University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ASSESSMENT OF THE QUALITY OF CERTIFIED SEEDS SOLD AT RETAILERS SHOPS IN FOUR SELECTED REGIONS OF GHANA BY BENJAMIN KWESI ESHUN (10555209) THIS THESIS/DISSERTATION IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF MPHIL SEED SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY DEGREE. COLLEGE OF BASIC AND APPLIED SCIENCE WEST AFRICA CENTER FOR CROP IMPROVEMENT UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON. JULY, 2017 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DECLARATION I hereby declare that except for references to works of other researchers, which have been duly cited, this work is my original research and that neither part nor whole has been presented elsewhere for the award of a degree. ………………………………………… ……………………………………... Benjamin Kwesi Eshun Date (MPhil. Student) ……………………………………… ……………………………………. Dr. Robert A. Asuboah Date (Supervisor) ……………………………………… …………………………………… Dr. Christiana A. Amoatey Date (Supervisor) ……….…………………………… …………………………………. Dr. Irene S. Egyir Date (Supervisor) i University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DEDICATION This piece of work is dedicated to the Almighty God by the name JEHOVAH. It is also dedicated to my family especially my Lovely wife Mrs. Ruth Agyeiwaa Eshun, my Dearest Janai Paapa Yaw Abrokwa Eshun, Imani Kemy-Agyenma Eshun and siblings, my lovely parents Mr. John Kwame Eshun and Mrs. Mary Anloma Eshun, my in-laws Mr. George Ofori Appiah and Mrs. Susana Agyenma Ofori Appiah, my lovely siblings Cornelius Kwame Eshun, Mrs. Evelyn Ekua Ameyaw, Isaac Kweku Eshun, John Kwame Eshun Jnr., David Kwame Eshun, Harriet Eshun and Ruth Agyemang for their prayers and support. ii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS All praises and honour goes to JEHOVAH for granting good health and strength for a successful completion of this work. My deepest appreciation goes to my learned Supervisors Dr. Robert A. Asuboah, Dr. Christiana A. Amoatey and Dr. Irene S. Egyir for their time, inputs, advice, experiences and encouragement that made this research work a success. I am very grateful to the managers of The Africa Centre for Excellence (ACE) and West Africa Centre for Crop Improvement (WACCI) and University of Ghana whose collaborative efforts provided funding for my study. I am highly indebted to WACCI Director Professor Eric Y. Danquah, learned lecturers at WACCI for giving me quality training in Seed Science and Technology. Much thanks to the Administration and all staff of WACCI for facilitation. My sincere thanks to the Head of Ghana Seed Inspection Division (GSID) Mr. Eric Bentsil Quaye and his staff for the assistance, guidance and the use of the National Seed Testing Laboratory for all the seed testing work in this investigations. I am much grateful to the Headmistress Mrs. Unity Adu and staff of Kaneshie North 1 JHS for the encouragement and support money cannot buy. I also thank Mr. William Asante and all seed retailers I worked with for their co-operation. Much thanks to colleague students who added to my experiences. Again to my dear wife Mrs. Ruth Agyeiwaa Eshun, son Janai Paapa Yaw Abrokwa Eshun, and family I say thank you for your support, encouragement and prayers May JEHOVAH grant us all long life to work hard to grow the seed industry in Ghana. iii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ABSTRACT Quality seed is a major asset not only for farmers but also other end users who rely on it for optimum production. This study was undertaken to assess the quality of certified seeds sold on the market in four of the regions in Ghana. Structured questionnaires were distributed to 36 certified seed retailers in Greater Accra, Western, Ashanti and Northern Regions of Ghana. Data collected were analysed to profile retailers and to ascertain knowledge on safe seed storage practices. Samples of certified seeds were collected from retailers for testing at the National Seed Testing Laboratory at Pokuase, in the Greater Accra Region. Seed quality was assessed by determining seed purity, germination percentage, seed moisture content, seedling vigour and seed health status. The results of the study indicated that the certified seed retailers sampled were experienced, well-educated and had adequate knowledge on appropriate storage temperatures, commodities to mix with seeds and appropriate storage materials. Despite the high knowledge level, majority of the retailers stored seeds at high temperatures ranging from 27oC-38.5oC higher than the 18oC or low expected. The practice was attributed to the low capacity of retailers to invest in cold storage facilities. High germination percentages were observed in all tested seeds except in WR5 (76 %) for maize and GA9 (69.5 %) and GA10 (39.8 %) for tomato seeds. All tested seeds had safe moisture content and were highly pure and vigorous. The challenge was with the health status of local sampled seeds (maize and cowpea) tested: Pathogens such as Acremonium strictum, Fusarium moniliforme and Curvularia lunata were found to be predominant in tested maize seeds in all the four regions. Other pathogens were observed on either maize or cowpea in some of the regions. The study recommends capacity strengthening of certified seed retailers to invest in cold chains to enhance safe seed storage environments. iv University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION ................................................................................................................... i DEDICATION ...................................................................................................................... ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................... iii ABSTRACT ......................................................................................................................... iv TABLE OF CONTENTS ..................................................................................................... v LIST OF TABLES .............................................................................................................. ix LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................ xi LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ............................................................................................ xii CHAPTER ONE ................................................................................................................... 1 1.0 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................... 1 CHAPTER TWO.................................................................................................................. 5 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW .............................................................................................. 5 2.1 Definition and Concepts of Seed ................................................................................... 5 2.1.1 Seeds as agricultural inputs ........................................................................................ 5 2.1.2 Seed sources ................................................................................................................. 5 2.2. Seed Quality Attributes ................................................................................................ 6 2.2.1 Seed purity ................................................................................................................... 7 2.2.2 Seed viability ................................................................................................................ 7 2.2.3 Seed vigour ................................................................................................................... 8 2.2.4 Seed germination ......................................................................................................... 8 2.2.5 Seed health ................................................................................................................... 9 2.2.6 Seed deterioration ....................................................................................................... 9 2.2.7 Seed certification ....................................................................................................... 10 2.2.8 Classes of Seeds.......................................................................................................... 10 2.3 The Structure of Ghana’s Seed System ...................................................................... 11 2.3.1 Seed supply systems .................................................................................................. 13 2.3.2 Formal seed supply system ....................................................................................... 14 2.3.3 Informal seed supply system .................................................................................... 16 2.4 Seed Marketing ............................................................................................................. 17 2.4.1 Seed transportation and distribution ...................................................................... 18 2.4.2 Seed retailing and associated challenges ................................................................. 19 2.5 Ghana’s Legal and Regulatory Framework .............................................................. 20 2.5.1 Ghana seed laws ........................................................................................................ 20 1. Ghana’s Plant and Fertilizer Act of 2010 (803) ........................................................... 20 v University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2. Plant Protection and Regulation of 2012 (L.I 2193) .................................................... 21 3. Seed (Certification and Standard) Act of 1972 ............................................................ 21 4. Ghana Biosafety Act of 2011- Act 831 .......................................................................... 21 5. Ghana Plant Breeders bill of 2013 ................................................................................ 21 2.5.2 Ghana’s National Seed Policy .................................................................................. 22 2.5.3 Ghana National Seed Plan ........................................................................................ 22 3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS................................................................................. 24 3.1 Site Selection and Sampling Technique ..................................................................... 24 3.1.1 Sampling of 4 regions ................................................................................................ 24 3.1.2 Sampling of retailers ................................................................................................. 24 3.1.3 Instruments used ....................................................................................................... 25 3.2 Laboratory Studies ....................................................................................................... 26 3.3 Methods of Analysis ..................................................................................................... 26 3.3.1 Seed moisture content test ........................................................................................ 26 3.3.3 Seed germination test ................................................................................................ 27 3.3.4 Seed health test .......................................................................................................... 28 3.3.5 Seedling vigour test ................................................................................................... 29 3.4 Statistical Analysis........................................................................................................ 29 CHAPTER FOUR .............................................................................................................. 31 4.0 RESULTS ...................................................................................................................... 31 4.1 Profile of Seed Retailers in the Study Area................................................................ 31 4.1.1 Demographic characteristics of respondents (sex, age, level of education) ......... 31 4.1.2 Gender and level of education .................................................................................. 32 4.1.3 Number of years in seed retail business .................................................................. 34 4.1.4 Retail room temperature .......................................................................................... 34 4.1.5 Seeds retailed and their suppliers ............................................................................ 35 4.1.6 Delivery channels of certified seeds to the retailers ............................................... 36 4.2 Retailers Knowledge of Certified Seeds ..................................................................... 38 4.2.1 Certified seeds labelling and storage ....................................................................... 38 4.2.2 Duration of seeds in storage at retailers shop and effects on them....................... 38 4.2.3 Do retailers test seeds before sales? ......................................................................... 39 4.2.4 Impact of proximity of agro chemicals to seeds in retail shops. ........................... 41 4.2.5 Additional seed testing besides germination test. ................................................... 43 4.2.6 Effect of packaging material on seed storage and quality. .................................... 43 4.3 Results of Laboratory Seed Testing of Seeds from the Four Regions ..................... 43 vi University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.3.1 Seed quality analyses of seed maize (Zea mays) from the four Regions of Ghana. .............................................................................................................................................. 43 4.3.2 Analyses of seed maize (Zea mays) sampled from the Ashanti Region. ............... 45 4.3.2 Analyses of seed maize (Zea mays) sampled from the Greater Accra Region. .... 47 4.3.5 Comparison of seed quality characteristics of cowpea (Vigna unguiculats) seeds sampled from Northern and Ashanti regions. ................................................................. 51 4.3.6 Comparison of tomato seeds sampled from the Western and Greater Accra Regions. ............................................................................................................................... 52 4.3.7 Comparison of pepper seeds sampled from the Greater Accra and Western Regions. ............................................................................................................................... 54 4.3.8 Maize seed health performance across the Four Regions. .................................... 55 4.3.9 Maize seed health performance in Greater Accra, Northern and Western Regions. ............................................................................................................................... 57 4.3.10 Seed maize (Zea mays) health performance in Greater Accra and Western Region. ................................................................................................................................. 58 4.3.11 Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) seed health performance in Ashanti and Northern Regions. ............................................................................................................................... 58 CHAPTER FIVE ................................................................................................................ 60 5.0 DISCUSSION ............................................................................................................... 60 5.1 Retail Conditions of Certified Seeds from Four Regions of Ghana. ....................... 60 5.1.1 Demographic characteristics of seed retailers ........................................................ 60 5.1.2 Acquisition and storage of certified seeds ............................................................... 62 5.2 Laboratory Seed Testing ............................................................................................. 66 5.2.1 Seed germination test ................................................................................................ 66 5.2.2 Seed health test .......................................................................................................... 70 CHAPTERS SIX ................................................................................................................ 71 6.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ....................................................... 71 6.1 Conclusions ................................................................................................................... 71 6.2 Recommendations ........................................................................................................ 73 REFERENCES ................................................................................................................... 76 APPENDIX ......................................................................................................................... 85 Appendix 1. Ghana National Seed Policy ............................................................................ 85 Appendix 2. Ghana Seed Plan with Budget. ........................................................................ 90 Appendix 3. Seed Certification Labels (a and b). ................................................................ 91 Appendix 4. (a) Sampled Agro Input Dealers and (b) Some seeds mixed with agrochemicals in a sampled retail shop. ............................................................................... 92 Appendix 5. Research Questionnaire. .................................................................................. 95 vii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Appendix 6. (a) Normal maize seedlings (b) abnormal maize seedlings (c) Between-rolled towel paper test for maize seeds (d) Sand Method for Cowpea Seed (e) Blotter paper test for tomato seeds ................................................................................................................. 100 Appendix 7. Germination Test Sheet. ................................................................................ 103 Appendix 8. (a) Plated maize and cowpea seeds under ultra violet light (b) Some sampled incubated seed maize showing presence of fungal pathogen 7DAI. .................................. 104 Appendix 9. a, b and c. Some retailers’ nursery boxes for seed germination testing. ....... 105 Appendix 10. Standards for seed testing. ........................................................................... 107 viii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF TABLES Table 4.1. Distribution of respondents in the four sampled regions. ....................................... 31 Table 4.2 Educational level of respondents. ............................................................................ 