University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh UNIVERSITY OF GHANA CENTER FOR MIGRATION STUDIES REINTEGRATION OF SKILLED RETURNED MIGRANTS IN GHANA: AN ADVANTAGE OR A CHALLENGE? BY EDNA ESI AMOH (10239922) A LONG ESSAY SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF MASTERS OF ART IN MIGRATION STUDIES DEGREE SEPTEMBER, 2019 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DECLARATION I hereby declare that this long essay is the result of an original research undertaken by me under the supervision of Dr. Mary Setrana and that no part of it has been submitted for any other purpose. Further, references to the work of other persons or bodies have been duly acknowledged. ……………………………….. ………………………….. EDNA ESIAMOH DATE (STUDENT) ……………………………. ……………………………. DR. MARY SETRANA DATE (SUPERVISOR) i University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DEDICATION This work is dedicated to my mother Miss. Charlotte Amoh and my supervisor Dr. Mary Setrana. These two great women have been my backbone as far as this long essay is concerned. Their timely interventions brought me this far! I love you all! ii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ACKNOWLEGEMENT I honestly would not have been able to come this far without the grace of God Almighty, the one I serve. He has been faithful! Through all my challenges He kept me going and granted me life. I also want to acknowledge my supervisor Dr. Mary Setrana for her endless and priceless support. I again want to thank the following wonderful personalities for their support: Dr.Zami, Lecturer, University of Ghana, Minister Counselor Nassára Thomé, Embassy of Brazil in Ghana and Mr. Alfred Agbebo. iii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION ..................................................................................................................................... i DEDICATION ........................................................................................................................................ ii ACKNOWLEGEMENT ........................................................................................................................iii LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................................................ vii LIST OF FIGURES .............................................................................................................................viii ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................................... ix CHAPTER ONE ................................................................................................................................... 1 1.0 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Statement of problem ........................................................................................................................ 2 1.2 Aim of the study ................................................................................................................................ 3 1.3 Specific objectives of the study ........................................................................................................ 3 1.4 Significance of the study ................................................................................................................... 4 1.5 Organization of the study .................................................................................................................. 4 CHAPTER TWO .................................................................................................................................. 5 LITERATURE REVIEW .................................................................................................................... 5 2.0 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 5 2.1 An overview of migration and motivational factors ......................................................................... 5 2.2 Destinations for Ghanaian student migrants ..................................................................................... 7 2.3 Labour Migration .............................................................................................................................. 8 2.4 Return Migration ............................................................................................................................. 11 2.5 Consequences of labour .................................................................................................................. 12 2.6 Migration and Educational Attainment ........................................................................................... 15 2.7 Theoretical perspective ................................................................................................................... 18 2.7.1 Neoclassical Economics and the New Economics of Labour Migration ..................................... 19 2.7.2. The Structural Approach to Return Migration ............................................................................ 20 2.7.3 Transnationalism and Return Migration ...................................................................................... 22 2.7.4. Social Network Theory and Return Migration............................................................................ 23 2.7.5 Resource Mobilization and the Returnee‘s Preparedness ............................................................ 25 2.7.6 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................... 26 2.8 Summary ......................................................................................................................................... 27 CHAPTER THREE ............................................................................................................................ 29 METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY ............................................................................................... 29 3.0 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 29 3.1 The study area ................................................................................................................................. 29 iv University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.2 Research design .............................................................................................................................. 30 3.3 Quantitative methods ...................................................................................................................... 30 3.3.1 Target population ......................................................................................................................... 30 3.3.2 Sampling technique and sample size ........................................................................................... 31 3.4 Quantitative data collection ............................................................................................................ 31 3.4.1 Questionnaire survey ................................................................................................................... 31 3.4.2 Quantitative data analysis ............................................................................................................ 32 3.5 Qualitative methods ........................................................................................................................ 32 3.5.1 Identifying participant and sample size ....................................................................................... 32 3.5.2 In-depth interview guide .............................................................................................................. 