal objective of CPAs in the 6th Module: ....................................................... 91 
5.3. COMMUNITY POLICING UNDER THE YEA’S 6TH MODULE: ................................ 91 
Table 4.12 Distribution of common offenses by location: ........................................................ 92 
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Table 4.13 Level of cooperation from community members: ................................................. 94 
Table 4.14 Level of satisfaction with training given to CPAs: ................................................ 95 
Table 4.15 CPAs who receive regular in-and-on-the-job training: ........................................ 96 
Table 4.16 CPAs who have helped to reduce crime in their areas: ........................................ 97 
Figure 4.8 Authority to make and implement some decisions by CPAs: ............................... 99 
Table 4.17 Average number of calls made a day regarding crime prevention and control:
 ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..101 
Table 4.18 CPAs who have provided communities with contacts for emergencies: ........... 102 
Table 4.19 CPAs who received emergency calls from community members: ..................... 103 
Figure 4.9 CPAs who provided emergency contacts and emergency calls received: .......... 104 
Figure 4.10 What CPAs use to prevent and control crime: .................................................. 105 
Table 4.20 CPAs with special response units to respond to emergency calls: ..................... 106 
Table 4.21 Main means of patrol since recruit: ...................................................................... 107 
Table 4.22 Community policing has enhanced relations between CPAs and community 
members: ................................................................................................................................... 108 
Table 4.23 CPAs who are perceived to be corrupt: ............................................................... 110 
Table 4.24 CPAs who perceive divisions have impacts on YEA recruits:............................ 111 
Table 4.25 Proportion of CPAs who have ever been brutal on citizens: .............................. 112 
Table 2.26 Proportion of CPAs who indicated inadequate funding has stifled their 
operations: ................................................................................................................................. 114 
Figure 4.11 Leadership and coordination problems between top hierarchy and CPAs: ... 115 
5.4. ANALYSIS OF THE COMMUNITY MEMBERS’ SURVEY: .................................... 116 
5.5. Demographic characteristics of community members: .................................................. 116 
Figure 4.12 Distribution of community members’ age by sex: ............................................. 117 
Table 4.27 Marital status of community member respondents by sex, age and location: .. 118 
Figure 4.13 Educational level of respondents by gender: ...................................................... 119 
Table 4.28 Main occupation of respondents by sex: .............................................................. 120 
4.1 Impact of CPA Activities in the Community: .................................................................. 120 
Table 4.29 Crimes usually committed in the communities:................................................... 121 
Table 4.30 Community members who have heard of CPAs: ................................................ 122 
Table 4.31  Community members who always find CPAs working in their area: .............. 123 
Table 4.32 Respondents who perceive CPAs are indigenes of their communities: ............. 124 
Table 4.33 CPAs hold regular meetings with community members: ................................... 125 
Table 4.34 Crime CPAs usually work to prevent or control in the communities: .............. 126 
Table 4.35 Community members satisfied with the output of CPAs: .................................. 128 
Table 4.36 Respondents who perceive crime has reduced due to the activities of CPAs: .. 129 
Figure 4.14 Crimes which have reduced as a result of the activities of CPAs: .................... 130 
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Table 4.37 Crimes which have reduced as a result of the activities of CPAs: ..................... 131 
Table 4.38 Respondents provided with emergency contact numbers: ................................. 132 
CHAPTER SIX ......................................................................................................................... 134 
RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION ....................................................................... 134 
5.0. INTRODUCTION: .............................................................................................................. 134 
6.1. SUCCESSES: ..................................................................................................................... 134 
6.2. CHALLENGES: ................................................................................................................ 135 
References: ................................................................................................................................. 138 
CHAPTER SEVEN ................................................................................................................... 140 
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS .................. 140 
6.0. INTRODUCTION: .............................................................................................................. 140 
7.1. SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: ............................................................................................ 140 
7.2. CONCLUSION: ................................................................................................................. 141 
7.3. RECOMMENDATIONS: ................................................................................................. 142 
Performance: .............................................................................................................................. 142 
Exit strategy: .............................................................................................................................. 143 
Trade: ......................................................................................................................................... 143 
The Community Protection Assistants Module ...................................................................... 144 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: ..................................................................................................................... 146 
BOOKS: ...................................................................................................................................... 146 
ARTICLES: ................................................................................................................................ 146 
INTERVIEWS: .......................................................................................................................... 162 
Appendix 1 .................................................................................................................................. 163 
Table A1 Comparing mean age of CPAs by sex:.................................................................... 163 
Appendix 2: ................................................................................................................................ 164 
QUESTIONNAIRE TO MEASURE THE IMPACT OF COMMUNITY POLICING 
FROM THE PERSPECTIVES OF THE CPAs ..................................................................... 164 
Appendix 3: ................................................................................................................................ 173 
QUESTIONNAIRE TO MEASURE THE IMPACT OF CPAs FROM THE 
PERSPECTIVES OF THE COMMUNITY-RESIDENTS ................................................... 173 
Appendix 4: ................................................................................................................................ 177 
INTERVIEW DISCUSSION GUIDE TO MEASURE THE IMPACTS OF CPAs FROM 
THE PERSPECTIVES OF YEA AND GPS OFFICIALS .................................................... 177 
 
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ABSTRACT 
 
Youth unemployment, including its related challenges (e.g., crime), is one of the major 
challenges facing many countries in the world. Youth unemployment, for example, remains a 
major challenge in Europe, Asia, Australia, Latin America, North America and, of course, 
Africa. In response, the government of Ghana established the Youth Employment Agency 
(YEA) to deal with youth unemployment and its related challenges in 2015. One of the modules 
which was designed to directly deal with youth unemployment and its related challenges is the 
6th module which concerns itself with the “Youth in Community Service and Security Module” 
[otherwise known as “Community Protection Assistants—CPAs”].  
The study was designed to appraise and measure the 6th module—the “Youth in Community 
Service and Security Module” (otherwise known as “Community Protection Personnel”)—
against YEA’s objectives using the mixed method.  The results showed that YEA works to 
offer the youth with temporary employment and connects them to lifelong employments 
through its Job Portals and Job Centre. Moreover, interactions with YEA top officials and 
CPAs showed that YEA provides the CPAs with ‘Exit-Fund’ at the end of the two-years-stay 
on the program. Still, a larger proportion (80.6%) of the CPAs believed that they have been 
able to reduce crime in the communities under study. Equally, a greater proportion of the 
community-residents who know about the work of the CPAs (i.e., 56% of them) confirmed that 
there was a reduction of crime in the communities due to the activities of the CPAs. However, 
low salary and lack of funding have generally destabilized operation as most of them are unable 
to feed themselves and families well, rent and renew rents and transport themselves to and fro. 
 
 
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CHAPTER ONE 
 
1.0. INTRODUCTION: 
 
Currently, it is generally established (Anyanwu, 2013; Zakaria et. al., 2014) that youth 
unemployment is, indeed, a global issue. Youth unemployment, for example, exists in Europe 
(Papadopoulos, 2014; Lewis and Heyes, 2017), North America—Canada (Shaw, 2007), 
Southeast Asia, the Pacific (Baah-Boateng, 2016), Latin America (Hodge, 1964), and in 
Africa—Burkina Faso (Calves and Schoumaker, 2004), Zambia (Gough et. al., 2016), Egypt 
(Murata, 2014) and, of course, Ghana (Baah-Boateng, 2015; Rhoda, 1980). The phenomenon 
is not only high in West Africa (Gough et. al., 2016), but also, it is a “pressing” issue in Sub-
Saharan Africa [SSA] (Hilson and Osei, 2014). Globally, the United Nations [U.N.] (2011), 
statistically, reported that the proportion (or percentage) of youth unemployment was 12.6% in 
2010. In 2011, according to the ILO (2012), there were 74.8 million unemployed youth (aged 
15 and 24) in the world. Besides, Baah-Boateng (2015) reported, the proportion of youth 
unemployment exceeds that of the adults in Ghana. Oppenheimer and Spicer (2011) reported 
that the rate of youth unemployment is 80% in Ghana. In Ghana, the youth unemployment rate 
was 14.8% [1992], 16.4% [2000] and, 29% [2009] (ISSER, 2010).  
Moreover, the literates (the educated) feel the impacts more than the illiterates (the less/non-
educated) in societies (Baah-Boateng, 2016). In Egypt, the illiterates, often, get work to do 
more than the literates (Murata, 2014). Equally, the same trend has, in fact, been observed and 
confirmed in Ghana (Baah-Boateng, 2015). In addition, the phenomenon is felt more among 
the female youth than their male counterparts and, of course, more in the urban centres than 
the rural centres (Baah-Boateng, 2016). Consequently, youth unemployment is not only 
“exceedingly complex” (Hilson and Osei, 2014: 85), but triggers serious physiological and 
psychological sorrows and pains (Mroz and Savage (2006). When the problem of youth 
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unemployment remains unresolved, it can, in fact, trigger serious social vices and thus, slow 
economic growth down (Baah-Boateng, 2016; Braimah and King, 2006). Youth 
unemployment, for example, has resulted in, inter alia, youth-militancy in Nigeria (Wapmuk, 
2012), street hawking in Liberia (Munive, 2010), galamsey and gambling in Ghana (Andrews, 
2015; Tagoe, 2018), illegal migration in Ghana (Yeboah, (2017; Porter et. al., 2007; Sarfo-
Mensah, 2009; Rhoda, 1980), crime (robbery, rape etc) and overcrowding in Accra [Ghana] 
(Bob-Milliar and Obeng-Odoom, 2011), Child-labour in Ghana (Mull and Kirkhorn, 2005) and 
illegal migration in Congo (Raeymekers, 2011).  
Lack of employment opportunities and housing shortages led some Accra-based unemployed 
youth (the Gas or Ga Shifimo Kpee) to angrily demonstrate against the then CPP government 
in 1957 (Hodge, 1964). In response to the challenges facing the youth, and given the fact that 
the youth constitutes the utmost proportion [and potential] of the labour force in almost every 
state, most intergovernmental organizations and states have initiated various interventions to 
help alleviate youth unemployment (Sumberg et. al, 2014; Ayura and Ulzen-Appiah, 2016) and 
its attendant challenges, including, among others, robbery and illegal migration. The 2001 
U.N., World Bank, and ILO youth initiative—Youth Employment Network—is a case in point 
(Munive, 2010).  
In Ghana, the CPP responded to the youth’s demands by establishing the Brigade in 1957 
(Hodge, 1964). Today, the Ghanaian government has formulated and implemented many 
youth-related programs, such as, inter alia, the Youth Employment Agency [YEA] (our focus), 
the Youth in Cocoa Program (YCP), and the Youth in Agriculture Program, to deal with youth 
unemployment and its attendant challenges in Ghana. YEA, Avura and Ulzen-Appiah (2016) 
reported, is, however, the largest (employing 100, 000 youth), of all state-initiatives on youth 
in Ghana. Began as the National Youth Employment Program (NYEP) in 2005, the 2015 Youth 
Employment Agency Act (ACT, 887) changed the name from NYEP to YEA “...for the 
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purpose of the development, coordination, supervision, and the facilitation of employment for 
the youth and to provide for related matters” in Ghana (YEA, ACT, 887, 2015: 3). Specifically, 
YEA; under the 2016 Youth Employment Agency Regulations (L.I. 2231); was directed to 
implement some twelve (12) youth-related program and employment modules, including, inter 
alia, “the Youth in Community Improvement Programme”, the “Youth in Agriculture and 
Afforestation Module”, the “Youth in Sanitation and Coastal Sanitation Module”, the “Youth 
in Trade and Vocations Module”, and the “Youth in Community Service and Security Module” 
[otherwise known as “Community Protection Assistants”] {YPA} (YEAR, L.I. 2231, 2016: 2). 
It is, however, important to state that, of the twelve (12) youth program and employment 
modules, the current work seeks to appraise and measure the 6th module—the “Youth in 
Community Service and Security Module” [otherwise known as “Community Protection 
Personnel”]—against YEA’s objective.  
Indeed, the 6th module is considered unique because it was the only module designed to directly 
address youth unemployment and its related challenges (i.e., crime) in Ghana. The youth who 
have been recruited under the “Youth in Agriculture and Afforestation Module” are largely 
into ‘farming’, those who have been recruited under the “Youth in Trade and Vocations 
Module” are largely into ‘trade’, but the youth under the “Youth in Community Service and 
Security Module” help to fight ‘crime’ in Ghana. This, undoubtedly, makes the 6th module 
much more unique than its counterparts in Ghana.     
 
1.1. STATEMENT OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM 
 
The youth constitutes one of the most important resources needed for economic growth and 
development (Baah-Boateng, 2016; Hoetu, 2011). In 1990s, much of the “economic 
development discussions”, for example, was based on youth unemployment and its attendant 
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negative impacts (Fox et. al., 2016). Today, this phenomenon has gained scholarly attention 
across the disciplines in modern universities.  
In North America, scholars, such as Shaw (2007), sought to focus on the nexus between youth 
employment and the disabled persons. Still, others, such as Selenko (2019), sought to focus on 
the relationship between NEET (“Being not in employment, education or training”) adolescents 
and apprenticeship programs in Europe. These studies reported that NEET renders adolescents 
on Youth Guarantee Programs ineffective. In Africa, Calves and Schoumaker (2004), equally, 
wrote on youth unemployment, focusing, exclusively, on Burkina Faso. The youth 
unemployment rate, according to the authors, is high, with many of them falling “outside the 
paid labor force”. The difficulty involved in getting formal jobs drove many youth into private 
businesses in Chawama, Zambia (Gough et al., 2016).  
Also, many have extensively written on this phenomenon in Ghana (Avura and Ulzen-Appiah, 
2016; Enu-Kwesi and Asitik, 2012; Hoetu, 2011; Gyampo and Obeng-Odoom, 2013). Indeed, 
Gyampo and Obeng-Odoom’s (2013) work, for example, sought to examine the contribution 
of Ghanaian youth towards development planning. In the case of Hoetu’s (2011) work, 
however, it sought to examine how the interest of the youth could be taken seriously in 
government ministries, departments and agencies (MDAs) in Ghana. Enu-Kwesi and Asitik 
(2012) looked at the interconnections between “unemployment situation and youth enterprise” 
under the Ajumako-Enyan-Essiam District (AEED) of the Central Region, Ghana. Most 
scholars have equally examined the contribution of community policing [mostly involving the 
national police and the youth] towards addressing crime [largely resulting from youth 
unemployment] in Europe (Reiner, 1992; Zedner, 2006; Martin, 2006), the U.S. (Chesluk, 
2004; Tyler, et al; 2010; Rukus et al, 2018) and Africa (Brogden, 2004; Baker, 2002; Hills, 
2012). Undoubtedly, most of these studies are either too general (Avura and Ulzen-Appiah, 
2016; Hoetu, 2011) or off-mark (Enu-Kwesi and Asitik, 2012; Hoetu, 2011; Gyampo and 
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Obeng-Odoom, 2013; Gough et al., 2016; Shaw, 2007; Reiner, 1992; Zedner, 2006; Martin, 
2006; Chesluk, 2004; Tyler, et al; 2010; Rukus et al, 2018) when applied to the Ghanaian youth 
under YEA’s 6th module. The situation of YEA’s trained-employees under that module, both 
before and after recruitment, has not been dealt with in the above studies.  
Besides, the agency has suffered some major setbacks since its inception in 2005. It has, for 
example, lost a significant proportion of its trained-employees, causing severe financial lost to 
the Republic of Ghana. How, then, can these setbacks be explained? It is believed that lack of 
information undermines the ability of YEA to adopt the necessary measures to reverse the 
emerging trend. This study, therefore, seeks to review and examine the activities of YEA under 
the 6th module, focusing, in particular, on the achievements, challenges and the way forward.  
 
1.2. JUSTIFICATION FOR CHOICE OF ACCRA AS THE SITE 
OF THE STUDY 
 
This research sets out to appraise and review YEA’s 6th module—that is, the Community 
Protection Personnel. Under this module, YEA recruits and trains some youth (aged 18-35) to 
assist the national security service in intelligence gathering, patrol, traffic regulation, 
community protection, among others. These personnel, mostly, live and work in areas in which 
they were born and bred. Thus, to reiterate, the 6th module was developed, as part of efforts, 
to, among others, reduce the youth unemployment rate, regulate traffic, and fight crime in those 
communities. On the strength of this, Accra was chosen, as the site of the study, for the 
following reasons.  
It was observed that Accra has been attracting multi-ethnic migrants over the past decades 
(Getis, 2015; Owusu and Agyei-Mensah, 2011; Geest, et al., 2010, Awumbila and Ardayfio-
Schandorf, 2008), making it more heterogeneous than the remaining cities in Ghana (Agyei-
Mensah1 and Owusu, 2010). In effect, in terms of population, Accra has the largest “urban 
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population” (Appiahene-Gyamfi, 2002) and thus, represents the “largest metropolis” in Ghana 
(Owusu, 2013; Agyei-Mensah and Owusu, 2010). The city’s population has been exploding 
following its declaration as the capital in 1877 (Appiahene-Gyamfi, 1998). The population of 
Accra, for example, was 16, 000 in 1891 and over 1 million in 1990s (Appiahene-Gyamfi, 
2003). Thus, one of “the melting pots of Ghana’s population” is Accra (Owusu and Agyei-
Mensah, 2011: 342). Thirdly, it has the “highest” crime rate in Ghana (Appiahene-Gyamfi, 
2002), making it unsafe for residents, both foreigners and indigenes (Owusu, 2016). Fourthly, 
the city is choked with vehicular and pedestrian traffic daily (Appiahene-Gyamfi, 2003). 
Finally, the unemployment rate, in such urban areas, is more than the rural areas (Baah-
Boateng, 2016).  
The same evidence unfolds, even, as we zoom into the Accra Metropolitan area, the Ayawaso 
East Municipal and Ayawaso Central Municipal.  James Town (which is under the Accra 
Metropolitan area), for example, “marks the origin of the city of Accra” (Owusu and Agyei-
Mensah, 2011:346). Also, some major migrant-residential areas, under the Accra Metropolitan 
area, include Kokomelemele (Harvfy and Brayd, 1974) and Sabon Zongo (Agyei-Mensah1 and 
Owusu, 2010). In Accra, other major migrant-residential areas include Nima (ibid) [under the 
Ayawaso East Municipal District] and Accra New Town (Harvfy and Brayd, 1974) [under the 
Ayawaso Central Municipal District]. Mostly, these migrants live in overcrowded-slums [e.g, 
Nima (Owusu, 2016)] in Accra (Tutu, 2013).  
Then again, Owusu and Oteng-Ababio (2015) opined that the more the city began to urbanize, 
the more crime began to multiply. For example, some of the areas with a high rate of crime, 
under the Accra Metropolitan area, include Mataheko (Adu-Mireku, 2002), Dansoman 
(Brookman-Amissah, 2014) and the Airport Residential area (Wrigley-Asante, 2016). Multiple 
incidents of crime, under the Ayawaso East Municipal District—have also been reported in 
Nima (Appiahene-Gyamfi, 2003; Appiahene-Gyamfi, 2007).  
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It is important to state that YEA, under the 6th module, was established and mandated to 
‘ruthlessly’ deal with the situation we painted above, which is why the Districts serve as some 
of the best places for the study. The foregoing extract, in other words, provides the grounds on 
which to storm the selected Districts. Here, we will appreciate the work of YEA and the 
community protection personnel more than any other area.  
 
1.3. RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: 
 
The research seeks to achieve the following objectives: 
1. To examine the factors that trigger employment insecurity and their effects on the well-
being of YEA’s employees under the 6th Module. 
2. To assess the extent to which the module makes the youth secure and allows them to 
ascend the ladder up into life-long jobs. 
3. To examine the impact of community policy assistants and explore the measures that 
can be put in place to enhance the effectiveness of the Community Protection Personnel 
under the 6th module.    
 
1.4.THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY: 
 
1. The findings of this study should contribute to enrich the body of literature in the area 
under study  
2. The findings of this study will enhance YEA’s policies on youth unemployment in 
Ghana 
 
 
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1.4. THE ORGANIZATION OF THE WORK: 
 
Chapter One: Chapter one will constitute the introduction of this study, the statement of the 
research problem, the research objectives and the significance of the study. 
Chapter Two: This chapter constitutes the literature review on youth employment in Europe, 
North America, Latin America, Asia, and Africa. It will examine the contending debates in the 
area as well as youth unemployment policies globally. The chapter is also made of a review on 
community policy, the successes of community policing and the challenges of community 
policing.   
Chapter Three: This chapter is made up of the theoretical framework of the study.   
Chapter Four: This chapter constitutes the methodology for the study.  
Chapter Five: Chapter Five constitutes the data analysis. The chapter, in other words, analyses 
the impacts (achievements) and challenges of YEA based on the views of respondents.   
Chapter Six: This chapter constitutes the research findings and discussion.  
Chapter Seven: Chapter Seven is made up of summary of findings, conclusion and 
recommendations. Finally, the student will add the interview discussion guide, the 
questionnaire, the bibliography, together with other field materials (if any) at the tail end of the 
thesis.    
 
 
 
 
 
 
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CHAPTER TWO 
 
LITERATURE REVIEW 
 
2.1. STUDIES ON THE CIRCUMSTANCES SURROUNDING YOUTH 
UNEMPLOYMENT IN NORTH AMERICA, EUROPE, AND AFRICA 
 
2.2. INTRODUCTION: 
 
This section intends to review the literature on the circumstances surrounding the youths and 
youth programs in North America, Europe and Africa. The review intends to understand and 
define the youth unemployment problem and examine the various efforts that have been put in 
place to counter it across the world. To do this, it will begin with North America, work its way 
through Europe and, down to Africa. 
2.3. NORTH AMERICA: THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA (U.S.A) 
AND CANADA 
 
THE CASE OF THE U.S.A: 
 
Beginning in 1950s, the rate of teenage unemployment has been on the rise in the U.S. 
(Bresnick, 1984; Levin, 1983), hitting 11% in 1955 (Levin, 1983) and almost 20% in 1975 
(Bresnick, 1984). Increasingly, the unemployment rate among the black youth, according to 
the U.S. Bureau of the Census (1994), hit 39% in 1993 (Kaestner, 1996). The evidence, 
however, shows that the illiterates and the black-youths often suffer more than the literates and 
the white youths (Raphael, 1998; Levin, 1983). In effect, Rees (1986: 613) lamented, “The 
high unemployment rate of American youth, especially of black youth, has been a source of 
deep concern for many years”. Besides, in late-1980s, Kolberg (1987: 95) reported that 
“Current data on American youth, and predictions based on that data, tell a story of impending 
crisis and profound economic and social costs. Each year, about 700,000 high school students 
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drop out. Another 300,000 are constant truants”. Furthermore, “the involvement of the young 
in crime has been increasing over the last several decades. The homicide rate for nonwhite 
teens rose by 16 percent between 1950 and 1978, while for white teenagers the rate jumped by 
232 percent”. Still, “millions of children, our next generation, are being raised in poverty. The 
sad fact is that the number of children growing up in poverty has been increasing in this 
country, up from 16.8 percent in 1975 to 21.0 percent in 1985” (ibid: 96). Consequently, 
Gilmore, (2009: 321) observed that “Young people in the United States are on the verge of 
losing the economic advantages gained by their parents” 
In response, the U.S. adopted various measures to address the youth unemployment problem. 
Haisch (1964: 182), for example, traced these efforts back to the 1800s, reporting that “The 
first labor laws passed in the United States involved child labor, and they grew out of a concern 
over the lack of education of young workers. Connecticut in 1813 passed a law requiring mill 
owners to provide for the teaching of the three R's to their child employees. This was followed 
by a law in 1836 in Massachusetts which required that all children under 15 working in 
factories attend school three months of the year”. Moreover, the U.S. passed the Economic 
Opportunity Act under its War on Poverty in 1964 (Levin, 1983). It moved academics and 
“training supervisors” to upgrade the skills of citizens in U.S. (ibid). Bresnick (1984: 26), for 
example, reported that “During the 1960s..., labor and business generally supported the 
expansion of the Manpower Development and Training Act.... the Department of Labor was 
delegated responsibility for the Neighborhood Youth Corps work experience program. The 
problem of coordinating this diverse group of programs led to the adoption of the 
Comprehensive Employment and Training Act of 1973 (CETA).... Under the new approach 
CETA once more attempted to expand the role of the private sector in the training of youth”. 
Others such as Braverman (1981) further itemized some of the youth-programs that were 
implemented during this period (i.e., the 1960s), including, among others, the Neigborhood 
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Youth Corps, the Job Corps, and the work-study programs. These programs, he asserted, were 
designed to enhance the prospects of the youth in the job market.  
Furthermore, the passage of the 1977 Youth Employment and Demonstration Project Act 
(YEDPA) led to the initiation of the Youth Incentive Entitlement Program Pilot (YIEPP) 
between 1978 and 1980 (Farkas, et al., 1983). To implement YIEPP, the authorities sampled 
and interviewed as much as 130,000 households in order to find out “the presence of program-
eligible youths” in the designated “local markets”, including, inter alia, Cincinnati, Denver and 
Baltimore. Under YIEPP, the youth were “offered a minimum- wage job, part-time during the 
school year and full-time during the summer, to 16-19-year-olds from low-income households 
who had not as yet graduated from high school, and who were enrolled in school and making 
satisfactory progress toward a degree. School dropouts were prohibited from entering YIEPP 
employment, as the aim of the program was to increase youth employment while requiring 
school enrolment” (ibid, 558). Indeed, “the program succeeded at its primary operational 
goal—to increase dramatically the joint school/employment experience of the target 
population” (ibid, 565). In 1978, Levin and Ferman (1986) reported, YEDPA trained (“on-the-
job training and practical arithmetic”) as much as 450, 000 youths (more than 80% from low-
income homes) and assisted them to get jobs. These studies allow us to examine the 
implementation procedures and the successes under YEA’s sixth module. Strictly, the current 
study seeks to examine (a) the mode of YEA’s training, (b) YEA’s assistance to acquire new 
jobs after exits and (c) the income levels (low, medium and high) of the family members of 
YEA recruits.  
In 1979, one of the major youth employment programs—the Jobs for America’s Graduates 
(JAG)—was launched in Delaware. Today, this program; first initiated with the help of the 
International Manpower Development Group, Ltd and the then Governor (Pierre S. du Pont); 
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has not only been expanded, but remains active in Massachusetts, Tennessee, Arizona and 
Missouri. The program has been described as “a joint public-private venture” with the aim to 
providing students with “job-finding” and “job-keeping” skills. To JAG, a collective force; 
involving the private sector (business), education and the government; is needed to tackle the 
youth unemployment problem in U.S. The impact assessment shows that JAG was a “highly 
successful…youth employment program” (Wichess (1984: 197). Furthermore, Lawson and 
McNally (1995) reported about some impressive youth-programs under the Berkeley Youth 
Alternatives (BYA)—a non-profit organization—in Berkeley, California. The BYA has, 
through these programs, provided the youths with skills and employment and thus, raise the 
economic-status of these youths.  
Moreover, in 1982, the government passed the Job Training Partnership Act (JTPA) to create 
the “framework on job training” in U.S. (Kolberg, 1987). This Act required the private industry 
councils (PICs)—made up of, among others, personnel from trade unions, community-based 
organizations, education, and business—to craft policies to regulate job-training programs. The 
focus of PICs, for example, was to upgrade the skills of the youth in order to make them 
relevant to the job market under the JTPA (ibid). Again, the U.S. sought to establish the “youth 
sub-minimum wage” (largely, this benefited the employee) and “tax credits” for employment 
and training (this benefited the employer) (Kaestner, 1996). Still, “the federal government 
allowed the real value of the minimum wage to erode throughout the 1980s. The economic 
justification for these compensation-based policies is straight forward: a reduction in the 
employer's labor cost will lead to an increased demand for young workers” (ibid, 122). The 
focus, then, is to examine issues on public-private partnerships (PPP), tax credits/holidays (for 
private employers of YEA security personnel) and youth minimum wage (for the youth 
employees) under YEA sixth module. 
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Also, in 1990s, U.S. policymakers, according to Williams (2004), sought to push the youth 
towards self-employment in order to (1) reduce poverty among the youth and (2) propel 
economic growth in the U.S. Gilmore (2009), for example, reported that the advocates of 
community economic development (CED) have, through the Youth Entrepreneurship 
Initiative, sought to create “community-based small businesses” so as to upgrade the economic-
status of the youths in Baltimore. These efforts were, thus, intended to push the youths, 
particularly, those with low education and less skills, to set up their own businesses in U.S. 
(ibid). Consequently, the current study seeks to examine the extent to which YEA sixth module 
pushes the Ghanaian youth towards self-employment in Ghana. 
 
THE CASE OF CANADA: 
The youth unemployment problem, according to Gaetz (2018), exists not only in the U.S., but 
in Canada, as well. In Canada, the youth unemployment problem originated in the 1970s 
following the Baby Boom generation (Foot and Li, 1986) and worsened during the 1970s and 
80s (Weiermair, 1986). But then, Canadian policymakers began to recognize youth 
unemployment as a ‘problem’ in 1984 (Foot and Li, 1986). Recently, Bridgman (2001), for 
example, pointed to widespread youth-homelessness in Toronto. Furthermore, in early-2000s, 
it was observed that “youth unemployment rates are slightly over twice the adult rate” 
(Gunderson et al, 2000: 97), propelling the rates of youth-poverty, together with its attendant 
challenges, high (Bridgman, 2001). 
The youth unemployment problem, as we noticed previously, caught the attention of Canadian 
policymakers in 1984, leading “all three major political parties” to declare actions (in their 
manifestoes) against it in that year (Foot and Li, 1986). By mid-1980s, scholars such as 
Weiermair (1986) began to advise that policymakers need to develop sound policies to address 
the youth unemployment problem in Canada. To Foot and Li (1986), however, “The youths of 
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yesterday and today are the young adults of today and tomorrow, and as the Baby Boom 
generation ages the youth unemployment problem is rapidly being converted into an 
unemployment problem for young adults” (ibid: 505). Now, Gaetz (2018) reported, the 
Canadian government has intensified efforts to uproot homelessness following its interactions 
with the international communities (with Australia and Europe—through the European 
Observatory on Homelessness and FEANTSA) and policy initiatives. Matthew and Webb 
(2016: 427), for example, examined the effectiveness of the Youth Hires—a Canadian Program 
launched to eradicate youth unemployment temporary—and reported that it has “increased 
employment rates by 3.5 percent to 4.4 percent” in Canada. Thus, the current study seeks to 
investigate the extent to which the sixth module works to resolve the future unemployment 
challenges of the youth of today.  
Eva’s Initiatives (“an organization serving homeless youth in Toronto”) launched one of the 
major projects—Eva’s Phoenix—to address the youth unemployment problem in Toronto, 
Canada (Bridgman, 2001). This project was initiated to relieve homeless youth by providing 
them with “housing and employment-training opportunities”. One of the managers of the 
project, for example, attested that “The kids are getting jobs. The construction industry is 
getting the badly needed workers to replace our aging workforce” (ibid: 789). Bridgman 
(2001), however, warned that the inability of the initiators to resolve “different values and 
expectations”, consult the youth and facilitate their (the youth) participation may land the 
project on rocks. Bridgman’s (2001) work highlighted some key issues (consultation and 
participation) that require a thorough investigation to boost the current research. But while the 
focus of Bridgman (2001) was on youth programs in Canada, the focus of the current work is 
on youth programs in Ghana.    
 