34 Table 4.3 Number of years respondents have been in the seed retail business. ...................... 34 Table 4.5 Types of seeds retailed by respondents. .................................................................. 36 Table 4.6 Certified seed suppliers. ........................................................................................... 36 Table 4.7 Retailers’ response on how long they keep seeds in storage at their end. ............... 39 Table 4.8a Seed germination, moisture content and purity of seed maize sampled from four regions of Ghana ...................................................................................................................... 44 Table 4.8b. Seedling growth and vigour of seed maize sampled from four regions of Ghana. .................................................................................................................................................. 44 Table 4.9a Seed germination and moisture content of seed maize sampled from the Ashanti Region. ..................................................................................................................................... 46 Table 4.9b Seedling growth and vigour of seed maize sampled from the Ashanti Region. .... 46 Table 4.10a Seed germination and moisture content and purity of seed maize sampled from the Greater Accra Region......................................................................................................... 48 Table 4.10b Seedling growth and vigour of seed maize sampled from the Greater Accra Region. ..................................................................................................................................... 48 Table 4.11a. Seed germination, moisture content and purity of seed maize sampled from the Western Region ........................................................................................................................ 50 Table 4.11b. Seedling growth and vigour of seed maize sampled from the Western Region. 50 Table 4.12a Seed germination, moisture content and purity quality of cowpea seeds sampled from the Northern and Ashanti regions. .................................................................................. 51 Table 4.12b Seedling growth and vigour of cowpea seeds sampled from the Northern and Ashanti Regions. ...................................................................................................................... 52 ix University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.13a Seed germination, moisture content and purity of tomato seeds sampled from the Greater Accra and Western Regions. ....................................................................................... 53 4.13b Seedling growth and vigour of tomato seeds sampled from the Greater Accra and Western Regions. ..................................................................................................................... 53 Table 4.14a. Seed germination and moisture content of pepper seeds sampled from the Western and Greater Accra Regions. ....................................................................................... 54 Table 4.14b. Seedling growth and vigour of pepper seeds sampled from the Western and Greater Accra Regions. ............................................................................................................ 54 Table 4.15a. Frequency of fungal pathogens (Acremonium strictum and Fusarium moniliforme) on tested maize in the four regions. ................................................................... 56 Table 4.15b Frequency of fungal pathogen (Curvularia lunata) on tested maize seeds in the four regions. ............................................................................................................................. 57 Table 4.16 Frequency of fungal pathogen (Colletotricum graminilola) on tested maize sampled from GA, NR and WR. .............................................................................................. 57 Table 4.17 Frequency of fungal pathogens (Fusarium oxysporium) on tested maize sampled from Greater Accra and Western Region. ................................................................................ 58 4.18 Frequency of Fusarium oxysporum and Fusarium monilliforme in cowpea sampled from AS and NR. .............................................................................................................................. 59 x University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF FIGURES Figure 4.1 Age distribution of respondents. ............................................................................ 32 Figure 4.2 Gender of respondents. ........................................................................................... 33 Figure 4.3 Delivery channels of certified seeds to retailers. .................................................... 37 Figure 4.5 Percentage respondents who carried over certified seeds. ..................................... 39 Figure 4.6 Response on whether retailers tested for seed germination to confirm germination percentage indicated by supplier. ............................................................................................. 40 Figure 4.7 Response on whether retailers conducted seed germination test before selling the seed to farmers for planting. .................................................................................................... 41 Figure 4.8 Responses on whether retailers kept seeds together with Agro chemicals. ........... 42 Figure 4.9 Responses on whether retailers had noticed any negative effect of agro chemicals on the seeds they keep.............................................................................................................. 42 xi University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS DAI – Day After Incubation DAP – Day After Planting DTMA- Drought Tolerance Maize for Africa Project QDS – Quality Declared Seeds GDP - Gross Domestic Product HSMU - Hybrid Seed Multiplication Unit SMU - Seed Multiplication Unit GLDB - Grains and Legumes Development Board ERP - Economic Recovery Programme GSP - Ghana Seed Policy GSC - Ghana Seed Company SEEDPAG - Seed Producers Association of Ghana STAG - The Seed Trade Association of Ghana GAIDA- Ghana Agricultural Input Dealers Association NSTA - National Seed Trade Association MoFA - Ministry of Food and Agriculture CRI - Crop Research Institute SARI- Savannah Agricultural Research Institute NVRC - National Varietal Release Committee xii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh NGO’S - Non-Governmental Organizations GSID - Ghana Seed Inspection Division PPRSD - Plant Protection and Regulatory Services Division IFDC - International Fertilizer Development Centre AGRA - Alliance for Green Revolution in Africa NSS - National Seed Service DCS - Directorate of Crop Services NSC - National Seed Council GNSP - Ghana National Seed Policy ECOWAS - Economic Community of West African States PPAC - Plant Protection Advisory Council UPOV - International Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants WTO - World Trade Organization TRIPS - Trade Related Intellectual Property Rights SME - Small and Medium Enterprises WCA - West and Central Africa NSTL - National Seed Testing Laboratory xiii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER ONE 1.0 INTRODUCTION Seeds constitute one of the basic and the most important inputs in any crop production endeavour among farmers. The use of high quality seeds constitute the primary factor for increasing crop yield without necessarily increasing land area. Stressing on the importance of seeds. Tripp (2001), reported that seeds constitute the most valuable resource of farmers and the viability of agricultural systems mainly centre on the diversity and stability of the seed supply system. Thus ensuring the quality of seed of a crop variety is key in improvement of agricultural productivity (Louwaars and De Boef, 2012). In relating good quality seeds to field crop establishment, Shetty (2000) indicated that good crop establishment is directly linked to the quality of seed used. Empirical evidences suggest that the use of high quality improved seeds increases the crop yield by 20 to 30 percent (Thompson, 1986). In Ghana, seeds for planting are obtained from two main sources in crop production. The formal seed system constitute a well organised and structured seed value chain and produced under certification and quality control with the needed checks and balances to ensure availability of quality certified seeds. On the other hand the informal seed system, usually farmer saved seeds are usually not produced under stringent seed certification controls. Such informal seeds primarily depend on farmer exchanges and mutual support among seed producers in particular communities (Niangado, 2010). Though the primary source of seed for most farmers is the farmer’s own saved seeds (about 60–70%); majority of the seeds are obtained from off-farm and indigenous sources (Franzen et al., 1996). (Crissman et al., 1993; Maredia et al., 1999; Louwaars and De Boef, 2012) also reported that most (over 80%) African farmers obtain their seeds from the informal outlets such as own saved seeds and barter trade and seed purchased 1 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh from the local grain market. This indicates that smallholder farmers heavily rely on the informal seed system for reasons including unavailability of certified seeds obtained from the formal seed sector, high costs of certified seeds, poor viability and fear of transgenic seeds as well as inability to access certified seeds. The quality of seeds from this informal system is not assured thus resulting in low crop yields. The formal sector supplies just about 10% of all the potential maize seeds required for planting in West and Central Africa (WCA). Coupled with this is the issue of limited accessibility to farmers because seeds are sold either in production zones or in the commercial towns (Badu- Apraku et al., 2012). In Ghana, of the total certified seed requirement for maize, rice and sorghum (from 2011 to 2013) of 23,152, 14,000 and 1,165.0 MT respectively, only 2,634, 2,013 and 34.7 MT respectively were produced representing 11.0%, 14.0% and 3% of the total seed requirements. Warranting Seed Replacement Rate (SRR) targets of 35%, 40% and 18% for maize, rice and sorghum by 2020 (Ghana Seed Plan, 2015). A survey conducted by the Drought Tolerance Maize for Africa Project (DTMA) on maize production constraints, reported that in the 13 DTMA project countries in East, Southern and West Africa, the estimated demand for maize seeds in the 13 countries was about 425,000 t. Improved OPVs account for about 24,000 t; hybrid maize seeds account for 83,000 t and the deficit of 318,000 t of the seeds are sourced from the informal seed sector through seed exchanges and the recycling of OPVs and hybrids (Tahirou et al., 2009). Implying that, more than 75% of the maize crop in West Africa is planted to seeds from the informal sector, mostly farmer-to farmer exchanges and grain purchased from the open market. For maize production in terms of output per area under cultivation, it is very low when compared with maize growing areas in other parts of the world. According to FAO, the area in 2 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh WCA planted to maize increased from 3.2 million ha in 1961 to 8.9 million ha in 2005. Between 1987 and 2007, this area increased from 7,958,927 ha to 11,752,136 ha (FAO 2009). This phenomenal expansion of the land area devoted to maize resulted in increased production from 2.4 million t in 1961 to 10.6 million t in 2005. However, the average yields in WCA is still low ranging below or around 1.5 t ha-1 whereas yields in the advanced countries, such as the US, ranges between 7 and 11 t ha-1 (Apraku et al., 2014). Low levels of seed availability also persist for local food security crops such as pearl millet, plantain and yam (Ghana Seed Plan, 2015). However it is known that the use of improved certified seeds from the formal system offers some level of quality assurance and good yield because it comes from highly regulated and controlled sources. Irrespective of the level of seed industry development in any of the countries of the sub region, the use of improved certified seeds for planting is very low, ranging from 46.6% in Nigeria to 10.8% in Ghana (Tahiru et al., 2009). The formal seed system in Ghana is characterized by a vertically organized distribution of domestically produced or imported certified seeds of preferred varieties by private seed producers and companies using agreed quality control mechanisms. Certified seeds in Ghana are produced by private certified seed growers and out-growers under strict supervision by Ghana Seed Inspection Division (GSID) of the Plant Protection and Regulatory Services Division of the Ministry of Food and Agriculture (PPRSD of MoFA) in order to meet quality standards. In spite of the low amounts of certified seeds produced from the formal seed sector in Ghana, it continues to be an important source of assured good quality high yielding seed to farmers. One of the ways in which the national seed certification agency ensures seed of high quality is made available to farmers is to ensure that quality traits such as genetic quality, germination 3 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh and seed purity tests are done on seed produced and delivered to farmers by suppliers. Nonetheless, these underlying tests may not give adequate certification that the seed is of good quality when it reaches the farmer after some time in the seed conveyance esteem chain. This is alluded to as post reconnaissance, be that as it may it is frequently not completed by the certifying agency. Deferrals in seed conveyance and how the seed is stored (in travel and at the retailers end) can have critical negative impacts on the seed (FAO, 2010). It is therefore necessary that investigations are done as a check on seeds in the delivery chain. The objective of this research was to investigate the quality of certified seeds ( imported and local) at the commercial retailers end in the distribution and marketing chain across four regions of Ghana as a form of post surveillance to ascertain the quality of seeds that ends up with farmers for planting. The results obtained will strengthen farmer’s conviction and confidence in the adoption and use of quality certified seeds produced by the formal seed system in Ghana. The specific objectives of the study were to: (1) Assess the profile of certified seed retailers across the four regions in Ghana. (2) Evaluate retailers’ knowledge on seed storage practices and seed preservation; and (3) Evaluate the quality of certified seeds sampled from the distribution and marketing chain. 4 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER TWO 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Definition and Concepts of Seed 2.1.1 Seeds as agricultural inputs Tripp (1998) asserted that seeds represent a key technological component for the improvement of agricultural productivity. Seeds are likewise depicted as the most valuable asset of farmers, and worries about the practicality of agricultural systems normally fixates on the assorted variety and solidness of the seed supply system (Tripp et al., 2001). The use of good quality seeds by Ghanaian farmers can be an engine of Ghana’s economic and agricultural growth if it is to achieve food security and increased nutrition for its citizenry. 2.1.2 Seed sources Currently in Ghana seed companies and other seed producers obtain their seeds for further multiplication from National Agricultural Research Centres (NARC) only and the real issue confronting them has to do with the strict government controls that confine the generation and establishment of seed by the Ministry of Food And Agriculture (MoFA) (Tahirou et al., 2009) For small-holder farmers, most do not buy improved seeds simply due to agronomic and or economic reasons. It has been reported that the saved variety is the best suited to the local soil and climate and it saves money (Anon, 2001). Clottey et al., (2009) similarly reported that some tomato farmers in Ghana revealed they do not realize the economic benefit of investing in good seed, since the fruit prices on the market are the same irrespective of the type of seed thus, making farmer saved and farmer traded seed to be the dominant source of seed for 80- 90% of farmers in Sub-Saharan Africa (Almekinders et al., 1994; Walker, et al., 1997a and Tripp, 2001). In a survey conducted in Nigeria it was reported that about 60% of vegetable farmers sourced seeds from their previously saved harvests, while about 30% purchased seeds 5 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh from dealers (Adetumbi and Daniel, 2004). But farmer saved seed is not an African phenomenon only. In the United Kingdom, saving seed is widely practiced and may be as high as 40% of all crops grown (Anon., 2000), thus re-emphasising the crucial role of the informal seed system in the development of efficient national seed systems. 2.2. Seed Quality Attributes A seed lot meant for planting is said to be of high quality if it possesses high genetic purity, high germination percentage and a minimum inert matter, weed and other crop seeds and is free from disease causing organisms (Copeland and McDonald, 1995; Al-Yahya, 2001; Guberac et al., 2003; Šimic et al., 2004; Heatherly and Elmore, 2004). Seed quality therefore refers to the overall value of seed for its intended purpose and the performance of the seed must measure up to the expectations of the end user of that seed (Hampton, 2002). This implies that if a seed lot meets the certification and quality standards of a country, it is good quality seed and if it does not meet the certification and quality standards, it is obviously of a lower seed quality (Copeland and McDonald, 1995). Seed quality is a multiple concept comprising several components including: genetic quality, physical quality, physiological quality and pathological quality (Thomson, 1979). Thus, seed quality is rather a broad term, which encompasses several factors: seed health, varietal and physical purity, germination, vigour and size (or weight) (Ellis, 1991). From the quoted works above, quality seed ensures good germination, rapid emergence and vigorous growth attributes that will translate into to a good and healthy plant stand with resulting improved yields. Poor quality seeds on the other hand leads to excessive thinning and yield reductions, which eventually affect productivity and profitability. 