33 3.5.3 Qualitative data analysis .............................................................................................................. 33 3.6 Ethical considerations ..................................................................................................................... 34 3.7 Limitations of the study .................................................................................................................. 34 CHAPTER FOUR ............................................................................................................................... 35 DATA ANALYSIS, INTERPRETATIONS AND DISCUSSIONS ................................................ 35 4.0 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 35 4.1.1 Background characteritics of respondents ................................................................................... 35 4.1.2 Years spent in Ghana after return ................................................................................................ 37 4.1.3 Respondent‘s reasons for migration ............................................................................................. 38 4.1.4 Percent distribution of reasons for migrating by gender .............................................................. 39 4.1.5 Respondent‘s reasons for return ................................................................................................... 40 4.1.6 Relationship between reasons for return and gender ................................................................... 41 4.1.7 Countries return migrants came from .......................................................................................... 42 4.1.8 Status of return migrants abroad .................................................................................................. 43 4.1.9 Respondent‘s experience after return ........................................................................................... 44 4.2.0 Sources of funding for education abroad ..................................................................................... 45 4.2.1 Re-integration modules adopted by highly skilled return migrants ............................................. 48 4.2.2 Challenges faced by return migrants in the study area ................................................................ 50 4.2.3 Percent distribution of challenges faced by Gender ..................................................................... 51 CHAPTER FIVE ................................................................................................................................ 53 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ....................................................... 53 5.0 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 53 5.1 Summary of findings ....................................................................................................................... 53 5.2 Conclusion ...................................................................................................................................... 54 5.3 Recommendations ........................................................................................................................... 55 5.3.1 Policies ......................................................................................................................................... 55 v University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5.3.2 Area for further research .............................................................................................................. 56 REFERENCES .................................................................................................................................... 57 APPENDICES ..................................................................................................................................... 61 vi University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF TABLES Table 4.1: Background characteritics of respondents .............................................................. 36 Table 4.2: Years spent in Ghana after return ........................................................................... 38 Table 4.3: Respondent‘s reasons for migration ....................................................................... 39 Table 4.4: Percent distribution of reasons for migrating by gender ........................................ 40 Table 4.5: Respondent‘s reasons for return ............................................................................. 41 Table 4.6: Relationship between reasons for return and gender .............................................. 42 Table 4.7: Status of return migrants abroad ............................................................................. 44 Table 4.8: Respondent‘s experience after return ..................................................................... 45 Table 4.9: Sources of funding for education abroad ................................................................ 48 Table 4.9.1: Challenges faced by return migrants in the study area ........................................ 50 Table 4.9.2: Percent distribution of challenges faced by Gender ............................................ 52 vii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2.1 Return Preparation .................................................................................................. 26 Figure: 4.1:Countries return migrants came from.................................................................... 43 viii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ABSTRACT Many people search for opportunities for self-development elsewhere, particularly in other countries when those opportunities are nonexistent in their countries. Many other people also as rational as they are try to compare the cost of training in their countries of origin to the cost of training in similar field and finally make a decision to migrate for the ‗better deal‘ but later return to their home countries. There is however little known in the migration literature about the integration of the highly skilled returned migrants in Ghana. This study looks at the reintegration of highly skilled returned migrants in Ghana, with a focus on Accra. The mixed method approach has been used in this study, in which snowballing has been combined with purposive sampling to select a sample of 45 respondents for the study. The study discovered that returned migrants are skillful and could offer their labour for the development of the country when harnessed for development. The study also discovered that politics at both national political party level and organizational levels discriminate against returned migrants, but are in favour of those who were on scholarships that were sanctioned or awarded by the Ghana Government or the organization or institution. It was discovered people discriminate against returned migrants by cheating them because of their perceived wealth. Returned migrants easily get access to some resources such as land, social capital, in terms of help from people, and easily get integrated by marriage. The Ministry in charge of youth and employment should provide a platform where these returned migrants can upload their profiles and documents for job applications. The policy on discrimination on the basis of ethnic group or tribe, religious affiliation, and other factors should be enforced ix University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER ONE 1.0 Introduction Anecdotally, people want to engage in highly paid economic activities where they can receive higher wages and salaries in order to achieve some goals in life. In the