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2.4.EUROPE: 
The youths in Europe, like those in North America, have been struggling with the issue of 
unemployment. Banducci’s (1984) account, for example, showed that the youth in Spain and 
Italy struggled with it in 1980. In late-1990s, Roberts et al (1999) reported that the rate of youth 
unemployment was 30% in East-Central Europe—Slovakia, Hungary, Bulgaria and Poland. In 
1980, the youth unemployment rate was 14% in U.K., 4% in Germany and 15% in France 
(Hart, 1986). “This year”, the author asserted “it is expected by OECD that these rates will be 
21 per cent in this country, 31 per cent in France and 9 per cent in Germany” (ibid: 43).  By 
mid-2000s, Aassve (2006) reported that “Across the European Union youth poverty varies 
greatly, being higher in Southern European countries, as well as in the ‘liberal’ regimes of the 
UK and Ireland”. Consequently, in France, it has been observed, “increases in youth 
unemployment induce increases in crime” (Fougere, 2009: 909). 
But, O’Reilly et al (2015: 1) remarked that “Current levels of youth unemployment need to be 
understood…” and “European-wide policies and investments have significantly increased with 
attempts to support national policies”. The E.U., for example, put in place some measures to 
counter the youth unemployment problem, including, among others, the Europe 2020 Strategy, 
the Youth Opportunities Initiatives (YOI), the Youth Employment Initiative (YEI), the Youth 
Guarantee (YG), the Traineeships and Apprenticeships programs and the Young Employment 
Package (YEP) (ibid). France, Denmark and Germany have, for example, attempted to reform 
their educational systems, including, among others, enhancing the relationship between 
schools, on the one hand, and business, community and trade unions, on the other hand. Also, 
some pre-apprenticeship programs have been introduced in schools in Ireland, France and 
Denmark. Sweden provides “guidance and counselling” services to the youth, as well 
(Banducci, 1984; Bruce, 1982). Also, Bell and Blanchflower (2011: 257) reported, the duration 
of formal education has been elongated in most of these countries as “a defensive strategy, with 
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enrolment increasing when the labour market deteriorates. For example, in 2010, applications 
to UK universities increased by 22 per cent over the previous year, reflecting the fall in 
employment opportunities”. Surely, the focus of the current study is to find out if the sixth 
module provides “guidance and counselling” services.  
Steedman (1993) has, equally, reported about the German Youth Training (GYT, otherwise 
known as the Dual System) in Germany. Not only do the youths yearn, in their numbers, to get 
enrolled on the GYT program, but, according to the author, employers have demonstrated a 
high level of interest in GYT trainees. This is due to the [positive] credibility-level that has 
been attached to the training system (ibid). Hart (1986), Crisp and Powell (2017) have, equally, 
pointed to the Young Workers’ Scheme (YWS), the Youth Training Scheme (YTS), the £680 
million Future Jobs Fund, the Youth Opportunities Fund and the Youth Capital Fund in the 
U.K. YTS, according to Hart (1986), enrols as much as 350, 000 youths while YWS enrols as 
much as 54 000 youths. Even though, according to Hart (1986: 44), “It can be seen that special 
training measures for young people in Great Britain have been in operation on a large scale at 
least since 1981”, Crisp and Powell (2017: 1803), however, reported that “the flawed and 
increasingly narrow policy concept of employability has been shown to be all pervasive in 
contemporary policy responses to youth unemployment in the UK”. The above studies, thus, 
allow us to investigate and examine the credibility level of YEA’s ‘training’ under the sixth 
module.       
2.5. AFRICA: 
 
The youth, according to Mugabi-Mugambwa (1996), constitutes more than 60% of the 
population of Africa. The records, however, showed that the youth have been rendered 
unemployed in Somalia (Ali, 2014), Kenya (Ojwang, 2017), Ethiopia (Dendir, 2006), South 
Africa (Haldenwang, 1994), Nigeria (Okedara, 1971), and in Botswana (Malema, 2014). Ali 
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(2014), citing the 2012 UNDP Human Development report, indicated that the proportion of the 
unemployed youth constitutes 67 % in Somalia. In 1992, the youth (age 15-29) unemployment 
rate was 43.3% in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso (Calves and Schoumaker, 2004). Ethiopia has 
declined to award “automatic employment” to university graduates (Dendir, 2006). Many often 
describe the South African youth as the “lost generation”. In 1992, for example, the youth 
unemployment rate was 52% (Haldenwang, 1994) and “commercial sexual exploitation” has 
been on the rise in that country (Snell, 2003). Moreover, in Malema’s (2014) view, 
unemployment is a “serious problem” in Botswana. In Zambia, Gough (2016: 354) lamented, 
“Poor chances of ever obtaining a permanent formal job are part of the reality for youth in 
Chawama”.  
In Ghana, the youth (age 15-24) constituted 21% of the nation’s population in 1984 and 20% 
in 2000. The absolute figures, however, showed that the population of the youth has been on 
the increase, moving from 2, 302, 391 in 1984 up to 3, 484, 574 in 2000 (Braimah and King, 
2006). Sadly, many have attributed the nation’s [high] unemployment rates to increase in the 
size of the labour force, inadequate “labour-market experience”, inadequate “job-search 
experience”, and a sluggish economic growth (Baah-Boateng, 2013; Andrews, 2015; Baah-
Boateng, 2015). In early-2000s, Bosompem (2013), for example, reported that unemployment 
among the youth (age 18-35) constituted 45% in Ghana. This has, unfortunately, pushed many 
of them to move either into illegal mining [galamsey] (Andrews, 2015; Tagoe et al, 2018) or 
across local and national borders [migration] (Rhoda, 1980). In Ghana, however, the mining 
areas have failed to absorb these youths, leading to high unemployment rates in these areas 
(Sarfo-Mensah et al, 2009). In effect, Burton (2006: 363) opined, “MASS unemployment has 
been an important and enduring feature of post-colonial urban Africa”.  
 
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Most states have, however, initiated some actions against the youth unemployment problem on 
the African continent. In 2010, Malawi, for example, launched the Youth Enterprise 
Development Fund (YEDF) with the aim to resolving the youth unemployment problem in that 
country. Indeed, “When it was introduced in 2010, YEDF targeted young people between 18 
and 30 years of age but eligibility was then extended to 35. According to its guidelines, the 
fund caters for out-of-school youth, both skilled and unskilled who are expected to engage in 
various trades such as agricultural production, construction, carpentry and joinery, panel 
beating, welding, metal fabrication and woodwork. The fund is implemented by MARDEF, the 
Ministry of Youth and Sports (MYS) and district YEDF committees and is characterized as ‘a 
key development agenda for young people in Malawi…” (Sumberg et al, 2014: 13). In 2007, 
Ethiopia launched the UNICEF-assisted Youth Development Program (2007-11) with the aim 
to providing the youth with, among others, (1) credit to either start or expand existing 
businesses, (2) “life skills”, (3) “livelihood development”, (4) “behaviour change” and (5) 
“peer education”. Still, Sumberg et al (2014: 13) remarked, “The main indicators of success 
were growth of self-employment and formal/informal employment opportunities and increased 
participation of young people in the economic, social and political transformation of the 
country”. Consequently, an investigation of age-and-financial issues will go a long way to 
boost the current research. Does the YEA sixth module, for example, extend some “special 
credit” to the beneficiaries after exit? Still, the current work will examine the proportion that 
is interested in (a) setting up their own business, (b) looking for government works and (c) 
getting other security jobs with private companies after exit.  
Nigeria, in the past, was reluctant to adopt youth programs to resolve unemployment among 
the youth. The initiation of the Youth Employment Program, however, showed the federal 
government’s readiness to tackle it in Nigeria. In 1973, for example, the government launched 
the National Youth Service Corps (NYSC), as part of efforts, to “enhance high-level manpower 
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mobility” and induce “employers…to employ more readily qualified Nigerians irrespective of 
their states of origin” (Ojo, 1980: 52). Besides, in Senegal, including other Sub-Saharan Africa 
countries, the rate of youth unemployment has pushed female youths to move into dressmaking 
and hairdressing businesses (Langevang and Gough, 2012). Furthermore, in Kenya, the 
government set up the Youth Fund, the Youth Enterprise Development Fund and the Uwezo 
Fund to support and boost youth development-oriented activities. One of these is the 
government’s willingness to open up, support and facilitate the activities of FM stations, 
including the Koch FM Radio based in Korogocho slums. This FM station (Koch FM) works 
to provide the youth with education, leadership skills and, of course, employment opportunities 
in Kenya (Ojwang, 2017). In mid-1960s, governments, according to Hodge (1964), have 
formulated and implemented various programs to provide the youth with “vocational training 
and employment” in Tanganyika. These studies, thus, enhance our understanding on the 
various efforts to tackle the youth unemployment problem in Africa. 
In Ghana, lack of employment prompted some disgruntled youth (The Ga Shifimo Kpee) to 
demonstrate against the Nkrumah-led government in 1957. Indeed, not only was “The response 
of the Ghana Government to this deteriorating position…quick” and “A White Paper on a 
National Workers Brigade was published in August 1957…” but the Brigade achieved “rapid 
expansion” (Hodge, 1964: 115). The Brigade, for example, enrolled roughly 25, 000 
beneficiaries by 1966 (Ahlman, 2012). The Brigade, through its training programs, “provided 
new avenues for political and social mobility…. Through the types of work they engaged in 
and regular access to money, Brigade life also offered them alternative paths to male and female 
respectability in their communities” (ibid: 88). These studies allow us to investigate the 
expansion rate of YEA’s sixth module under the current study. To do this, the study will be 
interested in looking at its ‘expansions’ rate, that is, both in terms of its annual admissions and 
training programs. Also, the current study will examine how the sixth module facilitates the 
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“political and social mobility” of the youth in Ghana. However, while the above studies focused 
on the Brigade under the 1st republic, the current study focuses on YEA’s sixth module (youth 
security) under the 4th republic.     
Furthermore, governments and some private organizations have launched several youth 
policies and programs in Ghana. In all, Avura and Ulzen-Appiah (2016) identified about forty 
(40) youth programs, eighteen (18) in the public sector and twenty two (22) in the private 
sector. For example, many often point to the National Youth Policy (2010), the GNPC and Oil 
and Gas Training, Tullow’s Scholarship and Training Programs, the National Youth Policy 
Implementation Plan (2014), the National Employment Policy (2015), the National Youth 
Employment Program [NYEP] (2006), the Youth in Agriculture Program [YIAP] (2009), the 
Council for Technical and Vocational Education and Training [COTVET] (2006), the Skills 
Training and Employment Program (STEP), the National Apprenticeship Program (NAP), and 
the Ghana Skills Development Initiatives [GSDI] (Avura and Ulzen-Appiah, 2016; Sumberg 
et al, 2014; Ranford, 2014; Debrah, 2007). But then, “In 2012, the National Youth Employment 
Program was restructured into the Ghana Youth Employment and Entrepreneurial 
Development Agency, which was then restructured into the Youth Employment Agency (YEA) 
under Act 887 in 2015 to empower young people to contribute meaningfully to the sustainable 
socioeconomic development of Ghana. The YEA is but 1 of 17 public sector initiatives related 
to youth employment, albeit the largest in terms of youth coverage” (Avura and Ulzen-Appiah, 
2016: 6). Equally, Gyampo (2012) opined that though the formulation of the National Youth 
Employment Program (NYEP) excluded the youths, they were supposed to get involved in its 
implementation. In all, Avura and Ulzen-Appiah (2016) asserted, “The goal…is to create 
decent, gainful employment opportunities so the growing labor force can improve their living 
conditions and contribute to economic growth and national development within the framework 
of equity, fairness, security, and dignity” (ibid: 6). 
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In Palmer’s (2009) view, NAP was launched following the increasing levels of graduate 
unemployment in Ghana. In 2007, the government inaugurated the National Apprenticeship 
Board (NATB) and COTVET to oversee the implementation of NAP. It seeks to recruit JHS 
graduates and provide them with [one-year] apprenticeship skills. The state, however, needs to 
build NAP based on the mistakes of the past (ibid). In most instances, Rhoda (1980) asserted, 
the females learn weaving and hairdressing while the males learn fitting and construction under 
apprenticeship programs. In addition, the state, according to Debrah (2007), sought to provide 
the youths (including students) with the necessary skills to undertake “carpentry and joinery”, 
“refrigeration and air conditioning”, “building and construction”, “dressmaking, tailoring and 
hairdressing” and “electrical repairs and metalwork” under STEP. Institutions, such as the 
National Vocational Training Institute (NVTI), have helped to train, inter alia, wielders, 
designers, auto mechanics and caterers in Ghana (Asunsung, 2013). The above studies differ 
from the current study because while they sought to focus on ‘apprenticeships’, the current 
study seeks to focus on ‘security’. 
2.6.THE CHALLENGES SURROUNDING THE YOUTH AND YOUTH 
EMPLOYMENT PROGRAMS IN NORTH AMERICA, EUROPE AND 
AFRICA 
   
2.7. INTRODUCTION: 
 
This sub-section will examine the following issues (a) Lack of Skills and Labour-Markets (b) 
Poor Managements and Exclusions (c) Immigrations and Economic Declines (d) Shrinking 
Resources and Youth-Adult Unemployment and (d) Population Explosions, Regionalism and 
Gender Discriminations. The sub-section will, thus, examine the above points one after the 
other in the up-coming pages.  
Lack of Skills and Labour-Markets: Generally, the youths lack the requisite skills needed to 
meet the specifications of the labour markets. Bell and Blanchflower (2011: 259), for example, 
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remarked that “The changing structure of labour demand may also be adversely affecting young 
people's labour-market prospects…. Technical change increases the skill requirements of 
production, leaving the unskilled, and particularly the young unskilled, at a significant 
disadvantage in the labour market”. In effect, employers do not want to engage these young 
ones because of lack of skills and experiences (Lange et al, 2013). In Ghana, for example, 
education, according to Asafu-Adjaye (2012), enhances the prospects of employees in the 
labour market. Unfortunately, the Ghanaian educational system is unable to train the youth to 
meet local and international standards (Panford, 2014), leading to widespread “no employable 
(i.e. clerical, technical or artisanal) skills” in Ghana (Debrah, 2007). Thus, on the one hand, 
while Ghana’s educational system is unable to upgrade skills (Panford, 2014), its “economy”, 
on the other hand, “is not expanding fast enough to provide decent jobs (i.e. relatively well 
paid jobs, with reasonable levels of income and job security) especially for the growing youth” 
(Braimah and King, 2006: 25). Equally, in early-1980s, Ojo (1980) observed that the youths 
lack “employment opportunities” in Nigeria. These studies, thus, allow us to explore the 
available opportunities for YEA recruits after exit.  
Poor Managements and Exclusions: The evidence showed that youth employment programs 
have been mismanaged worldwide. In Ethiopia, in the case of the UNICEF-assisted Youth 
Development Program (2007-11), for example, Sumberg et al (2014: 13) lamented that “the 
programme suffered from poor management, and the lack of a regular budget”. This, according 
to Steedman (1993), has the potential to undermine the “credibility” of such youth employment 
programs completely. Besides, the ‘structures’ do not involve the youths in the formulation and 
implementation of youth employment programs. In Ghana, for example, the ‘system’ did not 
involve the youths in the formulation of the National Youth Employment Policy [NYEP) 
(Gyampo, 2012). Still, the NYEP, Gyampo and Obeng-Odoom (2013) argued, did not include 
the youths in the Regional Monitoring Team (RMT)—a body responsible for monitoring the 
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implementation of the NYEP at the district level. These challenges tend to obstruct youth 
employment programs across the world. Therefore, the current study seeks to examine the 
extent to which the ‘system’ allows the youths in the various implementation and management 
boards of YEA.  
Immigrations and Economic Declines: It is believed that immigration and economic declines 
can negatively affect the prospects of the youths in the labour market. Bell and Blanchflower 
(2011), for example, observed that immigration has reduced the employment opportunities of 
indigenous-youths in the U.K. Besides, in the case of the impacts of the Great Recession (2007-
2009) on the youth, Dietrich (2013: 306) reported that “The first signs of recession were to be 
seen in 2007, with the full-blown financial crisis spilling over into the real economy and labour 
markets worldwide over the next one to two years. GDP growth and employment suffered a 
significant downturn from 2008 onwards, though with country-specific variations. EU GDP 
fell by 4.3 per cent in 2009, and youth unemployment in Europe rose sharply between the 
second quarter of 2008 and the third quarter of 2009 and again, after an intermediate recovery, 
from the third quarter of 2011 onwards”. The focus of the current study is not to examine the 
impacts of immigrations on the youths, but to examine the situation of the youths (security) 
under the sixth module. The study does not, however, rule out the impacts of economic declines 
on the youths in Ghana.  
Shrinking Resources and Youth-Adult Unemployment: Not only does the shrinking in 
resources (wages, land, and credits) affect the youth, but youth unemployment often translates 
into adult unemployment. Kristensen and Birch-Thomsen (2013), for example, reported that 
the youths do not have access to land and capital to go into businesses in Uganda. In Europe, 
Orszag and Snower (1999: 198) asserted, “youth unemployment often leads to long-term adult 
unemployment” in most countries. In effect, the above studies allow us to examine the ‘wages’, 
‘lands’ and ‘credits’ of the sixth module’s employees under the current study. The focus is to 
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examine the extent to which these resources help to either accelerate or deaccelerate the 
opportunities of the youths. This will allow us to examine as to whether ‘exits’ translates into 
employment or unemployment in the future. 
Population Explosions, Regionalism and Gender Discriminations: Population explosions 
and gender discriminations have been militating against the youths and youth programs over 
the past decades. Today, Ali (2014: 13) opined, the population of the youths is more “than at 
any point in history”. The youths, for example, constitute more than 60% percent of the 
population of Africa (Mugabi-Mugambwa, 1996). In Zambia, one often finds most of them in 
the urban areas (Gough, 2016). Besides, in Nigeria, many are reluctant to work “outside their 
states of origin” because of regionalism (Ojo, 1980: 55). Increasingly, in Africa, female-youths 
suffer more than male-youths in labour markets. In Botswana, for example, the proportion of 
the unemployed-female-youths (20-34) is more than the proportion of the unemployed-male-
youths (Malema, 2014). Still, in Burkina Faso, Calves and Schoumaker (2004: 1347) observed 
that “our data show that, overall, young women in Ouagadougou and Bobo Dioulasso have less 
access to apprenticeship than young men, and are more likely to be at home”. These studies 
allow us to examine the impacts of population growth on the youth employment program—
YEA—under the current study. Furthermore, the student will investigate ‘discriminations’ and 
‘prejudices’ based on ‘gender’ and ‘region’.  
2.8. A REVIEW OF COMMUNITY POLICING IN NORTH AMERICA, 
EUROPE AND AFRICA 
 
2.9. INTRODUCTION:  
 
This sub-section will review the literature on community policing in North America (taking 
the U.S. as a case study), Europe and, of course, Africa. The section will investigate the 
‘benefits’ and ‘challenges’ associated with community policing, as well.  
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THE U.S.: 
 
It was reported, in late-1960s that “good will” citizens condemned the riots, tensions, rebellions 
and revolts in U.S. cities (Germann, 1969). Notwithstanding, most citizens became dissatisfied 
with the harsh methods adopted by the police to coil the riots, tensions, rebellions and revolts 
of the 1960s (Reisig, 2010). Equally, Crank (1994: 326) remarked that, “The police had failed 
by many accounts to do much in the way of controlling sharply increasing crime; moreover, 
they were implicated by the 1967 Kerner and 1968 Crime Commissions in the devastating 
urban riots of the 1960s”. In Los Angeles, for example, citizens became dissatisfied with the 
police beating of the motorist Rodney King [1991] and went on demonstration against the 
exoneration of the culprits [1992] (Roussell, 2015). 
In effect, many states began to roll out measures to retool the police in order to combat crime 
in the U.S. The brainstorming, according to Skolnick and Bayley (1988), led to the emergence 
of community policing in 1970s and 1980s. In 1994, President Clinton promised to deploy 
extra 100, 000 patrol officers across U.S. (Meares, 2002). The federal government—through 
the Community Oriented Policing Services (COPS) program—began to disburse billions of 
dollars to expand community policing in U.S. (Reisig (2010). Under the community policing 
agenda, most patrol officers have been redeployed into “small, decentralized police posts” in 
the U.S. Furthermore, the police headquarters decentralized its command structures down to 
the local areas under this agenda. This was designed to allow the police work together with 
groups and institutions (Skolnick and Bayley (1988). The New York Police Department 
(NYPD), for example, holds regular meetings with the Midtown North Precinct Community 
Council, the Citizens’ Police Academy and the Kitchen Neighborhood Association under the 
community policing agenda (Chesluk, 2004). Still, the Muslim Community has been 
cooperating with the police, and with other law enforcement agencies, to detect and combat 
terrorism in New York (Tyler, 2010).  
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Baltimore launched the Comprehensive Communities Program (CCP) to boost police-resident 
relation in mid-1990s. The Community Organizers/Associations, together with the Mayor’s 
Coordinating Council on Criminal Justice, helped to organize various programs on crime 
prevention under the CCP (Tyler et al, 2010). The Washington, DC, Metropolitan Police 
Department (DC MPD) has, equally, created an online platform to engage the citizens on 
crime-control in all the seven districts (Brainard and Derrick-Mills, 2011). In Florida, the police 
have been deployed to regulate traffic, engage citizens and arrest criminals under the 
community policing agenda (Chappell, 2009). Furthermore, the U.S. police and the media have 
developed stronger ties with the aim of combating crime under the principles of community 
policing. Indeed, under this Police-Media engagement, “media personnel said that about 15% 
of news space was devoted to police initiatives, 9% of news space was devoted to police 
misconduct” (Chermak, 2006: 145-146).  
Then again, the Houston Police Department sought to befriend the community so as to deal 
with crime between 1982 and 1989 (Brown, 1987; Kessler, 1999). Also, the police adopted 
community policing to combat gun violence in San Diego, Chicago and Boston. In Boston, for 
example, the police worked with community and religious leaders under the Boston Gun 
Project (Fagan, 2002). In 1993, the Chicago Police Department officially launched the Chicago 
Alternative Policing Strategy (CAPS) to “improve the quality of life” in that state. Under the 
motto “Together We Can”, CAPS (a) trains and deploys officers across all the districts under 
Chicago (b) allows the police to hold regular meetings with the residents (c) creates “rapid 
response units” to respond to all emergency calls and (d) establishes advisory committees at 
the district levels (Daley, 1997; Rai, 2011). In Chicago, Klinenberg (2001:76), for example, 
captured one of these police-community meetings as follows: “It is 6:00 o'clock on a warm 
August evening and more than 20 residents of a mixed Czech and Latino neighborhood crowd 
into a small meeting room of a park building on Chicago's West Side. They are engaged in 
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heated dialogue with a group of city police officers who have come to update the group on 
local crime issues. The residents complain about teenagers who loiter on their streets and gun 
shots fired late at night; they ask for help controlling the unruly patrons of a neighborhood 
tavern, request new lighting for dark alleys, and lament the problems stemming from an 
abandoned building. The officers insist that the job of protecting the streets does not belong to 
the police department alone. “We can't do this all by ourselves,” the lieutenant in charge 
explains. “This is your problem to manage; it is our problem. We're going to do this together.” 
Members of the crowd nod in agreement”. But, in U.S., “It appears that community policing is 
working best in terms of youth services, where it is needed least, low crime communities, and 
is not working where it is needed most” (Rukus et al., 2018: 1876). The above studies allow us 
to examine (a) government’s budget on community policing (b) the command structures 
between the national police and YEA’s community policing personnel (e.g., the ceding of 
powers) (c) the regular meetings, if any, between community policing personnel and 
neighbourhood watch groups (d) response units (e) the use of online discussion to combat crime 
and (f) the media-community personnel engagements under this study.  
EUROPE: 
 
Reiner’s (1992) work showed that public confidence in the police has been plummeting in 
Britain since the 1980s. In a 1962 survey (“the Royal Commission on the Police Report”), it 
was reported that the proportion of the public that had respect for the police was 83%. In 1988, 
according to the British Crime Survey (BCS), 85% of the public rated the police service “very 
or fairly good” in its work. However, only 18%, the Operational Policing Review reported, 
rated the police service “very good” in its operations in 1990 (ibid). Thus, Wood (2003: 109), 
stated that “Questioning of the role and competency of the police in controlling crime has 
become prevalent at various levels in British society”.  
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In Europe, the idea of policing, according to Zedner (2006), has been in existence before the 
emergence of the modern state. In response to “widespread opposition”, however, the “modern 
British police” emerged and won the support of the public in the 19th and mid-19th century 
respectively (Reiner, 1992). The latter is, indeed, important because “Public approval, then, is 
the linchpin of British law enforcement efforts” (Kalliney, 1996: 87). Thus, the Police 
Departments, Skolnick and Bayley (1988) observed, have been working closely with “crime-
prevention” institutions in Britain. The British Police, in response to the 1979-81 public revolts, 
sought to adopt community policing to prevent crime and improve its relations with the Asian 
and black communities in England (Kalliney, 1996).  
Hamilton-Smith et al (2014) pointed to the National Reassurance Policing Program (NRPP) in 
Scotland. The NRPP seeks to, among others, involve the communities in the fight against crime 
in Scotland. Moreover, in 2009, the author asserted, the Scottish Government published the 
Community Policing Engagement Principles to strengthen “visible policing, community 
consultation and communication, responsiveness, local accountability, partnership working 
and a commitment to problem solving” (ibid: 165). Still, Northern Ireland’s policing has been 
in operation since the late-1960s (Hillyard and Tomlinson, 2000). Martin (2006), citing others, 
showed that while some view the Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC)—the erstwhile police force 
in Northern Ireland—as a ‘protector’, others, however, view it as a ‘brutal’ force. Now, the 
reform agenda seeks to demilitarize community policing within the limits of the law in 
Northern Ireland (Shearing, 2000; Hillyard and Tomlinson, 2000). Martin (2006: 320), for 
example, stressed that “The reformed police service, the Police Service of Northern Ireland 
(PSNI), is being reconstructed as the result of the peace accord known as the Good Friday 
Agreement (United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland, 1998)”. Furthermore, Topping 
(2008: 785) observed that there are “youth intervention services” in support of community 
policing in Northern Ireland. Thus, the current study will investigate the role of the various 
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crime-prevention institutions in support of YEA’s activities under the sixth module. Moreover, 
the emphasis on ‘reforms’ in the above studies allows us to investigate the various reforms that 
have been rolled out to strengthen the activities of community personnel under the sixth 
module. However, while the focus of the above studies is on Europe, the focus of the current 
study is on Africa.  
AFRICA: 
 
The urban areas, according to the evidence, have been choked with multiple challenges in 
Africa. In Ghana, the population of Accra, for example, has been exploding following its 
declaration as the capital in 1877 (Appiahene-Gyamfi, 1998). Moreover, the city of Accra has 
the “highest” crime rate in Ghana (Appiahene-Gyamfi, 2002), making it unsafe for foreigners 
and indigenes alike (Owusu, 2016). In addition, the city’s vehicular and pedestrian traffic 
continues to exacerbate on daily basis (Appiahene-Gyamfi, 2003). It is important to state that 
these challenges exist in all the major cities in Africa. Meanwhile, the police have been 
criticized of not doing enough to prevent and control crime in Kenya (Ruteere and Pommerolle, 
2003) and Nigeria (Hills, 2012).   
Namibia launched its community policing program and created the Windhoek NWS to 
facilitate police-resident discussions in 1990. These discussions mostly centre on how to 
develop sound measures to prevent and counter crime. Equally, Lesotho launched its 
community policing program with the aim to strengthening police-resident relations between 
1998 and 2003 (Brogden, 2004). In South Africa, “Community policing…follows from a long 
experience in the townships of fear and hatred of the police during apartheid” (Ruteere and 
Pommerolle, 2003: 589). For example, community policing, involving the state, private 
organizations and citizens, often takes the form of foot and vehicle patrols to protect lives and 
properties in Cape Town. “A survey of 120 homes in the wealthier western suburbs showed 83 
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% were protected by electronic alarms linked to a security firm's armed response team, which 
attended to calls within minutes” (Baker, 2002: 39).    
Furthermore, protracted civil wars subverted the ability of the police to protect lives and 
properties in Rwanda and Sierra Leone.  This paved the way for the emergence of “local forms 
of policing” in Rwanda and Sierra Leone. Indeed, the youth believe that they are the ‘guardians 
of security’ in these war-torn states. Even, traditional leaders do acknowledge the role of the 
youth towards policing in Sierra Leone. In Yengema, the Youth Chairman, for example, 
asserted that “We know everybody and everything. If there is a fight they go to the youth group 
or after them the chiefs; only finally do they go to the police ... We patrol at night. We respond 
if there is a problem. We harass anybody who brings drugs. We arrest them, destroy the drugs; 
we give them a beating. Solved! No more drugs!”  Furthermore, in Freetown, a member of the 
Camp Divas Youth remarked that, “We never see the police down here ... If there is fighting 
or stealing we take them to the police. And if there is provocation or abusive language we fine 
them” (Baker, 2008: 560). Moreover, in Nigeria, the Nigerian Police Force (NPF), the Hisba 
(“state-sponsored Islamic guards”), and vigilante groups (involving the youth wings) have 
forged strong ties to combat crime in Kano (Hills, 2012). In Nigeria, Ikuteyijo (2009: 285) 
reported, “A situation whereby the police stand aloof from other members of the society and 
are treated like unwanted strangers is no longer tolerable in most societies where community 
policing is practised”. In Ghana, it was the International Criminal Investigative Training 
Assistance Program [ICITAP] that helped to launch community policing in 1998. Indeed, the 
initiator’s major aim was to strengthen police-resident relations, prevent crime, boost public 
confidence in the police and improve the Ghana Police Academy (Brogden, 2004). It is 
important to state that the role of the youth towards security has not been adequately dealt with 
in the above studies. The above scholars, in particular, have failed to investigate the 
contribution of YEA’s recruits towards policing in Ghana. Baker’s (2002) work, however, 
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leads us to launch investigations into the mode of patrols (foot and vehicle) used to combat 
crime under the current study. 
2.1.0. A REVIEW OF THE POSITIVE IMPACTS OF COMMUNITY 
POLICING IN NORTH AMERICA, EUROPE, ASIA, CENTRAL 
AMERICA AND AFRICA 
 