6 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.2.1 Seed purity Pure seed refers to a constituent component obtained from sampled species stated by the sender for seed purity analysis by a seed testing laboratory, or that component of a sample after analysis in the laboratory found to predominant in the sample tested. It includes all botanical varieties and cultivars of that species (immature, undersized, shrivelled disease or germinated seed of a particular species) unless transformed into visible fungal sclerotia, smut balls or nematode galls (ISTA, 2013). Pure seed therefore includes the following: a) Intact seed units (commonly found as dispersal units i.e. achenes and similar fruits, schizocarp, florets etc.) as defined for each genus or species. b) Pieces of seed units larger than, one half their original size, (ISTA, 2013). The purity of a seed lot may be viewed from two angles: genetically and physically. Genetic purity of seeds refers to the trueness to type while physical purity of a seed lot refers to the physical composition of the seed (Anon., 2009). Physical purity analysis refers to the determination of the percentage composition by weight of the sample being tested and by inference the composition of seed lot and the identity of various species of seeds and inert particles constituting the sample (ISTA, 2013). Genetic purity refers to the percentage of contamination by seed or genetic material of other varieties or species (www.seedquest.com). The pure seed component of a seed lot together with seed germination capacity are used to determine the planting value of the seed (Rindels, 1995). 2.2.2 Seed viability The viability of a seed is the seed’s capability to germinate and develop or produce a new plant (Rindels, 1995). Seed viability depends on seed storage conditions (Rindels, 1995). Rindels also reported that relative humidity, temperature of the storage environment, storage material 7 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh used and the ensuing storage conditions applied to seeds could reduce viability or render the seed dead (Rindels, 1995). Since seed viability and vigour directly affect the performance of seeds planted to regenerate the crop, in terms of total emergence and rate of emergence (TeKrony and Egli, 1991). Treating seeds or seed storage materials with fungicides can help prolong the storage period (Anon., 2008). 2.2.3 Seed vigour Seed vigour is defined as the sum total of all those properties of the seed that determine the potential level of activity and performance of the seed or seed lot during germination and seedling emergence (ISTA, 2013). Byrum and Copeland (1995) also defined seed vigour as the sum of those properties that determine the activity and performance of seed lots to acceptable levels of germination in a wide range of environments. From the two definitions vigorous seeds are vital for seedling emergence, field establishment and productivity which when maximised translate to increased food and nutrition security. A study by Delouche (1975) indicated that seed vigour is a concept describing several characteristics associated with rate and uniformity of seed germination and emergence as well as seedling growth. He added that vigorous seed lot is one that is potentially able to perform well even under environmental conditions which are not optimal for the species. The importance of a seed vigour test is to provide information about the planting value of seed lots in a wide range of environments and also on the storage potential of the seed (ISTA, 2013). Seeds with low vigour will show stunted growth and abnormalities in the developing shoot and root system and subsequently affect crop establishment (Caddick, 2007). 2.2.4 Seed germination Seed germination is the ability of a seed, when planted under normal sowing conditions, to give a normal seedling (McDonald, 1980). Germination of a seed is the emergence and development from the seed embryo, of those essential structures which, for the kind of seed in 8 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh question, are indicative of the ability to produce a normal plant under favourable conditions (AOSA, 1999). Germination is the most important function of a seed as it is an indicator of its viability and growth (Barua et al., 2009). The standard germination test is designed to provide a first and a final count. The purpose of the first count is basically to determine the strong seedlings (vigour) that have germinated and the final count is to provide a sufficiently long period that even weak seeds are coaxed or provided every opportunity to be considered germinable (Byrum and Copeland, 1995). Germination percentage is the sum of strong and weak seedlings (Byrum and Copeland, 1995). 2.2.5 Seed health Seed health is the presence or absence of disease causing living beings, for example, fungus, nematodes, microscopic organisms, infections and creepy crawlies, and furthermore to the status of seeds in a seed lot (Mathur and Kongsgdal, 2003). Seed wellbeing is also affected by the presence of non-sickness-causing contaminants in the particular seed lot (Mew and Gonzales, 2002). These contaminants incorporate weed seeds that rival the choice seed for supplements, different seeds, plant parts other than the choice seeds, soil particles and creepy crawly eggs that can corrupt the nature of the seed lot (Mew and Gonzales, 2002). When seeds are used for sowing, seed-borne pathogens may cause disease or death of plants resulting in crop loss (Morre and Tymowski, 2005). 2.2.6 Seed deterioration Seed decay is inescapable however, it occurrence can be diminished when most extreme consideration is paid to capacity temperature and dampness of seeds in storage (Adetumbi et al., 2010). Durtschi (1999) revealed that a few seeds store better in air, while others store better in nitrogen and others improve in a vacuum, carbon dioxide or organ. The above submission is an indication that the moisture content of the seed, relative humidity and storage temperature are the most basic elements influencing the rate of disintegration. The optimum moisture 9 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh percentage depends on the species and the temperature. As showed in the QDS models, grains ought to have dampness content at 13 % or beneath, vegetables at 10% or underneath and vegetable seed at 8 % or (FAO, 2010). 2.2.7 Seed certification Seed certification is one of the important mechanisms that ensures that farmers are provided with good quality seeds (Nishikawa, 2010). Since, farmers have issues evaluating the physical or hereditary characteristics of seeds before they are planted and developed, accreditation of seed quality is fundamental to give buyers quality confirmation and a methods for review if desires are not met (Alemu, 2010). 2.2.8 Classes of Seeds Four main classes of seeds are identified under seeds certification schemes in the formal seed production sector depending on the seed law in a country. These are breeder, foundation or basic, registered, and certified seeds (Apraku et al., 2014). In Ghana only three seed classes are recognised: Breeder, Foundation and Certified seeds. Breeder seeds are the purest and most true to type seed class of crop variety from which the other seed classes originate. Breeder seeds are produced and controlled by the originating or sponsoring plant breeder of the breeding program or institution. Breeder seeds should be genetically pure so as to guarantee that in the subsequent generation the registered foundation and certified seed classes shall conform to the prescribed standards of genetic purity. (Apraku et al., 2014). Foundation seed is the progeny of breeder seeds. It is the second genetically pure seed class produced by institutions or special seed producers to obtain product that contain all the attributes put into the variety by the originator of the variety (Apraku et al., 2014). 10 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Certified seeds are the progeny of foundation seeds. In the three seed classes it is the lowest in genetic quality since in their production stringent isolation distances and other quality factors are reduced compared to that of breeder and foundation seeds. (Apraku et al., 2014). Certified seeds are used for planting whiles breeder and foundation seeds are used for multiplication purposes only. 2.3 The Structure of Ghana’s Seed System Agriculture is the backbone of Ghana’s economy, accounting for 30 percent of the country’s GDP and employing about 60 percent of its labour force (World Bank, 2012). It also account for 40 percent of the country’s exports (Ghana Seed Policy, 2013). Ghana's seed industry contains the formal and the casual seed creation and conveyance frameworks. The business produces seeds of a few product assortments reared, discharged and enlisted by Ghanaian based Institutions and created and showcased through a few outlets across the nation (Ghana Seed Policy, 2013). The Ghana seed business started with the foundation of the Hybrid Seed (maize) Multiplication Unit (HSMU) in 1958 under the then Ministry of Agriculture. In 1961 the Unit directed efforts to multiplying other crop seeds and was renamed Seed Multiplication Unit (SMU). In the late sixties the SMU had employed contract growers who produced certified seeds to meet the country’s market demand for seeds. In 1979 the SMU saw a basic change and was called Ghana Seed Company ordered to create all classes of seeds aside from breeder seeds (Ghana Seed Policy, 2013). The seed industry focused mainly on maize, rice, groundnut, cowpea and imported vegetable seeds. Although, maize seeds account for most of the sales of certified seeds, there is a low volume of trade in certified seeds, and a substantial number of farmers rely on casual sources (Etwire et al., 2013). Sister companies such as cotton Development 11 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Board, Bast Fibre Development Board Grains and Legumes Development Board (GLDB) were established and mandated with the production and marketing of cash crops. In 1989 under the Economic Recovery Programme (ERP), The Government of Ghana dissolved the Ghana Seed Company and enabled the private sector to assume control over the business segment of the seed business with the public sector creating enabling environment and playing its regulatory and administrative duties (Addo-Quaye, 2013). There are about 1,500 certified seed producers in Ghana, all of which are privately owned, and each year, about 150 certified seed growers produce improved seeds (World Bank, 2012). With the privatization of GSC, the number of small-scale maize seed growers increased from 50 in 1990 to over 100 in 1996. Certified maize production increased from 317 tonnes in 1990 to 1,082 tonnes in 1995 (Lyon, 1998). Although private sector’s role in Ghana’s seed system is increasing, with private companies actively involved in seed multiplication and sale, much activity remains in the public sector, including varietal development and certification. However, the level of awareness and reception of new seed assortments have been low, because of deficient conveyance frameworks (CORAF, 2013). It is estimated that less than 5% of Ghanaian farmers are able to access certified seeds from approved sources which implies that most farmers increasingly rely on own saved seeds, with its attendant phenomenon of reduced farm productivity and national food security (Ghana Seed Policy, 2013). Ghana’s National Seed Plan (2015), serves as a comprehensive implementation strategy for the successful execution of the National Seed Policy (2013). The implementation strategy adopted by the National Seed Plan highlights the importance of facilitating a shift in leadership in the commercial aspects of the seed industry to the private sector and the need for a strong government role in the provision of support services important for the effective development of the seed industry (National Seed Plan, 2015). 12 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The contribution of seed related organisations such as the Seed Producers Association of Ghana (SEEDPAG), The Seed Trade Association of Ghana (STAG), the Ghana Agricultural Input Dealers Association (GAIDA), Crop life Ghana, Ghana Rice Farmers Association to the formal system cannot be overemphasized. (Kuhlmann, 2016). SEEDPAG) is a private association of seed producers that includes 600 of the 1,500 private certified seed producers in Ghana. 2.3.1 Seed supply systems Van Amstel et al. (1996) characterized the seed framework as the totality of the physical, authoritative and institutional segments that decide seed supply and use in quantitative and subjective terms. A seed framework signifies the exercises that begin from choice and rearing to the promoting and utilization of seeds by agriculturists for developing products, and it has close linkages with different frameworks, especially research and extension (Venkatesan, 1994). The character of a suitable seed framework for a nation is controlled by financial approaches and the level of advancement of the nation's foundation (Venkatesan, 1994). It is clear from the above mentioned report that an effective seed framework is a blend of public and private sector participation each playing a complementary role. The Government assumes the role of plant reproducing and regulations; the private segment makes commitments in the zone of seed augmentation, handling, and appropriation (Minot, 2008). Maredia and Howard (1998) model is made of associations, people and foundations engaged with various seed-related capacities. These capacities include innovative work, seed augmentation, seed handling and capacity, and seed advertising and dispersion. Lanteri and Quagliotti (1997) had earlier proposed that a feasible seed framework must have various components including research, seed augmentation, seed preparing, stockpiling, appropriation and advertising. 13 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh While all researchers experience issues in proposing one conclusive seed framework that is relevant, all are in understanding that a successful seed framework can work if there is a useful informal seed division as well as formal seed sector (Lanteri and Quagliotti, 1997; Maredia and Howard, 1998). 2.3.2 Formal seed supply system The formal seed sector usually comprises both public and private entities engaged in innovative work of plant reproducing and seed physiology, plant disease, variety release, seed handling and capacity, and seed showcasing and dissemination (Scowcroft and Polak Scowcroft, 1998). The formal seed system in Ghana is officially under the oversight of the Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MoFA) which also oversees the National Seed Committee and the National Seed Services. The Crop Research Institute (CRI) of Ghana, Savannah Agricultural Research Institute (SARI) of the Counsel for Scientific and Industrial Research and the Universities have the core mandate to research and breed varieties and generate breeder seeds in Ghana. Developed seed varieties must be approved and released by The National Varietal Release Committee (NVRC). Upon successful release of a seed variety, The Grains and Legumes Development Board (GLDB), Research Institutions, some private individuals and seed companies produce foundation seeds from the breeder seeds. Until recently, only GLDB was mandated to produce Foundation Seeds. To ensure successful multiplication of foundation seeds, certified seed companies, individual seed growers, farmer groups (mostly assisted by NGO’S) acquire resources and expertise to produce certified seeds for planting. To ensure that seed growers comply with seed production processes such as certification of seed producers, agronomy of seed production, isolation distances, rogueing of seed production field, post-harvest inspections during conditioning, cleaning, drying, packaging and labelling 14 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (truthfulness in labelling) and seed testing, the Ghana Seed Inspection Division (GSID) of The Plant Protection and Regulatory Services Division (PPRSD) of MoFA is mandated to carry out routine field inspection to monitor and ensure that Certified seeds produced and marketed meet the minimum seed quality standards. (Seed quality assurance and certification manual). Formal seed framework comprises of public and private sector taking part in seed industry and has possessed the capacity to supply just 4% of the seed sown by farmers in the majority of the African nations while 96% of seeds are obtained from the informal division which constitute customary seed supply framework (Anon., 2001). It has been estimated that only 10% of the seeds planted in Ghana are guaranteed seeds given by the formal segment and the rest is sourced from the informal seed division (Alhassan and Bissi, 2006). The most essential reason given for this is that seed programs have focused on real nourishment and cash crops which are viewed as national needs as far as foreign trade income and choice staple sustenance prerequisites are concerned (FAO, 1997b). The formal system is actually yet to take advantage of the huge demand of certified seeds for vegetables and virtually little effort is geared toward the production of certified seeds for vegetables in Ghana leading to the flood of imported and sometimes cheap but expensive vegetable seeds on the seed market. Empirical results have demonstrated that the private segment driven seed industry is vital for a solid and supportable seed arrangement of a nation (Joshua, 1997). An investigation conducted in Ghana revealed that, most of the seed suppliers are agro merchants who offer enhanced seeds alongside other agricultural inputs (e.g., pesticides and manures) (Tahirou et al., 2009). The formal seed system like any other system is confronted with some challenges which hamper delivery of good quality seeds for farmers. Physical observations of existing structures 15 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh only reveal poor infrastructural resources at processing centres located in the Central, Ashanti, Volta and Northern Regions. The existing equipment for cleaning, drying and storage apart from being obsolete are poorly maintained due to the unavailability of spare parts (key informant). This result in poor seed conditioning and storage and significantly reduce the quality of certified seeds sold on the market. There is also inadequate cold storage facilities compounded with unstable power supply at the processing centres leading to poor seed storage and rapid loss of seed viability. Even where these storage facilities are available they are far away from most production centres. Producers have to commute long distances amidst poor road network and pay very high transportation cost which finally result in high cost of seed to the farmer. The problem of seed storage often force seed dealers to sell their seed as grain or risk total deterioration. 2.3.3 Informal seed supply system The informal seed supply framework has its foundations in the deep rooted convention utilized by farmers to guarantee the supply of over 90% of the planting materials of staple nourishment crops required to meet food sustenance (FAO, 1997b). This involves on-farm generation, choice and sparing of grain, tuber or stalk from collected harvest as seed for the following planting season. It also incorporates on-farm seed surpluses, which are exchanged in the local seed markets either for cash or kind (Rubyogo, et al., 2007). The informal division is portrayed by an occasional yield cycle including crop creation, experimental determination of attractive sorts, farmers gathering, cleaning and keeping their own seed, trade of seed between relatives, exchange in the nearby commercial center, planting and development (FAO and Accademia dei Georgofili, 1998). The role of this framework in germplasm preservation has been recorded (Scowcroft and Polak Scowcroft, 1998). 