pursuit for such things as wealth quintiles and social recognition, people all over the world would also like to add some value to them so they could command better wages and salaries, even as they earn social recognition (Browne, 2017; Amankwa-Mensah, Boakye-Yiadom, and Baah-Boateng, 2016). However, adding value to oneself comes at a cost since the individual has to pay for the training received in any form (Browne, 2017). Many people search for opportunities for self-development elsewhere, particularly in other countries when those opportunities are nonexistent in their countries. Many other people also as rational as they could be trying to compare the cost of training in their countries of origin to the cost of training in similar field and finally makes a decision to migrate for the ‗better deal‘(IOM, 2015). Some studies have shown that many people will like to migrate to be trained in another country since those foreign-trained are considered more skilled as compared to those trained in the country of origin (Petersen, 2015; Amankwa-Mensah, Boakye-Yiadom and Baah-Boateng, 2016). There is a perception that foreign-trained personnel easily get employed in the country of origin (de Haas, 2011). Whereas some people migrate because they have the intention to do so, others also migrate to join their dependents where they are better-taken care of. These could explain many people migrate to other countries to educate themselves (Ghana Immigration Service, 2008). The migration literature shows a massive movement of people from the developing world to America and Europe and other ―white countries‖ especially. This movement is necessitated by many scholarship avenues offered by the governments, and other corporate organization as 1 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh part of their social responsibility, or on projects (Debrah, 2007). In Ghana, like other developing countries in the world, the Government in most cases sends people outside to other countries on scholarship and brings home their expertise which the country lacks, and on which the government spends a lot of money importing foreign expertise (de Haas et al., 2018). Some of the Universities in the country also offer a scholarship to go and study outside so they could be absorbed on return (de Haas et al., 2018). Usually, after the training and graduating from school, the host country requires that the student or the person trained returns to his host country to contribute his quota in the development to fulfill the main purpose of the scholarship (Kuusisto-Arponen et al, 2015; Amankwa-Mensah, Boakye-Yiadom and Baah-Boateng, 2016; Van der Geest,2011). Thus, the skilled labour is expected to return to Ghana where they are supposed to enjoy everything the citizens are supposed to enjoy by law in order to realize their human dignity. This includes employment, and engagement in other social and economic activities. This study explores the reintegration of the highly skilled returned migrants in the country, Ghana (Ghana Immigration Service, 2008). 1.1 Statement of problem Globally, the Universities and governments, including international organizations award scholarship schemes to students from other countries (Zimmermann, 2011). Most of the beneficiaries are from the developing countries in Africa (Adhikari&Grigulis, 2013). Many people in West Africa benefit from these scholarship schemes. It has always been the brilliant students from Ghana who have the privilege to get these scholarship packages (IOM, 2019). The selection criteria ensure that students who have exceptional academic abilities and skills are selected for the award of these scholarship schemes (Betts, 2013; Ghana Ministry of the interior, 2016). 2 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The foregoing indicates that most Ghanaians who migrate for the purpose of education are highly skilled because they are trained with the best educational facilities and conducive environments for such purposes (Obeng, 2013). The main aim for such opportunities is among other things that build the capacity for development. Thus, the beneficiaries are supposed to return to their home country to help in their various capacities (Beck et al, 2012). There are a number of people who are also trained in our local institutions who are competing with the highly skilled returned migrants, and this is more likely to pose a dilemma as to which of the two should be given the opportunity (Van der Geest, 2011). Because the returned migrants might not be known to the employees in terms of their skills and capabilities, some employees may choose those trained in the local schools and Universities over their returned migrant counterparts, while others may also opt for the returned migrants (Awumbila, et al., 2008). Apart from employment, returned migrants need to integrate perfectly by marrying, and owning resources, among other things (Awumbila et al., 2012). There is however little known in the migration literature about the integration of the highly skilled returned migrants in Ghana. 1.2 Aim of the study The main aim for conducting this study was to explore and understand the challenges and benefits of reintegration of highly skilled returned migrants in the Greater 1.3 Specific objectives of the study  Find out the socio-demographic and economic characteristics of the highly skilled return migrants  Investigate the migration history of highly skilled return migrants  To examine the challenges of highly skilled return migrants in the Greater Accra Region Region 3 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.4 Significance of the study This study will be of great importance in understanding the experiences of highly skilled returned migrants in Ghana, and Accra specifically. This will help the appropriate state agencies in charge of labor and employment to know and track highly skilled labor into the labor market, directing them to their various areas of specialization. The various trade unions can also make use of this study to know the experiences of the returned migrants. Other quarters and institutions such as the religious bodies, and political parties among others can also use the findings of this study to advise the youth in their various organizations and group them for the benefit of all. To the returned migrants, this study will serve as a mouthpiece and platform for advocacy to help them overcome their challenges. The benefits of being trained outside the country Ghana will also serve as motivation for other people to study hard and make good use of such opportunities. The study also makes important contributions in the migration literature by closing some literature gaps and providing current literature for understanding the lived experiences of returned migrants. Invariably, it will form the basis for other similar studies. 1.5 Organization of the study The study has been organized into five chapters. The first chapter has been devoted to the general introduction and background to the study. Chapter two has been devoted to literature review while chapter three looks at the detailed methodology for the study. Whereas the chapter four present and discusses the data, the fifth chapter summarizes the main findings, drawing conclusions from them, and makes some recommendations that will be of great interest to policy makers. 