2.1.1. INTRODUCTION: 
 
The effectiveness and efficiency of community policing has been measured across the world 
(Charbonneau and Riccucci, 2008). Today, most states have adopted community policing 
following the successes in other states (Chakraborty, 2003). This sub-section will deal with (a) 
‘Community Policing Enhances Relations’ and (b) ‘It Works to Reduce Disorder and Crime’ 
in the up-coming pages.  
Community Policing Enhances Relations: Community policing, it has been observed, 
enhances relations between and among police, on the one hand, and between the police and 
residents, on the other hand. In Scheider et al’s (2003) view, for example, the police-resident 
interactions do not only enhance “personal relationships”, but the latter gets to know more 
about the “procedures” of the former. Conversely, Kessler (1999) observed that the deployment 
of “cooperative strategies” enhances police-resident relations, allowing the former to know 
more about the latter. To Topping (2008: 786-787), police-resident interactions is a “conduit 
for inter-communal relations” in Northern Ireland. In South Africa, state policies seek to 
capitalize on these interactions to build ‘trust’ between the police and residents in post-
apartheid era (Bénit-Gbaffou, 2008). In India, the adoption of community policing has helped 
to promote “greater accessibility”, “greater sense of security among the populace”, “better 
behavior of police” and “better perception of police” in Kerala state (Kumar, 2012: 397). Liou 
and Savage (1996) have, similarly, reported that community policing has worked to promote 
“police-community relationships” in Florida, U.S.   
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Community Policing Promotes Partnerships: Still, community policing has worked to 
promote partnerships between the police, on the one hand, and the media, state agencies, non-
profit organizations, religious leaders, community members, on the other hand, in the U.S. 
(Scheider, 2013). In the U.S., “The survey results indicate that both sides of the police-media 
transaction have a very positive view of the relationship. For example, nearly 90% of the PIOs 
[Public Information Officers] either agreed or strongly agreed that the current status of their 
relationship with most news organizations is good. Similarly, 72% of the combined media 
sample (television/newspaper managers/reporters) agreed or strongly agreed that the 
relationship was good” (Chermak, 2006: 144). In Chicago, Klinenberg (2001) reported, 
community policing has worked to strengthen social relations in the neighbourhood, modernise 
“city service delivery systems”, and helps to direct state agencies under the Chicago Alternative 
Policing Strategy (CAPS). The above studies have highlighted the major ingredients that are 
needed to prevent and control crime under community policing programs. These ingredients 
include, among others, the relationships that exist between the police, on the one hand, and 
citizens, state agencies and non-profit organizations, on the other hand. The focus, then, is to 
examine these relationships under the current study.  
It Works to Reduce Disorder and Crime: Scholars have observed that community policing 
can work to prevent and control disorder and crime. Scheider (2003) stated that it allows the 
police to develop “new ways” to counter disorder and crime. It is, for example, believed that 
police-resident interactions have worked to reduce disorder and crime (parking cars on the 
streets, drinking, robbery, terrorism, gun violence, violation of traffic laws etc) in both the U.K. 
and the U.S. (Tyler et al, 2010; Sherman, 2013; Sherman, 1986; Fagan, 2002). Community 
policing has worked to reduce crime and improve neighbourhood, boosting the confidence 
level of the public in the police in Indiana and Florida, U.S. (Liou and Savage, 1996; Reisig 
and Parks, 2004; Connell et al, 2008). In addition, the adoption of community policing—
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involving institutions such as the neighbourhood associations, city code enforcement agencies 
and non-profit Community Law Center (CLC)—has led to the interdiction of drug-addicts and 
traffickers in Baltimore (Goetz and Mitchell, 2003). Furthermore, it helps to promote peace 
and safety in Northern Ireland (Martin, 2006). To MacDonald (2002), however, the effects of 
community policing on crime-reduction is minimal in the U.S.    
In Tegucigalpa and Choluteca (Honduras), “Overall, citizen assessment of community policing 
is positive in both cities, with majorities reporting improved security, reduced crime, and better 
community-police relations” (Arias and Ungar, 2009: 414). In Nigeria, the introduction of new 
policing tactics worked to reduce disorder and crime in Kaduna (Hills, 2012). The above 
scholars examined the effectiveness of community policing using some key variables such as 
‘disorder’ and ‘crime’. The current study seeks to deploy cross-tabulation to dissect and analyse 
these variables under the sixth module.     
 
2.1.2.A REVIEW OF THE CHALLENGES SURROUNDING THE 
IMPLEMENTATION OF COMMUNITY POLICING PROGRAMS IN 
NORTH AMERICA, EUROPE, ASIA, LATIN AMERICA, CENTRAL 
AMERICA AND AFRICA 
 
2.1.3. INTRODUCTION: 
 
The sub-section will review the following (a) The Failure of Leadership and Coordination 
(b) Lack of Resources (c) Police-Corruption (d) Divided-Societies (e) Lack of Proper 
Training and Police-Brutality and (i) Conflict over Values and Broken-Relations. Below is 
a review on the above issues.  
 
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The Failure of Leadership and Coordination: Lack of leadership has rendered most 
community policing programs fruitless and ineffective worldwide. Frankly, leaders have 
refused to fully commit themselves to the philosophy of community policing (i.e., the 
principles governing it) in U.S. (Vito, 2005). In Florida, for example, leaders have failed to 
decentralize the bureaucratic structures (the ceding of power) to enable officers resolve 
problems at the local levels (Chappell, 2009). Also, many have questioned the methods 
deployed to counter disorder and crime (Moore, 1992). Fielding (2000), for example, observed 
that leaders often attempt to deploy officials without coordination “across the ranks and 
functions” in London. The above studies’ emphasis on ‘leadership’ and ‘coordination’ make 
them relevant to the current study. In effect, the student will investigate the impact of poor 
leadership and coordination on community policing in Ghana.     
Lack of Resources: Lack of resources (personnel, time and money) can undermine efforts 
under community policing completely. Lack of resources, for example, undermined the 
implementation of community policing in Florida (Skolnick and Bayley, 1988). In Florida, it 
has further been asserted, officers lack enough time to thoroughly engage the communities as 
a result of work overload (Chappell, 2009). Besides, Allison et al (2009 327), citing the 2004 
records of the Office of Community Oriented Policing Services, lamented that “Although the 
Violent Crime Control Act of 1994 provided $8.8 billion in federal funding to local police 
departments for community policing between 1995 and 2000, the amount of federal funds 
appropriated to community policing was reduced to approximately $400 million in 2004, 
representing less than half the yearly funding available before September 11”. Indeed, in the 
U.S., Wells (2003) elucidated, the federal government deprived community policing of the 
needed resources (funding) because of its scepticism [about community policing] and the 9/11 
events. Now, the funding, he asserted, is rechannelled into homeland security (in Lee, 2010). 
In Thailand, the Police Department has been unable to “equip its officers” as a result of 
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inadequate budget (Puthpongsiriporn and Quang, 2005). Furthermore, it was lack of funding 
that has weakened the ability of the Royal Malaysian Police to deliver on its mandate in 
Malaysia (Cheurprakobkit and Puthpongsiriporn, 2005). The above studies have highlighted 
some key issues (resources—personnel, money and time) that need to be investigated to boost 
the current research. The focus, then, is to investigate the extent to which lack of resources 
affect community policing in Ghana.   
Police-Corruption: The records showed that police-corruption has the potential to undermine 
efforts under community policing programs. In Mexico City, for example, community policing 
may not yield positive results because of police-corruption (Muller, 2010). Similarly, the 
Alternative Sentencing Unit—the body responsible for implementing the Comprehensive 
Communities Program (CCP)—has been accused of corruption, making it difficult to achieve 
targets under the CCP in Baltimore (Goetz and Mitchell, 2003). Equally, Ikuteyijo (2009) 
reported, the effectiveness of community policing has been undermined as a result of police-
corruption in Nigeria. In Hong Kong, Lau (2004: 76) stated that “Police–public relations have 
improved but this seems to have been less a result of community policing reforms than the 
uprooting of syndicated police corruption”. The focus, then, is to examine corrupt practices, if 
any, under the current study.  
Divided-Societies: Also, divided societies tend to pose a challenge to the implementation of 
community policing programs. Skolnick and Bayley (1998), for example, reported that the 
police have been struggling to maintain friendly relations with the Koreans (Japan), the blacks 
(U.S.) and the Indians and Afro-Caribbeans (Britain). It is “unique and complex” to implement 
community policing in Northern Ireland (Martin, 2006). The “diversity” and “contending social 
forces” make it difficult to implement community policing in that state (Topping, 2008; 
Weitzer, 1985). One of the Spokespersons for RUC, for example, noted that “Policing in 
Northern Ireland is like intervening in a marital dispute. Both sides are thumping you, and you 
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can never really win. The Chief Constable walks a tightrope between the two” (Weitzer, 1985: 
50). How, then, do diversities—religion, culture and ethnic—affect the implementation of 
community policing in Ghana? Thus, the study will investigate the impact of these diversities 
on community policing in Ghana.     
Lack of Proper Training and Police-Brutality: Many have questioned the mode of training 
officials under community policing programs. Officials do not understand the philosophy of 
community policing because of lack of training (Chappell, 2009). In the late-1960s, for 
example, Germann (1969) observed that only 10% of police-training was on human relations 
in the U.S. In the 2000s, Chappell (2009) equally observed, “What was even more funny was 
the officers’ view of community policing. They had no interest in it at all or in using problem-
solving techniques” in Florida (ibid: 19). In effect, lack of proper training often results in 
police-brutality in most parts of the world. The police, for example, have maimed and killed 
innocent people in Honduras (Arias and Ungar, 2009), the U.S. (Koslicki and Willits, 2018) 
and in most parts of the world. In some instances, however, some militant groups have sought 
to attack the national police forces, resulting in exchange of fire in, inter alia, Nigeria (Ikuteyijo, 
2009) and Brazil (Arias and Ungar, 2009). Moreover, community policing “may” allow the 
police force to befriend criminals (Kessler, 1999), allowing the former (the police) to leak 
information to the latter (criminals). This, straightforwardly, endangers and jeopardizes the life 
of citizens in Nigeria (Ikuteyijo, 2009). The emphasis on police-brutality allows us to examine 
official-misconducts under the current study.  
Conflict over Values and Broken-Relations: In most instances, different institutions 
champion different “social values”, “competing demands and aspirations” under community 
policing in U.S (Thacher, 2001; Chappell, 2009). These differences have the potential to divide 
the police and residents and thus, undermine efforts (Stein and Griffith, 2017). Thacher (2001: 
766), for example, observed that “Police and their would-be partners do not always value the 
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same, or even compatible, things, and there are often good (though not immutable) reasons for 
this. Neighborhood groups bespeak a commitment to quality-of-life in specific residential 
areas; landlords to the exchange and (perhaps) improvement of residential properties; service 
agencies to the welfare of their clients; and the courts to doing justice and the protection of 
individual rights. These values may have some overlap with the complicated mix of aims that 
shape the police mandate, but they are not identical to them. When the partners who cling to 
them try to work in collaboration with the police, conflict may flare up at the point of 
contact”.  In Hong Kong, for example, the national police force failed to “engage the public” 
under community policing program. Likewise, the national police force has been struggling to 
establish partnerships with the communities in the U.S. (Vito, 2005). In Baltimore, “Citizens 
complained that they were less familiar with Hotspots officers” (Goetz and Mitchell, 2003: 
239). The emphasis on the challenges that are involved in police-resident relationships make 
the above studies relevant to the current study. This emphasis, for example, allows us to 
examine the extent to which conflicting values, demands and aspirations tend to obstruct the 
relations between officials and residents in Ghana.   
Clearly, the above studies do not tell us about the contribution of the youth towards community 
policing in Ghana. The current study aligns itself with that of Baker (2008)—“Beyond the 
Tarmac Road: Local Forms of Policing in Sierra Leone & Rwanda”. Baker (2008) argued 
that the youth have been instrumental in preventing and controlling crime in both Sierra Leone 
and Rwanda. Here, the role of the youth, he further argued, is extremely important given the 
inability of the two war-torn states to take the trouble upon themselves. The focus of Baker 
(2008), however, was on the contribution of the youth towards community policing in Sierra 
Leone and Rwanda while the focus of the current study is on the contribution of the youth 
towards community policing in Ghana.       
 
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CHPATER THREE 
 
THEORETICAL/CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK 
 
THEORIES OF EMPLOYMENT (JOB) SECURITY/INSECURITY AND 
BROKEN WINDOWS 
 
2.0. INTRODUCTION: 
 
The concept employment security, “is often used as a synonym for job-security”, even though 
the two are not “entirely the same” (Dekker (2010). Zekic (2016: 1) stated that job security 
refers to the “security of staying in the same job with the same employer” while employment 
security refers to the “possibility to easily find a job at every stage of active life”. The Broken 
Windows Theory (BWT), however, was propounded by scholars such as George Kelling and 
James Q. Wilson in 1982. These scholars simply adopted the term “broken windows” to 
represent “disorder” in society. This theory upholds that ‘disorder’ sets the stage for serious 
‘crime’ and that there can be no ‘crime’ without ‘disorder’.  
 
3.1.THE THEORIES OF EMPLOYMENT (JOB) SECURITY AND INSECURITY 
 
The concept employment security, according to Dekker (2010), originated in the not too distant 
past. Scholars, such as Gallie (2017), for example, observed that intense discussions on this 
concept began during the 1980s. Fevre (2007: 517), for example, wrote: “During the 1990s, 
social theorists popularized the idea that the affluent societies of the West were entering a new 
age of insecure employment in which more and more people would be forced to stitch together 
patchwork careers consisting of short-term spells of work”. Some major contributors to this 
concept include, among others, Doogan, Mythen, Castelss, Giddens, Sennett, and Beck (ibid).  
 
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Zeytinoglu (2012: 124) asserted that both employment security and insecurity define the 
perceptions workers hold about “their future in the current job but from different perspectives: 
positive and negative”. Employment security, observes Bredgaard (2005), is when workers are 
“staying employed” either under the same or different employer (s). Equally, it is, Lovell (1989: 
163) stated, “An economic state wherein an individual worker is able to have continuity of 
work opportunity throughout the years he wishes to be employed”.  “This work”, the authors 
asserted, “certainly does not have to be on the same job, with the same employer or even with 
the same industry”.  
Employment (job) insecurity, on the other hand, is “a multi-dimensional construct that 
identifies the jeopardy to the job generally and to its features specifically, as well as 
powerlessness to resist the threat” (Greenhalgh and Rosenblatt, 2010: 9). Employment 
insecurity has been broken down into two dimensions, including cognitive and affective. 
Whereas cognitive job insecurity, according to Jiang and Probst (2014: 558-559), “refers to 
perceptions regarding the extent to which the future of one’s job is at risk”, affective job 
insecurity, on the other hand, “refers to the employee’s evaluative/affective reaction to that 
cognitive perception, i.e., whether that perception causes them anxiety, worry, etc”. These 
terminologies (cognitive and affective) are, indeed, “two separate constructs” (Jiang, and 
Lavaysse, 2018).  
Many factors trigger employment insecurity, including globalization [political, technological, 
and economic changes] (Benach et al., 2014; Kalleberg, 2011; Gélinas, 2006), workers’ 
perceptions (Låstad, et al., 2018), global competition (Naswall and Witte, 2003), low-skill 
levels and low wages (Maurin and Postel-Winay, 2005), and global economic downturns 
(Burgard and Seelye, 2017).  
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In Europe, Marx (2014) observed that employment insecurity has been “on the rise” over the 
past few decades or so. Furthermore, in 1997, one study, initiated under the sponsorship of the 
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development  (OECD), reported that while 48% 
of U.S. workers stayed secured, 52%, however, stayed unsecured (Jiang and Probst, 2014). 
Again, in 2017, Kambayashi and Kato (2017) reported that Japanese-workers (i.e., “prime-age 
male workers”) tend to stay on jobs much longer (“job stability”) than U.S.-workers (i.e., 
“prime-age male workers”). 
Moreover, a significant relationship has been established between employment 
security/insecurity and some variables in the literature. Yu (2017), for example, observed that 
secure-jobs pay well than insecure-jobs. Still, there is a relation between job security, on the 
one hand, and a person’s “well-being” (that is, psychological, financial, and physical), on the 
other hand (Gélinas, 2006). Similarly, a relationship exists between job insecurity and a 
worker’s “willingness” to involve him/herself in “training to strengthen the position outside 
the organization” (Hootegem, 2019: 395). Also, there is a positive relationship between job 
insecurity and redistribution in a welfare state (Marx, 2014). Finally, Nickie and Emma (2003) 
found that a relationship exists between job insecurity, on the one hand, and gender, on the 
other hand. Generally, males, according to the authors, tend to feel secure on jobs than females. 
Furthermore, some of the negative consequences of employment insecurity have been 
enumerated in the literature. It, for example, raises the anxiety and depression levels of workers 
high (Berglund, 2014) and thus, affects their capabilities to perform well on jobs (König et al., 
2010 Fried, 2003; Burchell, 2011). In addition, it can bring about “burnout and psychological” 
trauma on its victims (Rigotti, 2015; Jiang and Probst, 2019). To Naswall and Witte (2003), 
employment insecurity has the potential to seriously demotivate workers and thus, reduce 
production. Still, others, such as Glavin (2013), asserted that it can reduce the ability of its 
victims to control themselves. These impacts, Carr and Chung (2014) opined, can be minimised 
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through, among others, state-supports, job protection, income protection, employability, and 
market regulation. Indeed, laws have been developed to reduce the likelihood of job losses 
(Heckman, 2000; Suk, 2007), a phenomenon which became rampant in the 21st century (Hur 
and Perry, 2016). These laws, for example, have been formulated and implemented in U.S., 
Europe (Lazear, 1990; Audenrode, 1994), Latin America and the Caribbean (Heckman, 2000). 
The point is that employment security reduces stress and allows citizens to provide for 
themselves and the nation (Lovell, 1989). Ironically, these laws, however, work to reduce the 
willingness of employers to recruit “new workers”, leading to widespread joblessness (Lazear, 
1990). To Fevre (2007), the literature on employment insecurity has, however, failed to 
distinguish between “short-tenure” employments and “non-standard” employments.   
 
3.2.BROKEN WINDOWS: 
 
The Broken Windows Theory (BWT), on the other hand, was propounded by George Kelling 
and James Q. Wilson in 1982. It is important to note that these scholars adopted the term 
“broken windows” to represent “disorder” in society. In very simple terms, the theory of broken 
windows posited that ‘disorder’ sets the stage for serious ‘crime’ and that the latter will not 
occur without the former. These minor crimes include, among others, begging, littering, 
graffiti, drunkenness, prostitution, and vandalism.  
The BWT posited that lack of strictness in law enforcement allows crime to thrive and blossom 
on the streets. In effect, the BWT sought to redirect the attention of the police away from major 
crimes towards minor crimes. Consequently, it called for the adoption of some strategies to 
root out crime and improve lives, including, among others, community policing, conditional 
prevention and arrests of misdemeanour.  
 
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Today, many studies have found evidence in support of the BWT. In Colorado, Xu et al.(2005: 
174), for example, reported that “the current study provides supportive evidence to the broken 
windows thesis that the physical and moral decay of the community leads to increased 
criminality. Because disorder has significant direct, indirect, and total effects on crimes, the 
connection between incivility and crime is well established in the data”. Equally, Funk and 
Kugler (2003) found that minor crimes eventually lead to major crimes—such as robbery—in 
Switzerland.  
Today, the BWT has been widely recommended (Sridhar, 2006) and most countries have 
adopted its tenets “as a motivation for and justification of zero tolerance with respect to petty 
crime. One should therefore expect that would-be offenders are more likely to desist from 
antisocial behavior if they are deterred” (Beckenkamp et al., 2013: 4). In the U.S., for example, 
the BWT was heavily adopted in New York (Sridhar, 2006), leading the media to describe “the 
"famous" Broken Windows essay as “the bible of policing” and “the blueprint for community 
policing” (Harcourt, 1998: 292). Indeed, the adoption of the BWT contributed towards the 
reduction of crime in New York between 1990 and 1999 (Thompson, 2015; Corman and 
Mocan, 2005). 
However, it has been argued that the distinction between minor and major crimes is blurred 
and that the BWR needs “to be reconsidered” (Gau and Pratt, 2008). While Harcourt and 
Ludwig (2006), for example, found no evidence in support of the BWT, Sampson and 
Raudenbush (1999) found that BWT effects are but minimal. Besides, the dictates of BWT 
have triggered negative effects in most societies (Thompson, 2015). It has, for example, led to 
police-brutality in the U.S. (Joanes, 2000) and this, in turn, prompted public-demonstrations 
against the police in that country (Thompson, 2015).    
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These theories, undoubtedly, provide the framework within which to examine the situation of 
the youth under YEA’s 6th module. This framework, for example, allows us to examine the 
relationship between employment insecurity, on the one hand, and the well-being, wages, 
training, skills, and gender, on the other hand. Still, it allows us to examine the nexus between 
the security situation of the selected districts, on the one hand, and the activities of the 
community protection assistants (CPAs), on the other hand. Moreover, the consequences 
(negative and positive) of employment [in]security on the youth following political, economic, 
and technological changes will be scrutinized, as well. Furthermore, the concepts shed light on 
the role of implementation-actors (state, employers, etc) and this allows us to examine the role 
of the actors (public and private) involved in the execution of YEA’s 6th module (state, 
employers, trainers, employees, and supervisors).  
Thus, we are being led to examine the question as to whether the module allows the youth (who 
are in informal sector) to ascend the security ladder into the national security service (the formal 
sector). Indeed, YEA, under this study, provides employment and job security if it pays well 
and allows the youth to ascend the security ladder with ease and certainty. The inability of the 
youth, on the other hand, to capitalize on the available opportunities to meet the demands of a 
globalizing world could make them insecure on the module, as well. Besides, we are being led 
to examine the extent to which the CPAs have been able to uproot crime and improve security 
in the three selected districts, Accra. Thus, the study will be interested in looking at the kind of 
training given, the form of strategies adopted and, of course, the impacts of these strategies on 
the communities under study.   
 
 
 
 
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3.3. RESEARCH QUESTIONS: 
 
Arising from the theory, the following questions will guide the research: 
1. What are the major factors that trigger employment insecurity under YEA’s 6th 
Module? 
2. How does employment insecurity/security affect the wellbeing of YEA’s employees 
under the 6th Module? 
3. What is the nature of the CPA’s training and how do the strategies adopted affect the 
security situation in Accra?  
4. How can the effectiveness of the CPAs be improved to counter crime and improve lives 
in Ghana?  
 
 
 
 
  
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264–283 
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CHAPTER FOUR 
 
METHODOLOGY 
 
3.0. INTRODUCTION: 
 
Methodology, as used in research, is “a scientific methodology as an open-ended set of 
strategies through which the investigator defines research questions, formulates hypotheses and 
explanations, gathers and analyzes data, and assesses the credibility of the hypotheses and 
explanations that are put forward” (Little, 2015: 463-464). Mostly, social scientists tend to 
adopt either the quantitative, the qualitative, or the mixed methods when storming the field to 
gather data. The current study adopted the mixed-method to collect its primary-data. The 
mixed-method allowed the student to make use of the merits of both the quantitative and 
qualitative methods. In addition, the mixed method allowed the student to collect and analyse 
objective primary data.  
4.1. Research techniques: 
 
Research techniques are the various strategies involved in collecting data. The two main 
research techniques, Burgess (1931) opined, include (a) data-gathering techniques and (b) data-
handling techniques. In Burgess’ (1931) view, (b) has to do with description, comparison, 
analysis, and synthesis and (a) has to do with consensus, documentation, observation, 
questionnaire, and experimentation. This required the researcher (i.e., the student) to remain 
attentive, listen with rapt ears, jot down important points, and record (with permission) during 
the interview exercise. The student, then, transcribed the information recorded into his field 
note book which was, in turn, used to confirm and correct the data the student wrote with his 
hand during the qualitative-interviews with GPS and YEA officials. Surely, these strategies 
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allowed the researcher to categorise and compare quantitative data to the qualitative data during 
the analysis.  
4.2. The Sources of Data: 
 
The student established contacts with officials and residents in/with the relevant institutions, 
communities and association (s) and interviewed them. These institutions, association (s) and 
communities include the Ghana Police Service (GPS), YEA, the Community Protection 
Personnel Association (s) [CPPA), Adentan, Ashaiman, La Dadekotopon, La Nkwantanan-
Madina, Ledzokuku Krowo, Ayawaso, Ablekuma, Okaikoi and Weija Gbawe in the Greater 
Accra Region (GAR). It should be noted that YEA relies on the GPS to train the Community 
Protection Assistants (CPAs). In effect, the student contacted the GPS officials in Nima, 
Airport Residential area, Kokomelemele, Sabon Zongo, Accra New Town, and Dansoman 
police Divisions.  Thus, the student’s contact with the GPS officials was intended to understand 
the nature of this training and how it differs, if any, from that of the national police personnel. 
Secondly, the interaction with the GPS was meant to understand how the two teams (the 
national police personnel and the community protection assistants) have been collaborating to 
deal with crime in Accra. How about our contact with YEA? It was meant to gather 
biographical data on the successes and challenges of YEA’s 6th module since its inception in 
2015. Moreover, our contact with the leaders of the CPPA was meant to understand the 
experiences of the youth on the 6th module. Furthermore, the student’s contact with the 
community-residents was meant to solicit their views on the impact of CPAs in their 
communities. Finally, the student hoped to extract document-materials on the field to buttress 
his primary data.  
Increasingly, the sources of the secondary data included the internet, journals, magazines and, 
of course, books. The student stormed the Faculty of Law Library, the Department of Political 
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Science Library (UG), the African Studies Library, and the University of Ghana Balme Library 
to collect this data.   
4.4. Gathering Primary Data: 
 
There are two main forms of sampling methods, including the purposive and the random 
sampling methods (Sudman, 2001). The researcher does not consider the expertise of the 
population under the random sampling. The purposive sampling, however, requires the 
researcher to consider the expertise of the population (O’Sullivan and Rassel, 1995). The 
student considered and adopted both the purposive (already discussed under “The Sources of 
Data”) and random sampling methods. Moreover, this study relied on the convenience 
sampling method to sample five hundred (500) CPAs since it did not intend to use the sample 
data to estimate the population characteristics. Finally, the study interviewed two hundred and 
fifty-two (252) community members to complete the Community Member module of the CPAs 
survey.  
Once the sample size was determined, the student, again, relied on the systematic sampling 
method to select his respondents. Currently, YEA has fifteen thousand (15000) community 
protection assistants (CPAs) under it—this figure represented our sample frame. Now, the 
systematic sampling method required the student to divide the sample frame (i.e., 15000) by 
the sample (i.e., 500) to get the skip interval (i.e. 30). To avoid the problem of periodicity, the 
student, then, doubled the skip interval and proceeded to choose any number (between 1 and 
30) to begin the selection of his respondents. The student, however, used the random sampling 
method to select respondents in the various communities.  
The contact with the members of the CPPA was meant to gather biographical data on the 
experiences of the youth under the 6th module. Here, the major purpose was to understand 
whether the module truly makes the CPAs secure or not. Borrowing Nickie and Emma (2003), 
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Yu (2017), Gélinas (2006), Hootegem (2019), and Marx’s (2014) approaches, employment 
security became our dependent variable while salary, gender, the willingness to undertake 
further training, and skills became our independent variables. The study, however, overturned 
the position of employment security (the dependent variable) in order to measure the health 
(physical and psychological well-being) of the youth. In effect, employment security became 
the independent variable while health (physical and psychological) became the dependent 
variable. 
4.5. Interviews: 
 
The two main types of interviews, according to Wu (1967), are the structured and the 
unstructured interviews. The responses tend to vary under unstructured interviews but remain 
the same under structured interviews (ibid). To Farrell (1940), interviews ought to be carried 
out to satisfy some objectives and aims. The current study relied on unstructured interviews in 
order to boost the freedom of expression. He (the student) scheduled official appointments 
using direct visits, emails and phones calls. However, the student relied on the face-to-face 
interviews to engage the respondents. To sum up, he got back to respondents to rectify minor 
errors (i.e., those who refused to be recorded) when all was said and done.  
4.6. Interview Discussion Guide and Questionnaire: 
 
In simple terms, the interview guide—a set of questions—is mostly designed to direct/guide 
interview exercises. The current study developed a guide with various questions to engage 
officials in both the GPS and YEA. Equally, the questionnaire was developed to provide the 
respondents with some options (a, b, c, d, e, f, g,) to choose. Here, the questions were written 
under different sub-themes. Surely, these instruments allowed the researcher to carry out the 
field exercise with ease and certainty.   
 