16 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Assortment choice, increase and dissemination are typically completed inside a particular geographic range (Etwire et al., 2013). Among the numerous qualities which made on-farm seed generation a dependable choice for seed security of staple nourishment crops are: Broader national scope , support and sustenance of many harvests, which are not disparaged by the formal seed supply framework but rather which are essential to the survival of most of the general population especially the under advantaged, sensible and moderate seed expenses to different farmers and accessibility of interchange courses of action for seed instalment, incorporation of farmers varietal inclination in the creation program, closeness of seed supply sources to cultivators, and solidness of product yield using hereditarily wide based assortments or ecotypes (FAO and Accademia dei Georgofili, 1998). Despite these fine attributes in the informal system, over dependence on local resources and inputs makes seeds from this source much more vulnerable to insect attack coupled with its low crop yield. 2.4 Seed Marketing Seed marketing in a formalised system can be direct from seed producer to farmer, or via a chain of actors including distributors, merchants and agro-dealers (ACB, 2012). In Ghana Government and private sector (seed companies, agro input dealers, individual farmers and NGO`S) participate actively in seed trade and marketing. Proponents of the Green Revolution argue that agro-dealer networks remain the most suitable channels by which to market seed. Consequently this has become the focus of AGRA, which claims to have trained over 15 000 rural agro-dealers under its PASS programme (AGRA, 2013). The International Fertiliser Development Centre (IFDC), another major actor in this area, is currently undertaking projects on agro-dealer networks in 13 countries in SSA (IFDC, 2015). 17 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Seed merchants in Ghana have less issues in advertising their seeds. Key witnesses uncovered that agriculturalist, co-agent social orders and NGOs as a rule like to acquire their seeds through government offices as a result of their apparent closeness to farmers in the remote regions. The significant seed advertising issue is that the seed framework is ruled by the agriculturists' routine with regards to reusing seeds. Farmers don't promptly purchase enhanced seeds in light of the fact that a large portion of them can't stand to pay about US$ 1.00/kg as the cost of guaranteed seeds. Morris et al., (1999) reported that out of the 54 percent of Ghana's maize that was planted with CRI assortments in 1997, just 26 percent of farmers who utilized enhanced seed assortment in the said year obtained it from an agro input merchant, and few farmers gained their seed from merchants in the previous year. A further disincentive to the buying of enhanced seeds is the farmers' powerlessness to purchase the chemical fertilizer required for the enhanced seeds to achieve the full yield potential (Tahirou et al., 2009). However, educating farmers on the utilization of improved seeds have achieved some level of adoption (Alhassan and Bissi 2006). 2.4.1 Seed transportation and distribution There is awareness that the increasing movement of seed germplasm around the world provides an avenue for the dispersion of crop pathogens (Hampton and Tekrony, 1995). The potential advantages from the dissemination and utilization of good quality seed of enhanced assortments are huge, and the accessibility of value seed of an extensive variety of assortments of products to farmers is critical to accomplishing nourishment security in Ghana. Improved profitability, higher gather list, lessened dangers from pest and malady, and higher livelihoods are a portion of the immediate advantages conceivably accumulating to farmers (Wright and Tyler, 1994). 18 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.4.2 Seed retailing and associated challenges Commercial seed business is a fundamental component of industrial agribusiness (Tripp. 2001). Additionally seed promoting is a key connection between the seed makers and the farmers who eventually utilize the seeds (Sastry, 1969; OMaliko, 1998). Successful seed supply requires convenient conveyance of proper assortments and support to the neighbourhood seed creation and cultivating frameworks (NSS, 2000). One noteworthy constraint on the productivity of retailers was clear absence of information about the attributes of the assortments they retailed. This made it difficult for them to teach farmers on obtaining seed assortments appropriate for the farmers' environment (Tahirou et al., 1994). It is a common practice that seed retailers in Ghana keep seeds together with agro-chemicals. There is increasing concern about the quality of seeds stored together with agro-chemicals. Buts et al. (2013) reported that contact of the seeds of Vigna radiata with bavistin was sheltered just up to 0.50% concentration regardless of its antagonistic impact on number of branching & pods. Over 0.50% concentration adversely influenced the development and yield of the plants in both M1 and M2 eras. Martensson observed that nodule advancement was repressed at expanded levels of bentazone, chlorsulfuron, glyphosate and mancozeb (Martensson, 1992). The fungicide contact with seed diminished wax content and altered its morphology, causing cracks and missing crystalloids that can make the plant more helpless to sicknesses, herbivory and drying up (Lichston et al., 2006). Dane and Dalgic also asserted that benomyl has some negative consequences for mitotic divisions in onion root tip cells (Dane and Dalgic, 2005). The above mentioned report raises 19 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh concern because, it is clear that retailors practice of storing seeds together with agro-chemicals especially in case of chemical spillage on seeds have significant negative effect on seed quality thus, switch from the practice to a more safe seed storage practice should be considered. 2.5 Ghana’s Legal and Regulatory Framework Ghana`s seed sector is regulated through several policies, laws, regulations, and guidelines. MoFA is responsible for harmonizing domestic seed regulations with the 2008 ECOWAS Seed Regulation. (Kuhlmann and Yuan Zhou, 2016). The MoFA’s GSID, the National Seed Council (NSC) and Plant Protection Advisory Council (PPAC) also play an advisory role in development and implementation of law and regulation. The National Seed Council is responsible for the formulation of seed policies, while the Plant Protection Advisory Council provides assistance in relation to the preparation and implementation of regulations under the 2010 Plants and Fertilizers Act (Kuhlmann and Yuan Zhou, 2016). Key policies, laws, and regulations are the Ghana Plants and Fertilizers Act of 2010, Ghana National Seed Policy of 2013, Plant Protection Regulations of 2012, Seed (Certification and Standards) Act of 1972, Ghana Biosafety Act of 2011, and 2015 National Seed Plan (Kuhlmann Yuan Zhou, 2016). 2.5.1 Ghana seed laws 1. Ghana’s Plant and Fertilizer Act of 2010 (803) The primary law governing the Ghanaian seed sector is the Plants and Fertilizer Act 803 of 2010, which is divided into five parts, particularly those identifying with plant assurance, seeds, fertilizer control, plant and fertilizer support and other issues. The Plants and Fertilizers Act 803 of 2010 has not been fully implemented, as certain regulations that will provide more detailed instruction are still in draft form and awaiting parliamentary approval. (Kuhlmann and Yuan Zhou, 2017). 20 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Part Two of Ghana’s Plants and Fertilizers Act of 2010, which deals with the seed industry, regulates the production, inspection, importation, exportation, and commercial transactions related to seed in Ghana as well as the activities of growers, cleaners, importers and exporters of seed (Etwire et al.,2013). 2. Plant Protection and Regulation of 2012 (L.I 2193) 3. Seed (Certification and Standard) Act of 1972 An act to provide for the regulation of the importation and exportation of seeds and for related matters (Seed Act of 1972). 4. Ghana Biosafety Act of 2011- Act 831 An Act to regulate biotechnology and to provide for related matters. The objectives are: (a) To ensure an adequate level of protection in the field of safe development transfer, handling and use of genetically modified organisms resulting from biotechnology that may have an adverse effect on health and the environment, and (b) To establish a transparent and predictable process to review and make decisions on genetically modified organisms specified in (Ghana Biosafety Act, 2011). 5. Ghana Plant Breeders bill of 2013 The bill is modelled after the International Convention for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants (UPOV) 1991. It has been developed and is aimed at establishing a legal framework for the protection of the rights of breeders of new varieties of plants. The bill is yet to be passed into law. Ghana’s system is not yet aligned with UPOV and the World Trade Organization (WTO) Agreement on Trade Related Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS), which calls for sui generis protection of plant breeders’ rights (Kuhlmann and Yuan Zhou, 2016). However, farmer and civil society groups have expressed serious concern over the level of public consultation, how it would affect farmers' rights and facilitate the entry of GMOs in Ghana. 21 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.5.2 Ghana’s National Seed Policy The primary objective of the Ghana`s National Seed Policy is to help the advancement and foundation of a well-coordinated, comprehensive and manageable private sector driven seed industry through deliberate and key methodologies which would persistently make and supply new enhanced assortments for use by farmers and further, bolster effective seed generation, accreditation, advertising and seed security frameworks which will shape the reason for nourishment security and bolster the general improvement of the agriculture sector. (GSP, 2013) Ghana`s seed policy statements covers various seed production components including Seed Research and Variety Development, Biotechnology in Crop Production, Seed Production, the Informal Seed Sector, Seed Conditioning among others. Detailed description of Ghana’s seed policy statements is found in (Appendix 1). 2.5.3 Ghana National Seed Plan Ghana adopted a National Seed Policy in June 2013 to address the inequities in the seed sector. To ensure effective implementation of the National Seed Policy, a National Seed Plan, an implementation strategy, was prepared based on guidelines established in the National Seed Policy. National Seed Plan is inspired by two pillars namely: a. Government of Ghana is committed to empowering the private sector to assume a leading role in the commercial components of the seed industry expeditiously. b. Government is pledged to assume responsibility for support services which do not hold immediate prospects for commercialization of the seed industry but nevertheless imperative for the overall effective conduct of the industry. 22 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Ghana`s Seed Plan is composed and summarised into projects with a total and estimated budget for its implementation as summarised in (Appendix 2). The challenge however is that since its formulation in April, 2015 it have not been fully implemented due to lack of funding. 23 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER THREE 3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS 3.1 Site Selection and Sampling Technique 3.1.1 Sampling of 4 regions Seed samples were collected for investigations from 25 retailers in 4 regions of Ghana (namely Western and Greater Accra, Ashanti and Northern Regions). The 4 regions were selected from the 10 regions of Ghana at random. This is because certified seeds are produced and sold in each of the 10 regions. Due to logistical and financial constraints only 40 percent of the population (10 regions) could be considered. The 25 retailers sourced their seed maize from Pee Farms, Brukner Farms, Agro Ghana, Kakyire Boadu Farms, Victory 2017, Winneba Seed Company, Asuoyeboah (MoFA), SEEDPAG, Tamale Seed Company, Heritage seeds, RMG Limited and Despy Seeds. Vegetable seeds were sourced from Agriseed (subsidiary of Technisem), United Genetics Seeds Company, Pioneer Seeds and Hazera Seeds. The seeds sold by the firms were dully certified officially by PPRSD. This supposes that before the seeds entered the seed distribution and marketing channels, they had passed the minimum seed certification standards applicable for Ghana and had certification labels on them (Appendix 3). 3.1.2 Sampling of retailers A total of 36 commercial agro input dealers who constituted the main seed delivery channels to farmers across the country were selected using simple random technique (see Appendix 4 for list of retailers). In the Ashanti region 10 were selected; in the Greater Accra region 9 were selected; in the Western region 10 were selected and in the Northern region 7 were selected. 24 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.1.3 Instruments used The retailers or agro input dealers were interviewed one on one with the aid of a pre-tested questionnaire. The questionnaire centred on retailers sources of seed, delivery methods, and day to day seed storage practises of the seed in stock among others (See Appendix 5 for questionnaire). Two Mercury in-glass thermometers were used to record the storage temperature at the retailers’ shops and warehouses. 3.2 Certified seeds sampling Twenty five properly labelled certified seed samples of local Maize (Zea mays) (16), cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) (2), imported pepper (Capsicum frutescens) (2), and tomato (Lycopersicum esculentum Mill.) (5) seeds were collected using simple random sampling technique. Seed samples were collected from 25 selected retailers in the four regions namely; Western and Greater Accra Regions (southern belt), Ashanti Region (middle belt) and Northern Region (northern belt). The agro input dealers were selected using purposive sampling technique. Each selected retailer were duly registered and well informed on best retailing practices in the seed trade business. Seven retailers were located in Greater Accra namely: Kaneshie (1), Circle (1), Kantamanto (1), Ministries (1), Nungua (1) and Madina (2). Six retailers in Western Region namely: Beposo (1), Takoradi - Accra station (1), Esiama (1), Ayinasi (2) and Tarkwa (1). Seven in Ashanti Region namely: Adanse Praso (2), Asokwa (1) New Edubiase (2) Kumasi (2) Five in Northern Region namely: Aboabo market (2), Chogu (1), Moshie Zongo (1) and Savelegu (1). Two packs of 1kg seed (for maize, cowpea,) and 150g of pepper seed and 15g of tomato seed were sampled from each selected outlet respectively. Samples were labelled using abbreviations such as AS1, WR2, GA3 and NR8. AS1 denotes sampled seed from retailer one 25 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh in Ashanti Region. Seed samples were tested at the National Seed Testing Laboratory (NSTL) at Pokuase in the Greater Accra Region of Ghana from April – May 2017. 3.2 Laboratory Studies Seed testing was carried out in a Completely Randomized Design (CRD). Seed testing was done for the various quality indicators such as seed purity, seed germination percentage, seed moisture content, seedling vigour and seed health at the National Seed Testing Laboratory at Pokuase in the Greater Accra Region. Separate analysis was done between Ashanti and Northern Region for cowpea and Greater Accra and Western Region for vegetables (tomato and pepper) because seeds were only available in these regions. All analysis performed followed the ISTA Rules (2013). 3.3 Methods of Analysis 3.3.1 Seed moisture content test Seed moisture content was taken using a digital moisture computer 750. The seed sample were placed in a test cup (compression unit) and was compressed to a pre-determined level as determined by an indicator on the equipment. The moisture content was then read on a horizontal scale in percentages and recorded accordingly. The principle involved here was that the moisture computer is that wet grains are good conductors while dry grains are less conductors of electricity. Thus moisture content is read directly to be proportional to the electrical conductivity of the seed. Determination of seed moisture content is vital for checking seed deterioration after harvest especially fungal growth, loss of germination and vigour which all affect the quality of seed after harvest. 3.3.2 Purity analysis A conical divider was repeatedly used to homogenise submitted samples to obtain a working sample (for maize and cowpea) (900g for maize, 400g for cowpea, 15g for pepper and 7g for 26 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh tomato). Seed samples were drawn onto a clean purity work board (Diaphanoscopic). Working samples were drawn into thin line using spatula and each particle was individually examined to separate pure seed from other crop seeds, weed seeds and inert matter. Each sample under test was evaluated for the component of pure seed, other crop seeds, weed seeds (noxious weeds) and inert matter (stem pieces, leaves, sand particles, stone particles, empty glumes, lemmas, chaff, insect debris, stalks and spikelet.) were recorded and weighed in a dish in grams to three decimal places using a digital scale. This is the first activity to be carried out for all selected samples because it was the pure seed component of purity analysis from which seeds were taken and used to assess the various quality indicators. Purity testing of all the individual samples collected were done to determine: •The percentage composition by weight of the sample and • The identity of the various species of seeds and inert particles constituting the sample Seed purity analysis is vital for agricultural productivity since it ensures improved plant stand (by increasing the pure seed component) raising of pure crop (by eliminating other crop seed and weed seeds) and raising a disease free crop (by eliminating inert matter). 