4 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.0 Introduction This chapter of the study focuses on critical examination of the literature on human mobility, and more specifically, the mobility of people for the purpose of education and training. The chapter focuses on the migration of people from Ghana for the purpose of education and training in other countries across the globe, and how these migrants are integrated into the Ghanaian system upon their return from further studies and training. The chapter covers their experiences and challenges in the area of employment, and other social life engagements. There is strong indication that labour is very mobile in many developing countries, particularly in Africa (Arthur, 199; Taylor & John, 2004). The migratory movement of population in Africa is very vibrant and has many sides to it. The history of Africa has accounts of various forms of movement across and within national boundaries promoted by trade, warfare, pastoralist, slavery, and natural disasters among others (Arthur, 1991). West Africa is believed to be the only part of Sub-Saharan Africa where migration numbers in relation to the total population have been increasing over the past few decades (de Haas, 2007). 2.1 An overview of migration and motivational factors Migration has been seen, considered and conceptualized by many people, governments and international organizations. Whereas, some schools of thought see it as a problem on both the sending and receiving areas more than the positive impacts, others only see it in the lens of population redistribution that bring about access to other resources that are not present at all, or are scarce in the sending areas (Barnetson et al, 2013). 5 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh There are a number of opportunities that are available in some countries than other countries (Awumbila, et.al, 2008). This comes as a result of differences in geographical and ecological resources that are spatially determined by nature. These resources are so important to the livelihood of people in such a way that their absence creates some livelihood problems and challenges to the less endowed (Awumbila, et.al, 2008). One of the numerous attempts to navigate life to ensure human dignity is to move to places with highly endowed resources. Africa is one of the most poverty stricken continents in the world throughout history (), and has been one of the most reported origins of many migrants to other continents in the world, especially, Europe. Some of the reasons why people migrate from Africa include the search for job, to join spouses, and to enjoy their educational facilities and opportunities that are offered to Africans. Thus, over the years, there have been many scholarship opportunities in other parts of the world that attract brilliant and very good students from Africa and other parts of the world. Ghana has been one of the known sending areas of people who migrate for education in other parts of the world (She et al, 2013). Whereas, the push factors include poverty that cripple the effort of the brilliant but needy students, at the same time, the scholarship opportunities coupled with the good educational facilities and policies in the receiving countries act as pull factors (She et al, 2013). The later makes the richer and brilliant people from Africa and Ghana migrate to Europe and other places within and outside Africa to equally get access to the same chances and opportunity to migrate for education purposes. The liberalization of movement of people and goods among member states of the ECOWAS has been an intermediate variable that determines peoples‘ intension to move from one country in Africa to other. Other opportunities like the liberalization of visa application for students makes the movement of students from Ghana to other countries for education. In Ghana, as in other parts of Africa, migration is largely informal and undocumented, making it impossible to have accurate figures or data. Despite this lack of accurate data, the writings 6 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh point to a long history of movement of population in which migration played a central role in the livelihood and progress plans of both rural and urban populations. Ghana‘s mining sector was probably the biggest under British colonial rule in West Africa and offered a number of opportunities for employment in which local people took little part. For many decades, in a country where the number of people entering far surpassed the number leaving, Ghana saw a reversal of migration trends from the late 1960s with a decline in the economy, as well as political instability and Ghana became a country of more people emigrating than entering (Awumbila, et.al, 2008). 2.2 Destinations for Ghanaian student migrants Many schools and Universities all over the world offer scholarship opportunities to students from other countries usually referred to as international students. Many of these are exchange programs to build the capacity of nationals from other countries that have a particular relationship with the donors or the providers of such opportunities (Rantaetal. 2013). Most of these schools and Universities are in The United States of America, Canada, Germany, and the United Kingdom (Kim & Ann, 2013; Kim & Ann, 2015). These countries have many scholarship opportunities for training students, academics and other workers from developing countries (Guo et al, 2012; Waters & Johanna, 2009; 2008). Ghana is one of the beneficiaries of such programs. The scholarship opportunities are usually offered by the governments of these countries in their state universities to produce the needed manpower for the development of the beneficiary countries (Chen & Liang-Hsuan, 2007). In Germany, the DAAD scholarship has been instituted for students from some universities in Ghana (Chen & Liang-Hsuan, 2006). In the United Kingdom, the Commonwealth Scholarship, and the Commonwealth Shared scholarship are major examples of the opportunities that allow Ghanaians to travel to these countries to further their education and come back to work in Ghana. Beside these 7 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh scholarships, there are a number of scholarships that are offered by the Universities themselves to Ghanaian nationals and other people from other countries. These scholarships are usually awarded when the universities win funding for projects that may or may not include partners from developing countries where the projects will be carried out, and whose nationals will better provide context knowledge in carrying out the projects (Beck et al, 2012). These are sometimes conditions attached to the application for the funding, and also, the projects are used in building epistemic communities to address some common problems and challenges confronting the whole or part of the world (Arthur, Nancy&Flynn, 2011).Some evidence points to people going to countries in Asia and the Far East such as China, Malaysia and Dubai. These reflect the significant importance these countries and regions have attained in global political and economic affairs. In the United Kingdom for example, the UK Department of health has since 1999 developed and gradually strengthened a Code of Practice for the International Recruitment of Healthcare professionals (Department of Health 2004) which requires the National Health Service employers not to actively recruit from developing countries unless there is a government-to- government agreement. This is to ensure quality standards and training of these healthcare workers. 2.3 Labour Migration According to the International Organization for Migration (IOM, 2011), labour migration refers to the movement of people from one place to another, and can either be within the country or from one country to another. This means that migration can be internal or international, crossing national boundaries (IOM, 2011). This study focuses on the international migration, and basically from Ghana to other countries for the main purpose of education and training. 