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4.7. Strategy to Store and Transcribe Data: 
 
This involved the attempt to download and store messages, record phone conversations and 
write important points during interviews. However, the strategy to download and store 
messages and record phone conversations was deployed during and after the actual interview 
exercises on the field. In points of fact, this method enabled the student to reaffirm major points 
and rectify major mistakes.  
4.8. Analysis of Data:  
 
This sub-section concerned itself with data analysis. It was remarked that the “interview data 
are not only the literal words from a respondent but include evaluator assumptions, biases, and 
questions. The interview is cocreated between the evaluator and the respondent. It is the job of 
analysis to give concrete form to the meaning of the interview which is called the interpretation. 
The words of the interview constitute raw data, somewhat like the numbers resulting from a 
test. Raw data does not in itself reveal its meaning; rather it must be interpreted” (Griffe (2005: 
36). The student adopted the following methods to analysis both the quantitative and qualitative 
data. Firstly, the qualitative data (both written and audio) was decoded and transcribed under 
different themes and sub-themes. This enabled the student to analyse the data using the 
recurrent themes which was, in turn, used to confirm and dispute the extant literature.  
Secondly, the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) was accurately deployed to aid 
the data analysis. Here, the student used the percentages and totals to interpret the statistical 
charts, tables, and figures. He was mindful to differentiate between YES, NO, and I DON’T 
KNOW answers using the corresponding totals (as some statistical tables may produce two 
totals) aptly. The YES and NO answers, in other words, were not mixed with the I DON’T 
KNOW answers.  
 
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Finally, the student used cross-tabulation to explain most of the categorical variables into 
details. The statistical tables and charts were unable to dissect and explain these variables into 
details which was why the cross-tab was needed to clarify them. Cross-tab was used to dissect 
and explain categorical data such as, among others, gravity of crime (robbery and defilement) 
vs. Districts (Accra Metropolitan area, the Ayawaso East Municipal and Ayawaso Central 
Muncipal), training (training relating to robbery, traffic regulations, rape and defilements) vs. 
professionalism towards crime (robbery, disrespect for traffic rules, and defilement), gravity of 
crime (robbery, disrespect for traffic rules, and defilement) vs. areas within districts 
(Mataheko, Dansoman, and the Airport Residential area). This provides YEA and GPS with 
the information needed to deal with crime in Accra.    
 
4.9. The Reliability and Validity of the Method: 
 
It has been remarked that validity “refers to how well a test or an instrument measures what it 
purports to measure. In surveys, validity represents the extent to which the questionnaire or 
other instrument used to collect information is able to approximate the truth about people's 
behaviour or knowledge” (Dare and Cleland, 1994: 95). However, “The reliability of a 
measuring instrument is commonly defined as the level of precision of the instrument” 
(Huizinga and Elliott, 1986: 295). The questionnaire and the interview guide were designed 
after the student has reviewed the literature. This allowed him to develop reliable research 
instruments and generate valid data.   
4.1.0 The Ethical Principles of Research: 
 
This study paid maximum respect to the existing ethical principles in the field of Political 
Science. Firstly, the student, for example, sent the statement of the research problem and 
introductory letters to the institutions under study. Secondly, he scheduled all appointments 
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using official means and procedures—visits, emails, phone calls. Thirdly, the student was well 
composed and respected all appointment times. Finally, he accurately presented and analysed 
the research findings without distortions.    
 
4.1.1. The Mixed-Method: 
 
It has been asserted that the “Mixed method research designs encompass collecting, analyzing, 
and integrating quantitative and qualitative data and their analyses and interpretations” 
(Aarons, 2012: 68). Equally, the mixed-method is “where the researcher mixes or combines 
quantitative and qualitative research techniques, methods, approaches, concepts or language 
into a single study” (Johnson and Onwuegbuzie, 2004: 17). The two major types of this method 
include the concurrent and sequential mixed-methods (Farquhar, Ewing, and Booth, 2011). The 
concurrent mixed-method, according to the trio, requires one to deploy the qualitative and 
quantitative methods at the same time. However, the sequential mixed-method requires one to 
either begin with quantitative and end with qualitative or begin with qualitative and end with 
quantitative (ibid). Many believed that the mixed-method can be used to investigate almost 
every topic (Jefferson et al., 2014; Brannen and Moss, 2012; Kozlowski, 2013; Abutabenjeh, 
2018). In effect, the current study deployed the concurrent mixed-method to collect and analyse 
his data. The major objective was to analyse the quantitative and qualitative data in order to 
determine the extent to which the two methods agree and disagree under this study. 
4.1.2 The Mixed-Method’s Merits and Demerits: 
 
The mixed-method allows one to capitalize on the merits of quantitative and qualitative 
methods (Jefferson et al., 2014). Then again, it allows the researcher to cover the length and 
breadth of a particular phenomenon (Wilkins and Woodgate, 2008). In Morse’s (2005) view, 
it promotes “validity” in data collection and analysis. In view of this, Brannen and Moss (2012) 
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urged scholars to adopt the mixed-method all the time. However, some believed that the mixed 
method has still not been developed fully (Morse, and Cheek, 2014), making it difficult to fully 
adopt and use it in research (Morse, 2005; Ramlo, 2016). This method can trigger 
inconsistencies in academic research (Morris and Burkett, 2011 in Dupin, Debout, and Rothan-
Tondeur.2014). In Maxwell’s (2009) view, however, the more scholars criticise the mixed-
method, the more it becomes refined.  
4.1.3. Limitations/Challenges of the Study: 
 
The major challenge that confronted the student [on the field] had to do with the outbreak of 
COVID-19 in Ghana. This virus broke out just when the student was set to go out and collect 
his data. Indeed, the outbreak of COVID-19 did not only delay the exercise, but also, it made 
most respondents reluctant to respond to questions.   
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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References: 
 
Abutabenjeh, S.(2018).Clarification Of Research Design, Research Methods, and Research 
Methodology: A Guide For Public Administration Researchers And Practitioners. Teaching 
Public Administration. pp. 1–22 
Aarons, A. G.(2012).Mixed Methods for Implementation Research: Application to Evidence-
Based Practice Implementation and Staff Turnover in Community-Based Organizations 
Providing Child Welfare Services. Child Maltreatment 17(1) 67-79 
 
Burgess, O. T.(1931),The Techniques of Research in Educational Sociology. Washington, DC. 
American Sociological Association, pp. 272-278 
 
Brannen, J and Moss, G.(2012).Critical Issues in Designing Mixed Methods Policy Research. 
American Behavioral Scientist 56(6). pp. 789–801 
Dupin, C. M., et al.(2014).Mixed-Method Nursing Research: “A Public and Its Problems?” A 
Commentary on French Nursing Research. Policy, Politics, & Nursing Practice, Vol. 15(1–2) 
15–20 
 
Dare, O.O. and Cleland, J. G.(1994),Reliability and validity of survey data on sexual behaviour. 
Health Transition Review, Vol. 4, Supplement. AIDS Impact and Prevention in the Developing 
World: Demographic and Social Science Perspectives, pp. 93-110 
Farquhar, C. M., et al.(2011).Using mixed methods to develop and evaluate complex 
interventions in palliative care research. Palliative Medicine 25(8) 748–757   
 
Farrell, M.(1940).The Personal Interview -- in Selecting Personnel. The American Journal of 
Nursing, Vol. 40, No. 3, pp. 303-308 
Gélinas, P.(2006).An Organizational Flexibility Framework for Compensation and Job 
Security Negotiations. Compensation & Benefits Review, pp. 24-29 
Griffe, T. D.(2005),Research Tips: Interview Data Collection. National Center for 
Developmental Education, Appalachian State, pp. 36-37 
 
Hootegem, A. V.(2019).Job Insecurity and the Willingness to Undertake Training: The 
Moderating Role of Perceived Employability. Journal of Career Development, Vol. 46(4) 395-
409 
Huizinga, D. and Elliott, D. S.(1986),Reassessing the Reliability and Validity of Self-Report 
Delinquency Measures. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, Vol. 2, No. 4, pp. 293-327 
Jefferson, T et al.(2014).Mixed-methods research: What’s in it for economists? The Economic 
and Labour Relations Review 2014, Vol. 25(2). pp. 290–305 
Johnson, B. and Onwuegbuzie, A. J.(2004).Mixed Methods Research: A Research Paradigm 
Whose Time Has Come. Educational Researcher, Vol. 33, No. 7, pp. 14–26 
 
Kozlowski, S. W. J.(2013).Advancing Multilevel Research Design: Capturing the Dynamics 
of Emergence. Organizational Research Methods 16(4) 581-615 
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Little, D.(2015).Mechanisms and Method. Philosophy of the Social Sciences, Vol. 45(4-5) 
462–480 
Maxwell, A. J.(2009).Advances in Mixed Method Research. Journal of Mixed Methods 
Research Volume 3 Number 4, pp. 411-413  
 
Marx, P.(2014).The Effect of Job Insecurity and Employability on Preferences for 
Redistribution In Western Europe. Journal of European Social Policy, Vol. 24(4) 351–366 
Morse, M. J.(2005).Evolving Trends in Qualitative Research: Advances in Mixed-Method 
Design. Qualitative Health Research, Vol. 15 No. 5, May 2005 583-585 
 
Morse, M. J. and Cheek, J.(2014).Making Room for Qualitatively-Driven Mixed-Method 
Research. Qualitative Health Research, Vol. 24(1) 3–5 
 
Nickie C. and Emma J.(2003).The gender dimensions of job insecurity in a local labour market. 
Work, employment and society, Volume 17(3): 531–552  
O’Sullivan E. and Rassel, G. R.(1995).Research Methods for Public Administrators. 2nd ed. 
Longman Publishers, U.S.A. pp. 1-217 
Ramlo, S.(2016).Mixed Method Lessons Learned From 80 Years of Q Methodology. Journal 
of Mixed Methods Research, Vol. 10(1) 28–45 
 
Sudman, S.(2001),Sampling. Journal of Consumer Psychology, Vol. 10, No. 1/2, 
Methodological and Statistical Concerns of the Experimental Behavioral Researcher, pp. 109-
110 
 
WU, Y. C.(1967).The Research Interview and Its Measurement. Oxford: Oxford University 
Press. pp. 79-87 
 
Wilkins, K. and Woodgate, R.(2008).Designing a Mixed Methods Study in Pediatric Oncology 
Nursing Research. Journal of Pediatric Oncology Nursing, Vol 25, No 1: p 24-33 
 
Yu, W.(2017).Tradeoff or Winner Take All? Relationships between Job Security and Earnings 
in 32 Countries. Sociological Perspectives, Vol. 60(2) 269–292 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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CHAPTER FIVE 
 
ANALYSIS OF THE CPAs SURVEY 
 
4.0. INTRODUCTION: 
 
The quantitative aspect of the assessment of the Youth Employment Agency’s (YEA) Sixth 
Module was done using two main target groups – 1. community policing assistants and 2. the 
community members. 
 
5.1. Demographic characteristics of community policing assistants: 
 
Five hundred and nine (509) Community Policing Assistants (CPAs) were successfully 
interviewed for this module of the survey. Among these were 333 male CPAs, representing 
65.4 percent of the respondents.  These respondents were drawn from 2 metropolitan and 17 
municipal areas in the Greater Accra Region. The two metropolitan areas were Accra and Tema 
whilst all the remaining districts were municipalities. The remaining 17 municipal areas are 
Adentan, Ashaiman, Ga Central, Ga East, Ga North, Ga South, Ga West, La Dadekotopon, La 
Nkwantanan-Madina, Ledzokuku Krowo, Ayawaso East, Ayawaso West, Ayawaso North, 
Ablekuma West, Ablekuma North, Okaikoi and Weija Gbawe. These districts align with the 
Ghana Police administrative areas. A greater proportion of the respondents were drawn from 
Ledzekuku Krowo (12.6%), followed by Ashaiman (11%), Ablekuma North (9.2%) and Accra 
(8.6%).  Few of the respondents were drawn from Ga Central (0.4%), Tema (0.8%) and Ga 
East (1.8%). In addition, the student qualitatively interviewed over 20 top officials (from YEA) 
and security professionals (in the Nima, Airport Residential area, Kokomelemele, Sabon 
Zongo, Accra New Town, and Dansoman police Divisions) to buttress the quantitative data. 
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The age group of these respondents fall within 25-35, 35-45 and 45-55. Of the 20 officials, 8 
were females and 12 were males.   
 
 
Table 4.1 Distribution of respondents by municipal area and sex: 
Male Female All 
Location N % N % N % 
Accra 34 10.2 10 5.7 44 8.6 
Adentan 16 4.8 5 2.8 21 4.1 
Ashaiman 29 8.7 27 15.3 56 11 
Ga Central 1 0.3 1 0.6 2 0.4 
Ga East 8 2.4 1 0.6 9 1.8 
Ga North 16 4.8 15 8.5 31 6.1 
Ga South 22 6.6 6 3.4 28 5.5 
Ga West 25 7.5 15 8.5 40 7.9 
La Dadekotopon 10 3 8 4.5 18 3.5 
La Nkwantanan-Madina 12 3.6 6 3.4 18 3.5 
Ledzokuku Krowo 42 12.6 22 12.5 64 12.6 
Tema 2 0.6 2 1.1 4 0.8 
Ayawaso East 7 2.1 11 6.3 18 3.5 
Ayawaso West 6 1.8 6 3.4 12 2.4 
Ayawaso North 6 1.8 9 5.1 15 2.9 
Ablekuma West 27 8.1 10 5.7 37 7.3 
Ablekuma North 36 10.8 11 6.3 47 9.2 
Okaikoi 22 6.6 9 5.1 31 6.1 
Weija Gbawe 12 3.6 2 1.1 14 2.8 
Total 333 100 176 100 509 100 
Source:  CPAs survey field data, June 2020 
 
At least, half of the respondents from Ayawaso East (61.1%), Ayawaso North (60%), Ayawaso 
West (50%), Tema (50%) and Ga Central (50%) were females. However, the majority of the 
respondents from Ga East (88.9%), Weija Gbawe (85.7%), Ga South (78.6%), Accra (77.3%), 
Ablekuma North (76.6%), Adentan (76.2%), Ablekuma West (73%) and Okaikoi (71%) were 
males.  
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Table 4.2  Distribution of respondents within the municipal areas by sex: 
Male Female Total 
Location N % N % N % 
Accra 34 77.3 10 22.7 44 100 
Adentan 16 76.2 5 23.8 21 100 
Ashaiman 29 51.8 27 48.2 56 100 
Ga Central 1 50 1 50 2 100 
Ga East 8 88.9 1 11.1 9 100 
Ga North 16 51.6 15 48.4 31 100 
Ga South 22 78.6 6 21.4 28 100 
Ga West 25 62.5 15 37.5 40 100 
La Dadekotopon 10 55.6 8 44.4 18 100 
La Nkwantanan-Madina 12 66.7 6 33.3 18 100 
Ledzokuku Krowo 42 65.6 22 34.4 64 100 
Tema 2 50 2 50 4 100 
Ayawaso East 7 38.9 11 61.1 18 100 
Ayawaso West 6 50 6 50 12 100 
Ayawaso North 6 40 9 60 15 100 
Ablekuma West 27 73 10 27 37 100 
Ablekuma North 36 76.6 11 23.4 47 100 
Okaikoi 22 71 9 29 31 100 
Weija Gbawe 12 85.7 2 14.3 14 100 
All 333 65.4 176 34.6 509 100 
Source:  CPAs survey field data, June 2020 
 
The youngest CPA interviewed was 20 years whilst the oldest was 38 years. But the mean age 
of the respondents was 27.6 years with a standard deviation of 3.78. Moreover, the average age 
of the male CPAs was 28 years, slightly higher than that of their female counterparts by 1.5 
(approximately, 2) years. This difference was found to be statistically significant at a level of 
1 percent given a p-value of 0.000 from a t-test (see table A1 in appendix). 
Almost half of the respondents were aged between 25 and 29 years (48.7%).  The proportion 
of female CPAs in this age category slightly outnumbered that of their male counterparts by 
2.8 percentage points. A significantly higher proportion of the female CPAs were in the 
youngest age category that is 20 – 24 years, 10.3 percentage points than their male colleagues. 
Relatively, the male CPAs dominated the older age brackets of 30 – 34 years and 35 – 38 years; 
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24.6 percent and 7.8 percent compared to 17.1 percent and 2.3 percent respectively (see figure 
4.1). These differences were found to be statistically significant at a level of 1 percent given a 
p-value of 0.002 from a Pearson’s chi-squared test. 
Figure 4.1 Age of CPAs by sex: 
60.0
50.6
47.8 48.7
50.0
40.0
30.1
30.0
23.4 24.6 22.0
19.8
20.0 17.1
7.8
10.0 5.9
2.3
0.0
20-24 25-29 30-34 35-38
Age
Male Female All
 
Source:  CPAs survey field data, June 2020 
As shown in figure 4.2, a little over half of the CPAs were never married but this was slightly 
prevalent among female CPAs (56.8) than their male counterparts (51.7%). Overall, about two 
in five CPAs were married. Nearly 4 percentage points in excess of the female proportion were 
male who were married but these differences were not found to be statistically significant given 
a p-value of 0.248 from a Fisher’s exact test. 
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Figure 4.2 Marital status of CPAs by sex: 
60.0 56.8
51.7 53.4
50.0 44.1 42.8
40.3
40.0
30.0
20.0
10.0 4.2 2.3 3.5
0.0 0.6 0.2
0.0
Never married Married Widowed Divorced / separated
Marital status
Male Female All
 
Source: CPAs survey field data, June 2020 
One female was widowed and she had two children.  In general, 56.2 percent of the CPAs did 
not have any children and the proportion of females who had no children was slightly higher 
(59.7%) than the male CPAs (54.4%).  Among those who had children, the average number of 
children each of them had was 1 with a standard deviation of 0.96. The mean for those who 
were married was not different from the overall mean but it increased to 2 with a standard 
deviation of 1.00 among those who were divorced or separated. 
The majority of the respondents were Christians (74.5%) followed by Muslims (18.3%), 
Traditionalists (5.5%) and the non-religious (1.8%).  At least one third of the CPAs surveyed 
were Ga Dangme (37.9%) followed by Akans (35.2%), Ewes (14.9%), Mole-Dagbani (6.1%), 
and Gonja (1.6%), among others. 
Presented in figure 4.3 is the highest educational attainment of the CPAs. About six out of 
every 10 of the CPAs had a senior secondary / vocational / technical school qualification 
followed by those with junior secondary school qualification (29.5%).  
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Figure 4.3 Highest educational level of CPAs: 
Post-secondary Polytechnic (Diploma)
(certificate / non- 1%
diploma) Junior High (JSS / JHS)
8% 29%
Senior Secondary / 
Vocational / Technical
62%  
Source:  CPAs survey field data, June 2020 
Relatively, the females dominated CPAs with senior secondary / vocational / technical 
qualification (69.9%) and post-secondary certificate (non-diploma) holders (10.2%) compared 
to their male counterparts; 57.4% and 6.0% respectively.  On the other hand, the males 
dominated CPAs with junior secondary (34.8%) and polytechnic (diploma) qualifications 
(1.8%) compared to the female CPAs of 19.3 percent and 0.6 percent respectively.  These 
differences were statistically significant at a level of 1 percent given a p-value of 0.001 from a 
Fisher’s exact test. 
Table 4.3 Highest educational level of CPAs by sex: 
Male Female All 
Educational level N % N % N % 
Junior High (JSS / JHS) 116 34.8 34 19.3 150 29.5 
Senior Secondary / Vocational / 
Technical 191 57.4 123 69.9 314 61.7 
Post-secondary (certificate / non-
diploma) 20 6 18 10.2 38 7.5 
Polytechnic (Diploma) 6 1.8 1 0.6 7 1.4 
Total 333 100 176 100 509 100 
Source: CPAs survey field data, June 2020 
 
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Households of the CPAs were predominantly traders (30.1%), artisans (16.3%) and farmers / 
fishermen (12.4%). Households whose main occupation engaged private sector employees 
including those in self-employment constituted 18.3 percent of the sample (see table 4.4). 
Table 4.4 Main occupation of households of CPAs by gender: 
Male Female All 
Occupation N % N % N % 
Trader 93 27.9 60 34.1 153 30.1 
Artisan 65 19.5 18 10.2 83 16.3 
Farmer / fisherman 47 14.1 16 9.1 63 12.4 
Private sector employee (informal) 25 7.5 12 6.8 37 7.3 
Unemployed 25 7.5 11 6.3 36 7.1 
Self-employed 20 6 16 9.1 36 7.1 
Public servant 14 4.2 14 8 28 5.5 
Teacher 14 4.2 11 6.3 25 4.9 
Private sector person (formal employee) 12 3.6 8 4.5 20 3.9 
Civil servant 14 4.2 5 2.8 19 3.7 
Student 2 0.6 4 2.3 6 1.2 
Other 2 0.6 1 0.6 3 0.6 
Total 333 100 176 100 509 100 
Source: CPAs survey field data, June 2020 
 
About 8.3 percent of the households of the CPAs were not earning any income prior to their 
employment in the Sixth Module of the YEA. The average monthly household income was 
estimated to be GH₵788.13 but the minimum was GH₵100 whilst the maximum was 
GH₵3000.  The data showed that households of female CPAs earned higher monthly incomes 
in excess of GH₵43.60 than households of male CPAs.  Additionally, households of CPAs 
aged 30 – 34 years had the lowest average monthly income of GH₵757.89 with a standard 
deviation of 507.06 whilst households of CPAs aged 35 – 38 had the highest average monthly 
income of GH₵914.50 with a standard deviation of 587.03. In general, households in Adentan, 
La Nkwantanan-Madina, Ayawaso West and Ablekuma West had average monthly incomes of 
at least GH₵1,000 whereas those in Ayawaso East, Ga West and Ga Central had average 
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monthly incomes of less than GH₵500.  Details of household income of CPAs prior to their 
engagement with YEA by sex, age and location have been provided in table 4.5. 
Table 4.5 Monthly income of households of CPAs by sex, age and location: 
Standard 
Variables N Mean deviation Minimum Maximum 
Sex           
Male 302 772.73 532.41 100 3000 
Female 165 816.33 598.02 100 3000 
Age      
20 - 24 102 804.45 558.18 100 2500 
25 - 29 228 779.77 574.97 100 3000 
30 - 34 109 757.89 507.06 200 3000 
35 - 38 28 914.50 587.03 200 2500 
Location      
Accra 38 902.89 464.29 250 2000 
Adentan 21 1352.38 443.42 600 2500 
Ashaiman 55 948.18 800.98 100 3000 
Ga Central 1 200.00  200 200 
Ga East 8 550.00 162.57 350 800 
Ga North 31 503.23 213.67 250 1000 
Ga South 20 890.00 526.06 300 2000 
Ga West 40 387.50 155.97 200 1000 
La Dadekotopon 16 841.63 541.73 208 2000 
La Nkwantanan-Madina 18 1183.33 406.20 600 2000 
Ledzokuku Krowo 58 573.42 497.62 100 2000 
Tema 4 525.00 330.40 300 1000 
Ayawaso East 18 420.00 168.80 150 800 
Ayawaso West 12 1108.33 535.06 500 2000 
Ayawaso North 15 536.67 217.51 200 1000 
Ablekuma West 31 1089.74 678.32 150 3000 
Ablekuma North 40 956.15 578.95 200 3000 
Okaikoi 29 723.31 328.60 300 1800 
Weija Gbawe 12 638.33 254.05 300 1200 
All 467 788.1333 556.2259 100 3000 
Source:  CPAs survey field data, June 2020 
 
 
5.2. EMPLOYMENT ASPECTS OF THE YOUTH UNDER THE YEA’S 6TH 
MODULE: 
 
The respondents were asked to state their immediate previous employment and the results 
showed that almost a quarter of the respondents were artisans (23.2%), followed by other 
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informal private sector employees (14.2%), traders (12.2%) and the self-employed (7.9%).  On 
the other hand, 15.7 percent of them were completely idle (i.e. unemployed) whilst 14.5 percent 
were students who just passed out of school.  
They were also asked to indicate their income level prior to their current employment.  The 
data showed that the CPAs were earning, on average, GH₵467.48 each month. Male CPAs, 
prior to their current employment, received higher mean values of income than female CPAs 
in the various occupations they engaged in except formal employees in the private sector where 
female CPAs had a mean income of GH₵45.87 in excess of what the male CPAs earned. 
Overall, the male CPAs earned GH₵95.30 above what their female counterparts earned in their 
previous employment. 
Table 4.6 Income levels of CPAs in their previous employment: 
Male Female All 
Std. Std. 
Occupation N Mean dev N Mean dev N Mean Std. dev 
Farmer / fisherman 22 438.86 191.06 3 416.67 236.29 25 436.20 191.44 
Trader 31 458.24 224.89 31 399.19 205.69 62 428.72 215.79 
Artisan 84 538.10 195.66 33 464.35 192.57 117 517.30 196.80 
Student 7 187.29 177.70 9 155.56 76.83 16 169.44 126.66 
Private sector person 
(formal employee) 28 599.46 157.83 9 645.33 206.63 37 610.62 169.03 
Self-employed 22 386.02 172.17 18 374.44 227.24 40 380.81 196.22 
Private sector employee 
(informal) 53 527.08 209.34 19 332.79 220.01 72 475.81 227.61 
Unemployed 3 366.67 202.07 0 - - 3 366.67 202.07 
All 250 498.74 209.26 122 403.44 223.03 372 467.48 218.23 
Source:  CPAs survey field data, June 2020 
 
As at the time the CPAs were being absorbed into the 6th Module, the males were aged 25 years 
with a standard deviation of 3 whilst the females were aged 24 years also with a standard 
deviation of 3.  The youngest persons as at that time for both sexes were 18 years whilst the 
oldest were 35 years.  Over half of the female CPAs were aged between 20 and 24 years at the 
time of recruitment compared to a little over one-third of the male CPAs. The male CPAs, 
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however, dominated the age brackets of 25 – 29 and 30 years and above at the time of their 
engagement (see figure 4.4). These differences were found to be statistically significant at a 
level of 1 percent given a p-value of 0.000 from a Pearson’s chi-squared test. 
 
Figure 4.4 Age of CPAs during recruitment by sex: 
60.0
51.7
50.0 46.9 43.6
41.1
40.0 35.4 37.5
30.0
20.0 16.2
12.8
10.0 4.6 6.3
1.5 2.6
0.0
18-19 20-24 25-29 30 +
Age
Male Female All
 
Source: CPAs survey field data, June 2020 
The CPAs receive a uniform amount of GH₵400 as salary from the National Youth 
Employment Agency. Less than 1 percent of the CPAs indicated they were very satisfied with 
their salary whilst about 8.1 percent said they were fairly satisfied with it.  Majority of them 
were dissatisfied – fairly dissatisfied (39.5%) and very dissatisfied (37.9%). Essentially, only 
9 percent of the CPAs were satisfied with their salary.  It is interesting to note that the highly 
educated ones among the CPAs were more satisfied with their salary than the less educated as 
the proportion of those satisfied increased from 6.0 percent to 14.3 percent for the junior high 
school leavers and polytechnic (diploma) certificate holders respectively. On the other hand, 
apart from those aged 35 – 38 years, the level of satisfaction with salary dropped as age 
increased (see table 4.7). 
 
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Table 4.7 Satisfaction with salary by sex and age: 
Not satisfied Satisfied Total 
Variable N % N % N % 
Sex             
Male 304 91.3 29 8.7 333 100 
Female 159 90.3 17 9.7 176 100 
Age       
20-24 99 21.4 20 43.5 119 23.4 
25-29 228 49.2 20 43.5 248 48.7 
30-34 109 23.5 3 6.5 112 22 
35-38 27 5.8 3 6.5 30 5.9 
Education       
Junior High (JSS / JHS / MSLC) 141 94 9 6 150 100 
Senior Secondary / Vocational / Technical 282 89.8 32 10.2 314 100 
Post-secondary (certificate / non-diploma) 34 89.5 4 10.5 38 100 
Polytechnic (Diploma) 6 85.7 1 14.3 7 100 
Total 463 100 46 100 509 100 
Source: CPAs survey field data, June 2020 
 
They were asked whether they intend to exit the program before the two years expire and about 
19.3 percent of them responded in the affirmative whereas half of them said no. 
A slightly higher proportion of the female respondents (21%) would exit compared to their 
male counterparts (18.3%).  With the exception of those aged, 20 – 24 years, the proportion of 
CPAs who plan to exit the program before the end of the two years increased with their age 
groups.  A similar pattern was observed for educational levels as few of the less educated plan 
to exit the program compared to the more educated ones (see table 4.8). 
 