3.3.3 Seed germination test Seed germination potential were tested in four replications (of 100 seeds per replication) using between rolled towel paper method for maize at 25oC, Top of paper (TP) method for tomato and pepper at 30o C and sand method for cowpea at 30oC (Appendix 6). First and final germination counts were done for maize 4DAP and 7DAP, for cowpea 5DAP and 8DAP for pepper 7DAP and 14DAP, for Tomato 5DAPand 14DAP respectively, to estimate germination percentage of the samples (ISTA. 2013). Results from the germination tests were evaluated for percentage normal seedlings, abnormal seedlings, hard seeds, fresh un-germinated seeds and 27 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh hard seeds per each replication using seed germination test sheet (Appendix 7). Germination percentage was estimated by dividing the sum of normal seedlings from the four replications by four. Seed germination tests were run from the pure seed component of the purity analysis to • Decide the most extreme germination capability of a seed part, which would then be able to thus be utilized to analyse the nature of various parcels and also • To assess the field planting estimation of the seed in soil outside or in the research centre. 3.3.4 Seed health test Seed health tests were conducted on some seed sampled (maize and cowpea) using the blotter method modified after ISTA (2013) and Mathur and Kongsdal (1998). 400 seeds each of the samples were frozen in a deep freezer overnight at -5oC to kill seed embryo. Each of 400 frozen seeds were plated, 10 seeds on wet filter paper in a 9cm petri dish (ten petri dishes for one replication, forty petri dishes for four replications). Seeds were placed under ultra violet light for 7 days under 12 alternating circles (12 hours of daylight and 12 hours of darkness at 20oC) (Appendix 8). On the 7th day assessment for seed-borne pathogens were made under stereo microscope (for habit characteristics) and was confirmed under compound microscope (for fungal spores) to identify growth or habit characteristics of pathogens on the plated seeds. Seed Health Testing was done on samples collected for the investigation to determine the presence or absence of disease causing organisms on, in or among them in an effort to ensure that healthy seeds would be planted in the field. Bacteria, Fungi and Viruses as well as other micro-organisms which inhabit seeds and cause diseases in them were the target of seed health testing. 28 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.3.5 Seedling vigour test Seed vigour tests were conducted for maize 7DAP, pepper 14DAP, tomato 14DAP and Cowpea 8DAP using the seedling growth rate test. Here, growing segments of the normal seedlings produced during the germination testing were excised from the storage organs (cotyledons or endosperm) and weighed to obtain their fresh weight. The samples were dried in aluminium beakers at 800C for 24 hours using an electric oven. Oven dried samples were weighed using digital scale to obtain seedling dry weight and to determine the different decrease in weight compared to the wet samples and the results used as a vigour indicator since seedling growth rate is correlated with vegetative development in the field ( Pinthus and Kimel, 1979). Seedling root and shoot length (seedling length) were measured and recorded from 10 sampled plants per replication by the use of a centimetre rule and used as an indicator of vigour since healthy and vigorous seedlings would grow faster and lengthier compared to less vigorous seedlings. Seedling vigour index 1 was calculated by finding the product of % germination of seed and seedling length. Seedling vigour index 2 was also calculated by finding the product of % germination of seed and seedling dry weight (Abdul-Baki and Anderson, 1973). Seed lot with the highest vigour index were ranked more vigorous. Seedling vigour were also estimated using first count germination percentage. 3.4 Statistical Analysis Data on percentage seed germination, percentage seed moisture content and percentage seed vigour were arcsine transformed to stabilize the variance. A general analysis of variance (ANOVA) for the various seed quality indices were conducted using GenStat statistical package 9th Edition. Mean separation was done by using Fishers’ Protected LSD to compare the significant differences between the treatments at 5% level of significance. Data on questionnaire were analysed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). 29 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 30 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FOUR 4.0 RESULTS 4.1 Profile of Seed Retailers in the Study Area 4.1.1 Demographic characteristics of respondents (sex, age, level of education) Retailers demographic characteristics reported here includes their ages, gender, location, level of education, number of years in business, seeds retailed, knowledge on seed storage practices and which other products they deal with in addition to seed in the same shop. Thirty-six retailers were identified from four designated regions in Ghana namely: Greater Accra Region (9), Western Region (10), Ashanti Region (10) and Northern Region (7) (Table 4.1). Out of the 36 respondents (92%) were 30 years and above while (8%) were below 30 years (Figure4.1). Table 4.1. Distribution of respondents in the four sampled regions. Region of Cumulative respondents Number Percent Percent Greater Accra 9 25.0 25.0 Region Western Region 10 27.8 52.8 Ashanti Region 10 27.8 80.6 Northern Region 7 19.4 100.0 Total 36 100.0 31 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 8% Below 30yrs Above 30yrs 92% Figure 4.1 Age distribution of respondents. 4.1.2 Gender and level of education There were more men (81%) than women (19%) in the seed retail business (figure 4.2). All 36 retailers have had formal education with majority (41.7%) being Secondary School leavers and (30.6 %) diplomates. The survey recorded (8.3%) BECE graduates, (11.1%) degree and (8.3%) master’s degree holders (Table 4.2). 32 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 19% 81% Males Females Figure 4.2 Gender of respondents. 33 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.2 Educational level of respondents. Cumulative Educational level Frequency Percent Percent B.E.C.E 3 8.3 8.3 S.S.C.E 15 41.7 50.0 Diploma 11 30.6 80.6 Degree 4 11.1 91.7 Masters 3 8.3 100.0 Total 36 100.0 4.1.3 Number of years in seed retail business The result showed that (47.2 %) of the retailers had been in the business for 16 years and above and (13.9%) had been in the business for 11-15 years, whiles (19.4 %) of the retailers had operated for 6-10 years. Another group of (19.4 %) had worked from 1 to 5 years (Table 4.3). Table 4.3 Number of years respondents have been in the seed retail business. Cumulative Number of years Frequency Percent Percent 1-5 7 19.4 19.4 6-10 7 19.4 38.9 11-15 5 13.9 52.8 16 and Above 17 47.2 100.0 Total 36 100.0 4.1.4 Retail room temperature There were wide variations in the retail room temperature readings. The temperature at which seed retailers stored the seeds they sold ranged from 18oC-38.5oC. Majority (50%) of retailers stored seeds at temperatures between 31oC-35oC while (27.8%) of retailers stored seeds 34 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh within temperature ranges 36oC-38.5oC. Also (11.1%) stored seeds at temperature ranging from 18oC -21oC and (11.1%) stored seeds at 27oC-30oC (Table 4.4). Table 4.4 Temperature o C range of seed retail room. Cumulative Retail room temperature (o C) Frequency Percent Percent 18-21 4 11.1 11.1 27-30 4 11.1 22.2 31-35 18 50.0 72.2 36-38.5 10 27.8 100.0 Total 36 100.0 4.1.5 Seeds retailed and their suppliers Seeds retailed included vegetables (tomato, hot pepper, green pepper, and cabbage), maize, cowpea, fruit (watermelon) and lawn grasses. The results showed that (50%) of the 36 retailers sold vegetables and seed maize, an indication that vegetables and maize were the most preferred and available seeds on the seed market. (Table 4.5). The result also showed that (52.8%) of retailers obtained their seeds (mainly maize) from local seed growers whiles (30.6 %) were supplied (mainly imported vegetable seeds) by seed companies largely involved in vegetables seed import business in Ghana (Table 4.6). 35 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.5 Types of seeds retailed by respondents. No.of % Types of seeds retailers Retialers Maize Vegetables Cowpea Lawn grass Fruit 18 50.0   8 22.2    5 13.9    3 8.3   1 2.8     1 2.8   36 100 Table 4.6 Certified seed suppliers. No. of retailers % retailers Seed grower Seed company Cooperative 19 52.8  11 30.6  4 11.1   1 2.8   1 2.8    36 100 4.1.6 Delivery channels of certified seeds to the retailers The survey result showed that 92 % of the retailers had their seeds delivered to them in an ordinary van even though all (100 %) respondents confirmed the best practice was seeds delivered in an air conditioned van (Figure 4.3). 36 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Ordinary van Air conditioned van 8% 92% Figure 4.3 Delivery channels of certified seeds to retailers. 37 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.2 Retailers Knowledge of Certified Seeds 4.2.1 Certified seeds labelling and storage All (100 %) the respondents stated that certified seeds they sold were properly labelled (had official GSID label) and label contained adequate information on seed purchased. Majority (91.7%) of retailers kept and sold seeds in retail rooms whiles (8.3%) kept seeds in warehouses after purchase (Figure 4.4). 8% Retail room Warehouse 92% Figure 4.4 Retailers seed storage type after purchase. 4.2.2 Duration of seeds in storage at retailers shop and effects on them. The result showed that (47.2%) of retailers held seeds for at most 2 months, (30.6%) for 3-5 months, (19.4%) for as long as stock lasted and (2.8 %) for 6-8 months (Table 4.7). All (100 %) the respondents stated that length of seed storage time adversely affected seed quality over time (e.g. poor germination, mouldiness, decay and poor emergence). 38 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Some (36.1 %) of respondents carried over certified seeds from year to year whiles (63.9 %) do not (Figure 4.5). Table 4.7 Retailers’ response on how long they keep seeds in storage at their end. Cumulative Response Frequency Percent Percent 1-2months 17 47.2 47.2 3-5months 11 30.6 77.8 6-8months 1 2.8 80.6 As long as stock last 7 19.4 100.0 Total 36 100.0 36% Yes No 64% Figure 4.5 Percentage respondents who carried over certified seeds. 4.2.3 Do retailers test seeds before sales? The survey result showed that (41.7 %) and (47.2 %) respectively conducted only germination test to: 39 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (1) Confirm quality of seeds as indicated by the supplier (2) Verify quality indicators shown on the seed label before selling seeds to farmers for planting (Appendix 9), (Figures 4.6and 4.7). 42% Yes No 58% Figure 4.6 Response on whether retailers tested for seed germination to confirm germination percentage indicated by supplier. 40 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 47% Yes 53% No Figure 4.7 Response on whether retailers conducted seed germination test before selling the seed to farmers for planting. 4.2.4 Impact of proximity of agro chemicals to seeds in retail shops. The survey revealed that 77.8 % of retailers kept seeds together with agrochemicals, however only (8.3 %) had noticed some negative effects of agrochemicals on seeds kept with them (Figures 4.8 and 4.9). 41 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 22% Yes No 78% Figure 4.8 Responses on whether retailers kept seeds together with Agro chemicals. 8% Yes No 92% Figure 4.9 Responses on whether retailers had noticed any negative effect of agro chemicals on the seeds they keep. 42 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.2.5 Additional seed testing besides germination test. The survey results also indicated that all (100 %) of respondent did not conduct other seed testing (purity, moisture content, seed vigour and seed health) besides germination test before selling seeds. 4.2.6 Effect of packaging material on seed storage and quality. All (100 %) respondents were aware of factors (seed moisture content, storage temperature, pathogens, conditioning and humidity) that affected seed quality and storage. They also affirmed that while good packaging enhanced seed quality and storability poor packaging adversely affected seed quality and storage time. 4.3 Results of Laboratory Seed Testing of Seeds from the Four Regions 4.3.1 Seed quality analyses of seed maize (Zea mays) from the four Regions of Ghana. Results from the analysis conducted showed high germination percentages of seed maize (7DAP) with no significant difference (p> 0.05) among tested seed samples in spite of the locations (Table 4.8a and b). The highest mean value was observed in seeds obtained from NR (96 %) and the least in WR (90 %). Few abnormal seedlings were observed among the locations. The most abundant abnormal seedlings were observed in WR (3.0 %) with NR (1.0 %) recording the least. There was no significant difference (p>0.05) in percentage dead seeds observed among seeds in the regions. Seeds from WR recorded most dead seeds (7. %) and NR (3.0 %) recorded the least. Safe seed maize moisture content were observe among the regions. Seed maize moisture content among the regions were also similar with NR recording highest (12 %) and GA 43 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh recording the least (11.82 %). There were no significant difference (p>0.05) in plumule length of germinated seed from all the four locations. There were also no significant difference (p>0.05) in root length performance among samples from the four locations. Tested maize seeds were vigorous and pure. Table 4.8a Seed germination, moisture content and purity of seed maize sampled from four regions of Ghana. (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) Region germ Abnormal Dead Moisture purity 7 DAP seedlings seeds content AS 94.0 2.0 4.0 11.98 99.64 GA 93.0 2.0 5.0 11.82 99.80 NR 96.0 1.0 3.0 12.00 99.90 WR 90.0 3.0 7.0 11.94 99.70 LSD 8.0 NS 2.0 NS 5.64 NS 0.16 NS 0.22 NS (P ≤ 0.05) Table 4.8b. Seedling growth and vigour of seed maize sampled from four regions of Ghana. Shoot length Root length Seedling Seedling vigour2 Region (cm) (cm) vigour1 AS 4.51 8.59 1232 393 GA 4.11 8.98 1229 480 NR 4.33 8.54 1236 419 WR 4.55 8.32 1178 486 LSD (P ≤ 1.77 NS 2.34 NS 397.2NS 186.6NS 0.05) 44 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.3.2 Analyses of seed maize (Zea mays) sampled from the Ashanti Region. The result shows high germination percentages in tested seed maize at first count (4 DAP). The final count (7DAP) ended with a higher germination percentage in the Ashanti Region. Germination percentages were significantly different (p<0.001) among the samples AS8, AS6, AS4, AS7 and AS5 (Table 4.9a and b). Even though lower abnormal seedlings were observed, there was no significant difference (p>0.05) in abnormal seedlings observed in samples within the region. There were significant differences (p<0.003) in the percentage dead seed maize in Ashanti Region. AS8 (10.0 %) and AS6 (2.0 %) were significantly different from the rest of the locations recording the highest and least in the region. There were no significant difference (p>0.05) in seed maize moisture content, purity and inert matter determined across the region. The result shows no significant difference (p>0.05) in seedling shoot length and root length among samples from the region. The result showed high seedling vigour in tested seed maize. The treatment means in seedling vigour index 1 were not significantly different (p> 0.05) however, there was significant differences in the treatment means of seedling vigour index 2. 45 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.9a Seed germination and moisture content of seed maize sampled from the Ashanti Region. (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) Retailer germ Germ Germ Abnormal Dead Moisture 4DAP 2ndCount 7DAP seedlings seeds content AS 4 95 1 96.0 1.0 3.0 12.00 AS 5 92 2 94.0 1.0 5.0 12.00 AS 6 99 0 99.0 0.00 2.0 12.00 AS 7 95 0 95.0 2.0 3.0 11.90 AS 8 87 1 88.0 3.00 10.0 12.00 LSD (P 3 1 4.0 2.0 NS 4.0 ≤ 0.05) Table 4.9b Seedling growth and vigour of seed maize sampled from the Ashanti Region. Seedling Seedling (%) (%) Retailer shoot root Seedling Vigour1 Seedling Vigour2 length(cm) length(cm) AS 4 3.84 8.54 1191 507.3 AS 5 4.92 7.26 1139 219.2 AS 6 5.91 8.46 1415 519.5 AS 7 3.71 9.36 1231 513.1 AS 8 4.19 9.32 1182 207.1 LSD (P ≤ 2.78 NS 2.23 NS 216.3NS 65.59 0.05) 46 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.3.2 Analyses of seed maize (Zea mays) sampled from the Greater Accra Region. The result showed high germination percentages in tested seed maize at first count (4 DAP) with similar results at the final count (7DAP) in Greater Accra. Germination percentages were significantly different (p<0.001) among sampled seeds in the region (Table 4.10a and b) with the highest and the least means observed in GA5 (98.0 %) and GA1 (82.0 %) respectively. Percentage abnormal seedlings were also significantly different (p<.001) from each other. There were significant differences (p<0.001) in the percentage dead seeds observed among the region. Moisture content and purity of seed maize were significantly high but were not significantly different (p>0.05) from each other. Seedling shoot and root lengths of seed maize were significantly different (p<0.02) within the region. The result showed high seedling vigour in tested seed maize. The treatment means in seedling vigour index 1 and 2 were significantly different (p< 0.05). 47 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.10a Seed germination, moisture content and purity of seed maize sampled from the Greater Accra Region. (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) Sample Germ germ Germ Abnormal Dead Moisture (%) 4DAP 2nd count 7DAP seedlings seeds content purity GA 1 80 2 82.0 5.0 13.0 12.00 99.90 GA 2 90 4 94.00 2.0 4.00 11.90 99.90 GA 5 98 0 98.0 1.0 2.0 11.50 99.60 GA 9 94 1 95.0 1.0 4.0 11.80 99.70 GA 10 98 0 98.0 0.0 2.0 11.90 99.90 LSD (P 4 2 3.0 1.0 3.0 ≤ 0.05) Table 4.10b Seedling growth and vigour of seed maize sampled from the Greater Accra Region. Shoot length Root length (%) (%) Sample (cm) (cm) Seedling vigour1 Seedling vigour2 GA 1 2.70 6.76 778 222 GA 2 4.78 9.46 1339 582 GA 5 5.48 9.13 1429 518 GA 9 3.47 10.88 1356 525 GA 10 4.11 8.63 1243 551 LSD (P ≤ 1.59 1.44 185.7 91.4 0.05) 48 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.3.4 Analyses of seed maize (Zea mays) sampled from the Western Region The result showed high germination percentages for tested seed maize 4DAP in various locations within the region except WR5 (Table 4.11a and b). Germination percentages were significantly different (p<0.001) within the region. The highest and least mean values were observed in WR10 (96.0 %) and WR5 (76.00 %) respectively. Tested seed maize also showed significant difference (p<0.01) in the abnormal seedlings within the region, with the highest and the least mean values observed in WR5 (7.0 %) and WR8 and WR10 (1.0 %). There were significant differences (p<0.01 in the number of dead seeds observed within the various locations in the region. Safe (11.7-12 %) seed moisture content was observed. There were no significant differences (p>0.05) in the moisture content, purity and inert matter estimation of tested seed maize. There was a significant difference (p<0.03) in the shoot length of tested maize seeds within the region. There were significant differences (p<0.001) in the root lengths of tested maize seeds. The result showed high seedling vigour in tested maize seeds in Western Region. Seedling vigour index 1 and 2 were significantly p<0.05 different. 