8 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh It has been argued that the fact that migrants retain strong links with their country of origin is not a sign that they will be returning any time soon. However, this depends on their main motive for migrating. Indeed, a study has shown that Congolese and Senegalese migrants who had sent remittances to or visited their country of origin were found, surprisingly, to be more likely to delay return. Currently, the migration of labour to mineral centres, oil and industrial production sites has become one of the most important population features of West Africa and the continent as a whole (Anarfi and Kwankye, 2003). The thriving economies of the Ghana- Côte d‘Ivoire migration pole attracted large numbers of international migrants from countries such as Togo and Nigeria (mainly to Ghana), Guinea (mainly to Côte d‘Ivoire) and Burkina Faso, Niger and Mali (to both) (Yaro, 2005). However, these studies have shown that the main motive for migration was to search for educational and employment opportunities. In the principle of pan-Africanism, the Ghanaian and Ivoirian Presidents opened their borders to immigrants to work and stay (Anarfi&Kwankye 2003). The current study rather looks at returned migrants who have gone to further education in other countries. Upon their return, studies have shown that migrants make important contributions to the socio-economic development of the country by using their skills to work both for their own personal benefits and for the benefit of the country as a whole (Kwankye et al, 2007). Even though this study was undertaken over a decade ago, it will be argued that the findings are still applicable in these times. This follows the fact in 1968, Addo discovered this, and about two decades after, Addae-Mensah (1983) confirmed that migrants make important contributions to the country of destination. This analysis confirms why the findings of Kwankye et al. (2007) arecredible. It is no wonder Awumbila et al (2008) came out with the same findings. The foregoing critical analyses of the literature returned migrants are also important as the internal migrants and as those who never migrate. Hence, returned migrants need to be given attention and well integrated into their countries of origin. 9 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh On the international level, Peil (1995) identified Ghana‘s economy and educational system as basic causes of the large scale emigration of Ghanaians and argued that, the situation in Ghana offered few opportunities for the then growing population. Other reasons including employment, education and training underlie much of Ghanaian emigration to other West African states, as well as to Europe and North America (Nuro, 1999). Moreover, another Fosu(1992) observed that political instability experienced in Ghana can also be attributed to the increase in Ghana‘s emigration in the late 1970s and early 1980s. However, the period of large-scale emigration started in the 1970s and 1980s. The Convention People‘s Party (CPP) had maintained a liberal immigration policy given the party and government‘s pan-Africanist political stand and the concern to make Ghana the leader of African unity (Dzorgbo, 1998). This was cut short by the proclamation of the Foreigners‘ Compliance Order in 1969 which saw the expulsion of a large number of immigrants in Ghana in the same year. The order required of all foreigners in the country to be in possession of residence permit if they did not already have it or to obtain it within a two-week period. The current study focuses on the migration for education and the experiences of the return migrants as they integrate into the Ghanaian society. The main periods of increase and the spreading abroad of Ghanaians were between 1990s to the present (Bump, 2006.) Ghanaian emigration has increasingly been outside of the region, since the decline of Nigeria as a major destination for Ghanaian migrants in the 1980s. Although the majority of Ghanaian emigrants (66.4 %) still stay within the region of West Africa, a growing proportion is migrating to a different number of countries outside the region (DRC, 2007). According to a 2008 Ministry of Foreign Affairs estimates, Ghanaian emigrants can be found in more than 33 countries around the world. After West African countries, the most important countries of destination for Ghanaian emigrants are the USA (7.3 percent) and the UK (5.9%) (DRC, 2007). Most of the emigrants from Ghana are student migrants, some 10 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh whom are on scholarships and will likely, return to Ghana. Others studies such as the 2010 Population and Housing Census shows that the emigration rate is on the increase. 2.4 Return Migration Some migrants come back from their destinations to the home region. This coming back is referred to as return migration, and according to the definition offered by the United Nations Statistics Division for collecting data on international migration (UNSD, 1998), returning migrants are ―persons returning to their country of citizenship after having been international migrants (whether short- term or long-term) in another country and who are intending to stay in their own country for at least a year.‖ Evidence of return migration of Ghanaian migrants can be traced to the 1980s. Since the early 1980s when Ghanaian migrants were expelled from Nigeria, a series of voluntary and involuntary return migration of Ghanaians have also occurred. Another researcher, Ammassari (2004) explores homecoming from the view point of nation-building and entrepreneurship, Black et al (2003) approach homecoming from the view point of small enterprise development in Ghana and question whether small enterprise development provides a route for moving out of poverty. Tiemoko (2004) also approaches homecoming from the social and economic change it appears to cause. African Americans and people of African descent from the Caribbean and South America have also migrated to Africa and Ghana since the eighteenth century (Lake, 1995). Related to this, Bruner (1996) interpreted the touristic pursuance of black people from the Diasporas to Ghana as the ‗return to motherland Africa‘, specifically to Ghana. But while Lake focuses on those who have permanently returned from their stay abroad, Bruner looks at those who continue to reside abroad but are on touristic expedition to what they describe as their ancestral land. It appears then that homecoming of Ghanaians abroad 11 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh has not only been the concern of individual migrants. Obviously these individuals have played significant roles in this attempt. Since the early 1990s however, Ghanaian governments have pursued different return migration policies with the ultimate objective to attract skilled Ghanaian nationals abroad. In the 1990s, Emancipation Day Celebrations were instituted by the Rawlings-led government. This was part of the government‘s solution to help African Americans and people of African descent, especially from the Caribbean and South America to return to Africa and to Ghana (Debrah, 2007). Many studies have reported that return migration has also provided an opportunity for the acquisition of skills, experience and knowledge. This has resulted in ‗brain gain‘ and or ‗brain circulation‘. According to Sjenitzer and Tiemoko (2003), return migration involves the transfer of skills back to Ghana and job improvement on the part of return migrants. It is clear that the returned migrants possess the knowledge required of them by both funders of the educations and the institutions they attended. A clear evidence from the 1995 migration survey (Twum-Baah, et al. 1995) indicates that some return migrants received higher level formal education abroad — a useful contribution to human capital formation for the country. Evidence from this study will illustrate clearly the great number of returned migrants in Ghana and the importance of documenting their experiences and also help address any challenges identified. 