 
 
 
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Table 4.8 Intentions of CPAs to exit program before expiration: 
Haven't 
Yes No decided Total 
Variable N % N % N % N % 
Sex                 
Male 61 18.3 183 55 89 26.7 333 100 
Female 37 21 73 41.5 66 37.5 176 100 
Age         
20-24 30 25.2 55 46.2 34 28.6 119 100 
25-29 42 16.9 136 54.8 70 28.2 248 100 
30-34 19 17 52 46.4 41 36.6 112 100 
35-38 7 23.3 13 43.3 10 33.3 30 100 
Education         
Junior High (JSS / JHS / MSLC) 20 13.3 88 58.7 42 28 150 100 
Senior Secondary / Vocational / Technical 65 20.7 153 48.7 96 30.6 314 100 
Post-secondary (certificate / non-diploma) 11 28.9 13 34.2 14 36.8 38 100 
Polytechnic (Diploma) 2 28.6 2 28.6 3 42.9 7 100 
Total 98 19.3 256 50.3 155 30.5 509 100 
Source: CPAs survey field data, June 2020 
Most of those who plan to exit would do so because of the low salary (60.2%), followed by 
those who would leave for further studies (12.2%) as well as those not just satisfied with the 
work (11.2%). A few of them would leave for other jobs (9.2%) or other personal reasons 
(7.1%). 
Nearly half of the respondents (48.9%) knew others who have already exited or intend to exit 
the program before the expiration of the two years. About 6 out of every 10 of these had left 
due to low salary. Other reasons include not satisfied with the work (11.2%), new job offer 
(11.2%) and personal reasons (12.1%), among others. In fact, interviews with top YEA and 
GPS shows that low wages and salaries have demotivated most CPAs to give out their best at 
the duty posts. The CPAs were asked whether they have been trained on how to setup their 
own businesses.  The results showed that 28.3 percent have been trained on how to establish 
their own businesses.  Proportionately, more female CPAs have been trained on how to setup 
their own business than the male CPAs; excess proportion of 6.3 percentage points. The 
proportion of CPAs who had received training to establish their businesses increased as age 
and educational levels increased. Two thirds of the respondents from Adentan, La 
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Nkwantanan-Madina, Ayawaso West and Ayawaso North had received such training whereas 
none of those from Weija Gbawe, Ga East and Ga Central had it. 
Table 4.8 CPAs trained on how to set-up their own businesses by sex, age, education level 
and location: 
Yes No Total 
Variable N % N % N % 
Sex       
Male 87 26.1 246 73.9 333 100 
Female 57 32.4 119 67.6 176 100 
Age       
20-24 23 19.3 96 80.7 119 100 
25-29 68 27.4 180 72.6 248 100 
30-34 39 34.8 73 65.2 112 100 
35-38 14 46.7 16 53.3 30 100 
Education       
Junior High (JSS / JHS / MSLC) 40 26.7 110 73.3 150 100 
Senior Secondary / Vocational / Technical 89 28.3 225 71.7 314 100 
Post-secondary (certificate / non-diploma) 12 31.6 26 68.4 38 100 
Polytechnic (Diploma) 3 42.9 4 57.1 7 100 
Location       
Accra 10 22.7 34 77.3 44 100 
Adentan 14 66.7 7 33.3 21 100 
Ashaiman 9 16.1 47 83.9 56 100 
Ga Central 0 0 2 100 2 100 
Ga East 0 0 9 100 9 100 
Ga North 12 38.7 19 61.3 31 100 
Ga South 1 3.6 27 96.4 28 100 
Ga West 31 77.5 9 22.5 40 100 
La Dadekotopon 7 38.9 11 61.1 18 100 
La Nkwantanan-Madina 12 66.7 6 33.3 18 100 
Ledzokuku Krowo 7 10.9 57 89.1 64 100 
Tema 1 25 3 75 4 100 
Ayawaso East 7 38.9 11 61.1 18 100 
Ayawaso West 8 66.7 4 33.3 12 100 
Ayawaso North 10 66.7 5 33.3 15 100 
Ablekuma West 4 10.8 33 89.2 37 100 
Ablekuma North 6 12.8 41 87.2 47 100 
Okaikoi 5 16.1 26 83.9 31 100 
Weija Gbawe 0 0 14 100 14 100 
Total 144 28.3 365 71.7 509 100 
Source:  CPAs survey field data, June 2020 
 
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About 41.9 percent of the CPAs revealed YEA provides beneficiaries with some special fund 
after exit whereas 17.3 percent had no idea of any such special funds. A little over one-third 
(37.1%) of those who were aware that YEA provides beneficiaries with an exit fund were 
optimistic the fund would help them set up their own businesses. Most of the respondents 
would use the exit fund to set up their own businesses (63.8%) whilst 18.8 percent would use 
it to fund their higher education. A few of the junior high school leavers would use the exit 
fund to further their education; most of them would use it to establish a business. The 
proportion of those who would use it to further their education increased as the educational 
level of respondents increased with the exception of those with polytechnic (diploma) 
qualification. On the other hand, the proportion of those who would commit the exit fund into 
a new business reduced as educational levels of respondents increased with the exception of 
those with polytechnic (diploma) qualification. Furthermore, apart from those who were aged 
35 years or older, the proportion of CPAs who would use the exit fund to establish new 
businesses increased as age of respondents increased (see table 4.9). 
Table 4.9 CPAs use of special exit fund by sex, age and educational level: 
Further 
Business education Other Total 
Variable N % N % N % N % 
Sex                 
Male 82 63.1 22 16.9 26 20 130 100 
Female 54 65.1 18 21.7 11 13.3 83 100 
Age         
20-24 14 37.8 18 48.6 5 13.5 37 100 
25-29 76 67.3 21 18.6 16 14.2 113 100 
30-34 41 75.9 1 1.9 12 22.2 54 100 
35-38 5 55.6 0 0 4 44.4 9 100 
Education         
Junior High (JSS / JHS / MSLC) 47 67.1 8 11.4 15 21.4 70 100 
Senior Secondary / Vocational / Technical 77 62.1 27 21.8 20 16.1 124 100 
Post-secondary (certificate / non-diploma) 11 61.1 5 27.8 2 11.1 18 100 
Polytechnic (Diploma) 1 100 0 0 0 0 1 100 
Total 136 63.8 40 18.8 37 17.4 213 100 
Source: CPAs survey field data, June 2020 
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The Majority of the CPAs thought of joining the nation’s security force (79.0%) whilst the rest 
would venture into self-employment (11.0%), or work with a private company (4.9%), among 
others. More male CPAs preferred to be in the nation’s security force (84.1%) to self-
employment (6.9%) whereas relatively higher proportion of the female CPAs preferred to be 
in self-employment (18.8%) to being with the nation’s security force (69.3%). With the 
exception of those aged 30 – 34 years, the proportion of CPAs that sought to remain with the 
nation’s security force increased as the age of the CPAs increased. On the other hand, the 
proportion of the CPAs that wanted to be with the nation’s security force decreased as the level 
of education increased with the exception of those with polytechnic (diploma) qualifications 
(see table 4.10).  
 
Table 4.10 Employment prospects of CPAs after exit by sex, age and educational level: 
Work with  
Nation Self- private 
security force employment companies Other 
Variable N % N % N % N %  
Sex                  
Male 280 84.1 23 6.9 19 5.7 11 3.3  
Female 122 69.3 33 18.8 6 3.4 15 8.5  
Age          
20-24 81 68.1 10 8.4 10 8.4 18 15.1  
25-29 206 83.1 29 11.7 8 3.2 5 2  
30-34 87 77.7 17 15.2 7 6.3 1 0.9  
35-38 28 93.3 0 0 0 0 2 6.7  
Education          
Junior High (JSS / JHS / MSLC) 122 81.3 13 8.7 9 6 6 4  
Senior Secondary / Vocational /  
Technical 247 78.7 35 11.1 14 4.5 18 5.7 
Post-secondary (certificate / non-  
diploma) 27 71.1 7 18.4 2 5.3 2 5.3 
Polytechnic (Diploma) 6 85.7 1 14.3 0 0 0 0  
Total 402 79 56 11 25 4.9 26 5.1  
Source: CPAs survey field data, June 2020 
 
Almost half (47.2%) of the respondents were of the view that acquisition of land in setting up 
their businesses was a problem.  
Indeed, in-depth interviews with top security experts showed that the training provides the 
CPAs with the skills needed to go into most public and private security services in Ghana. This, 
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according to them, puts the CPAs ahead of the non-CPAs in the job market. To them, the CPAs, 
for example, may easily gain employment into the Ghana Police and Military Services more 
than the non-CPAs applicant. Besides, the creation of YEA Job Portals and YEA Job Centre 
forms part of efforts to ensure CPAs employment security after exit. The aim of this initiative, 
according to The YEA Job Centre, is “connecting the youth to job opportunities” in Ghana. In 
effect, the participants can subscribe to these programs to facilitate their movement into the 
next level in the job market. Others have, however, indicated that YEA needs to do more to 
ensure CPAs’ employment security in Ghana. 
The respondents were asked whether YEA provides them with guidance and counselling 
services on how to stay employed and only one in every five of the CPAs responded in the 
affirmative.  A significantly lower proportion of the females CPAs affirmed that YEA has 
provided them with that service compared to their male counterparts; 13.6% and 24.3% 
respectively. As much as 10.8 percent of the CPAs had no idea whether that service was 
available at YEA at all. At least, half of the CPAs from Ga East, Okaikoi and Weija Gbawe 
indicated they have benefited from that service from YEA compared to only 3.2 percent of 
CPAs from Ga North and none from Adentan, Ga Central and Ayawaso North (see table 4.11). 
Interviews with top YEA and GPS officials shows that the CPAs are often given guidance and 
counselling services during the training period. To others, however, guidance and counselling 
services are mostly informal, often provided by individuals who encounter these personnel. 
Like the CPAs, YEA and GPS officials are not very sure about the delivery of guidance and 
counselling services under the sixth module.  
 
 
 
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Table 4.11 YEA offer guidance and counselling services to CPAs: 
Yes No Don't know Total 
Variable N % N % N % N % 
Sex                 
Male 81 24.3 227 68.2 25 7.5 333 100 
Female 24 13.6 122 69.3 30 17 176 100 
Total 105 20.6 349 68.6 55 10.8 509 100 
Location         
Accra 14 31.8 24 54.5 6 13.6 44 100 
Adentan 0 0 19 90.5 2 9.5 21 100 
Ashaiman 7 12.5 32 57.1 17 30.4 56 100 
Ga Central 0 0 2 100 0 0 2 100 
Ga East 8 88.9 1 11.1 0 0 9 100 
Ga North 1 3.2 30 96.8 0 0 31 100 
Ga South 2 7.1 24 85.7 2 7.1 28 100 
Ga West 6 15 32 80 2 5 40 100 
La Dadekotopon 3 16.7 13 72.2 2 11.1 18 100 
La Nkwantanan-Madina 1 5.6 11 61.1 6 33.3 18 100 
Ledzokuku Krowo 7 10.9 49 76.6 8 12.5 64 100 
Tema 3 75 1 25 0 0 4 100 
Ayawaso East 3 16.7 10 55.6 5 27.8 18 100 
Ayawaso West 5 41.7 6 50 1 8.3 12 100 
Ayawaso North 0 0 15 100 0 0 15 100 
Ablekuma West 8 21.6 26 70.3 3 8.1 37 100 
Ablekuma North 13 27.7 33 70.2 1 2.1 47 100 
Okaikoi 17 54.8 14 45.2 0 0 31 100 
Weija Gbawe 7 50 7 50 0 0 14 100 
Total 105 20.6 349 68.6 55 10.8 509 100 
Source: CPAs survey field data, June 2020 
 
The core objective for almost two-thirds of the CPAs in the service was to improve security 
(63.5%) followed by gain enough money (18.5%) and remain employed (17.7%).  Most of the 
male CPAs (68.5%) had this objective compared to 54 percent of their female colleagues.  
Further analysis of the data also showed that the proportion of CPAs whose main objective in 
the service was to improve security increased as age increased, thus 51.3%, 65.3%, 69.6% and 
73.3% for 20-24, 25-29, 30-34 and 35-38 years respectively. 
 
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Figure 4.7 Personal objective of CPAs in the 6th Module: 
Remain Other, 0.4
employed, 17.7
Gain enough 
money, 18.5 Improve 
security, 63.5
 
Source: CPAs survey field data, June 2020 
On the question of whether they have an association, only 5.5 percent said they had an 
association and 4.3 of the CPAs were members of such associations. One name came out clear, 
Nationwide CPA, but the other names seem to be social media channels purposely for 
communication. Over 44 percent of the respondents revealed they had leaders but only 16.2 
percent of those who indicated they had leaders stated YEA allows their leaders to represent 
them on the various boards and departments. Interaction with top YEA and GPS showed that 
the system does not allow the CPA and its leadership, if any, to sit on YEA and GPS boards. 
This suggests that YEA and GPS do not involve the CPAs in their decision making in Ghana.  
 
5.3. COMMUNITY POLICING UNDER THE YEA’S 6TH MODULE: 
 
This section critically looks at community policing, primarily the activities of the CPA in the 
line of duty. The CPAs were asked to rank the types of crimes they are mostly confronted with 
in their communities or duty post.  Robbery (30.5%) topped the list in the first rank followed 
by traffic offenses (23.6%), smoking of marijuana/cocaine (19.5%) and quarrelling (12.0%), 
among others. Rape / defilement (6.1%), trafficking (4.7%), excessively drinking of alcohol 
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(2%) and general assault (0.8) were the least reported offenses. The aggregate rank of all the 
crimes followed the same pattern as offenses in the first rank. Traffic offenses were ranked first 
among the crimes committed in Accra, Adentan, Ga Central, Ga East, Ga South and Ga West 
whereas robbery was the most common among crimes committed in Ashaiman, La 
Dadekotopon, La Nkwantanan Madina, Ledzokuku Krowo, Tema, Ayawaso West, Ablekuma 
West and Weija Gbawe. Smoking of marijuana / cocaine was quite prominent in Ga North, 
Ayawaso East, Ayawaso North and Okaikoi whilst quarrelling topped the crimes in Ablekuma 
North. Finally, rape/defilement topped the list in areas such as Ga East, Ga West and Ayawaso 
East.  
Table 4.12 Distribution of common offenses by location: 
Location 
Accra 54.6 52.3 79.6 2.3 27.3 27.3 0.0 2.3 
Adentan 52.4 4.8 81.0 0.0 0.0 28.6 0.0 0.0 
Ashaiman 53.6 0.0 12.5 3.6 10.7 48.2 8.9 3.6 
Ga Central 0.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 50.0 0.0 
Ga East 77.8 66.7 88.9 0.0 88.9 0.0 33.3 11.1 
Ga North 32.3 0.0 74.2 51.6 77.4 77.4 6.5 0.0 
Ga South 53.6 28.6 60.7 14.3 53.6 53.6 17.9 32.1 
Ga West 77.5 55.0 95.0 70.0 95.0 92.5 57.5 2.5 
La Dadekotopon 72.2 16.7 44.4 16.7 33.3 44.4 5.6 5.6 
La Nkwantanan Madina 83.3 27.8 33.3 0.0 0.0 55.6 0.0 0.0 
Ledzokuku Krowo 59.4 23.4 37.5 3.1 15.6 21.9 15.6 3.1 
Tema 100.0 0.0 75.0 25.0 0.0 0.0 25.0 0.0 
Ayawaso East 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 27.8 
Ayawaso West 91.7 25.0 25.0 0.0 8.3 50.0 0.0 8.3 
Ayawaso North 60.0 0.0 80.0 60.0 86.7 100.0 20.0 0.0 
Ablekuma West 51.4 10.8 21.6 2.7 37.8 40.5 5.4 8.1 
Ablekuma North 57.5 21.3 34.0 4.3 59.6 46.8 6.4 12.8 
Okaikoi 54.8 6.5 38.7 3.2 41.9 77.4 0.0 0.0 
Weija Gbawe 100.0 21.4 35.7 0.0 92.9 50.0 14.3 0.0 
Total 61.5 24.2 51.5 17.3 43.0 51.1 15.5 6.3 
Source: CPAs survey field data, June 2020 
 
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Robbery 
Rape / 
defilement 
Traffic 
offenses 
Trafficking 
Quarrelling 
Smoking of 
marijuana / 
cocaine 
Excessive 
drinking of 
strong 
alcohol 
Others 
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Among a list of seven items, the CPAs were asked to indicate the ones that their training equips 
them to perform in their duty post by ranking them. Gaining control over managing traffic 
offenses dominated the first rank (33.1%), followed by control of robbery (31.5%), control of 
rape / defilement (15.0%), and quarrelling (11.0%). The complete rank showed that the CPAs 
could first control traffic offenses followed by robbery, quarrelling, rape / defilement, smoking 
of marijuana / cocaine, excessive drinking of strong alcohol, and last but not the least, 
trafficking. Further analysis of the data showed that the male CPAs had an upper hand on 
control of robbery compared to the female CPAs who also had upper hand on control of traffic 
offenses. In fact, interaction with top GPS officials showed that the training requires all recruits 
to converge in particular training camps. The Ghana Police Service’s top professionals help to 
train the CPAs under strict protocols; guidelines and discipline, marking it more credible and 
trustworthy. Indeed, the training given to the CPAs is the same as the one given to the national 
police recruits. To most of the respondents, however, the training is mostly carried out within 
two-weeks, making it less effective and productive.  
At least, 87.9 percent of the CPAs indicated the cooperation from the community was good. 
The level of cooperation from the community was, however, not encouraging at Ashaiman and 
Tema as about half of the respondents indicated it was poor. A slightly higher proportion of 
the male CPAs received the cooperation of the community members than their female 
counterparts; a marginal deference of 4.6 percentage points. On the other hand, those aged 20 
– 24 years were the least to receive the support of the community members as 21 percent rated 
it poor compared to 10 percent of those aged 35 – 38 years (see table 4.13). 
 
 
 
 
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Table 4.13 Level of cooperation from community members: 
Excellent Very good Good Poor Very poor 
Variable N % N % N % N % N % 
Sex                     
Male 61 18.3 101 30.3 126 37.8 31 9.3 14 4.2 
Female 34 19.3 38 21.6 72 40.9 28 15.9 4 2.3 
Age           
20-24 14 11.8 30 25.2 50 42 21 17.6 4 3.4 
25-29 49 19.8 69 27.8 97 39.1 26 10.5 7 2.8 
30-34 27 24.1 28 25 41 36.6 9 8 7 6.3 
35-38 5 16.7 12 40 10 33.3 3 10 0 0 
Location           
Accra 0 0 18 40.9 21 47.7 2 4.5 3 6.8 
Adentan 0 0 2 9.5 14 66.7 3 14.3 2 9.5 
Ashaiman 0 0 4 7.1 25 44.6 23 41.1 4 7.1 
Ga Central 1 50 0 0 1 50 0 0 0 0 
Ga East 1 11.1 1 11.1 6 66.7 1 11.1 0 0 
Ga North 17 54.8 8 25.8 5 16.1 1 3.2 0 0 
Ga South 0 0 12 42.9 8 28.6 7 25 1 3.6 
Ga West 28 70 11 27.5 0 0 1 2.5 0 0 
La Dadekotopon 5 27.8 8 44.4 5 27.8 0 0 0 0 
La Nkwantanan-Madina 0 0 3 16.7 8 44.4 6 33.3 1 5.6 
Ledzokuku Krowo 5 7.8 6 9.4 40 62.5 7 10.9 6 9.4 
Tema 0 0 0 0 2 50 2 50 0 0 
Ayawaso East 4 22.2 6 33.3 8 44.4 0 0 0 0 
Ayawaso West 0 0 1 8.3 8 66.7 3 25 0 0 
Ayawaso North 8 53.3 4 26.7 3 20 0 0 0 0 
Ablekuma West 8 21.6 15 40.5 13 35.1 0 0 1 2.7 
Ablekuma North 5 10.6 24 51.1 17 36.2 1 2.1 0 0 
Okaikoi 13 41.9 8 25.8 9 29 1 3.2 0 0 
Weija Gbawe 0 0 8 57.1 5 35.7 1 7.1 0 0 
Total 95 18.7 139 27.3 198 38.9 59 11.6 18 3.5 
Source: CPAs survey field data, June 2020 
 
This cooperation was mostly seen in community members helping to provide information on 
criminal activities (93.5%), helping to arrest criminals and handing them over to the CPAs 
(13.5%), whilst a few of them provided the CPAs with food and tips (1.3%).  
The respondents were asked whether they were satisfied with the training given to them by the 
Ghana  Police Service. A greater proportion of the CPAs were fairly satisfied (41.1%) with the 
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training they received whilst 15.2 percent were very satisfied.  On the other hand, a few of them 
were very dissatisfied (2.4%). A quarter of the CPAs remained neutral to the level of training 
satisfaction. Relatively, a slightly higher proportion of the male CPAs (61.9%) were satisfied 
(both satisfied and very satisfied) with the training compared to 46.6 percent of the female 
CPAs. All CPAs from La Dadekotopon and Okaikoi were satisfied with the training they 
received compared to none from Ga Central and Tema. 
Table 4.14 Level of satisfaction with training given to CPAs: 
Very Very 
satisfied Satisfied Neutral Dissatisfied dissatisfied 
Variable N % N % N % N % N % 
Sex           
Male 52 15.6 154 46.2 69 20.7 52 15.6 6 1.8 
Female 27 15.3 55 31.3 62 35.2 26 14.8 6 3.4 
Age           
20-24 14 11.8 47 39.5 36 30.3 20 16.8 2 1.7 
25-29 44 17.7 100 40.3 55 22.2 41 16.5 8 3.2 
30-34 14 12.5 49 43.8 33 29.5 14 12.5 2 1.8 
35-38 7 23.3 13 43.3 7 23.3 3 10 0 0 
Location           
Accra 6 13.6 31 70.5 7 15.9 0 0 0 0 
Adentan 0 0 13 61.9 8 38.1 0 0 0 0 
Ashaiman 0 0 5 8.9 29 51.8 18 32.1 4 7.1 
Ga Central 0 0 0 0 2 100 0 0 0 0 
Ga East 2 22.2 6 66.7 1 11.1 0 0 0 0 
Ga North 0 0 6 19.4 8 25.8 15 48.4 2 6.5 
Ga South 1 3.6 19 67.9 1 3.6 7 25 0 0 
Ga West 0 0 14 35 17 42.5 7 17.5 2 5 
La Dadekotopon 12 66.7 6 33.3 0 0 0 0 0 0 
La Nkwantanan-Madina 0 0 10 55.6 8 44.4 0 0 0 0 
Ledzokuku Krowo 3 4.7 16 25 31 48.4 13 20.3 1 1.6 
Tema 0 0 0 0 2 50 2 50 0 0 
Ayawaso East 6 33.3 9 50 3 16.7 0 0 0 0 
Ayawaso West 2 16.7 5 41.7 5 41.7 0 0 0 0 
Ayawaso North 0 0 2 13.3 5 33.3 7 46.7 1 6.7 
Ablekuma West 14 37.8 15 40.5 0 0 6 16.2 2 5.4 
Ablekuma North 11 23.4 30 63.8 3 6.4 3 6.4 0 0 
Okaikoi 20 64.5 11 35.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 
Weija Gbawe 2 14.3 11 78.6 1 7.1 0 0 0 0 
Total 79 15.5 209 41.1 131 25.7 78 15.3 12 2.4 
Source: CPAs survey field data, June 2020 
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The CPAs were asked whether they receive in-and-on-the-job training and the survey results 
showed that a higher proportion of the male CPAs (excess of 8.6 percentage points) received 
regular in-and-on-the-job training than the female CPAs. But, in general, one out of every four 
CPAs received this kind of training. All CPAs in Weija Gbawe and majority of those in Ga 
East (88.9%) and Ga South (85.7%) received in-and-on-the-job training whereas none of those 
in Adentan, Ga Central, Ga North, Ga West, Ayawaso North, Ablekuma West and Okaikoi 
received these kind of training (see table 4.15). The majority of those who received in-and-on-
the-job training were satisfied (89%). 
Table 4.15 CPAs who receive regular in-and-on-the-job training: 
Yes No 
Variable N % N % 
Sex     
Male 93 27.9 240 72.1 
Female 34 19.3 142 80.7 
Age     
20-24 28 23.5 91 76.5 
25-29 73 29.4 175 70.6 
30-34 20 17.9 92 82.1 
35-38 6 20 24 80 
Location     
Accra 24 54.5 20 45.5 
Adentan 0 0 21 100 
Ashaiman 3 5.4 53 94.6 
Ga Central 0 0 2 100 
Ga East 8 88.9 1 11.1 
Ga North 0 0 31 100 
Ga South 24 85.7 4 14.3 
Ga West 0 0 40 100 
La Dadekotopon 3 16.7 15 83.3 
La Nkwantanan-Madina 1 5.6 17 94.4 
Ledzokuku Krowo 12 18.8 52 81.3 
Tema 1 25 3 75 
Ayawaso East 10 55.6 8 44.4 
Ayawaso West 1 8.3 11 91.7 
Ayawaso North 0 0 15 100 
Ablekuma West 0 0 37 100 
Ablekuma North 26 55.3 21 44.7 
Okaikoi 0 0 31 100 
Weija Gbawe 14 100 0 0 
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Yes No 
Variable N % N % 
Total 127 25 382 75 
Source: CPAs survey field data, June 2020 
 
Among the methods used to control crime are patrolling, mounting snap check-points, 
prosecution of offenders, effective management of tip-offs from informants, relaying 
information to superiors on time, prompt response to superiors’ instructions, conducting 
effective investigations and implementing effective traffic control measures among others. 
The majority of the CPAs (80.6%) agreed that they have contributed towards crime reduction 
in their areas with 32.4 percent agreeing to a higher extent. The results also showed that all the 
respondents in Accra, Adentan, Ayawaso East, Ayawaso North and Weija Gbawe believed 
they have helped to reduce crime in their areas.  
Table 4.16 CPAs who have helped to reduce crime in their areas: 
Strongly Strongly 
agree Agree Neutral Disagree disagree 
Variable N % N % N % N % N % 
Sex                     
Male 118 35.4 165 49.5 30 9 19 5.7 1 0.3 
Female 47 26.7 80 45.5 39 22.2 8 4.5 2 1.1 
Age           
20-24 23 19.3 60 50.4 25 21 9 7.6 2 1.7 
25-29 89 35.9 116 46.8 30 12.1 12 4.8 1 0.4 
30-34 39 34.8 55 49.1 13 11.6 5 4.5 0 0 
35-38 14 46.7 14 46.7 1 3.3 1 3.3 0 0 
Location           
Accra 11 25 33 75 0 0 0 0 0 0 
Adentan 1 4.8 20 95.2 0 0 0 0 0 0 
Ashaiman 2 3.6 20 35.7 22 39.3 10 17.9 2 3.6 
Ga Central 0 0 0 0 1 50 1 50 0 0 
Ga East 6 66.7 2 22.2 1 11.1 0 0 0 0 
Ga North 22 71 6 19.4 1 3.2 2 6.5 0 0 
Ga South 7 25 20 71.4 0 0 1 3.6 0 0 
Ga West 34 85 3 7.5 3 7.5 0 0 0 0 
La Dadekotopon 5 27.8 12 66.7 1 5.6 0 0 0 0 
La Nkwantanan-Madina 3 16.7 14 77.8 1 5.6 0 0 0 0 
Ledzokuku Krowo 6 9.4 27 42.2 22 34.4 8 12.5 1 1.6 
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Strongly Strongly 
agree Agree Neutral Disagree disagree 
Variable N % N % N % N % N % 
Tema 0 0 1 25 2 50 1 25 0 0 
Ayawaso East 16 88.9 2 11.1 0 0 0 0 0 0 
Ayawaso West 2 16.7 5 41.7 5 41.7 0 0 0 0 
Ayawaso North 11 73.3 4 26.7 0 0 0 0 0 0 
Ablekuma West 13 35.1 19 51.4 2 5.4 3 8.1 0 0 
Ablekuma North 10 21.3 35 74.5 1 2.1 1 2.1 0 0 
Okaikoi 9 29 15 48.4 7 22.6 0 0 0 0 
Weija Gbawe 7 50 7 50 0 0 0 0 0 0 
Total 165 32.4 245 48.1 69 13.6 27 5.3 3 0.6 
Source: CPAs survey field data, June 2020 
 
The majority of the CPAs did not have the power to make and implement some decisions 
without having to consult their supervisors. About one out of every ten of them could make 
and implement some decisions without having to consult their supervisors (see figure 4.8). 
Proportionately, a lot more male CPAs (13.8%) could do this compared to their female 
counterpart (5.1%). This segment of CPAs were mostly found in Ga East (77.8%), Ablekuma 
West (32.4%), Okaikoi (29%) and La Dadekotopon (27.8%). In this regard, they could make 
arrests and hand suspects to superiors, direct traffic, go on foot patrol in the community, as 
well as resolve petty civil cases that need not to be filed such as quarrelling, among others. 
 
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Figure 4.8 Authority to make and implement some decisions by CPAs: 
Don't know Yes
1% 11%
No
88%  
Source: CPAs survey field data, June 2020 
Hierarchically, the qualitative interviews identified a centralized command structure, 
consisting of the national police service on top, followed by the directors of YEA and, then, 
the CPAs. Clearly, this shows that ‘power’ is concentrated at the top—shared between the 
Ghana Police Service and YEA, leaving the CPAs with virtually ‘nothing’. Still, this shows 
that the CPAs do not have the power to take and implement decisions during critical moments. 
One of the respondents, for example, remarked that “Little or no power is given to the CPAs 
per the information I received”.  
The CPAs were asked whether, in their opinion, the command structures should be 
decentralized to allow CPAs to take and implement some decisions. But then, the majority of 
them (80.2%) thought otherwise. On the other, 14.8 percent suggested they should be allowed 
to make and implement some decisions by decentralizing the command structures. There was 
no significant variation between the proportion of female and male CPAs who opted for this; 
15.6 percent and 14.3 percent respectively. They believed this will grant them the power to 
make some quick decisions in times of emergency, to make instant arrest, to go on operations, 
and to earn respect from the community. 
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On the issue of whether the CPAs hold regular meetings with the communities in order to 
educate them on crime prevention and control, 12.4 percent of the CPAs had this and a slightly 
higher proportion of the male CPAs (13.5%) were involved in these meetings than their female 
counterparts (10.2%).  Such meetings were usually done in Ayawaso East, Okaikoi, Ablekuma 
West, Ablekuma North and La Dadekotopon.  Other districts who also held such sensitization 
meetings were Ashaiman, Ga South, Ledzokuku Krowo and Ayawaso West. In fact, during 
qualitative interviews with the GPS, one of the top officials noted that “The CPAs do not hold 
regular meetings with the various community groups”. Equally, another top official noted, 
“there is nothing of that sort”. On the contrary, some indicated that “This does not usually 
occur”. Still, another indicated, “This happens occasionally”. Finally, one indicated, “If there 
is any, then, it is done unofficially”. Officially, this shows that the act of holding regular CPAs-
Community meetings has not been formalized, structured and incorporated into the sixth 
module.  
CPAs used such opportunities to encourage community members to report criminals without 
fear, oriented them on new techniques used by criminals, crime preventive measures, dangers 
of drug trafficking and excessive use of drugs whilst the community members expressed their 
worry on untimely arrival of the police/CPA during emergencies.  
About 6.5 percent of the CPAs had dedicated mobile phones for their work. Those who had the 
dedicated phones were at Ayawaso East, La Nkwantanan-Madina, Adentan, Accra, Ashaiman, 
Ga North, La Dadekotopon and Ledzokuku Krowo. 
The CPAs were asked if they make calls regarding crime control and prevention. The data 
showed that about two out of every five of them made such calls. The study went further to 
record the number of calls to combat crime that CPAs made each day and about 70 percent of 
them made a maximum of five calls a day. A significantly higher proportions of female CPAs 
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made no calls on crime prevention and control compared to their male counterparts; 76.1 
percent and 50.8 percent respectively whilst the p-value was 0.000.  Also, those from Ga 
Central, Ga West, Ga North, Tema and Ayawaso North made no calls on crime control and 
prevention.  It was also observed in the data that higher proportions of the older CPAs made 
calls and even more calls regarding crime control and prevention than the younger ones. 
 