49 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.11a. Seed germination, moisture content and purity of seed maize sampled from the Western Region. (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) Retaile Germ Germ Germ Abnormal Dead Moisture (%) r 4DAP 2nd 7DAP seedlings seeds content purity count WR 1 88 1 89.00 3.0 8.0 11.70 99.50 WR 5 71 5 76.00 7.0 17.0 12.00 99.50 WR 7 94 1 95.00 2.00 3.0 12.00 99.90 WR 8 94 1 95.0 1.0 4.0 12.00 99.90 WR 10 96 0 96.0 1.0 3.0 12.00 99.70 LSD (P 6 2 5.0 4.0 3.0 ≤ 0.05) Table 4.11b. Seedling growth and vigour of seed maize sampled from the Western Region. Shoot length Root length (%) (%) Retailer (cm) (cm) Seedling Vigour1 Seedling Vigour2 WR 1 2.53 7.04 852 412 WR 5 2.92 5.95 669 359 WR 7 4.48 6.39 1031 498 WR 8 8.18 10.69 1787 514 WR 10 4.67 11.51 1550 648 LSD (P ≤ 3.54 2.17 252.4 86.1 0.05) 50 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.3.5 Comparison of seed quality characteristics of cowpea (Vigna unguiculats) seeds sampled from Northern and Ashanti regions. Results of analyzed data on cowpea sampled from Northern and Ashanti Regions showed high germination percentages 5DAP (Table 4.12a and b) however, there was no significant difference (p>0.05) among normal, abnormal and dead seeds from the two locations. For normal and abnormal seedlings the highest and lowest germination percentages were observed in NR (82.0%, 10.0%) and AS (80% and 9%) 8DAP. There were no significant differences (p>0.05) in moisture content and purity of seeds sampled from the region. Seedling shoot and root length were significantly different. NR recorded the highest mean value (5.92cm) in seedling shoot length whiles AS recorded highest mean value (20.38cm) in seedling root length. Cowpea seedlings were vigorous with no significant differences p>0.05 in their mean values. Table 4.12a Seed germination, moisture content and purity quality of cowpea seeds sampled from the Northern and Ashanti regions. (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) Retailer Germ germ 2nd Germ Abnormal Dead Moisture (%) 5DAP count 8DAP seedlings seeds content purity AS8 72 8 80.0 8.0 12.00 9.00 99.90 NR1 63 19 82.0 10.0 12.00 8.00 99.90 LSD (P 4 3 7.0 NS 3.0 NS 4.0 NS ≤ 0.05) 51 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.12b Seedling growth and vigour of cowpea seeds sampled from the Northern and Ashanti Regions. Seedling Seedling root Seedling vigour1 Seedling vigour2 Retailer shoot length (cm) length (cm) AS 4.00 20.38 1625 463 NR 5.92 12.30 1005 377 LSD (P ≤ 1.49 1.24 166.4 80.4 0.05) 4.3.6 Comparison of tomato seeds sampled from the Western and Greater Accra Regions. The result showed high germination percentages in tomato seeds at first count (5DAP) from western region whiles that of Greater Accra were low (5DAP) (table 4.13a and b). The mean values for normal, abnormal and dead seeds were significantly different (p<0.001). While GA tested seeds recorded no abnormal seedlings and fresh seeds WR tested seeds recorded the highest (9.0 %) and (5.0 %) percentage abnormal seedlings and fresh seeds respectively. Highly significant (p<0.05) dead seeds were observed in GA tested seeds. There was no significant difference (p>0.05) in the moisture content, inert matter and purity of tested tomato seeds. There was significant differences (p<0.05) in seedling shoot and root length of tested tomato seeds. GA9 recorded highest (3.02 cm) seedling shoot length mean value, wiles WR10 recorded the least (2.75 cm). Tested seeds in WR were vigorous and significantly different (p<0.05). 52 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.13a Seed germination, moisture content and purity of tomato seeds sampled from the Greater Accra and Western Regions. (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) Retailer Germ germ Germ Abnormal Fresh Dead purity Moisture 5DAP 2nd 14DAP seedlings seeds seeds count content GA 2 70 7 77.0 0.0 0.0 23.0 7.30 99.90 GA 9 57 13 70 0.0 0.0 30.5 7.20 99.70 GA 10 15 25 40 0.0 0.0 60.2 7.30 99.90 WR 1 87 3 90.0 5.75 2.00 2.2 7.50 100.00 WR 10 76 5 81.2 9.25 4.25 5.2 7.30 99.90 LSD (P 6 4 7.67 1.19 1.59 7.19 ≤ 0.05) 4.13b Seedling growth and vigour of tomato seeds sampled from the Greater Accra and Western Regions Shoot Root length Seedling Seedling vigour2 Retailer length (cm) (cm) vigour1 GA 2 2.28 5.92 314.6 34.63 GA 9 3.02 5.20 247.1 25.97 GA 10 2.02 2.95 69.4 8.38 WR 1 2.87 7.28 427.6 37.04 WR 10 2.75 6.55 332.0 27.60 LSD (P ≤ 0.05) 0.38 0.74 39.11 5.490 53 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.3.7 Comparison of pepper seeds sampled from the Greater Accra and Western Regions. The result showed high germination percentages in tested pepper seeds at first count (7DAP) however, their mean values were not significantly different (p>0.05) among the regions (Table 4.14a and b). The highest mean value was observed in WR (87 %) and the least in GA (86 %). The result showed significant differences (p<0.05) between the mean values of abnormal seedlings, fresh and dead seeds. No abnormal seedlings and fresh seeds was observed in tested seeds from GA. High (14%) mean percentage dead seeds was observed in GA with the least (3.25 %) recorded in WR. There were no significant differences (p>0.05) in the percentage inert matter and seedling shoot length among tested seeds in the regions. There were significant differences (p<0.05) in seedling root length of pepper seeds. Tested pepper seeds were vigorous with significant differences in vigour index one. Table 4.14a. Seed germination and moisture content of pepper seeds sampled from the Western and Greater Accra Regions. (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) Retailer Germ germ Germ Abnormal Fresh Dead Moisture 7DAP 2nd 14DAP seedlings seeds seeds content count GA10 86 0 86.00 0.00 0.00 14.00 12.00 WR1 85 2 87.00 6.00 3.75 3.25 12.00 LSD (P 5NS 2NS 4.57 NS 1.73 2.71 4.39 ≤ 0.05) 54 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.14b. Seedling growth and vigour of pepper seeds sampled from the Western and Greater Accra Regions. Seedling shoot Seedling root (%) (%) Retailer length (cm) length (cm) Seedling Seedling vigour1 vigour2 GA10 4.33 3.97 714 64.0 WR1 3.83 3.07 600 61.3 LSD (P ≤ 0.82 NS 0.19 73 9.82NS 0.05) 4.3.8 Maize seed health performance across the Four Regions. The predominant fungal micro-flora identified on maize samples 7DAI from the four regions showed the prevalence of Acremonium strictum and Fusarium moniliforme in the tested seed maize from the four regional locations (Table 4.15a). The levels of pathogens were significantly different (p<0.001) among the regions. The highest percentage pathogen of Acremonium strictum was observed in NR followed by GA, WR and AS. Also the highest percentage pathogen of Fusarium moniliforme was observed in WR followed by AS, GA and NR. Also Curvularia lunata were common in maize 7DAI in all four regions but occurred only among few retailers in the regions. The result showed significant difference (p<0.01) in their mean values (Table 4.15b). 55 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.15a. Frequency of fungal pathogens (Acremonium strictum and Fusarium moniliforme) on tested maize in the four regions. Acremonium strictum (%) Fusarium moniliforme (%) Retailer AS4 30.0 37.0 AS5 3.0 15.0 AS6 25.0 35.0 AS7 32.0 31.0 AS8 26.0 34.0 Total 23.0 30.0 GA1 18.0 6.0 GA10 39.0 21.0 GA2 31.0 8.0 GA5 38.0 45.0 GA9 37.0 15.0 Total 33.0 19.0 NR8 49.0 9.0 WRI 42.0 33.0 WR10 36.0 42.0 WR5 3.0 13.0 WR7 6.0 54.0 WR8 34.0 42.0 Total 24.0 37.0 LSD (P ≤ 0.05) 5.0 6.0 56 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.15b Frequency of fungal pathogen (Curvularia lunata) on tested maize seeds in the four regions. Retailer Curvularia lunata (%) AS6 7.0 GA1 2.0 NR8 3.0 WR5 2.0 WR7 8.0 LSD (P ≤ 0.05) 5.0 4.3.9 Maize seed health performance in Greater Accra, Northern and Western Regions. Colletotricum graminilola occurred on sampled maize 7DAI from the three regions only however, there was no significant difference (p>0.05) in their mean occurrences. NR8 recorded the highest occurrence (1.0%) mean value (Table 4.16). Table 4.16 Frequency of fungal pathogen (Colletotricum graminilola) on tested maize sampled from GA, NR and WR. Retailer Colletotricum graminilola (%) GA2 0.29 NR8 1.0 WR7 0.29 LSD (P ≤ 0.05) 1.015 NS 57 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.3.10 Seed maize (Zea mays) health performance in Greater Accra and Western Region. Fusarium oxysporium commonly occurred only in the two regions 7DAI however, there was no significant difference (p>0.05) in their mean values (Table 4.17). Table 4.17 Frequency of fungal pathogens (Fusarium oxysporium) on tested maize sampled from Greater Accra and Western Region. Retailer Fusarium_oxysporium (%) GA 1 0.3 GA 10 1.0 WR10 1.0 LSD (P ≤ 0.05) 1.196 NS 4.3.11 Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) seed health performance in Ashanti and Northern Regions. Fusarium oxysporum and Fusarium monilliforme were observed in plated cowpea 7DAP (4.18). There were significant differences (p<0.04) between AS and NR in the occurrence of Fusarium oxysporum with the highest occurrence in the Ashanti Region. There were no significant differences (p>0.05) in the mean values of Fusarium monilliforme. 58 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.18 Frequency of Fusarium oxysporum and Fusarium monilliforme in cowpea sampled from AS and NR. (%) (%) Retailer Fusarium oxysporum Fusarium monilliforme AS 13.0 13.0 NR 6.0 12.0 LSD (P ≤ 0.05) 7.26 7.92NS 59 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FIVE 5.0 DISCUSSION 5.1 Retail Conditions of Certified Seeds from Four Regions of Ghana. Although there were no seed processing plants in the Western and Greater Accra Regions, tested seeds from these regions performed equally better as tested seeds from Ashanti and Northern Regions. This could be due to ease of movement of good seeds in these regions implying that there is well established seed systems and retailers obtained seed supplies from accredited seed growers and suppliers located outside these regions. 5.1.1 Demographic characteristics of seed retailers The fact that majority 33 (91.7 %) of retailers were 30 years and above could suggest that retailers motivation in certified seed trade business stemmed from their previous occupational experiences, having worked in the agricultural or related sector. Male domination (81%) in certified seed retail business may be due to a corresponding male dominion in the field of agriculture and related fields. It could also be due to the high risk and capital intensive nature of seed retail business as males are inclined in taking risk than females. However female involvement (19%) in the seed trade business is a booster because whiles males are generally risk takers females are keener in paying attention to critical details in seed quality determination. This unique blend of gender characteristics will not only encourage female participation but also work out for synergy in the contribution of both genders in the seed trade business to ensure balance in the future. 60 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Generally, all the retailers sampled in the study were literate, well informed and could articulate ideas logically in some basic practices relating to their business. The fact that seed storage practices of male retailers did not differ from their female counterpart was not expected. Both genders seem to store the seeds they hold in a similar way and this could be attributed to the common fact that both male and female retailers sampled were equally educated and well informed. The literacy rate of retailers is an asset in that retailers could easily receive and transmit training on the job concerning day to day best practices in the seed trade business. This could help retailers tackle the assertion by Tahirou et al., (2009) a noteworthy constraint on the productivity of retailers was clear absence of information about the attributes of the assortments they retailed. This made it difficult for them to teach farmers on obtaining seed assortments appropriate for the farmers' environment. Generally, both male and female respondents had been in the certified seed trade business for reasonable number of years with rich on job experiences in safe seed storage practices with some females display the capacity to train employees on safe seed storage practices thereby confirming the potential of these seed retail business to continually serve as an important outlet for seed marketing in Ghana. This agrees with findings in the study by Tripp. (2001) that, Commercial seed business is a fundamental component of industrial agribusiness. Additionally, seed promoting is a key connection between the seed makers and the farmers who eventually utilize the seeds (Sastry 1969, OMaliko 1998). Tahirou et al., (2009) also reported that, the majority of the seed providers are agro dealers who sell improved seeds along 61 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh with other agricultural inputs (e.g., pesticides and fertilizers). Also proponents of the Green Revolution argue that agro-dealer networks remain the most suitable channels by which to market seed (AGRA, 2013). The study confirmed these assertions as majority of retailers identified sold agrochemicals along with seeds. 5.1.2 Acquisition and storage of certified seeds The survey revealed that both male and female retailers traded in vegetables and seed maize which were the most available on the seed market. Most vegetable seeds on sale were imported by seed companies who are exploring virtual non-existence of vegetable seeds production locally, whiles seed maize were obtained from local certified seed producers. Lack of vegetable seeds production in Ghana may be due to few or absence of vegetable seed breeders in Ghana’s research and breeding programs thus most vegetable farmers therefore depend either on farmer saved seeds or imported certified seeds. In a survey conducted in Nigeria it was reported that about 60% of vegetable farmers sourced seeds from their previously saved harvests, while about 30% purchased seeds from dealers (Adetumbi and Daniel 2004). Lack of vegetable seeds germplasm in Ghana may be due to economic reasons as reported by Clottey et al., (2009) that some tomato farmers in Ghana revealed they do not realize the economic benefit of investing in good seed, since the fruit prices on the market are the same irrespective of the type of seed thus, making farmer-saved and farmer-traded seed to be the dominant source of seed for 80- 90% of farmers in Sub-Saharan Africa (Almekinders et al., 1994; Walker, et al., 1997a and Tripp, 2001). However, efficient breeding of seed maize have accounted for the appreciable 62 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh amounts of certified seed maize produced locally by seed producers. Thus there is virtually low patronage of imported seed maize. The high seed retail room temperatures (18-38.5oC) recorded in both genders were not due to lack of knowledge on the part of retailers but a limitation beyond retailers resources since, both male and female respondents admitted use of cold seed storage room was the best practice. When asked, retailers mentioned high cost involved in keeping cold rooms which may be passed on to farmers by way of high cost of seeds (key informants). High temperatures have significant adverse effects on seeds in storage (Toole, 1950). He reported that most crop seeds lose their viability at relative humidity near 80% and temperature ranges of 25-30oC, but can be kept for ten years or more at relative humidity of 50% or lower and temperature of 5o C or lower. The survey results revealed that both male and female seed retailers generally transported certified seeds in ordinary vehicle instead of custom-built air conditioned van. One respondent said this was due to absence of commercial custom-built air conditioned mobile cold van services. Ordinary vehicles with high temperatures could adversely affects quality of seeds in transit. According to the survey results both genders affirmed that certified seeds in Ghana were properly labelled with adequate product information to the farmer and other consumers. This could be attributed to the enforcement of certification and quality control measures including production, supervision and distribution of packaging materials by GSID the regulatory body. 63 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Nishikawa (2010) reported that seed certification is one of the important mechanisms that ensures that farmers are provided with good quality seeds. Alemu (2010) also affirmed that since farmers have issues evaluating the physical or hereditary characteristics of seeds before they are planted and developed, accreditation of seed quality is fundamental to give buyers quality confirmation and methods for review if desires are not met. Both male and female respondents affirmed that length of seed storage time could affect seed quality if seeds were poorly stored. Poorly cleaned and dried seeds kept for a longer time at high temperatures will deteriorate basically due to the presence of pathogens and other contaminants in the seed as well as possible high seed moisture content. Seeds with high moisture content stored in high temperatures also create conducive environment for inborn seed pathogens to thrive thus affecting seed health quality of seed in storage. Survey results showed that whiles few males and female retailers pre-tested seeds, majority of respondent did not test seed before selling. What accounted for this practise was that farmers believe seeds in stock had already gone through field inspection and other quality control procedures and have been tested and certified by the regulatory body. But as asserted by FAO (2010) deferrals in seed conveyance and how the seed is stored (in travel and at the retailers end) can have critical negative impacts on the seed. Thus, retailers should at least conduct germination test to confirm germination percentage before seeds were sold. The study showed that both male and female retailers kept seeds together with agrochemicals in their retail rooms because it was reported that the agrochemical trade was more lucrative 64 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh hence supplemented sale of seeds considerably. This agrees with Tahirou et al., (2009) who reported that, the majority of the seed providers are agro dealers who sell improved seeds along with other agricultural inputs (e.g., pesticides and fertilizers). This implies that for economic reasons seed retailers have not come to appreciate possible effects of the practice on the quality of the seeds they hold especially in case of chemical spillage. Agrochemical spillage on seed not only affect seed quality in storage but also field growth and establishment. Martensson observed that nodule development was inhibited at increased levels of bentazone, chlorsulfuron, glyphosate and mancozeb (Martensson, 1992). Lichston et al., (2006) also reported that fungicide spillage on seed diminished wax content and altered its morphology, causing cracks and missing crystalloids that can make the plant more helpless to sicknesses, herbivory and drying up. Buts et al., (2013) in a study inferred that contact of the seeds of Vigna radiata with bavistin was sheltered just up to 0.50% concentration regardless of its antagonistic impact on number of branching & pods. Over 0.50% concentration adversely influenced the development and yield of the plants in both M1 and M2 generations. Again Dane and Dalgic (2005) reported that benomyl has some negative effects on mitotic divisions in onion root tip cells. It could be deduced from the interactions with the retailers that they purchased only a limited stock of seeds (maize) and hence seeds are often being sold out by the close of season hence no need for carry over effects. However, in the case of vegetables some seeds are carried over thus presence of carry over effects such as mouldiness, reduced or no germinability. 