2.5 Consequences of labour Labour migration could be negative or positive, and there have been many opinions about the consequences of migration on both the sending areas and the destinations. The advantages of the emigration usually manifest in the form of sending remittances back home for national 12 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh and household development. However, this study concerns the effects of returning to the home country in person. It is important to state that, countries (sending or receiving) and migrants may experience both gains and losses from migration, but the economic effects stand to vary widely (short-term or long-term). However, the immediate effects are always on the very people on the move (i.e. migrants). There have been many studies on the advantages and disadvantages of return migration. According to Anarfi and Kwankye (2003), returned migrants possess some abilities that characterize the destination areas from where they acquire their knowledge and skill for development. This means that harnessing the abilities of these returned migrants will invariably contribute immensely in national development. Also, migration of certain population groups in the society can relieve pressure on labour markets and ease intergenerational tensions. Despite the advantages, the risks involved in moving abroad can be huge. In many host countries, migrant workers are among the most at- risk groups in the society. They often have no rights, and suffer under poor working and living conditions (Anarfi&Kwankye, 2003). Although international standards for the protection of migrant workers exist, they are often ignored. In many cases, the debts owed to recruitment agencies are an additional burden (Anarfi&Kwankye, 2003). Agency cost for a job abroad can be many times the migrant‘s monthly salary. In many other instances, migrant workers‘ mobility and freedom of choice are restricted by the retention of their passports and other documents. Some studies also indicate that returned migrants are paid higher than their non-migrant counterparts who are performing the same tasks in same organizations in the country. These workers will make no social security contributions, and so have no social protection, and are often subjected to abuse and exploitation (Docquier&Marfouk, 2006). In some cases the 13 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh concentration of migrants in rural areas creates unease in the local population, and even racist or violent incidents (Docquier, and Marfouk, 2006.) Studies have shown that beside low wages, employment discrimination and poor living conditions, frequently they are subject to poorer health and safety conditions than nationals (Sjenitzer, and Tiemoko, 2003). Migrants and seasonal workers are usually employed in agricultural sectors to do low- skilled jobs, and work long hours. In some agricultural sub- sectors, such as greenhouses, where the health and safety conditions often can be very poor, migrant workers are the only people employed (Sjenitzer&Tiemoko, 2003). This study will explore whether there are differences in working and other employment conditions between returned migrants and their nationally trained counterparts who never migrate. There has been some argument that for sending countries, the immediate benefit of emigration can be found in remittances (money and goods sent home). The flow of remittances to developing countries, including Ghana, is very high. According to the World Bank, remittances totalled $529 billion worldwide in 2012, with $401 billion of that money flowing into developing nations. Such funds sent home by emigrants, though mainly to support families left behind, can encourage broader economic development. They can contribute to foreign exchange earnings and thus serve as protection against economic shocks. In the long term, beside countries being able to mobilise savings through financial institutions, the human capital gained by some emigrants could be a brain gain for their countries of origin. However, these studies have been carried out countries that have different economic and cultural backgrounds, and whose findings could not be generalized to represent the experiences in other countries. This is the reason why it is important to carry out this present study in Ghana in order to find out what actually happens in the Ghanaian contexts. It could happen that Ghanaians may give priority to return migrant over those locally trained in the sector of employment and concerning marriage and access to resources for their self-development. 14 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh However, the access to resources may come at very high costs compared to the non-returned migrants in the country. The popular notion is that the returned migrants are more likely to be considered as richer than those who did not migrate. 2.6 Migration and Educational Attainment It is very important for researchers and policy makers to distinguish between the nature and skills acquired from education at home country and that acquired in other countries, particularly in the advanced world (Hanushck& Zhang, 2009). It is also important to remember that those who return after successful completion of education abroad add to the existing stock of human capital in the home country, and together, this could be harnessed to help in carrying out the development agenda of the home country (Hanushck& Zhang, 2009). Of essence, education abroad paves way for the less privileged, which could not have competed with the more privileged ones who travel abroad for education. Again, educating abroad and returning reduces the pressure on the existing national educational facilities and helps in capacity building (Hanushck& Zhang, 2009). When thinking about the educational attainment of migrants, two points of reference naturally come to mind, the educational attainment of the migrants relative to the native population in the destination country, and the educational attainment of the migrants relative to their compatriots who remained in their country of origin (Dustmann&Glitz, 2011). According to Dustmann and Glitz(2011), ten(10) countries together host 86 percent of the around 76 million foreign-born individuals aged 15 and older that live in one of the 28 OECD countries for which data are available excluding data for Chile and Iceland. It is therefore not surprising that, given the heterogeneity in countries of origin and migration policies in place, there is substantial variation in the educational composition of the foreign-born population across destination countries. Dustmann and Glitz (2011) argued that in Canada alone, only 22 15 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh percent of the foreign-born aged 25-64 report lower secondary education (―low education‖) as their highest educational attainment. ‗Their study shows that in France, Italy and Spain about 50 percent of the foreign-born have at most completed lower secondary education. At the other end of the educational spectrum, the share of foreign-born individuals