Table 4.17 Average number of calls made a day regarding crime prevention and control: 
None 1 - 5 6 plus 
Variable N % N % N % 
Sex       
Male 169 50.8 114 34.2 50 15 
Female 134 76.1 31 17.6 11 6.3 
Age       
20-24 83 69.7 30 25.2 6 5 
25-29 145 58.5 76 30.6 27 10.9 
30-34 61 54.5 30 26.8 21 18.8 
35-38 14 46.7 9 30 7 23.3 
Location       
Accra 21 47.7 15 34.1 8 18.2 
Adentan 15 71.4 0 0 6 28.6 
Ashaiman 39 69.6 14 25 3 5.4 
Ga Central 2 100 0 0 0 0 
Ga East 3 33.3 6 66.7 0 0 
Ga North 31 100 0 0 0 0 
Ga South 13 46.4 10 35.7 5 17.9 
Ga West 40 100 0 0 0 0 
La Dadekotopon 4 22.2 11 61.1 3 16.7 
La Nkwantanan-Madina 12 66.7 0 0 6 33.3 
Ledzokuku Krowo 42 65.6 19 29.7 3 4.7 
Tema 4 100 0 0 0 0 
Ayawaso East 13 72.2 4 22.2 1 5.6 
Ayawaso West 11 91.7 1 8.3 0 0 
Ayawaso North 15 100 0 0 0 0 
Ablekuma West 15 40.5 18 48.6 4 10.8 
Ablekuma North 13 27.7 23 48.9 11 23.4 
Okaikoi 8 25.8 16 51.6 7 22.6 
Weija Gbawe 2 14.3 8 57.1 4 28.6 
Total 303 59.5 145 28.5 61 12 
Source: CPAs survey field data, June 2020 
 
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A greater proportion of the CPAs (55%) have provided the communities with some telephone 
numbers to call in times of emergency.  Most of the male CPAs (60.1%) have shared contacts 
with the community members compared to 45.5 percent of the females.  Also, a higher 
proportion of older CPAs shared contacts with the communities to call in times of emergency.  
Additionally, all the respondents in Adentan and Ayawaso West shared emergency contacts 
with the communities whereas none of those in Ga Central, Ga North, Ga West, Tema and 
Ayawaso North provided any number. The variations in the proportions of CPAs by sex, age 
and location were all found to be statistically significant at a level of 1 percent given p-values 
of 0.002, 0.007 and 0.000, respectively from Pearson’s chi-squared tests. 
 
Table 4.18 CPAs who have provided communities with contacts for emergencies: 
Yes No 
Variable N % N % 
Sex         
Male 200 60.1 133 39.9 
Female 80 45.5 96 54.5 
Age     
20-24 59 49.6 60 50.4 
25-29 128 51.6 120 48.4 
30-34 69 61.6 43 38.4 
35-38 24 80 6 20 
Location     
Accra 31 70.5 13 29.5 
Adentan 21 100 0 0 
Ashaiman 27 48.2 29 51.8 
Ga Central 0 0 2 100 
Ga East 1 11.1 8 88.9 
Ga North 0 0 31 100 
Ga South 22 78.6 6 21.4 
Ga West 0 0 40 100 
La Dadekotopon 12 66.7 6 33.3 
La Nkwantanan-Madina 17 94.4 1 5.6 
Ledzokuku Krowo 33 51.6 31 48.4 
Tema 0 0 4 100 
Ayawaso East 9 50 9 50 
Ayawaso West 12 100 0 0 
Ayawaso North 0 0 15 100 
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Yes No 
Variable N % N % 
Ablekuma West 31 83.8 6 16.2 
Ablekuma North 31 66 16 34 
Okaikoi 20 64.5 11 35.5 
Weija Gbawe 13 92.9 1 7.1 
Total 280 55 229 45 
Source: CPAs survey field data, June 2020 
 
Most of the CPAs (59.7%) received calls from the communities for help during emergency.  
Majority of the males (67.3%) received such calls compared to the females (45.5%).  
Furthermore, greater proportions of the older CPAs received calls for help during emergencies 
compared to the younger ones but these differences were not statistically significant given a p-
value of 0.195 from a Pearson’s chi-squared test. All CPAs from Adentan and Ayawaso West 
received such calls whereas none of those from Ga Central, Ga West and Ayawaso North 
received any emergency calls from the community members. Differences observed among the 
districts and sex were statistically significant at a level of 1 percent given p-values of 0.000 
each from Pearson’s chi-squared tests. 
 
Table 4.19 CPAs who received emergency calls from community members: 
Yes No 
Variable N % N % 
Sex         
Male 224 67.3 109 32.7 
Female 80 45.5 96 54.5 
Age     
20-24 64 53.8 55 46.2 
25-29 147 59.3 101 40.7 
30-34 71 63.4 41 36.6 
35-38 22 73.3 8 26.7 
Location     
Accra 37 84.1 7 15.9 
Adentan 21 100 0 0 
Ashaiman 38 67.9 18 32.1 
Ga Central 0 0 2 100 
Ga East 7 77.8 2 22.2 
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Ga North 2 6.5 29 93.5 
Ga South 17 60.7 11 39.3 
Ga West 0 0 40 100 
La Dadekotopon 14 77.8 4 22.2 
La Nkwantanan-Madina 16 88.9 2 11.1 
Ledzokuku Krowo 32 50 32 50 
Tema 1 25 3 75 
Ayawaso East 9 50 9 50 
Ayawaso West 12 100 0 0 
Ayawaso North 0 0 15 100 
Ablekuma West 32 86.5 5 13.5 
Ablekuma North 33 70.2 14 29.8 
Okaikoi 20 64.5 11 35.5 
Weija Gbawe 13 92.9 1 7.1 
Total 304 59.7 205 40.3 
Source: CPAs survey field data, June 2020 
 
Further analysis of the data showed that the majority of the CPAs who provided the community 
members with telephone contacts to call during emergencies received emergency calls and the 
opposite was true as majority of those who did not provide any contacts to community members 
did not receive any emergency calls (see Figure 4.9). This observation was also statistically 
significant given a p-value of 0.000 from a Pearson’s chi-squared test. 
Figure 4.9 CPAs who provided emergency contacts and emergency calls received: 
100.0
87.1
90.0
80.0 73.8
70.0
60.0
50.0
40.0
30.0 26.2
20.0 12.9
10.0
0.0
Provided contact No contact
Contacts
Received emergency calls No emergency calls
 
Source: CPAs survey field data, June 2020 
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On the issue of what CPAs mostly used to prevent and control crime, the majority of them 
stated calls (79.4%) followed by media (9%) and mass media (7.3%) (see Figure 4.10). GPS 
officials equally reported that the CPAs mostly rely on phone calls and social media—other 
than the TV and radio—to deal with crime in Ghana.    
 
Figure 4.10 What CPAs use to prevent and control crime: 
Media Internet
9% 4%
Social media
7%
Calls
80%
 
Source: CPAs survey field data, June 2020 
Although most CPAs receive emergency calls, just a little above one-third of them have a 
special response unit to respond to emergencies.  The majority of the CPAs in Accra (84.1%), 
Adenta (95.2%), Ga East (77.8%), Ga South (78.6%), La Nkwantanan-Madina (88.9%), 
Ayawaso East 66.7%), Ayawaso West (75.0%) and Weija Gbawe (92.9%) have special 
response units who respond to emergency calls. On the other hand, these special emergency 
response units were non-existent in Ga Central, Ga North, Tema and Ayawaso North (see table 
4.20 for additional details). 
 
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Table 4.20 CPAs with special response units to respond to emergency calls: 
Yes No Don't know 
Variable N % N % N % 
Sex             
Male 134 40.2 171 51.4 28 8.4 
Female 50 28.4 105 59.7 21 11.9 
Age       
20-24 41 34.5 65 54.6 13 10.9 
25-29 90 36.3 132 53.2 26 10.5 
30-34 41 36.6 61 54.5 10 8.9 
35-38 12 40 18 60 0 0 
Location       
Accra 37 84.1 1 2.3 6 13.6 
Adentan 20 95.2 1 4.8 0 0 
Ashaiman 5 8.9 46 82.1 5 8.9 
Ga Central 0 0 2 100 0 0 
Ga East 7 77.8 1 11.1 1 11.1 
Ga North 0 0 29 93.5 2 6.5 
Ga South 22 78.6 6 21.4 0 0 
Ga West 2 5 27 67.5 11 27.5 
La Dadekotopon 1 5.6 14 77.8 3 16.7 
La Nkwantanan-Madina 16 88.9 0 0 2 11.1 
Ledzokuku Krowo 13 20.3 45 70.3 6 9.4 
Tema 0 0 4 100 0 0 
Ayawaso East 12 66.7 0 0 6 33.3 
Ayawaso West 9 75 2 16.7 1 8.3 
Ayawaso North 0 0 15 100 0 0 
Ablekuma West 4 10.8 32 86.5 1 2.7 
Ablekuma North 22 46.8 25 53.2 0 0 
Okaikoi 1 3.2 25 80.6 5 16.1 
Weija Gbawe 13 92.9 1 7.1 0 0 
Total 184 36.1 276 54.2 49 9.6 
Source: CPAs survey field data, June 2020 
 
Largely, the GPS officials reported that the various emergency response units are handled and 
controlled by the national police and not the CPAs. However, the CPAs sometimes accompany 
the national police depending on the severity of the crime. Clearly, the above evidences show 
that the CPAs have developed their own response units in order to deal with crime in some 
communities in Accra.     
The study also sought to find out the main means of patrol for the CPAs since their recruitment 
and the results showed that nearly two-thirds of them patrolled using vehicles. A slightly higher 
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proportion of the male CPAs used vehicle in their patrol compared to their female counterparts; 
a difference of 6.3 percentage points was recorded. The proportion of CPAs who used vehicles 
patrolling increased from 53.8 percent for those aged between 20 – 24 years to 70.5 percent 
among those aged 30 – 34 years and fell to 60 percent for the last age category. Moreover, all 
the respondents from Adentan and Weija Gbawe were privileged to have used vehicles in all 
their patrols whilst all of those in Ga Central always used foot patrols.  Detailed information 
on the other districts could be found in table 4.21. 
Table 4.21 Main means of patrol since recruit: 
Foot Vehicle 
Variable N % N % 
Sex     
Male 119 35.7 214 64.3 
Female 74 42 102 58 
Age     
20-24 55 46.2 64 53.8 
25-29 93 37.5 155 62.5 
30-34 33 29.5 79 70.5 
35-38 12 40 18 60 
Location     
Accra 5 11.4 39 88.6 
Adentan 0 0 21 100 
Ashaiman 45 80.4 11 19.6 
Ga Central 2 100 0 0 
Ga East 3 33.3 6 66.7 
Ga North 11 35.5 20 64.5 
Ga South 7 25 21 75 
Ga West 18 45 22 55 
La Dadekotopon 11 61.1 7 38.9 
La Nkwantanan-Madina 1 5.6 17 94.4 
Ledzokuku Krowo 51 79.7 13 20.3 
Tema 2 50 2 50 
Ayawaso East 1 5.6 17 94.4 
Ayawaso West 1 8.3 11 91.7 
Ayawaso North 2 13.3 13 86.7 
Ablekuma West 17 45.9 20 54.1 
Ablekuma North 7 14.9 40 85.1 
Okaikoi 9 29 22 71 
Weija Gbawe 0 0 14 100 
Total 193 37.9 316 62.1 
Source: CPAs survey field data, June 2020 
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Interactions with top GPS officials, however, showed that the mode of patrol is actually 
determined based on the nature of work and also the distance involved. However, the CPAs 
mostly undertake patrols on foot. Foot patrols, they noted, promotes interactions between the 
CPAs and the communities. 
The respondents were asked whether community policing has enhanced the relationship 
between them and the community members. It was found that community policing has 
enhanced the relationship between the community members and every three out of four CPAs 
interviewed.  There was not much difference between the proportions by sex but different trend 
was observed in age as the proportion of those who had improved relations increased with age 
except for those aged 35 – 38 which slightly fell below the second age category by 5.4 
percentage points. On the other hand, CPAs from Ga Central (50%), La Dadekotopon (61.1%) 
and Ledzokuku Krowo (54.7%) were among those who indicated community policing has not 
enhanced their relationship with the community members (see table 4.22). 
 
Table 4.22 Community policing has enhanced relations between CPAs and community 
members: 
Yes No Don't know 
Variable N % N % N % 
Sex       
Male 255 76.6 63 18.9 15 4.5 
Female 132 75 39 22.2 5 2.8 
Age       
20-24 77 64.7 34 28.6 8 6.7 
25-29 195 78.6 48 19.4 5 2 
30-34 93 83 15 13.4 4 3.6 
35-38 22 73.3 5 16.7 3 10 
Location       
Accra 43 97.7 0 0 1 2.3 
Adentan 21 100 0 0 0 0 
Ashaiman 29 51.8 24 42.9 3 5.4 
Ga Central 0 0 1 50 1 50 
Ga East 7 77.8 2 22.2 0 0 
Ga North 28 90.3 3 9.7 0 0 
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Ga South 21 75 7 25 0 0 
Ga West 39 97.5 0 0 1 2.5 
La Dadekotopon 7 38.9 11 61.1 0 0 
La Nkwantanan-Madina 17 94.4 0 0 1 5.6 
Ledzokuku Krowo 28 43.8 35 54.7 1 1.6 
Tema 2 50 2 50 0 0 
Ayawaso East 16 88.9 1 5.6 1 5.6 
Ayawaso West 11 91.7 1 8.3 0 0 
Ayawaso North 14 93.3 1 6.7 0 0 
Ablekuma West 26 70.3 5 13.5 6 16.2 
Ablekuma North 38 80.9 4 8.5 5 10.6 
Okaikoi 27 87.1 4 12.9 0 0 
Weija Gbawe 13 92.9 1 7.1 0 0 
Total 387 76 102 20 20 3.9 
Source: CPAs survey field data, June 2020 
 
The perception of the CPAs were sought as to whether they consider themselves or other CPAs 
in the 6th Module corrupt. The results showed that only 2.2 percent were found to be corrupt 
whilst 8.1 percent could not tell whether they were corrupt. Similar proportions of male and 
female CPAs were corrupt but 5 percent of those aged 20 – 24 years who reported such corrupt 
behavior compared to less than 1 percent of those aged 25 – 29 years. Only CPAs from 
Ashaiman (5.4%), La Nkwantanan-Madina (5.7%), Ledzokuku Krowo (4.7%), Tema (25%), 
Ayawaso East (16.7%), and Ablekuma North (2.1%) revealed either they or their colleagues 
were corrupt (see details in table 4.23). Most of the corrupt practices centered on taking bribe 
from drivers who violate traffic rules and allowing them to go unpunished.  A few others also 
favoured drivers who occasionally give them tips and took monetary rewards from civilians. 
 
 
 
 
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Table 4.23 CPAs who are perceived to be corrupt: 
Yes No Don't know 
Variable N % N % N % 
Sex       
Male 7 2.1 298 89.5 28 8.4 
Female 4 2.3 159 90.3 13 7.4 
Age       
20-24 6 5 102 85.7 11 9.2 
25-29 2 0.8 228 91.9 18 7.3 
30-34 2 1.8 100 89.3 10 8.9 
35-38 1 3.3 27 90 2 6.7 
Location       
Accra 0 0 44 100 0 0 
Adentan 0 0 21 100 0 0 
Ashaiman 3 5.4 42 75 11 19.6 
Ga Central 0 0 2 100 0 0 
Ga East 0 0 9 100 0 0 
Ga North 0 0 30 96.8 1 3.2 
Ga South 0 0 28 100 0 0 
Ga West 0 0 40 100 0 0 
La Dadekotopon 0 0 11 61.1 7 38.9 
La Nkwantanan-Madina 1 5.6 17 94.4 0 0 
Ledzokuku Krowo 3 4.7 55 85.9 6 9.4 
Tema 1 25 1 25 2 50 
Ayawaso East 0 0 18 100 0 0 
Ayawaso West 2 16.7 10 83.3 0 0 
Ayawaso North 0 0 15 100 0 0 
Ablekuma West 0 0 36 97.3 1 2.7 
Ablekuma North 1 2.1 43 91.5 3 6.4 
Okaikoi 0 0 21 67.7 10 32.3 
Weija Gbawe 0 0 14 100 0 0 
Total 11 2.2 457 89.8 41 8.1 
Source: CPAs survey field data, June 2020 
 
On the issue of whether divisions based on political affiliations, religion, ethnicity, educational 
level and gender have any impact on YEA recruits, just about 1 in every 10 of the CPAs 
responded in the affirmative. A slightly higher proportion of females seemed to have this 
perception compared to their male colleagues; 5 percentage points difference but this was not 
statistically significant given a p-value of 0.103 from a Pearson’s chi-squared test. Higher 
proportions of younger CPAs seemed to have this perception compared to the older ones. 
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Additionally, a greater proportion of the respondents from Tema and Ledzokuku Krowo had 
the view that divisions have impacts on YEA recruits (see table 4.24). The majority of them 
(94.9%) believed politics impacts on YEA recruits, followed by religion, and “whom-you-
know” attitude.  
Table 4.24 CPAs who perceive divisions have impacts on YEA recruits: 
Yes No 
Variable N % N % 
Sex         
Male 33 9.9 300 90.1 
Female 26 14.8 150 85.2 
Age     
20-24 20 16.8 99 83.2 
25-29 26 10.5 222 89.5 
30-34 11 9.8 101 90.2 
35-38 2 6.7 28 93.3 
Location     
Accra 0 0 44 100 
Adentan 0 0 21 100 
Ashaiman 8 14.3 48 85.7 
Ga Central 0 0 2 100 
Ga East 0 0 9 100 
Ga North 2 6.5 29 93.5 
Ga South 1 3.6 27 96.4 
Ga West 0 0 40 100 
La Dadekotopon 1 5.6 17 94.4 
La Nkwantanan-Madina 0 0 18 100 
Ledzokuku Krowo 40 62.5 24 37.5 
Tema 4 100 0 0 
Ayawaso East 2 11.1 16 88.9 
Ayawaso West 0 0 12 100 
Ayawaso North 0 0 15 100 
Ablekuma West 0 0 37 100 
Ablekuma North 0 0 47 100 
Okaikoi 1 3.2 30 96.8 
Weija Gbawe 0 0 14 100 
Total 59 11.6 450 88.4 
Source: CPAs survey field data, June 2020 
 
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Interactions with top YEA and GPS officials, however, showed that YEA and GPS do not 
discriminate against recruits based on; among others; gender, political affiliation, ethnicity and 
religion.  
Less than 5 percent of the CPAs revealed they have been brutal on some citizens before.  The 
proportion of males who were brutal on citizens was over three times higher than their female 
counterparts; 6 percent and 1.7 percent respectively. Additionally, 3.7 percent of them were 
not sure whether they have ever been brutal on citizens or not. It was also observed that the 
older CPAs tend to be more brutal on citizens than the younger ones except that some 
deviations was seen with those aged 30 – 34 years. CPAs who have ever been brutal on citizens 
in the course of duty came from some few districts such as Ashaiman (1.8%), Ga South (3.6%), 
La Dadekotopon (5.6%), Ledzekuku Krowo (14.1%), Ablekuma West (8.1%), Ablekuma 
North (10.6%) and Okaikoi (9.7%). The majority of the CPAs who happen to have brutalized 
civilians were compelled to do so when they resisted arrest and they had to be forced into a car 
or to the police station.   
 
Table 4.25 Proportion of CPAs who have ever been brutal on citizens: 
Yes No Don't know 
Variable N % N % N % 
Sex             
Male 20 6 304 91.3 9 2.7 
Female 3 1.7 163 92.6 10 5.7 
Age       
20-24 2 1.7 115 96.6 2 1.7 
25-29 13 5.2 224 90.3 11 4.4 
30-34 3 2.7 105 93.8 4 3.6 
35-38 5 16.7 23 76.7 2 6.7 
Location       
Accra 0 0 44 100 0 0 
Adentan 0 0 21 100 0 0 
Ashaiman 1 1.8 51 91.1 4 7.1 
Ga Central 0 0 2 100 0 0 
Ga East 0 0 9 100 0 0 
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Ga North 0 0 30 96.8 1 3.2 
Ga South 1 3.6 27 96.4 0 0 
Ga West 0 0 40 100 0 0 
La Dadekotopon 1 5.6 14 77.8 3 16.7 
La Nkwantanan-Madina 0 0 17 94.4 1 5.6 
Ledzokuku Krowo 9 14.1 52 81.3 3 4.7 
Tema 0 0 4 100 0 0 
Ayawaso East 0 0 17 94.4 1 5.6 
Ayawaso West 0 0 11 91.7 1 8.3 
Ayawaso North 0 0 14 93.3 1 6.7 
Ablekuma West 3 8.1 34 91.9 0 0 
Ablekuma North 5 10.6 41 87.2 1 2.1 
Okaikoi 3 9.7 26 83.9 2 6.5 
Weija Gbawe 0 0 13 92.9 1 7.1 
Total 23 4.5 467 91.7 19 3.7 
Source: CPAs survey field data, June 2020 
 
Table 2.26 presents the proportion of CPAs who thought lack of funding has stifled the 
operations of CPAs under the 6th module and it shows that about one out of every five CPAs 
indicated lack of funding in the 6th module negatively affects the operations of CPAs.  A third 
of the CPAs aged 35 – 38 years believed lack of funding for the 6th module stifled their 
operations compared to 17.7 percent of those aged 20 – 24 years. On the other hand, none of 
respondents from Ga Central, Ga East, Ledzokuku Krowo, Tema and Weija Gbawe believed 
lack of funding for the 6th module has any negative impacts on their operations contrary to the 
perception of most of the respondents from Ablekuma West (75.7%) and Ayawaso East 
(61.1%). 
 
 
 
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Table 2.26 Proportion of CPAs who indicated inadequate funding has stifled their 
operations: 
Yes No Don't know 
Variable N % N % N % 
Sex       
Male 73 21.9 184 55.3 76 22.8 
Female 38 21.6 72 40.9 66 37.5 
Age       
20-24 21 17.6 58 48.7 40 33.6 
25-29 55 22.2 124 50 69 27.8 
30-34 25 22.3 60 53.6 27 24.1 
35-38 10 33.3 14 46.7 6 20 
Location       
Accra 1 2.3 42 95.5 1 2.3 
Adentan 1 4.8 20 95.2 0 0 
Ashaiman 3 5.4 22 39.3 31 55.4 
Ga Central 0 0 0 0 2 100 
Ga East 0 0 8 88.9 1 11.1 
Ga North 5 16.1 23 74.2 3 9.7 
Ga South 12 42.9 14 50 2 7.1 
Ga West 3 7.5 17 42.5 20 50 
La Dadekotopon 8 44.4 6 33.3 4 22.2 
La Nkwantanan-Madina 1 5.6 13 72.2 4 22.2 
Ledzokuku Krowo 0 0 9 14.1 55 85.9 
Tema 0 0 2 50 2 50 
Ayawaso East 11 61.1 3 16.7 4 22.2 
Ayawaso West 6 50 6 50 0 0 
Ayawaso North 3 20 10 66.7 2 13.3 
Ablekuma West 28 75.7 6 16.2 3 8.1 
Ablekuma North 14 29.8 30 63.8 3 6.4 
Okaikoi 15 48.4 12 38.7 4 12.9 
Weija Gbawe 0 0 13 92.9 1 7.1 
Total 111 21.8 256 50.3 142 27.9 
Source: CPAs survey field data, June 2020 
 
Inadequate funding under the 6th Module has significant effects on employee wellbeing and 
commitment to work. Some lamented their salaries were too low and that they could not afford 
to feed themselves and their dependents as well as afford rent and transportation to work. 
Payment of this low salary is sometimes delayed and CPAs had to resort to borrowing before 
they could come to work.  Both the low and delayed salary payments had marred the 
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relationship between some of them and their spouses as it has generated some mistrust between 
them.  Some are also unable to report to work on regular basis when they do not succeed in 
borrowing to cater for their transport fares whilst some have also exited the programme as a 
result of the low and delayed salaries.  Moreover, they had no money to make calls at times 
and this hindered effective communication in their operations. A few of them also complained 
of inadequate uniforms and also having to walk to far places without any means of 
transportation. Furthermore, lack of certain equipment which aid community policing also 
negatively impacted on their operations. 
A few of the CPAs (3.5%) thought there was some leadership and coordination problems 
between the CPAs and the top hierarchy (see figure 4.11). These issues were evident in YEA 
coordinators not responding to calls from CPAs as well as not inviting them to participate in 
the discussion of matters that affect them.  A few of them cited CPAs were not accorded with 
the necessary respect as police assistants whilst some of them were occasionally insulted. 
Figure 4.11 Leadership and coordination problems between top hierarchy and CPAs: 
Don't know Yes
8% 4%
No
88%  
Source: CPAs survey field data, June 2020 
 
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5.4. ANALYSIS OF THE COMMUNITY MEMBERS’ SURVEY: 
 
5.5. Demographic characteristics of community members: 
 
Some community members were also interviewed alongside the CPAs to gauge the extent to 
which the activities of the CPAs impact on crime control and prevention, and security in general 
in the communities.  Two hundred and fifty-two community members were successfully 
interviewed to complete the Community Member module of the CPAs survey.  These were 
pooled from Accra (15.1%), Ga West (9.5%), Ayawaso West (9.1%), Ga East, Tema and 
Ablekuma North (8.7%). Other districts in the community member survey was Ablekuma West 
(6.8%), Ledzokuku Krowo (6.3%), Adentan and Ashaiman (4.8% each), La Dadekotopon 
(4.4%), La Nkwantanan Madina (4%), Ayawaso East and Weija Gbawe (3.6% each) and the 
last but not the least, Ga North (2%). 
Out of the 252 community members interviewed, 136 of them, constituting 54 percent, were 
male.  The youngest person interviewed was 18 years whilst the oldest was 64 years but the 
average age for the full sample was 30 years.  Male members had a mean age of 30 years, 1 
additional year higher than their female counterparts. A quarter of the community members 
were aged between 20 – 24 years followed by those aged 25 – 29 years (23.8%), whilst the 
smallest proportion came from the 18 - 19 years age group (9.9%) (see figure 4.12).   
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Figure 4.12 Distribution of community members’ age by sex: 
30.0
25.9
25.0 24.1
24.3
25.0 23.5 23.8
20.0
16.9
16.2 15.915.5
14.7
15.0 12.9
11.8 12.1
10.7
9.9 9.5
10.0
7.4
5.0
0.0
18-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40 +
Age
Male Female All
 
Source: CPAs survey field data, June 2020 
Over half of the respondents had never married (51.6%) whilst 39.7 percent were married, 4 
percent were divorced / separated and 2.7 percent were widowed.  Most female participants 
had never married (55.2%) compared to the males (48.5%).  All respondents who were aged 
18 – 19 years had never married compared to none of those aged 40 years or older.  All those 
who were widowed were aged 40 years or older. Additionally, none of those aged 20 – 24 years 
was married.  The proportion of respondents who were married increased as age increases. 
Most of the respondents from Accra (60%), La Dadekotopon (63.6%), Ayawaso East (55.6%) 
and Ayawaso West (52.2%) were married (see table 4.27). 
 