65 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5.2 Laboratory Seed Testing 5.2.1 Seed germination test Most germination test results for sampled seed maize were more than the minimum standard of 85% that qualifies them to be certified seeds (Appendix 10). The high germination percentage observed in seed maize stored at room temperatures especially in the NR was not expected and may suggest that well processed maize seeds can store well in room temperature ranges and above for reasonably short period of time. Generally, relative humidity in the North after harvest and in storage is relatively lower than the South. The North also has no rains usually after end of October till the following May to June. Low humidity and low night temperatures of 15oC during November to April implies seed will naturally keep well. Western region however, has rainfall all year round and therefore humidity and temperature are high and this is bad for seeds in storage. The high germination percentage and good moisture content observed in tested seed maize among the regions suggest that storage practices for both male and female retailers among the regions were similar due to their similarity in their knowledge of seed storage and did not adversely affect the seed quality in the short term. The continued high percentage purity among the regions may suggest that seeds were properly cleaned at the processing stage. First count germination results and longer seedling length observed indicated that seeds were equally vigorous among the regions. The seed vigour index 1 suggested good root and shoot establishment and increased root intake of soil water and nutrient within the maize seedling. Seed vigour index 2 also suggested increased assimilation of plant nutrients in the maize seedling. Although sampled seed maize from Ashanti Region recorded high germination performance, the significant differences among each retailer in the region suggested that each retailer stored 66 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh seeds differently thus accounting for the differences in the germination performances of each tested seed. It also indicated that AS6 was storing seeds well whiles AS8 may not have been storing seeds well translating in high percentage of dead seeds and abnormal seedlings. Rindels (1995) reported that seed viability depended on seed storage conditions. Rindels related that relative humidity, temperature of the storage environment, storage material used and the ensuing storage conditions applied to seeds could reduce viability or render the seed dead (Rindels, 1995). The safe moisture content and high purity among these tested seeds may suggest not only good drying and cleaning in the processing stage but also good retailer storage practice that maintained seed moisture content and kept seed uncontaminated. Also, observed high percentage vigour index 1 and 2 in AS6 may suggest excellent growth in seedling length and soil nutrient assimilation by maize seedling. High germination performance observed in tested maize seeds in GA with significant differences may suggest each retailer stored seeds differently, accounting for the differences in germination performances in seed maize. It may also suggest that GA5 may be storing seeds well accounting for very low dead seeds and abnormal seedlings whiles GA1 may not be storing seeds appropriately accounting for high dead seeds and abnormal seedling percentages. Safe moisture content, high purity among these tested seeds may well suggest not only good drying and cleaning in the processing stage but also good retailer storage practice that maintained seed moisture content and kept seed uncontaminated. Observed high percentage vigour index 1 in GA5 and vigour index 2 in GA2 may suggest excellent growth in seedling length and soil nutrient assimilation by the plant respectively. 67 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh High germination percentages in tested seed maize in WR except WR5 with significant differences may suggest each retailer in the region stored seeds differently, accounting for the differences in germination performances in seed maize. Additionally, WR10 may be storing seeds well accounting for less observed abnormal seedlings and dead seeds whiles WR5 may not be storing seeds well accounting for the high abnormal seedlings and dead seeds. Safe moisture content, high purity among these tested seeds may well suggest not only good drying and cleaning at the processing stage but also good retailer storage practices that maintained seed moisture content and kept seeds uncontaminated. The above observations also suggest that tested seeds met quality standards as reported by Copeland and McDonald that a seed lot meant for planting is said to be of high quality if it possesses high genetic purity, high germination percentage and a minimum inert matter, weed and other crop seeds and is free from disease causing organisms (Copeland and McDonald, 1995; Al-Yahya, 2001; Guberac et al., 2003; Šimic et al., 2004; Heatherly and Elmore, 2004). Observed high seedling vigour index 1 in WR8 and vigour index 2 in WR10 may suggest excellent growth in seedling length and soil nutrient assimilation by maize plant respectively. This is in agreement with Byrum and Copeland, (1995) who reported that seed vigour is the sum of those properties that determine the activity and performance of seed lots of acceptable germination in a wide range of environments. Seeds with low vigour will show stunted growth and abnormalities in the developing shoot and root system and subsequently affect crop establishment (Caddick, 2007). 68 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The high germination performance, moisture content and purity in cowpea tested seeds suggest that not only was proper drying and cleaning done at the processing stage but also good retailers storage practice had contributed to the cowpea seed performance. This agrees with Rindels who reported that pure seed component of a seed lot together with seed germination capacity are used to determine the planting value of the seed (Rindels, 1995). The observed high seedling vigour index 1 and 2 in AS is an indication of good seedling development and nutrient assimilation. High germination performance in tomato seeds may be attributed to good retail storage environment whiles poor tomato seed performance may be the effect of high storage temperature accounting for high dead seeds in tomato seeds sampled from GA. Seed moisture content and purity was good suggesting good drying and cleaning at the processing stage. The observed high seedling vigour index 1 and 2 in WR1 is an indication of good seedling development and nutrient assimilation. High germination performance of properly dried and cleaned seeds in pepper seeds may be attributed to good retail storage temperature suggesting that properly cleaned and dried pepper seed can store well in high temperatures in the short term. The observed high seedling vigour index 1 and 2 in GA10 is an indication of good seedling development and nutrient assimilation. 69 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5.2.2 Seed health test Mathur and Kosgdal (2003) defined seed health as the presence or absence of disease-causing organisms such as fungi, nematodes, bacteria, viruses and insects, and the status of seeds in a seed lot. Acremonium strictum, Fusarium moniliforme and Curvularia lunata commonly occurred in tested seed maize sampled from both genders in all the four regional locations indicating that tested seeds were not healthy. This could be attributed to fluctuating high storage temperatures coupled with high initial seed moisture content before drying. Seeds might have already been infested on the field before harvesting. When such seeds are used for sowing, seed-borne pathogens may cause disease or death of plants on the field resulting in crop loss (Morre and Tymowski, 2005). Field diseases of maize caused by these pathogens includes Acremonium strictum (Black bundle disease) Fusarium moniliforme (Fusarium ear and stalk rot) and Curvularia lunata (Curvularia leaf spot). Colletotricum graminicola causative organism for Anthracnose diseases in maize fields were observed in samples from three regions (GA, NR and WR) suggesting that sampled maize seeds were unhealthy. Their levels of seed infection may be due to fluctuating high storage temperatures coupled with high initial seed moisture content before drying. Fusarium oxysporium causative organism for Root rot in maize fields observed in sampled maize from the two regions (GA and WR) may be due to fluctuating high storage temperatures coupled with high initial seed moisture content. Fusarium oxysporum and Fusarium monilliforme causative organisms for fusarium wilt in cowpea fields were observed in sampled seed cowpea in the two regions (AS and NR) may be due to fluctuating high storage temperatures coupled with high initial seed moisture content. 70 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTERS SIX 6.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 6.1 Conclusions It can be concluded that most of the retailers were men aged over 30 years, well-educated with at least 5 years of experience in the seed retail business. Knowledge on seed storage and seed storage practices for both genders were similar. Seed storage temperatures in the sampled retailed shops were high and ranged from 18 to 38.5oC. Most certified seeds retailed were vegetables, maize, cowpea, fruits and lawns with vegetables and maize being the most available seeds on the market. Seed growers and seed companies were the dominant seed suppliers in the seed retail business in Ghana. Certified seeds were mainly delivered in ordinary vehicles with seeds subjected to the prevailing atmospheric temperature. This practice is inimical to the seed and adversely affects quality attributes of retailed seeds. Sampled certified seeds were properly labelled with sufficient information to the final consumer. Most of the seeds were kept in the store room after purchase and were stored at room temperature for a short period or as long as stocks lasted. It was also found that majority of retailers did not test seeds after receipt from suppliers and before seeds were sold to the farmer. Most retailers sampled kept seeds together with agrochemicals yet had not identified any negative effects of agrochemicals on the seeds they keep. Tested seeds in both functional and non-functional regions performed well. 71 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Tested seed maize sampled from the Ashanti Region were ranked best in terms of germination percentage, vigour and purity followed by tested seed maize in the Greater Accra Region with that from Western Region ranking third. Tested seed maize sampled from Ashanti Region were highly vigorous in vigour index 1 followed by that from Greater Accra while that of Western Region were ranked third. However, in vigour index 2 tested maize seed in Western Region were ranked high, followed by that of Greater Accra whiles that of Ashanti Region were third. This means that even though tested seed maize sampled from Ashanti Region showed plump seedling growth with vigorous seedling height 7DAP it did not translate into nutrient assimilation however, tested seed maize sampled from the Western Region though not as plump as that of AS assimilated more nutrients. Thus in terms of nutrient accumulation WR tested seed maize were highly vigorous (table 26). Tested seed maize sampled from Northern Region performed well but could not be compared to rest of regions because only one sample could be obtained at the time of seed sampling. Tested Cowpea seeds sampled from Ashanti and Northern Regions were of good quality however, tested cowpea from Ashanti Region showed high germination percentage and seedling vigour index 1 and 2. Tested tomato seeds from the Western Region proved to be of high quality in terms of germination percentage and seedling vigour whiles that of Greater Accra Region performed poorly with the exception of GA2. 72 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Tested pepper seeds sampled from Greater Accra and Western Regions were of good quality in terms of germination percentage and seedling vigour however, GA10 tested seeds were more vigorous. All maize and cowpea seeds were observed to have poor seed health status with signs of fungal pathogens such as Acremonium strictum, Fusarium moniliforme and Curvularia lunata commonly occurring on seed maize sampled from all four regions. Colletotricum graminilola was also commonly observed on plated sampled seed maize from Greater Accra, Northern and Western Regions. Fusarium oxysporium was also observed on maize plated seeds sampled from Greater Accra and Western Regions. Fusarium oxysporium and Fusarium monilliforme were observed in tested cowpea seeds sampled from the Ashanti and Northern regions. The presence of the seed pathogens have seed quality and economic implications for both seed growers, retailers and consumers. 6.2 Recommendations It is recommended that more women (especially women in the agricultural sector) should be encouraged to explore job opportunities in the seed retail business through stimulus packages e.g. Start-up capital for initial set up of business whiles their male counterparts are motivated enough to stay in the business to enhance the development of SME in the seeds sector. 73 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Both Government and Private sector must be committed to investing in development of germ plasm for locally consumed vegetables for the production of foundation and certified seeds so as to reduce the heavy reliance on imported certified vegetable seeds. Since high temperatures adversely affected quality of seeds in storage, certified seed retailers must begin to recognise seed retail as a business so as to source for the right investments (infrastructure and equipment) to acquire sizeable cold rooms for safe seed storage. Existing seed processing plants and cold storage rooms should be regularly maintained. Government could through its one district one factory policy explore the possibility of establishment of seed processing plants and cold storage rooms in the non-functional regions. This will be in line with Governments agricultural initiative on planting for food and jobs. This investment will also ensure proper, cleaning, drying and storage to ensure certified seeds produced meet both local and international seed quality standards. Retailers must be able to improvise simple nursery beds in their retail shops to at least test for seed germinability before selling seeds to farmers for planting as recommended by GSID. It could be deduced from the interactions with the retailers that they purchased only a limited stock of seeds thus the lot often being sold out by the close of season and hence no need for carry over seeds and their effects. This a good practise and must be continued. This research work focused on the characteristics of certified seed retailers and their effects on the quality of seeds they hold taking into consideration physical, physiological and pathological 74 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh quality traits. Future research can explore the characteristics of certified seed producers and their effects on seed quality considering genetic quality of the foundation and certified seeds used and produced respectively. 75 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh REFERENCES Abdul-Baki, A.A. and Anderson, J.D. (1973). Vigour determination in Soybean seed by multiple criteria. Crop Science 13, 630-633. ACB. (2012). 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IITA, Ibadan, Nigeria. 40 pp. 14, 17, 18. 82 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh OMaliko, C.P.E. (1998). Nigeria seed industry and its potential role in food security within the West and Central Africa subregion. Proceedings of the international conference on seed security for food security, 30 December–1 November 1997. Florence, Italy, FAO, Rome (Online) www.Fao.Org/Ag/Agp/Agps/Georgof/Gerogo14htm. Pinthus MJ, Kimel U (1979) Speed of germination as a criterion of seed vigour in soybeans. Crop Science 19, 291–292. Rindels, S. (1995). Seed Viability, Horticulture and Home Pest News, Dept. of Horticulture, Iowa State University. Pp.16. Sastry, C.P. (1969). Selling and promoting good quality seed in India today. Proceedings of Seed Specialists Workshop, India International Center. New Delhi, India. 243 pp. Scowcroft, W. R. and Polak Scowcroft, C. E. (1998). Seed security: disaster response and strategic planning. In Proceedings: International Workshop on Seed Security for Food Security. pp 159-186. FAO, Rome and Accademia dei Georgofili, Florence, Italy. Shetty, H.S., (2000). Seed health testing and its role in plant protection. Proceedings, 1999- National seminar on Seed Science and Technology, (Shetty, H.S. and H.S. Prakash, Eds.). 1st Edn. Dept. of Applied Botany and Seed Pathology, University of Mysore, India, pp: 76- 78. Šimic B., Popovic, S., Tucak, M., (2004). Influence of corn (Zea mays L.) inbred lines seed processing on their damage. Plant, Soil and Environment 50, 157-161. TeKrony, D.M.and Egli, D.B. (1991). Relationship of seed vigour to crop yield: a review. Crop Science, 31, 816-822. Thompson, J.R. (1986). An Introduction to Seed Technology. New York, John Wiley and Sons. 83 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Toole, E. H. (1950). Relation of seed processing and of conditions during storage on seed germination. Proceedings of the International Seed Testing Association 16, 214-227. Tripp, R. (1998). Regulatory issues: varietal registration and seed quality control. Pages 159−173 In Seed industries in developing countries, edited By M.L. Morris. Lynne Reinner Publishers, Boulder, Colorado, USA. Tripp, R. (2001). Seed provision and agricultural development. Overseas Development Institute, London, UK.Mew, T.W.; Misra, J.K. and Merca, S.D. (1994). A Manual of Rice Seed Health Testing, International Rice Research Institute, IRRI, Pp: 3. Tahirou, Abdoulaye, Diakalia Sanogo, Augustine Langyintuo, Simeon A. Bamire, and Adetunji, V. (1994). Seed systems in sub-Saharan Africa: issues and options. The World Bank Discussion Paper 266: The World Bank, Washington D.C., USA. Van Amstel, H., J.W.T. Bottema, M. Sidik, and C.E. Van Santen (Eds.). (1996). Integrating seed systems for annual food crops. Proceedings of a workshop, 24–27 October 1995.Malang, Indonesia. CGPRT Center, Bogor, Indonesia. Venkatesan, V. (1994). Seed systems in sub-Saharan Africa: issues and options. The World Bank Discussion Paper 266: The World Bank, Washington D.C., USA.33 Walker D. J., Tripp R., Apau A., Dankyi A. A. and Delimini L. L. (1997a) Seed management by small-scale farmers in Ghana - A study of maize and cowpea seed in Brong Ahafo and Volta Regions. NRI Bulletin in preparation. Wright, M. and Tyler, P. (1994) Traditional seed-saving practices in Northern Ghana and Central Malawi. Working Paper. 