with tertiary education (―high education‖) exceeds 30 percent in Australia, Canada, the UK and the U.S., whereas in Germany and Italy, this share is below 20 percent. The composition of the foreign-born population in terms of their educational attainment becomes particularly relevant when seen in relation with the educational attainment of the native-born population (NB)‘ (Dustmann&Glitz, 2011;pg 19). The acquisition of education in countries that have established themselves as ―learning centres‖ is a main reason for migration, and that individuals choose to return to their countries of origin in order to apply the skills accumulated (see Dustmann et al., 2010a). Of course, these statistics may also partly be driven by regulations that do not allow foreign individuals to remain after the completion of their studies for which they came to the destination (Dustmann&Glitz, 2011). Indeed, in many countries, particularly in Europe, existing policies make it difficult for foreign students to stay and obtain a work permit. In recent years, the transition from study to work has been facilitated in many student destination countries, for example by enabling students to work while studying, or by extending the period granted to search for work following the completion of study (ICMPD, 2006), for a comparative study on retention policies in a large number of industrialised countries. The educational attainment of the foreign-born population serves as a key indicator of their performance in the host country‘s labour market (Bratsberget.., 2007). However, even if the foreign-born population in a given host country is as well educated as the native-born population in terms of the level of formal qualification or completed years of schooling, they 16 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh are unlikely to perform equally well in the labour market (Dustmann&Weiss, 2007). The educational skills immigrants bring with them may not be easily transferable to the host country labour market (e.g. due to language deficiencies), and a highly skilled immigrant is unlikely to command the same wage as a native-born worker with the same educational background, at least in the first years after arrival (Jensen &Pedersen, 2007). It is clear that labour emigration can promote development, but it can also lower development if not managed properly. On the positive side, however, the process of labour migration not only benefits migrants themselves, their families and their home countries, but also their host countries. Migration leads to the transfer of money, goods, knowledge and ideas, and helps the workers‘ countries of origin become more closely absorbed into the global economy. Furthermore, migration means not only going away, but also coming back. Thus with the knowledge, capital and international experience gained, labour migrants can contribute significantly to the growth of their home countries. It is clear that emigration or immigration can be beneficial for migrants, but only if their rights are protected properly. It can also be economically beneficial for both origin and host countries, however, with the present economic and trading structures, it is the rich and powerful countries that benefit the most. Migration brings social and cultural pressures that need to be taken into account when planning for future services. Migration also has the potential for bringing people together culturally but friction occurs if efforts are not made to make false beliefs held by local people disappear. It is also essential to provide good information about the local way of life to newcomers and ensure there are opportunities for people to mix and fully integrate. 17 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.7 Theoretical perspective The attention paid by international organizations to the link between migration and development in migrant‘s origin countries has highlighted the need to revisit approaches to return migration.Moreover, the growing diversity of migratory categories (ranging from economic migrants to refugees and asylum seekers) necessitates a distinction between the various types of returnee. This theoretical overview is necessary to show how return has been defined and located in time and space, and how the returnee has been depicted. The second objective is to take the various approaches to return migration a step further by elaborating on the theoretical insights that have been extensively proposed. The conceptual approach to returnees is then revisited, taking into account a set of distinguishing criteria, i.e. the returnee‘s preparedness and resource mobilization. As a sub-process of international migration, return migration has been subject to various approaches that offer contrasting sets of propositions stemming from neoclassical economics, the new economics of labour migration, structuralism, transnationalism and social network theory. From a qualitative point of view, numerous empirical inquiries have been carried out to better illustrate the multifarious factors that have made return migration a multifaceted and heterogeneous phenomenon. Today, the attention paid by international organizations to the link between migration and development has highlighted the need to revisit approaches to return migration. Moreover, the growing diversity of migration categories (ranging from economic migrants to refugees and asylum seekers) necessitates a distinction between the various types of returnee. We still need to know who returns when, and why; and why some returnees appear as actors of change, in specific social and institutional circumstances at home, whereas others do not. As a prerequisite to revisiting the conceptual approach to the profiles of returnees, by taking into account a set of distinguishing criteria, the first objective of this paper is to analyze how 18 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh return has been dealt with by international migration theories, emphasizing particularly the assumptions on which they rest. This theoretical overview is necessary to show how return has been defined and located in time and space, and how the returnee has been depicted. The second objective is to take the various approaches to return migration a step further by using and elaborating on the theoretical insights that have been extensively proposed. The conceptual approach to returnees is then revisited through a set of distinguishing criteria, i.e. the returnee preparedness and resource mobilization. These criteria are subject to examination in the development of this study. 