 
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Table 4.27 Marital status of community member respondents by sex, age and location: 
Divorced / 
Never married Married Widowed separated 
Variable N % N % N % N % 
Sex                 
Male 66 48.5 62 45.6 3 2.2 5 3.7 
Female 64 55.2 38 32.8 4 3.4 10 8.6 
Age         
18-19 25 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 
20-24 62 98.4 0 0 0 0 1 1.6 
25-29 35 58.3 23 38.3 0 0 2 3.3 
30-34 6 22.2 19 70.4 0 0 2 7.4 
35-39 2 5.4 28 75.7 0 0 7 18.9 
40 + 0 0 30 75 7 17.5 3 7.5 
Location         
Accra 17 44.7 18 47.4 1 2.6 2 5.3 
Adentan 7 58.3 5 41.7 0 0 0 0 
Ashaiman 7 58.3 4 33.3 0 0 1 8.3 
Ga East 17 77.3 4 18.2 0 0 1 4.5 
Ga North 5 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 
Ga West 11 45.8 11 45.8 1 4.2 1 4.2 
La Dadekotopon 3 27.3 7 63.6 0 0 1 9.1 
La Nkwantanan-Madina 3 30 4 40 2 20 1 10 
Ledzokuku Krowo 9 56.3 6 37.5 0 0 1 6.3 
Tema 15 68.2 7 31.8 0 0 0 0 
Ayawaso East 4 44.4 5 55.6 0 0 0 0 
Ayawaso West 10 43.5 12 52.2 0 0 1 4.3 
Ablekuma West 8 47.1 6 35.3 0 0 3 17.6 
Ablekuma North 10 45.5 8 36.4 1 4.5 3 13.6 
Weija Gbawe 4 44.4 3 33.3 2 22.2 0 0 
Total 130 51.6 100 39.7 7 2.8 15 6 
Source: CPAs survey field data, June 2020 
 
On the educational level of respondents, every two out of five members interviewed had their 
highest level of education being secondary / vocational / technical school followed by junior 
high school leavers (15.9%), and polytechnic (diploma holders) (10.7%).  Also, 13.5 percent 
of them had no formal education whilst 2.4 percent were primary school dropouts.  Figure 4.13 
shows the educational level of respondents by sex and the trend of distribution of educational 
levels was similar within both sexes and also mimicked that of the overall distribution of 
respondents. 
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Figure 4.13 Educational level of respondents by gender: 
50.0
44.9
45.0
40.5
40.0
35.3
35.0
30.0
25.0
19.0
20.0 13.8
15.9
11.2
15.0 13.2 13.5 13.2 11.8
10.3 10.7 9.510.7
10.0
5.9 6.9 6.4
4.3
5.0 2.4
0.7
0.0
No formal Primary Junior High Secondary / Post-secondary Polytechnic University
education (JSS / JH Vocationa (certi (Diploma) degree
Educational level
Male Female All
 
Source: CPAs survey field data, June 2020 
The majority of the respondents were Christians (76.6%) whilst 16.3 percent were Muslims, 
5.6 percent were Traditionalists and the remaining ones were non-religious.  Ga Dangmes 
(36.9%) formed a greater segment of the respondents, followed by Akans (33.7%), Ewe 
(14.7%), Mole Dagbani (4.4%), Gonja (1.6%), Guan (0.8%) and the rest came from other 
ethnic groups. 
On the occupational status of respondents, a greater proportion of them were traders (18.3%), 
followed by artisans (16.3%) and private sector employees (10.3%).  Also, 23.4 percent of the 
respondents were students whilst 7.9 percent were unemployed. A slightly higher proportion 
of the female respondents were traders (25.9%), students (25%) and unemployed (9.5%) 
compared to their male counterparts; 11.8 percent, 22.1 percent and 6.6 percent respectively 
(see table 4.28). 
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Table 4.28 Main occupation of respondents by sex: 
Occupation Male Female All 
  N % N % N % 
Farmer / fisherman 6 4.4 0 0 6 2.4 
Teacher 7 5.1 7 6 14 5.6 
Trader 16 11.8 30 25.9 46 18.3 
Civil servant 3 2.2 2 1.7 5 2 
Artisan 27 19.9 14 12.1 41 16.3 
Public servant 11 8.1 3 2.6 14 5.6 
Student 30 22.1 29 25 59 23.4 
Unemployed 9 6.6 11 9.5 20 7.9 
Private sector person (formal employee) 10 7.4 8 6.9 18 7.1 
Pensioner 2 1.5 0 0 2 0.8 
Self-employed 8 5.9 9 7.8 17 6.7 
Private sector employee (informal) 5 3.7 3 2.6 8 3.2 
Other 2 1.5 0 0 2 0.8 
Total 136 100 116 100 252 100 
Source:  CPAs survey field data, June 2020 
 
4.1 Impact of CPA Activities in the Community: 
 
The community members were asked to rank the kinds of crime they detect most in their area 
and as first mention, robbery still topped the list (75.5%) followed by traffic offenses (65.1%), 
quarrelling (39.8%) and smoking of marijuana / cocaine (37.4%) when all ranks of the eight 
items were employed. Still, other crimes which frequently occurred in the communities were 
rape / defilement (27.7%), excessive drinking of strong alcohol (24.1%) and trafficking 
(16.9%).  Quarrelling gained dominance among the female respondents (41.7%) over smoking 
of marijuana / cocaine (32.2%) whereas smoking of marijuana / cocaine was quite pronounced 
among the male respondents (41.8%) than quarrelling (38.1%).  Robbery topped the list of 
most crimes committed in Adentan, Ashaiman, La Nkwantanan Madina, Ledzokuku Krowo, 
Ayawaso West, Ablekuma West, Ablekuma North and Weija Gbawe.  Accra, Ga East and 
Tema recorded traffic offenses as the most worrying crime in their area whereas quarrelling 
was the most frequently encountered crime at Ayawaso East and La Dadekotopon. 
Furthermore, trafficking was the main crime usually committed in Ga North and Ga West. 
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Table 4.29 Crimes usually committed in the communities:  
Variables 
Sex                 
Male 74.6 26.1 67.9 17.2 38.1 41.8 24.6 74.6 
Female 76.5 29.6 61.7 16.5 41.7 32.2 23.5 76.5 
Location         
Accra 60.5 7.9 81.6 0.0 26.3 7.9 7.9 60.5 
Adentan 100.0 0.0 33.3 0.0 25.0 33.3 0.0 100.0 
Ashaiman 91.7 41.7 33.3 33.3 25.0 41.7 25.0 91.7 
Ga East 54.6 59.1 81.8 13.6 72.7 0.0 40.9 54.6 
Ga North 33.3 0.0 33.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 33.3 33.3 
Ga West 91.7 91.7 95.8 100.0 91.7 91.7 87.5 91.7 
La Dadekotopon 63.6 18.2 45.5 0.0 90.9 81.8 9.1 63.6 
La Nkwantanan Madina 100.0 0.0 60.0 0.0 0.0 40.0 0.0 100.0 
Ledzokuku Krowo 81.3 25.0 37.5 6.3 18.8 18.8 37.5 81.3 
Tema 57.1 0.0 76.2 4.8 9.5 4.8 9.5 57.1 
Ayawaso East 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 
Ayawaso West 95.7 4.4 56.5 0.0 4.4 39.1 0.0 95.7 
Ablekuma West 64.7 5.9 58.8 0.0 41.2 47.1 23.5 64.7 
Ablekuma North 81.8 31.8 54.6 0.0 54.6 63.6 4.6 81.8 
Weija Gbawe 55.6 22.2 44.4 0.0 11.1 22.2 0.0 55.6 
All 75.5 27.7 65.1 16.9 39.8 37.4 24.1 75.5 
Source: CPAs survey field data, June 2020 
 
The respondents were asked whether they have heard about Community Policing Assistants in 
their communities and 56 percent of them responded in the affirmative.  A lot of male 
respondents (61.8%) have heard of CPAs compared to the female respondents (49.1%). The 
proportion of respondents who have heard of CPAs increased from 36 percent for the lowest 
age group (18 – 19 years) to 70.4 percent for the middle age class (30 – 34 years) and decreased 
to 57.5 percent for the oldest age group (40 + years). The majority of respondents from 
Ledzokuku Krowo (87.5%), Ablekuma North (86.4%), Ablekuma West (82.4%) and La 
Dadekotopon have heard of the CPAs compared to a few of those in Ayawaso East (11.1%), 
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Robbery 
Rape / 
defilement 
Traffic 
offenses 
Trafficking 
Quarrelling 
Smoking of 
marijuana 
/cocaine 
Excessive 
drinking of 
strong 
alcohol 
Others 
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Weija Gbawe (11.1%) and Ga North (20%).  Further details of those who have heard of CPAs 
for other age groups and districts could be found in table 4.30. 
Table 4.30 Community members who have heard of CPAs: 
Yes No Don't know 
Variable N % N % N % 
Sex             
Male 84 61.8 41 30.1 11 8.1 
Female 57 49.1 51 44 8 6.9 
Age       
18-19 9 36 15 60 1 4 
20-24 28 44.4 29 46 6 9.5 
25-29 39 65 18 30 3 5 
30-34 19 70.4 4 14.8 4 14.8 
35-39 23 62.2 10 27 4 10.8 
40 + 23 57.5 16 40 1 2.5 
Location       
Accra 24 63.2 11 28.9 3 7.9 
Adentan 9 75 3 25 0 0 
Ashaiman 7 58.3 5 41.7 0 0 
Ga East 10 45.5 9 40.9 3 13.6 
Ga North 1 20 4 80 0 0 
Ga West 6 25 12 50 6 25 
La Dadekotopon 9 81.8 1 9.1 1 9.1 
La Nkwantanan-Madina 6 60 4 40 0 0 
Ledzokuku Krowo 14 87.5 2 12.5 0 0 
Tema 9 40.9 12 54.5 1 4.5 
Ayawaso East 1 11.1 4 44.4 4 44.4 
Ayawaso West 11 47.8 12 52.2 0 0 
Ablekuma West 14 82.4 3 17.6 0 0 
Ablekuma North 19 86.4 3 13.6 0 0 
Weija Gbawe 1 11.1 7 77.8 1 11.1 
All 141 56 92 36.5 19 7.5 
Source: CPAs survey field data, June 2020 
 
Over half (53.2%) of those who have heard of CPAs always found them working in the 
communities. More male respondents always found them working in the communities than 
their female counterparts; excess of 9.3 percentage points. A higher proportion of those aged 
40 years or older (60.9%), 25 – 29 years (59%) and 30 – 34 years (57.9%) indicated they always 
see the CPAs working in their communities as compared to a third of those aged 18 – 19 years.  
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None of the respondents in Weija Gbawe, Ayawaso East and Ga North has ever seen the CPAs 
working in their communities but they could be seen working by most respondents in Ayawaso 
West (81.8%) (see table 4.31). 
 
Table 4.31 Community members who always find CPAs working in their area: 
Yes No Don't know 
Variable N % N % N % 
Sex             
Male 48 57.1 19 22.6 17 20.2 
Female 27 47.4 16 28.1 14 24.6 
Age       
18-19 3 33.3 1 11.1 5 55.6 
20-24 13 46.4 8 28.6 7 25 
25-29 23 59 9 23.1 7 17.9 
30-34 11 57.9 4 21.1 4 21.1 
35-39 11 47.8 6 26.1 6 26.1 
40 + 14 60.9 7 30.4 2 8.7 
Location       
Accra 17 70.8 1 4.2 6 25 
Adentan 6 66.7 0 0 3 33.3 
Ashaiman 4 57.1 2 28.6 1 14.3 
Ga East 2 20 1 10 7 70 
Ga North 0 0 1 100 0 0 
Ga West 4 66.7 0 0 2 33.3 
La Dadekotopon 4 44.4 4 44.4 1 11.1 
La Nkwantanan-Madina 4 66.7 0 0 2 33.3 
Ledzokuku Krowo 4 28.6 8 57.1 2 14.3 
Tema 1 11.1 6 66.7 2 22.2 
Ayawaso East 0 0 0 0 1 100 
Ayawaso West 9 81.8 0 0 2 18.2 
Ablekuma West 9 64.3 4 28.6 1 7.1 
Ablekuma North 11 57.9 7 36.8 1 5.3 
Weija Gbawe 0 0 1 100 0 0 
Source: CPAs survey field data, June 2020 
 
On the issue of whether CPAs were indigenes of the community that they work in, a little over 
one-third indicated so. A higher proportion of the community members (47.5%) did not know 
where the CPAs were recruited from. At least, half of the respondents who knew CPAs were 
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working in their area at Accra, La Dadekotopon and Ablekuma West believed the CPAs were 
indigenes of their communities. 
 
Table 4.32 Respondents who perceive CPAs are indigenes of their communities: 
Yes No Don't know 
Variable N % N % N % 
Sex             
Male 21 25 24 28.6 39 46.4 
Female 22 38.6 7 12.3 28 49.1 
Age 
      
18-19 3 33.3 2 22.2 4 44.4 
20-24 8 28.6 11 39.3 9 32.1 
25-29 11 28.2 11 28.2 17 43.6 
30-34 6 31.6 1 5.3 12 63.2 
35-39 8 34.8 3 13 12 52.2 
40 + 7 30.4 3 13 13 56.5 
Location 
      
Accra 12 50 0 0 12 50 
Adentan 3 33.3 0 0 6 66.7 
Ashaiman 3 42.9 3 42.9 1 14.3 
Ga East 2 20 1 10 7 70 
Ga North 0 0 0 0 1 100 
Ga West 2 33.3 3 50 1 16.7 
La Dadekotopon 5 55.6 1 11.1 3 33.3 
La Nkwantanan-Madina 0 0 0 0 6 100 
Ledzokuku Krowo 1 7.1 10 71.4 3 21.4 
Tema 1 11.1 4 44.4 4 44.4 
Ayawaso East 0 0 0 0 1 100 
Ayawaso West 0 0 1 9.1 10 90.9 
Ablekuma West 7 50 5 35.7 2 14.3 
Ablekuma North 7 36.8 3 15.8 9 47.4 
Weija Gbawe 0 0 0 0 1 100 
Total 43 30.5 31 22 67 47.5 
Source: CPAs survey field data, June 2020 
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Only 5.7 percent of the respondents who have heard of CPAs indicated CPAs hold regular 
meetings with them to discuss how to prevent and control crime in the community.  As much 
as 31.2 percent of them were not sure whether CPAs do this. Respondents from Ablekuma 
West, La Dadekotopon, Ga West, Ashaiman and Accra stated CPAs hold regular meetings with 
them (see table 4.33).  The community members were advised on securing their doors before 
leaving the house or sleeping, and keeping watch on the movement of strange people in the 
community. 
Table 4.33 CPAs hold regular meetings with community members: 
Yes No Don't know 
Variable N % N % N % 
Sex 
      
Male 5 6 53 63.1 26 31 
Female 3 5.3 36 63.2 18 31.6 
Age 
      
18-19 1 11.1 6 66.7 2 22.2 
20-24 0 0 22 78.6 6 21.4 
25-29 3 7.7 27 69.2 9 23.1 
30-34 1 5.3 13 68.4 5 26.3 
35-39 2 8.7 10 43.5 11 47.8 
40 + 1 4.3 11 47.8 11 47.8 
Location 
      
Accra 1 4.2 8 33.3 15 62.5 
Adentan 0 0 3 33.3 6 66.7 
Ashaiman 1 14.3 6 85.7 0 0 
Ga East 0 0 7 70 3 30 
Ga North 0 0 1 100 0 0 
Ga West 1 16.7 5 83.3 0 0 
La Dadekotopon 1 11.1 6 66.7 2 22.2 
La Nkwantanan-Madina 0 0 0 0 6 100 
Ledzokuku Krowo 0 0 14 100 0 0 
Tema 0 0 6 66.7 3 33.3 
Ayawaso East 0 0 1 100 0 0 
Ayawaso West 0 0 7 63.6 4 36.4 
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Yes No Don't know 
Variable N % N % N % 
Ablekuma West 3 21.4 9 64.3 2 14.3 
Ablekuma North 1 5.3 16 84.2 2 10.5 
Weija Gbawe 0 0 0 0 1 100 
All 8 5.7 89 63.1 44 31.2 
Source: CPAs survey field data, June 2020 
The first ranking of the activities of CPAs in the communities showed that two-thirds of those 
who were aware of the activities of the CPAs in the communities saw them working to control 
and prevent traffic offenses followed by robbery (12.7%), quarrelling (8.7%), and smoking of 
marijuana / cocaine (6.4%).  CPAs working to control and prevent traffic offenses topped the 
list when all activities they engage in were ranked and the sequence of the other offenses 
followed the same order as they were in the first ranking by community members.  Less than 
10 percent of these respondents saw the CPAs in their routine activities trying to control and 
prevent rape / defilement, trafficking and excessive drinking of strong alcohol. 
 
Table 4.34 Crime CPAs usually work to prevent or control in the communities: 
Variable 
Sex        
Male 39.5 13.2 82.9 9.2 26.3 26.3 6.6 
Female 35.3 3.9 76.5 5.9 27.5 29.4 2.0 
Age 
       
18-19 75.0 25.0 37.5 25.0 37.5 25.0 25.0 
20-24 40.7 7.4 81.5 7.4 25.9 33.3 7.4 
25-29 31.4 14.3 82.9 11.4 31.4 28.6 2.9 
30-34 47.1 11.8 82.4 5.9 17.7 35.3 5.9 
35-39 31.6 5.3 89.5 0.0 15.8 15.8 0.0 
40 + 28.6 0.0 81.0 4.8 33.3 23.8 0.0 
126 
 
Robbery 
Rape / 
defilement 
Traffic 
offenses 
Trafficking 
Quarrelling 
Smoking of 
marijuana/ 
cocaine 
Excessive 
drinking of 
strong alcohol 
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Location 
       
Accra 21.1 0.0 100.0 0.0 21.1 0.0 0.0 
Adentan 87.5 0.0 62.5 0.0 25.0 25.0 0.0 
Ashaiman 42.9 14.3 85.7 28.6 28.6 57.1 14.3 
Ga East 0.0 20.0 90.0 10.0 40.0 0.0 0.0 
Ga West 66.7 66.7 83.3 83.3 66.7 66.7 66.7 
Dadekot 33.3 0.0 44.4 0.0 77.8 55.6 0.0 
La Nkwantanan Madina 0.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 
Ledzokuku Krowo 16.7 8.3 91.7 8.3 16.7 0.0 8.3 
Tema 14.3 0.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 
Ayawaso Ea 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 0.0 
Ayawaso We 54.6 0.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 9.1 0.0 
Ablekuma W 42.9 7.1 71.4 0.0 28.6 42.9 0.0 
Ablekuma N 61.1 11.1 50.0 0.0 22.2 66.7 0.0 
All 37.8 9.5 80.3 7.9 26.8 27.6 4.7 
Source: CPAs survey field data, June 2020 
In general, more than one-third of the community members who were aware of the presence of 
the CPAs in the communities (35.4%) were satisfied with their output whereas over half of 
them (52.5%) also remained neutral.  Additionally, none of the respondents from Ashaiman, 
Ga North, Tema, Ayawaso East and Weija Gbawe was satisfied with the activities of the CPAs. 
 
 
 
 
 
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Table 4.35 Community members satisfied with the output of CPAs: 
Very Very 
satisfied Satisfied Neutral Dissatisfied dissatisfied 
Variable N % N % N % N % N % 
Sex 
          
Male 6 7.1 24 28.6 46 54.8 7 8.3 1 1.2 
Female 3 5.3 17 29.8 28 49.1 8 14 1 1.8 
Age 
          
18-19 0 0 2 22.2 6 66.7 1 11.1 0 0 
20-24 1 3.6 5 17.9 18 64.3 4 14.3 0 0 
25-29 3 7.7 10 25.6 22 56.4 3 7.7 1 2.6 
30-34 0 0 8 42.1 9 47.4 2 10.5 0 0 
35-39 1 4.3 8 34.8 11 47.8 3 13 0 0 
40 + 4 17.4 8 34.8 8 34.8 2 8.7 1 4.3 
Location 
          
Accra 1 4.2 9 37.5 12 50 2 8.3 0 0 
Adentan 1 11.1 3 33.3 4 44.4 1 11.1 0 0 
Ashaiman 0 0 0 0 5 71.4 2 28.6 0 0 
Ga East 0 0 2 20 8 80 0 0 0 0 
Ga North 0 0 0 0 1 100 0 0 0 0 
Ga West 0 0 2 33.3 4 66.7 0 0 0 0 
La Dadekotopon 2 22.2 3 33.3 3 33.3 1 11.1 0 0 
La Nkwantanan-Madina 1 16.7 2 33.3 2 33.3 1 16.7 0 0 
Ledzokuku Krowo 1 7.1 0 0 8 57.1 3 21.4 2 14.3 
Tema 0 0 0 0 7 77.8 2 22.2 0 0 
Ayawaso East 0 0 0 0 1 100 0 0 0 0 
Ayawaso West 0 0 5 45.5 6 54.5 0 0 0 0 
Ablekuma West 3 21.4 7 50 4 28.6 0 0 0 0 
Ablekuma North 0 0 8 42.1 8 42.1 3 15.8 0 0 
Weija Gbawe 0 0 0 0 1 100 0 0 0 0 
All 9 6.4 41 29.1 74 52.5 15 10.6 2 1.4 
Source: CPAs survey field data, June 2020 
Exactly one-third of the community members who knew CPAs were working in their 
communities revealed there was a reduction in the level of crime in the communities as a result 
of the activities of CPAs. This view was also expressed by more than half of those who were 
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aged 40 years and older. On the other hand, about 24.8 percent of these community members 
thought otherwise.  Furthermore, none of the respondents from Ashaiman, Ga North, Ga West, 
Ledzokuku Krowo, Tema, Ayawaso East and Weija Gbawe thought crime has reduced due to 
the presence of the CPAs in their communities.  
 
Table 4.36 Respondents who perceive crime has reduced due to the activities of CPAs: 
Strongly Strongly 
agree Agree Neutral Disagree disagree 
Variable N % N % N % N % N % 
Sex 
          
Male 3 3.6 24 28.6 39 46.4 12 14.3 6 7.1 
Female 1 1.8 19 33.3 20 35.1 13 22.8 4 7 
Age 
          
18-19 0 0 1 11.1 4 44.4 4 44.4 0 0 
20-24 1 3.6 6 21.4 9 32.1 7 25 5 17.9 
25-29 1 2.6 12 30.8 20 51.3 3 7.7 3 7.7 
30-34 0 0 5 26.3 10 52.6 4 21.1 0 0 
35-39 0 0 9 39.1 9 39.1 4 17.4 1 4.3 
40 + 2 8.7 10 43.5 7 30.4 3 13 1 4.3 
Location 
          
Accra 0 0 15 62.5 7 29.2 2 8.3 0 0 
Adentan 1 11.1 3 33.3 4 44.4 1 11.1 0 0 
Ashaiman 0 0 0 0 5 71.4 1 14.3 1 14.3 
Ga East 0 0 2 20 7 70 1 10 0 0 
Ga North 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 100 0 0 
Ga West 0 0 0 0 5 83.3 1 16.7 0 0 
La Dadekotopon 1 11.1 3 33.3 3 33.3 2 22.2 0 0 
La Nkwantanan-Madina 0 0 3 50 2 33.3 1 16.7 0 0 
Ledzokuku Krowo 0 0 0 0 6 42.9 3 21.4 5 35.7 
Tema 0 0 0 0 3 33.3 2 22.2 4 44.4 
Ayawaso East 0 0 0 0 1 100 0 0 0 0 
Ayawaso West 0 0 5 45.5 6 54.5 0 0 0 0 
Ablekuma West 2 14.3 3 21.4 4 28.6 5 35.7 0 0 
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Ablekuma North 0 0 9 47.4 5 26.3 5 26.3 0 0 
Weija Gbawe 0 0 0 0 1 100 0 0 0 0 
Total 4 2.8 43 30.5 59 41.8 25 17.7 10 7.1 
Source: CPAs survey field data, June 2020 
 
Most of the respondents (63.1%) who were aware that CPAs were in their communities 
believed traffic offenses have reduced as a result of the activities of CPAs in their communities 
followed by robbery (19.9%) and smoking of marijuana / cocaine (14.2%).  However, 9.2 
percent of them revealed the activities of the CPAs have not reduced crime in any way (see 
figure 4.14).  
Figure 4.14 Crimes which have reduced as a result of the activities of CPAs: 
70.0 63.1
60.0
50.0
40.0
30.0
19.9
20.0 14.2
11.4 9.2
10.0
2.1 4.3
0.0
Robbery Rape / Traffic Trafficking Quarrelling Smoking of None of them
defilement offenses marijuana /
cocaine
Crime
 
Source: CPAs survey field data, June 2020 
All the respondents from Ga North and Weija Gbawe also held the same view that the activities 
of the CPAs have not reduced crime.  According to respondents in Tema and Ayawaso East, 
the only crimes that have reduced as a result of the activities of the CPAs were traffic offenses 
and smoking of marijuana / cocaine respectively. Most respondents from Accra, Ga East, 
Ayawaso West, Ledzokuku Krowo and La Nkwantanan Madina believed traffic offenses have 
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reduced as a result of the activities of the CPAs.  Further details have been provided in table 
4.37. 
Table 4.37 Crimes which have reduced as a result of the activities of CPAs: 
Variable 
Sex 
       
Male 20.2 2.4 65.5 4.8 11.9 13.1 9.5 
Female 19.3 1.8 59.7 3.5 10.5 15.8 8.8 
Age 
       
18-19 44.4 0.0 33.3 11.1 11.1 22.2 11.1 
20-24 17.9 0.0 67.9 3.6 10.7 10.7 7.1 
25-29 18.0 2.6 66.7 5.1 15.4 18.0 10.3 
30-34 15.8 5.3 73.7 0.0 5.3 15.8 10.5 
35-39 21.7 0.0 56.5 4.4 4.4 8.7 8.7 
40 + 17.4 4.4 60.9 4.4 17.4 13.0 8.7 
Location 
       
Accra 20.8 0.0 70.8 0.0 4.2 0.0 16.7 
Adentan 44.4 0.0 44.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 11.1 
Ashaiman 0.0 0.0 57.1 28.6 14.3 0.0 0.0 
Ga East 0.0 10.0 90.0 0.0 30.0 0.0 0.0 
Ga North 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 
Ga West 33.3 0.0 66.7 33.3 16.7 33.3 0.0 
La Dadekotopon 44.4 0.0 33.3 0.0 55.6 44.4 0.0 
La Nkwantanan-Madina 0.0 16.7 66.7 16.7 0.0 0.0 16.7 
Ledzokuku Krowo 0.0 0.0 78.6 7.1 7.1 0.0 14.3 
Tema 0.0 0.0 66.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 33.3 
Ayawaso East 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 
Ayawaso West 9.1 0.0 90.9 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 
Ablekuma West 42.9 0.0 50.0 0.0 7.1 42.9 0.0 
Ablekuma North 31.6 5.3 52.6 0.0 15.8 36.8 0.0 
Weija Gbawe 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 
All 19.9 2.1 63.1 4.3 11.4 14.2 9.2 
Source: CPAs survey field data, June 2020 
131 
 
Robbery 
Rape / 
defilement 
Traffic 
offenses 
Trafficking 
Quarrelling 
Smoking of 
marijuana / 
cocaine 
None of them 
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The respondents were asked whether the CPAs have provided them with some numbers to call 
during emergencies and 8.3 percent responded in the affirmative. The data showed that a higher 
proportion of the male respondents (11.8%) had these emergency contact numbers they could 
call compared to the female respondents (4.3%).  Additionally, none of those aged 18 – 19 
years and 30 – 34 years had received these emergency contact numbers compared to 21.6 
percent of those aged 35 – 39 years.  Almost one-third of the respondents in Accra (31.6%) 
received telephone contacts to call during emergencies compared to 11.8 percent of those in 
Ablekuma West.  Apart from these two, less than 10 percent of respondents in Adentan, Ga 
East, Ga West, La Dadekotopon, Ayawaso West and Ablekuma North received numbers to call 
during emergencies.  Respondents in the other districts did not receive any of such numbers to 
call during emergencies (see table 4.38). 
Table 4.38 Respondents provided with emergency contact numbers: 
Yes No Don't know 
Variable N % N % N % 
Sex             
Male 16 11.8 76 55.9 44 32.4 
Female 5 4.3 73 62.9 38 32.8 
Age 
      
18-19 0 0 19 76 6 24 
20-24 4 6.3 44 69.8 15 23.8 
25-29 4 6.7 39 65 17 28.3 
30-34 0 0 15 55.6 12 44.4 
35-39 8 21.6 17 45.9 12 32.4 
40 + 5 12.5 15 37.5 20 50 
Location 
      
Accra 12 31.6 13 34.2 13 34.2 
Adentan 1 8.3 0 0 11 91.7 
Ashaiman 0 0 11 91.7 1 8.3 
Ga East 1 4.5 19 86.4 2 9.1 
Ga North 0 0 5 100 0 0 
Ga West 1 4.2 8 33.3 15 62.5 
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Yes No Don't know 
Variable N % N % N % 
La Dadekotopon 1 9.1 10 90.9 0 0 
La Nkwantanan-Madina 0 0 1 10 9 90 
Ledzokuku Krowo 0 0 16 100 0 0 
Tema 0 0 18 81.8 4 18.2 
Ayawaso East 0 0 4 44.4 5 55.6 
Ayawaso West 2 8.7 2 8.7 19 82.6 
Ablekuma West 2 11.8 14 82.4 1 5.9 
Ablekuma North 1 4.5 19 86.4 2 9.1 
Weija Gbawe 0 0 9 100 0 0 
All 21 8.3 149 59.1 82 32.5 
Source: CPAs survey field data, June 2020 
Two of the respondents either called the emergency contact line or know someone who ever 
called and the response was swift and professional. These two who called were all male 
respondents and they were found in the 35 – 39 years and 40 years or older age groups. Both 
of them were in the Ablekuma West District. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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CHAPTER SIX 
 
RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION 
 
 
5.0. INTRODUCTION: 
 
Chapter five concerns itself with the research findings and discussions. The chapter will 
examine the research findings (i.e. the successes and the challenges) in light of the literature, 
paying attention to the extent to which these findings either agree or disagree with the existing 
literature. These findings, as we shall see, largely agree with the existing literature.    
6.1. SUCCESSES: 
 
The CPAs were asked to state their immediate previous employment and the results showed 
that 15.7% were completely unemployed whilst 14.5% were students who have just completed 
JHS and SHS. This suggests that YEA works to offer the Ghanaian youth with temporary 
employment and connects them to lifelong employments through its Job Portals and Job 
Centre. Now, YEA has about 15, 000 CPA recruits working under it in Ghana. This figure 
excludes the hundreds who have already benefited from the program in the previous years. 
Moreover, interactions with YEA top officials and CPAs showed that YEA provides the CPAs 
with ‘Exit-Fund’ at the end of the two-years-stay on the program. This finding aligns itself with 
Levin and Ferman’s (1986) observation that YEDPA helped to train 450, 000 youth and 
assisted them to get jobs in U.S. Equally, the result aligns itself with Bridgman’s (2001) 
assessment of Eva Phoenix in Canada, where, according to him, one of the managers of the 
project remarked that “The kids are getting jobs. The construction industry is getting the badly 
needed workers to replace our aging workforce” (ibid: 789). 
 