84 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDIX Appendix 1. Ghana National Seed Policy The primary objective of the Ghana`s National Seed Policy is to help the advancement and foundation of a well-coordinated, comprehensive and manageable private sector driven seed industry through deliberate and key methodologies which would persistently make and supply new enhanced assortments for use by farmers and further, bolster effective seed generation, accreditation, advertising and seed security frameworks which will shape the reason for nourishment security and bolster the general improvement of the agriculture sector. (GSP, 2013) Ghana`s seed policy statements covers various seed production components as mentioned below: (i) Seed Research and Variety Development This policy seek to enhance the support to research in the areas of upgraded human, physical and financial resources development to undertake both basic and adaptive research in collaboration with partners, both internal and external, in order to derive new varieties which are most suited to the Ghanaian agro-ecologies and end use and to ensure that processes of variety testing, release and registration as well as issues of ownership and other rights are adequately addressed as per international norms and standards. ii) Biotechnology in Crop Improvement This policy also seek to progressively create the necessary platform for safe and effective use of biotechnology applications and GM crops in the national seed industry as a means of rapidly attaining the national food security goals. 85 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh iii) Seed Production This policy statement guarantee that open administrations given to the creation of the early classes of seed are advanced to frame a solid establishment for the seed business and to firmly bolster the private division to assume responsibility for the generation of the affirmed seed class, at first helping them with the yields from people in general segment commanded offices and padding them to dynamically build up their own particular raiser and establishment seeds as quickly as time permits. iv) The Informal Seed Sector To help the informal seed segment to coordinate with the formal division and efficiently overhaul some of its practices with a view to developing into the formal seed division and improving the development of the formal sector and the seed industry. (v) Seed Conditioning and Storage This policy statement is to ensure that past investments in seed conditioning and storage are adequately protected, maintained and efficiently deployed to meet the needs of existing public sector agencies involved in breeder and foundation seed production. It is also to utilize the spare capacity of existing seed plants to service the needs of the emerging private sector, work towards privatizing any redundant seed plants and encourage the private sector to invest in this area to meet their own specific needs. vi) Seed Regulatory Framework a) Seed Quality Assurance This policy statement seeks to enhance the maintenance of high quality seeds of crop varieties at the points of production, handling and also moving in commerce. 86 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh b) Variety Release This is to ensure that materials emanating from research and eventually proposed to be introduced into the seed market as new varieties are sufficiently screened as per laid down procedures and to ensure that adequate capacity and resources have been provided to mandated institutions to conduct the variety release process efficiently and effectively. c) Intellectual Property Rights (IPRs) (Plant Breeders’ Rights and Farmers’ Rights) The policy support the development and implementation of a well-structured and targeted IPR legislation (PBR and Farmers’ Rights) which will encourage breeders and farmers in their work to rapidly develop and release improved varieties, enhance seed accessibility and protect plant genetic products. vii) Agricultural Extension This policy create an enabling environment and develop adequate capacities for a pluralistic extension system to play its critical roles in seed production, delivery and use. viii) Marketing The policy on marketing ensure, in a manner consistent with prudent free market economics and other national goals, the regular availability of quality seed for seed users in the form, time and place they need it to guarantee crop production for food security and national development. ix) Seed Export The policy seek to consult with all pertinent stakeholders with a view to encouraging the national seed industry to aim at producing excess seeds beyond immediate national requirement and to exploit niche markets for the export of seeds to external markets to increase foreign exchange earnings and to enhance incomes and livelihoods of producers/stakeholders along the seed value chain. 87 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh x) Seed Imports This policy is to help minimize the over dependence on imports by empowering the local seed industry to build up their yield potential; to asset and fortify national seed administrative bodies to attempt their obligations, in accordance with facilitative worldwide seed exchange standards and acting inside the West African seed exchange harmonization convention; and to especially energize the national seed industry to concoct new assortments which can contend positively with imports. xi) Private Seed Enterprise Development It seek to rapidly promote the development of an active and efficient private seed sector through the creation of an enabling environment which will include effective collaboration between public and private seed enterprises and agencies, facilitative investment incentive packages and infrastructural development. xii) Seed Value Chain The policy develop the seed sector through the enhancement and integration of the seed value chain and commodity value chain. xiii) National Seed Security The policy encourage and promote the development of steps and processes aimed at quickly restoring the productive capacity of rural populations affected by disasters so that as soon as possible, they are able to recover their livelihoods and curtail or reduce their dependence on food aid. xiv) Capacity Building This policy identify the infrastructural, institutional and human resource development that will be necessary to implement a comprehensive seed industry and to act in concert with all 88 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh stakeholders and development partners to ensure that the required capacities exist in all the seed industry components for orderly and balanced growth of the industry. xv) National Funding Mechanisms Seek to ensure that, in implementing the National Seed Policy, adequate resources are marshalled, first and foremost from the national resources as a clear indication of the commitment of Government to the overall objective in seed industry development. 89 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Appendix 2. Ghana Seed Plan with Budget. PROJECT PROFILE BUDGET ALLOCATION ($) Direct Private Sector Interventions 1. Strengthening the Role of the Private Sector in the Ghana Seed 2,541,000.00 Industry 2. Developing the Private Sector Seed Marketing 4,939,000.00 3. Assisting the Private Seed Sector with Improved Infrastructure 8,144,000.00 Supportive Services for Seed Industry Growth 4. A Strong Seed Value Chain for a Strong Seed Industry 5,958,000.00 5. Ensuring Adequate Human Resources for the Seed Industry 3,062,000.00 6. Strengthening the Plant Genetic Resources Base of the Seed 902,000.00 Industry Addressing Gaps in the Strategic Seed Sector Components 7. Catering for the Seed Needs of Traditional Crops 6,232,000.00 8. National Seed Security Project 3,402,000.00 9.Facilitating the Positive and Contributory Role of the Informal Seed 4,495,000.00 Sector in Ghana Seed Sector Governance and Coordination 10. Strengthening the National Seed Council’s Secretariat 1,312,000 Total Estimated Project Cost 40,987,000.00 90 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Appendix 3. Seed Certification Labels (a and b). (a) (b) 91 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Appendix 4. (a) Sampled Agro Input Dealers and (b) Some seeds mixed with agrochemicals in a sampled retail shop. (a) AGRO INPUT LOCATION INPUTS SOLD GAIDA DEALER MEBERSHIP Aglow Agric. Accra, Vegetables, grains, legumes Member and Agrochemicals Products Ministries Agri Evo Kaneshie Vegetables, grains, legumes, Member ornamentals and Agrochemicals Dizengoff North Industrial Vegetables, grains, legumes Member Area and Agrochemicals Agriseed LTD Adabraka Vegetables, grains, legumes Member and Agrochemicals Haridot Supplies CMB, Accra Vegetables, grains, legumes Member and Agrochemicals Asgrow Ventures Circle Maize, Vegetables and Member Agrochemicals Farmers Friend Ent. Madina mkt Maize, Vegetables, Cowpea Member and Agrochemicals Samdo Agric. Ent. Teshie Maize, Vegetables and Member Agrochemicals Agro Monti Co. LTD Madina car Maize, Vegetables and Member station Agrochemicals Offie Agro Product Tadi-Acc Maize, Vegetables , Cowpea Member Center Station and Agrochemicals Christy Adom Agro Essiama Maize, Vegetables and Member chemicals Agrochemicals Makumi Trading Tarkwa station Maize, Vegetables and Member Enterprise Agrochemical Nyarko Abromah Tarkwa station Maize, Vegetables and Member Agrochemicals Agrochemical Agro Age LTD Tadi-Market Maize, Vegetables and Member Circle Agrochemical Kantanka Agric T and A Park Maize, Vegetables and Member product Tarkwa Agrochemical Akuafo Nti Agro Ayinase Maize, Vegetables and Member chemicals Agrochemical 92 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh K A Anane Ayinase Maize, Vegetables and Member agrochemicals Agrochemical Aben Ama Akuafo Amanful Tadi Maize, Vegetables and Member Agrochemicals Agrochemical Akuafo Pen Beposo Maize, Vegetables and Member Agrochemical Rose Agrochemicals New Edubiase Maize, Vegetables and Member Agrochemical Akuafo adamfo Adanse Asokwa Maize, Vegetables and Member Trading Enterprise Agrochemical Akuafo Adanfo Obuasi Market Maize, Vegetables and Member Agrochemical B. kakyire New Edubiase Maize, Vegetables and Member Agrochemical Agrochemical E. Ofori Adansi Praso Maize, Vegetables and Member Agrochemicals Agrochemical B. kakyire Mbrom, Kumasi Maize, Vegetables and Member Agrochemical Agrochemical Yebo’s Kejetia, Kumasi Maize, Vegetables and Member Agrochemicals Agrochemical K. Opoku Kejetia, Kumasi Maize, cowpea, Vegetables Member Agrochemical and Agrochemical Evisco Farms Mbrom, Kumasi Maize, Vegetables and Member Agrochemical Ato's Agrochemicals Adansi Praso Maize, Vegetables and Member Agrochemical Vans Addo Enterprise TamaleP and T Maize, cowpea, Vegetables Member and Agrochemical Agriseed LTD Chogu, Tamale Maize, Vegetables and Member Agrochemical Wunpuni Savelugu Maize, Vegetables and Member Agrochemicals Agrochemical Kayoma Aboabo Market, Maize, Vegetables and Member Agrochemicals Tamale Agrochemical A.A. Suguri Aboabo Market Maize, Vegetables and Member Agrochemicals Tamale Agrochemical Wunpuni Moshi Zongo Maize, Vegetables and Member Agrochemicals Tamale Agrochemical Tampuli Aboabo Maize, Vegetables and Member Agrochemicals Tamale Agrochemical 93 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (b) 94 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Appendix 5. Research Questionnaire. UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON COLLEGE OF BASIC AND APPLIED SCIENCE WEST AFRICA CENTER FOR CROP IMPROVEMENT. QUESTIONNAIRE ON ASSESSING THE QUALITY OF CERTIFIED SEEDS SOLD AT RETAILERS SHOP IN FOUR REGIONS OF GHANA. QUESTIONNAIRE FOR CERTIFIED SEEDS RETAILERS I am an MPhil. Student of the University of Ghana conducting a study on the above mentioned topic and I humbly need your response to this questionnaire. This would enable me investigate into quality status of certified seeds sold at the retailers shop. You are assured that the information given would be for Academic purposes only and hence any information provided will be treated with strictest of confidentiality. The major objective of this study: To Assess the quality of certified seeds at retailers shop before seeds get to the farmers for planting. 95 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Specific objectives: (1) To assess the profile of certified seed retailers across the four regions in Ghana. (2) To evaluate retailers’ knowledge on seed storage practices and use in seed preservation. (3) To evaluate the quality of certified seeds sampled from the distribution and marketing chain. Please read each statement carefully and give responses that most accurately represents your thinking and viewpoint. DEMOGRAPHIC INFORMATION 1. Name of shop ……………………………………………… 2. Location: …………………………………………………………… 3. Address……………………………………………………………… 4. Gender: 1. Male [ ] 2. Female [ ] 5. Age (yrs.): 1. under 25 [ ] 2. 25 – 30 [ ] 3. 30 + [ ] 6. Highest educational level attained 1. B.E.C.E [ ] 2. S.S.C.E [ ] 3. HND [ ] 4. Diploma [ ] 5. 1st Degree [ ] 6. Masters [ ] 7. Other [ ] 8. No formal education 7. How long have you been in this business? 1. < 5 yrs. [ ] 2. ≤10 yrs. [ ] 3. 11 – 15 yrs. [ ] 4. 16yrs+ [ ] 96 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh B. ACQUISITION AND STORAGE OF SEEDS 8. Seed storage room temperature:…………………………………………… 9. Which seeds do you retail? 1. Vegetables [ ] 2. Maize [ ] 3. Cowpea [ ] 4. Lawn seed [ ] 5. Fruits [ ] 10. Who is your certified seeds supplier? 1. Seed growers [ ] 2. Cooperatives [ ] 3. Seed companies [ ] 11. How are the seeds delivered to you? 1. In an air conditioned van 2. In an ordinary van 12. Which is the best practice? 1. in an air conditioned van 2. in an ordinary van 13. Are the seeds properly labelled? 1. Yes [ ] 2. No [ ] 14. Does the seed labels contain adequate information? 1. Yes [ ] 2. No [ ] 15. Where are seeds kept after purchase? 1. Warehouse [ ] 2. Retail shop [ ] 3. Other [ ] C. SEED TESTING, STORAGE ENVIRONMENT, DURATION AND SEED QUALITY 16. Under what temperature condition are the purchased seeds stored? 1. Room temperature [ ] 2. Cold room [ ] 17. How long do you keep your seeds in stock? 1. 1-2 months [ ] 2. 3-5 months [ ] 3. 6- 8 months 4. As long as stocks last [ ] 18. Does the length of storage time affect seed quality? 1. Yes [ ] 2. No [ ] 19. If yes to question 18 indicate these effects 1. Poor germination [ ] 2. Mouldiness [ ] 97 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3. decay [ ] 4. Reduced vigour [ ] 5. Poor emergence [ ] 20. Do you carry out any seed testing to confirm the quality of seed as indicated by supplier? 1. Yes [ ] 2. No [ ] 21. In which temperature condition do you keep the certified seeds? 1. In a regulated temperature [ ] 2. Room temperature [ ] 22. Do you keep seeds together with agro chemicals? 1. Yes [ ] 2. No [ ] 23. Have you identified any negative effect of agro chemicals on the seed? 1. Yes [ ] 2. No [ ] 24. Describe this observable effect of chemicals on seed? 1. Reduced germination [ ] 2. Spillage /contamination [ ] 3. Decay [ ] 25. Do you carry out any seed testing to determine quality of seeds before seed get to the farmer for planting? 1. Yes [ ] 2. No [ ] 26. Besides the Standard Germination Test which is the main requirement for seed trade in Ghana do you do any other tests for your seeds before sale? 1. Yes [ ] 2. No [ ] 27. If yes to question 24 indicate the test(s) done: 1.Separation (purity) [ ] 2. Moisture content [ ] 3. Seed vigour test [ ] 4. Seed health [ ] 28. Do you carry over certified seeds from one year/season to the other? 1.Yes [ ] 2.No [ ] 29. If yes to question 28 in which temperature condition do you store such seeds? 1. In a cold room [ ] 2. At room temperature [ ] 30. When it is time to resell carryover stocks do you do any seed testing? 1.Yes [ ] 2. No [ ] 98 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 31. Are you aware of factors that affect seed storage? 1. Yes [ ] 2. No [ ] 32. If yes to question 29 give examples 1. Storage temperature [ ] 2. Moisture content [ ] 3. Humidity [ ] 5. Pests 6. Poor conditioning [ ] 33. What is the effects of packaging materials on seed storage and quality? 1. Good packaging material enhances storage time and quality [ ] 2. Poor packaging material reduces storage time and quality. [ ] 99 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Appendix 6. (a) Normal maize seedlings (b) abnormal maize seedlings (c) Between-rolled towel paper test for maize seeds (d) Sand Method for Cowpea Seed (e) Blotter paper test for tomato seeds (a) (b) 100 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (c) (d) 101 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (e) 102 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Appendix 7. Germination Test Sheet. UNIVERSITY OF GHANA WEST AFRICA CENTER FOR CROP IMPROVEMENT GERMINATION TEST SHEET Sample Number……………. Species name: Date planted ……………… planted by…………………. Test location………………………….. 1st Count analyzed by:…………………………………. Final Count analyzed by:………………………………. 1st 2nd Replica Replica te te Normal Abnorm Har Fres Dea res Normal Abnorm Har Fres Dea Re seedlin al d h d t seedlin al d h d st gs seedling seed seed seed gs seedling seed seed seed s s s s s s s s 3RD 4TH Replica Replica te te Normal Abnorm Har Fres Dea res Normal Abnorm Har Fres Dea Re seedlin al d h d t seedlin al d h d st gs seedling seed seed seed gs seedling seed seed seed s s s s s s s s Result Normal Abnormal Hard Fresh Dead rest seedlings seedlings seeds seeds seeds 103 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Extra count, analyzed by: ………………….. Date………………. Tolerance check: Within ……...... OUT …….. Check by …………. Date …………… Approved by………….. Date……………….. Appendix 8. (a) Plated maize and cowpea seeds under ultra violet light (b) Some sampled incubated seed maize showing presence of fungal pathogen 7DAI. (a) 104 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (b) Appendix 9. a, b and c. Some retailers’ nursery boxes for seed germination testing. (a) 105 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (b) (c) 106 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Appendix 10. Standards for seed testing. 107