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Increasingly, community policing has improved and enhanced the relations between the CPAs 
and community-residents in Accra. Some of the CPAs reported that they have been holding 
CPAs-Community meetings to discuss security issues with the residents, with 87.9% 
describing the CPAs-Community cooperation as good. In fact, residents in Ablekuma West, 
La Dadekotopon, Ga West, Ashaiman, among others, confirmed that the CPAs have been 
holding regular meetings with them. Indeed, one of the CPAs noted, “the residents often give 
us food and the tips needed to arrest criminals”. This finding aligns itself with the observation 
that community policing has improved police-resident relations in Northern Ireland (Topping, 
2008), South Africa (Benit-Gbaffou, 2008), India (Kumar, 2012) and in Florida, U.S. (Liou 
and Savage, 1996).  
Again, a larger proportion (80.6%) of the CPAs believed that they have been able to reduce 
crime in the communities in question. In fact, the result showed that about 32.4% strongly 
agreed to a ‘higher extent’. Equally, a greater proportion of the community-residents who know 
about the work of the CPAs (i.e., 56% of them) confirmed that there was a reduction of crime 
in the communities due to the activities of the CPAs. Some community-residents, however, 
disagreed, claiming that the CPAs have not been able to reduce crime in the communities in 
question. Similarly, many have reported that community policing has contributed to reduce 
crime in the U.K., U.S. (Tyler et al, 2010; Sherman, 2013; Fagan, 2002) and in Choluteca and 
Tegucigalpa, Honduras (Arias and Ungar, 2009). McDonald (2002), however, reasoned to the 
contrary, claiming that the effects of community policing on crime-reduction is inconsequential 
and negligible in the U.S.     
6.2. CHALLENGES: 
 
The results showed that 39.5% of the CPAs were ‘fairly dissatisfied’ with their salary (i.e., the 
uniform amount of GH₵400) while 37.9% were ‘very dissatisfied’ with their salary. In sum, 
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this suggests that the majority (i.e., 39.5% + 37.9% = 77.4%) of the CPAs were not satisfied 
with the salary YEA gives to them every month. Only 9% of the CPAs claimed that they were 
satisfied with the uniform salary of GH₵400. In fact, the result further showed that about 19.3% 
have decided to exit before the end of their stay on the program due to low salary. Low salary 
has already ‘jettisoned’ about 6 of every 10 CPAs off the program. Indeed, low salary and lack 
of funding, according to the CPAs, have generally destabilized operation as most of them are 
unable to feed themselves and families well, rent and renew rents and transport themselves to 
and fro. These results agree with the findings that lack of funding has undermined the 
effectiveness of community policing in the U.S. (Allison et al, 2009) and in Thailand 
(Puthpongsiriporn and Quang, 2005).  
Moreover, on counselling and guidance services, about 10.8% have no idea about YEA’s 
counselling and guidance services. Besides, the study asked the CPAs whether or not they have 
been trained on how to setup their own businesses after exit. In fact, only 28.3% of the CPAs 
claimed to have received training on how to establish their own businesses. Clearly, this shows 
that the majority of the CPAs have not received this kind of training, denying them the skills 
needed to set up their own businesses after exit. This finding, thus, aligns itself with that of 
Debrah (2007) and Ojo (1980) who claimed that lack of clerical, technical and artisanal skills 
tend to hinder the youth’s access to jobs in Ghana and Nigeria. Similarly, the CPAs indicated 
that it is difficult to acquire land to set up a business in Accra. This finding aligns itself with 
Kristensen and Birch-Thomsen’s (2013) assertion that the youth do not have land to establish 
their own business in Uganda.  
In addition, the results showed that YEA and GPS do not allow the leadership of the CPAs to 
represent them on boards with them. Clearly, this shows that YEA and GPS do not involve the 
CPAs in critical decision making and implementation. Gyampo (2012) equally reported that 
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the authorities failed to involve the youth in the formulation of the National Youth Employment 
Policy (NYEP) in Ghana.  
On community policing, the number of CPAs who were ‘fairly satisfied’ with their training 
was 41.1%, ‘very satisfied’ was 15.2% and ‘very dissatisfied’ was 2.4%. These results showed 
that YEA and GPS need to be commended for the training given to the CPAs, even though 
lapses still remain to be filled. Still, when the CPAs were asked to state their core objectives 
on the 6th module, 63.5% of them claimed that their core objective is to fight crime and improve 
security, 18.5% claimed they enrolled to fight poverty and, 17.7% claimed they want to stay 
employed in Ghana. Again, YEA and GPS need to be commended for injecting the spirit of 
patriotism (the urge to reduce crime in Ghana) into the CPAs. Besides, less than 5% of the 
CPAs, for example, claimed to have brutalized civilians in one way or the other. This, 
according to them, happened when civilians tried to resist arrest. In addition, the study found 
that only 2.2% of the CPAs claimed to have taken bribe to allow traffic-offenders escape arrest. 
These results showed that only a handful of the CPAs are clearly engaged in unproductive 
activities at their various duty post. But then, the fact that some CPAs acknowledged to have 
taken bribe and brutalized citizens means that a lot still needs to be done to reshape them in 
thoughts and actions. Clearly, the results suggest that these ‘handful’ CPAs do not understand 
the philosophy behind community policing in Ghana. These findings align themselves with 
that of German (1969) and Chappell (2009) who observed that some U.S. police do not 
understand the philosophy behind community policing due to lack of proper training. Some of 
them, for example, have resorted to corruption, thereby undermining efforts in Mexico City 
(Muller, 2010) and in the U.S. (Goetz and Mitchell, 2003). Furthermore, lack of proper training 
often leads to police brutalities in the U.S.  (Koslicki and Willits, 2018) and in Honduras (Arias 
and Ungar, 2009). But the level of CPAs brutalities in Ghana is less when compared to the 
level of police brutalities in U.S.   
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References: 
 
Allison T. et al.(2009).Community Policing and Homeland Security Policing: Friend or Foe? 
Criminal Justice Policy Review Volume 20 Number 3, pp. 326-343 
Arias, E. D. and Ungar, M.(2009).Community Policing and Latin America's Citizen Security Crisis 
Author(s Source: Comparative Politics , July 2009, Vol. 41, No. 4, pp. 409-429 
Bénit-Gbaffou, C.(2008).Community Policing and Disputed Norms for Local Social Control in Post-
Apartheid Johannesburg. Journal of Southern African Studies, Vol. 34, No. 1, pp. 93-109 
Bridgman, R.(2001).I Helped Build That: A Demonstration Employment Training Program for 
Homeless Youthin Toronto, Canada. American Anthropologist, Vol. 103, No. 3, pp. 779-795 
Chappell, A. T.(2009).The Philosophical Versus Actual Adoption of Community Policing: A 
Case Study. Criminal Justice Review Volume 34 Number 1, pp. 5-28 
Debrah, Y. A.(2007).Promoting the informal sector as a source of gainful employment in 
developing countries: insights from Ghana. The International Journal of Human Resource 
Management, 18:6, pp. 1063-1084 
Fagan, J.(2002).Policing Guns and Youth Violence. The Future of Children, Vol. 12, No. 2, 
Children, Youth, and Gun Violence, pp. 132-151 
 
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CHAPTER SEVEN 
 
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND 
RECOMMENDATIONS 
 
6.0. INTRODUCTION: 
 
This chapter will briefly look at the summary of findings, the conclusion and the 
recommendations of the study.  
7.1. SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: 
 
Firstly, the study found out that the CPAs consist of those who were [previously] unemployed 
(15.7%) and those who have [recently] completed JHS and SHS (14.5%). These results mean 
that YEA offers the youth with transitory jobs and links them to lifelong employments through 
its Job Portals and Job Centre in Ghana. Still, the results showed that YEA provides the CPAs 
with ‘Exit-Fund’ at the end of the two-years. 
Secondly, the results indicated that the relation between the CPAs and the communities has 
improved as a result of community policing. The regular meetings and the mutual supports 
resulted in this positive relation between the two parties. Residents in Ablekuma West, La 
Dadekotopon, Ga West, Ashaiman, among others, attested to that fact that the CPAs have been 
holding regular meetings with them. And, 87.9% of the CPAs pointed to the CPAs-
Communities cooperation as “good”. Moreover, these positive interactions have worked to 
prevent crime in the communities, with 80.6% of the CPSs believing that crime has, indeed, 
reduced due to their activities. Equally, a greater proportion of the community-residents who 
know about the work of the CPAs attested that the activities of the CPAs have led to crime-
reduction in the communities in question.  
 
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Thirdly, the study found out that the CPAs have developed Special Response Units to respond 
to emergencies as and when they arise. These CPAs, for example, have Response Units in Ga 
South, Ga East, Adentan, Ayawaso East, Ayawaso West, La Nkwantana-Madina and Weija 
Gbawe. Also, the CPAs have indicated that they have given out their contacts to the 
community-residents to call in times of emergencies. In fact, about 8.3% of the community-
residents confirmed that the CPAs have given them numbers to call during emergency. The 
result, for example, showed that 59.7% of the CPAs received calls to intervene in critical 
situations. Interactions with GPS top officials and CPAs confirmed that the CPAs tend to rely 
on the phones more than on social media to prevent crime.   
Notwithstanding, a proportion of the CPAs claimed that YEA has not been able to train them 
on how to set-up their own businesses after exit. Still, a proportion of the CPAs claimed that 
they have no idea about YEA counselling and guidance services since enrolling onto the 
program. In addition, most of the CPAs are dissatisfied (fairly dissatisfied—39.5% and very 
dissatisfied—37.9%) with their income. These CPAs, for example, indicated that low salary 
weakens their ability to feed families well, rent and renew rents and transport themselves to 
and fro. Besides, low salary, according to the CPAs, has contributed to undermine the 
effectiveness of the CPAs on the ground. 
 
7.2. CONCLUSION: 
In very simple terms, the current study was designed to appraise and measure the impacts of 
YEA’s 6th module—the “Youth in Community Service and Security Module” [otherwise 
known as “Community Protection Personnel”]—on the ‘youth’ and ‘security’ in Ghana. It 
found out that YEA’s 6th module was principally designed to [directly] deal with youth 
unemployment and its related consequences (crime) in Ghana. Currently, YEA, under the 6th 
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module, has recruited about 15000 CPAs, trained and tasked them to deal with crime (e.g., 
traffic offences, robbery, quarrelling, rape, etc.) in the various communities across the length 
and breadth of Ghana. The evidence showed the CPAs continue to receive a uniform salary 
every month and work to reduce crime in the various communities.  However, the challenges 
include, among others, dissatisfaction with salary, lack of funding and ‘half-secured’ CPAs 
employment security after exit. 
7.3. RECOMMENDATIONS: 
 
Performance: 
 
Firstly, to improve performance, beneficiaries should be positively stimulated. One way to do 
that is to provide beneficiaries the opportunity to be recruited into mainstream police force, 
after they have exited or when Ghana Police Service (GPS) is recruiting.  
Secondly, interactions with GPS officials showed that the CPSs-Communities regular meetings 
are unofficial. One of the officials, for example, indicated that “If there is any, then, it is done 
unofficially”. Clearly, this shows that the act of holding regular CPAs-Community meetings 
has not been formalized and incorporated into the 6th module. This work, thus, wishes to 
recommend that YEA and GPS need to formalize and incorporate the act of holding regular 
CPAs-Community meetings into the 6th module. This will allow the CPAs and residents to 
discuss issues on how to counter crime in the various communities. 
Thirdly, it is important for YEA to push the government to establish a youth minimum-wage 
and grant tax holidays to private institutions who may be interested in recruiting the CPAs after 
exit.  
Fourthly, and related to the above, YEA and GPS ought to deploy some CPAs to assist private 
institutions, especially those who wish to work with these private institutions (e.g., the banks 
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and other companies) after exit, on routine basis. Undoubtedly, this may help to establish and 
build CPA-private institution relations and thus, [may] lead to the employment of the former 
after exit.   
Exit strategy: 
First, to provide a fitting exit plan for beneficiaries, the Agency should know the individual 
interest of all beneficiaries. To achieve this, beneficiaries will be mandated to indicate their 
desired exit plan during recruitment registration.  
The choice could be between: 
- Trade  
- Further education  
 
Second, the Agency could lobby for slots from GPS, example 10-slots per region. These slots 
could be given to the 10 most hard working CPAs who also meet the Gh Police requirements. 
A lot of beneficiaries develop a genuine interest for the profession and thus an opportunity to 
join mainstream Police Service will encourage beneficiaries to put in their best.  
Third, the government could establish a youth minimum-wage and grant tax holidays to private 
institutions who may be interested in recruiting the CPAs after exit.  
Fourth, YEA ought to incorporate and institutionalize counselling and guidance services to 
help counsel and guide the recruits into lifelong jobs after exit.  
Trade:  
The Agency, through its Job Centre and NEIP collaboration, could provide entrepreneurship 
training and a start-up capital (exit package) after the beneficiary has exited the CPA module.  
 
 
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Further Education: 
By partnering with GES, beneficiaries who want to further their education can be enrolled in 
school. Since the basic education requirement is BECE, the school option for exited CPAs 
would be: 
-SHS  
-TVET 
-Training College  
-Polytechnic  
-University  
-Other 
 
The Community Protection Assistants Module 
 
Regular and Periodic Training for Beneficiaries – The CPA Module was developed as an 
avenue to provide the youth of Ghana with employment while simultaneously augmenting the 
strength of the Ghana Police Service. The Module provided previously underserved 
communities with police presence and the opportunity to have their community policing needs 
met. The role CPAs play in the various communities cannot be understated. It is therefore 
imperative that CPAs are equipped with the right knowledge and skill to ensure that they 
effectively carry out their duties. Due to the changing nature of crime and policing activities 
all over the world, it is necessary to institute regular and periodic training programs to keep the 
CPAs abreast with the latest policing trends and techniques. It is recommended that quarterly 
training programs are undertaken during the 2-year engagement period, at the end of which 
CPAs will be issued a certificate to not only indicate that they have successfully come to the 
end of the engagement but that they have also undergone various training programs. It is hoped 
that the certificate issued will boost the employability of the exited CPAS.  
Involve Ghana Police Service in Monitoring and Evaluation Exercises- Currently, the CPA 
module is run in collaboration with the Ghana Police Service which provides the initial training 
for the successful candidates before they are deployed. However, to ensure that the activities 
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of the CPAs are correctly measured and to aid in future reviews and development of the 
module, it is recommended that the Ghana Police Service is involved in the monitoring and 
evaluation of the module. The Ghana Police Service should also provide periodic reports on 
the conduct and performance of the Beneficiaries stationed at various police posts across the 
country. The involvement of the Ghana Police Service will also give a seal of approval to the 
Beneficiaries as it will serve as an indication that they have duly applied the knowledge gained 
during their trainings on the field.  
Engagement with Private Security Firms – The exit strategy for the Community Protection 
Assistant Module is for a percentage of Beneficiaries to be absorbed into the Ghana Police 
Service and for those who are not so absorbed to transition into paid employment. The private 
security industry is an ideal sector for the CPAs to transition into as they are already conversant 
with the trends and demands of that sector. Effective engagements with this sector will have a 
twofold impact. The first impact will be that the various private security firms are introduced 
to the module and essentially given access to a pool of people to fill their future recruitment 
needs. The second impact will be that Beneficiaries who are about to exit are given the 
opportunity to interact with the private security agencies and determine how best to position 
themselves for employment in these firms. An annual engagement event can be instituted to 
fulfil this objective.  
Institute Pathways for Further Education – One observation from the running of the CPA 
Module was the low level of education among the Beneficiaries. It will thus be beneficial to 
establish a pathway for further education to assist Beneficiaries who may wish to pursue further 
education. This can be implemented in collaboration with both public and private educational 
institutions. 
 
  
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Wood, J. C.(2003).Self-Policing and the Policing of the Self: Violence, Protection and the 
Civilizing Bargainin Britain. Crime, Histoire & Sociétés / Crime, History & Societies, Vol. 7, 
No. 1, pp.109-128 
Wrigley-Asante, C.(2016).Gendered Perception Of Crime And Safety: Insights From Different 
Socio-Economic Urban Neighbourhoods In Ghana. Ghana Journal of Geography Vol. 8(1) 
Special Issue, pp. 103-122 
WU, Y. C.(1967).The Research Interview and Its Measurement. Oxford: Oxford University 
Press. pp. 79-87 
 
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Xu, Y. et al.(2005).Discovering the Impact of Community Policing: The Broken Windows 
Thesis, Collective Efficacey, And Citizens’ Judgement. Journal of Research in Crime and 
Delinquency, Vol. 42 No. 2, pp. 147-186 
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Integrating Social Welfare Policy and Active Labor Market Policy into Youth Employment 
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INTERVIEWS: 
 
YEA officials: 
Director, Research and Planning—20th May, 2020 
Director, Corporate Affairs—25th May, 2020 
Director, Monitoring & Evaluation—10th June, 2020  
Director, Administration—12th June, 2020 
Director, Human Resources—17th June, 2020 
 
GPS officials: 
These include, among others:  
Director, community policing—22nd July, 2020 
Director, motor traffic and transport department (MTTD)—25th July, 2020 
Director general, National Patrol Department (NDP)—27th July, 2020 
Director general, CID special duties—6th August, 2020 
director, private security organisation—11th August, 2020 
commander, police training school—14th August, 2020 
 
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Appendix 1 
 
Table A1 Comparing mean age of CPAs by sex: 
 
Two-sample t test with equal variances
                                                                              
   Group       Obs        Mean    Std. Err.   Std. Dev.   [95% Conf. Interval]
                                                                              
    Male       333    28.06607    .2123776    3.875528    27.64829    28.48384
  Female       176    26.59091    .2570149    3.409688    26.08366    27.09816
                                                                              
combined       509    27.55599    .1676972    3.783422    27.22653    27.88546
                                                                              
    diff              1.475157    .3467998                .7938154    2.156499
                                                                              
    diff = mean(Male) - mean(Female)                              t =   4.2536
Ho: diff = 0                                     degrees of freedom =      507
    Ha: diff < 0                 Ha: diff != 0                 Ha: diff > 0
 Pr(T < t) = 1.0000         Pr(|T| > |t|) = 0.0000          Pr(T > t) = 0.0000
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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Appendix 2: 
 
QUESTIONNAIRE TO MEASURE THE IMPACT OF COMMUNITY POLICING 
FROM THE PERSPECTIVES OF THE CPAs 
 
 
INTRODUCTION: 
This section introduces the topic and the statement of the research problem to the respondents. 
In both cases, the researcher intends to explain the import of the research project to his 
respondents. Also, he will emphasize that their views and opinions will be used for academic 
purposes and nothing else. This, it is believed, will boost the confidence level of respondents 
and cause them to respond without any fear.  
Demographics: 
1. Gender: Male……………….. Female……………….. 
2. Age…………….  
3. Marital Status………………… 
4. Number of Children (if any)…………………………. 
5. Family occupation……………………… 
6.  Monthly income level of family before current occupation……………………………. 
7. Educational level……………………… 
8. Religion…………………….. 
9.  Ethnicity (Ga, Ewe, etc)…………………………… 
 
INVESTIGATE THE EMPLOYMENT ASPECTS OF THE YOUTH UNDER THE 
YOUTH EMPLOYMENT AGENCY 
 
1. Previous occupation………………………. 
2. Income level (prior to employment)…………………… 
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3. Current Occupation………………………………. 
4. Income level (current)……………………. 
5. How old were you at the time of employment…………………….. 
6. Are you satisfied with your income level?  (a) somehow (b) satisfied  (c) not satisfied 
(d) don’t know  
7. Do you intend to exit before the two years? (a) yes (b) no (c) don’t know 
8. If Yes, why? (a) low salary (financial reasons) (b) not satisfied with the work (c) for 
further studies (d) for another job (e) sickness (f) personal (g) 
others……………………………………. 
9. Do you know others who (intend to or) have exited before the end of the two years? 
(a) Yes (b) no (c) don’t know 
10.  If Yes, why? (a) low salary (financial reasons) (b) not satisfied with the work (c) for 
further studies (d) for another job (e) sickness (f) personal (g) 
others……………………………………. 
11. Were you trained on how to set-up your own business? (a) Yes  (b) No  (c) don’t know 
12. Does YEA provide you with some “special fund” after exit? (a) Yes (b) No (c) don’t 
know 
13. Do you think that the “exit fund” will help you set-up you own business or any other 
ambitions? (a) Yes (b) No (c) don’t know 
14.  What do you intend to use the “exit fund” for? 
(a) Business 
(b) Further education 
(c) Establish a family 
(d) Others……………………………………. 
15. Which of the following areas do you want to go into after exit  
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(a) Nation security force 
(b) Self-employment 
(c) Work with private companies 
(d) Others………………………. 
16.  Do you think that the acquisition of ‘land’ is a problem if you intend to set-up your 
own business? (a) Yes (b) No (c) don’t know 
17.  Do you think that YEA discriminates against the youth based on gender, religion, 
ethnicity, among others (a) Yes (b) No (c) don’t know 
18. Does YEA provide you with “guidance and counselling” services on how to stay 
employed? (a) Yes (b) No (c) don’t know 
19. What do you hope to achieve under this module? (a) improve security (b) gain enough 
money (c) remain employed (d) 
…………………………………………………………………………………………
……………. 
20. Do you have some associations? (a) Yes (b) No (c) don’t know 
21. If YES, what is the name?................................................................................. 
22.  Do have leaders? (a) Yes (b) No (c) don’t know 
23.  Does YEA allow your leaders to represent you in the various boards and departments? 
(a) Yes (b) No (c) don’t know 
(b)  
INVESTIGATE COMMUNITY POLICING UNDE THE YEA’s SIXTH MODULE 
 
1. District……………………………………………… 
2. Name of Police Station………………………………………….. 
3. Name of community (duty point)……………………………………………. 
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4. Which of the following crimes do you detect most in this community/duty point? (rank 
from 1st to last) 
(a) Robbery 
(b) Rape/defilement  
(c) Traffic offenses  
(d) Trafficking  
(e) Quarrelling 
(f) Smoking of marijuana/cocaine 
(g) Excessive drinking of strong alcohol  
(h) Others……………………………………. 
5. How would you describe the level of cooperation from the community? 
a. Excellent 
b. Very good 
c. Good 
d. Poor 
e. Very poor 
6. In which ways does the community cooperate with you? 
a. Help to provide information 
b. Help to provide us with food and money 
c. Help to arrest criminals and hand them over to us 
d. Others………………………………………………………… 
7. Are you satisfied with the training given to you?  
(a) Somehow 
(b) Satisfied 
(c) Not satisfied  
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(d) Don’t know 
8. Do you receive regular in-and-on-the-job training? (a) Yes (b) No 
9. If YES, are you satisfied with them? 
10. Somehow 
11. Satisfied 
12. Not satisfied  
13. Don’t know 
14. Which of the following does your training allow you to do most in the duty post? (rank 
from 1st to last) 
15. Control of robbery 
16. Control of rape/defilement  
17. Control of traffic offenses  
18.  Control of trafficking  
19.  Control of quarrelling 
20.  Control of Smoking of marijuana/cocaine 
21.  Control of excessive drinking of strong alcohol  
22.  Others……………………………………. 
23. Mentions some of the methods used to control 
crime……………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………….. 
24. Do you think that you have been able to contribute towards crime reduction in this area?  
(a) To a high degree 
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(b) To a less degree 
(c) Somehow 
(d) Not at all  
(e) Don’t know  
25. Do you have the power to make and implement some decisions without having to 
consult your big men (a) Yes (b) No (c) don’t know 
26. If YES, what can/do you do independently? 
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………. 
27. If NO, do you think that the command structures should be decentralized to allow you 
take and implement some decisions (a) YES (b) NO (c) don’t know 
28. What do you need these powers to do? 
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………….. 
29. Do you hold regular meetings with the communities in order to educate them on crime 
prevention and control? (a) Yes (b) No Don’t know  
30. If yes, provide a brief update on some of the issues raised and discussed during these 
meetings? 
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…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………….. 
31. Do you have a mobile phone (not your own cell-phone) dedicated to this work? (a) Yes 
(b) No (c) don’t know 
32. How many calls to you make a day with regards to crime prevention and control? 
(a) Two-five 
(b) six-ten 
(c) eleven-fifteen  
(d) sixteen-twenty 
33.  Have you provided the communities with some numbers to call you during emergency? 
a. Yes 
b. No 
c. Don’t know 
34.  do you receive calls from the community members for help during emergency? 
a. Yes 
b. No 
35. Which of the following to you use most to prevent and control crime? 
(a) Media 
(b) Internet 
(c) Social media 
36. Do you have some special response unit to emergency calls? (a) Yes (b) No (c) don’t 
know 
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37.  What has been the means of patrol since recruit? (a) foot (b) vehicle 
38. Do you think that community policing has enhanced the relations between you and the 
community (citizens/NGOs ect)? (a) Yes (b) No (c) don’t know 
39. Do you consider yourself (or others) corrupt under this module? (a) yes (b) no (c) don’t 
know 
40. If YES, what do you (or others) do under these corrupt practices? 
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………. 
41.  Do you think that divisions (divisions based on politics, religion, ethnicity etc) have 
impacts on YEA recruits? (a) yes (b) no 
42.  From the above question, which of the following has a greater impact?  
(a) Politics 
(b) Ethnicity 
(c) Religion 
(d) Others………………..  
43.  Have you (or others) ever been brutal on the citizens? (a) Yes (b) No (c) don’t know 
44.  If YES, what have you (or others) ever done to show that you have misconducted 
yourself/themselves? 
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
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…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………….. 
45. Do you think that lack of funding has stifled operations under this module? (a) yes (b) 
no (c) don’t know 
46. In YES, in what ways has lack of funding stifled operations under this module? 
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………. 
47. Do you think that there are some ‘leadership’ and ‘coordination’ problems between 
the top hierarchy and you? 
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………….. 
 
THANK YOU 
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Appendix 3: 
 
QUESTIONNAIRE TO MEASURE THE IMPACT OF CPAs FROM THE 
PERSPECTIVES OF THE COMMUNITY-RESIDENTS 
 
INTRODUCTION: 
This section introduces the topic and the statement of the research problem to the respondents. 
In both cases, the researcher intends to explain the import of the research project to his 
respondents. Also, he will emphasize that their views and opinions will be used for academic 
purposes and nothing else. This, it is believed, will boost the confidence level of respondents 
and cause them to respond without any fear.  
Demographics: 
10. Gender: Male……………….. Female……………….. 
11. Age…………….  
12. Marital Status………………… 
13. Educational level……………………… 
14. Religion…………………….. 
15.  Ethnicity (Ga, Ewe, etc)…………………………… 
 
INVESTIAGE THE IMPACT OF COMMUNITY POLICING ASSISTANTS (CPA) IN THE 
COMMUNITY  
48. District……………………………………………… 
49. Name of Police Station………………………………………….. 
50. Name of community (duty-point) ……………………………………………. 
51. Which of the following crimes do you detect most in this community/duty-point? (rank 
from 1st to last) 
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(i) Robbery 
(j) Rape/defilement  
(k) Traffic offenses  
(l) Trafficking  
(m) Quarrelling 
(n) Smoking of marijuana/cocaine 
(o) Excessive drinking of strong alcohol  
(p) Others……………………………………. 
52. Have you heard about the Community Policing Assistants (CPAs) in this community? 
(a) yes (b) no (c) don’t know 
53. If YES, do you always find them working in this community? (a) yes (b) no (c) don’t 
know 
54. Do you believe that the CPAs are indigenes of the community? 
a. Yes 
b. No 
c. Don’t know 
55. Do the CPAs hold regular meetings with you to discuss how to prevent and control 
crime in this community? (a) yes (b) yes (c) don’t know 
56. If yes, provide a brief update on the issues raised and discussed during these meetings? 
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………. 
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57. Which of the following do you always see them working to control and prevent? (rank 
from 1st to last) 
a. robbery 
b. rape/defilement  
c.  traffic offenses  
d.  trafficking  
e.  quarrelling 
f.  Smoking of marijuana/cocaine 
g.  excessive drinking of strong alcohol  
 Others……………………………………. 
58. Are you satisfied with the output of the CPAs? a) somehow (b) satisfied  (c) not satisfied 
(d) don’t know 
59. Can you testify that crime has, indeed, reduced as a result of the work of the CPAs in 
your community?  
a. To a high degree 
b. To a less degree 
c. Somehow 
d. Not at all  
e. Don’t know  
60.  Which of the following crimes do you think has reduced because of the work of the 
CPAs in your community? 
a. robbery 
b. rape/defilement  
c.  traffic offenses  
d.  trafficking  
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e.  quarrelling 
f.  Smoking of marijuana/cocaine 
g.  excessive drinking of strong alcohol  
 Others……………………………………. 
61.  Have you been provided with some number (s) to call during emergency? 
a. Yes 
b. No 
c. Don’t know 
62.  If yes, have you (or do you know someone else who has) ever called for assistance 
using that emergency number? 
a. Yes 
b. No  
c. Don’t know 
63.  If you ever called, how was the response? 
a. Swift and professional  
b. Slow and unprofessional  
c. No response at all 
d. Don’t know 
64.  General comments on the CPAs 
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
THANK YOU 
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Appendix 4: 
 
INTERVIEW DISCUSSION GUIDE TO MEASURE THE IMPACTS OF CPAs 
FROM THE PERSPECTIVES OF YEA AND GPS OFFICIALS 
 
1. Examine the extent to which the training provides employment opportunities to the 
youth after exit?  
2. Examine the mode of YEA’s security training program [i.e., the way and manner in 
which it is being carried out]?  
3. Examine the credibility level of YEA’s ‘training’ under the sixth module?  
4. Explore YEA’s assistance to acquire/create new jobs after exits?  
5. Examine issues on public-private partnerships (PPP) under YEA training?  
6. Tax credits/holidays (for private employers of YEA security personnel) and youth 
minimum wage (for the youth employees)?  
7. Examine if the sixth module provides “guidance and counselling” services? 
8. Examine if the ‘system’ allows the youth leadership to sit in the various implementation 
and management boards of YEA?  
9. Examine if the recruitment process is infected with ‘discriminations’ and ‘prejudices’ 
based on ‘gender’ and ‘region’? 
10. Examine government’s budget on community policing?  
11. Examine the command structures between the national police and YEA’s community 
policing personnel (e.g., the ceding of powers)?  
12. Examine the regular meetings, if any, between community policing personnel and 
neighborhood watch groups?  
13. Examine emergency response units and the use of online discussions and the media to 
combat crime?  
14. Examine the various reforms that have taken place since the inception of YEA in 2006? 
15. Investigate the mode of patrols (foot and vehicle) used to combat crime under the sixth 
module?  
16. Examine challenges—in terms of leadership structure, financial problems, obstinacies 
to the command structure, the problems with training, police-brutalities, the aspirations 
of recruits and the sixth module, corruption, among others, under the sixth module 
 
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