2.7.1 Neoclassical Economics and the New Economics of Labour Migration In so far as the neoclassical approach to international migration is based on the notion of wage differentials between receiving and sending areas, as well as on the migrants‘ expectations for higher earnings in host countries (Todaro 1969:140), return migration seems to be viewed as the outcome of a failed migration experience which did not yield the expected benefits. In other words, in a neoclassical stance, return migration exclusively involves labour migrants who miscalculated the costs of migration and who did not reap the benefits of higher earnings. Return occurs as a consequence of their failed experiences abroad or because their human capital was not rewarded as expected. Furthermore, unlike the new economics of labour migration (NELM, see below), the neoclassical economics of migration views migrants as individuals who maximise not only their earnings but also the duration of their stay abroad to achieve permanent settlement and family reunification. In this framework of analysis, return cannot but be motivated by a failed migration experience, in terms of expected earnings employment and duration. NELM views return migration as the logical outcome of a calculated strategy, defined at thelevel of the migrants‘ household and resulting from the successful achievement of goals or target. In fact, as Oded and Starks seminal book argues, the NELM approach shifts the focus 19 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh of migration theory from individual independence to mutual interdependence (Stark, 1991). That is at the level of the family or the household. Moreover, it views return as the natural outcome of a successful experience abroad during which migrants met their goals (higher incomes and accumulation of savings) while naturally remitting part of their income to the household. Remittances are part and parcel of a strategy aimed at diversifying the resources of the household with a view to better compensating for the risks, linked to the absence of an efficient insurance market in home countries. They also constitute one explanatory factor in the return decision, together with the attachment to the home country. The neoclassical economics and NELM approaches differ in so far as they posit contrasting sets of interpretations regarding return migration. When neoclassical economists argue that people move permanently to raise and maximise their wages in receiving countries, return migration is viewed as a failure, if not an anomaly. When NELM contends that people move on a temporary basis to achieve their goals or targets in receiving countries, as a prerequisite to returning home, return migration is viewed as a success story, if not a logical outcome. NELM theorists are adamant about breaking away from the neoclassical image of the failed returnee. The duration of stay abroad is calculated with reference to the needs of the household, in terms of insurance, purchasing power and savings. Once such needs are fulfilled, return migration occurs. In other words, the NELM approach to return migration goes beyond a response to negative wage differential (Stark, 1996). 2.7.2. The Structural Approach to Return Migration There is no surprise in mentioning that the empirical findings and theoretical insights produced by anthropologists, sociologists and social geographers have contributed greatly to refining the structural approach to return migration.This structural approach argues that return is not solely analysed with reference to the individual experience of the migrant, but also with reference to social and institutional factors in countries of origin. In fact, return is also a 20 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh question of context. Just like NELM, the structural approach to return migration shows how crucial to the return decision and the reintegration of the migrant are the financial and economic resources brought back to origin countries. Whatever the level of expectations of returnees, the structural approach to return migration contends that these are more often than not readjusted to local realities and that, owing to the strength of traditional vested interests in origin countries, returnees have a limited innovative influence in their origin societies. It also contends that if readjustment does not take place, the returnee may contemplate re-emigration. In contrast to the neoclassical economics and the new economics of labour migration theoretical frameworks, the structural approach to return migration focuses on the extent to which returnees may or may not have an impact on their origin societies once return takes place. As explained above, their analytical framework refers to the consequences that return migration may generate in home countries, with reference to two variables: time and space. Structuralists have in fact focused more on how returnees. Initiatives could favour economic development when faced with local power structures than on the return migration phenomenon per se. They tend to limit the experiences of migration of the returnees to the mere acquisition of skills which more often than not are wasted owing to the structural constraints inherent in origin economies and to the use of foreign-earned incomes. In other words, there seems to be no continuum between the returnees, migration experiences in their former receiving countries and their situation in their origin countries. Moreover, the impact of resources, whether financial or human, tangible or intangible, remains extremely limited, owing to the fact that these are embedded in a traditional family context which defines the symbolic and behavioural patterns with which the returnees will need to comply if they want to be reaccepted back home. 21 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.7.3 Transnationalism and Return Migration This section is not so much an attempt to conceptualise transnationalism as a wayof highlighting the assumptions on which it is based when dealing with return migration and returnees. As of the late 1980s, in an attempt to highlight the dynamic and maintenance ofregular migration linkages between sending and receiving countries a fact often overlooked by the structuralists and to interpret the back-and-forth movement of people crossing borders, migration scholars from different disciplines started to adopt the transnational terminology initially used by international relations scholars. There is no question that this terminological borrowing has been subject to variousinterpretations and understandings that generated a great deal of sloppiness in itsusage and analytical relevance in the field of migration. Transnationalism constitutes an attempt to formulate a theoretical and conceptual framework aimed at a better understanding of the strong social and economic links between migrants host and origin countries. It also theorizing Return Migration explains how influential such links can be on the identities of migrants. Unlike the structuralists and the advocates of NELM, return does not constitute the end of a migration cycle. In the view of transnationalists, the migration story continues, return migration is part and parcel of a circular system of social and economic relationships and exchanges facilitating the reintegration of migrants while conveying knowledge, information and membership. One of the main contrasts between transnationalism and structuralism lies in the fact that, according to transnationalists, returnees prepare their reintegration at home through periodical and regular visits to their home countries. They retain strong links with their homecountries and periodically send remittances to their households.In the field of migration, the conceptual framework is based on two interrelatedfields of investigation: transnational identities and transnational mobility. 22 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Transnational identities result from the combination of migrants origins with theidentities they acquire in their host countries. According to transnationalists, thiscombination leads more to the development of double identities than to the emergence of conflicting identities. Migrants are viewed as having the capacity to negotiate their places in society, whether in host or origin countries, with a view to becoming part of it. Unlike the structuralists, who prefer to talk about adjustment, the transnationalists recognise the need for adaptation when returning home. The process of adaptation does not entail the abandonment of the identities they acquire abroad. Admittedly, returnees are faced with difficulties of reintegration, at both social and professional levels. However, as mentioned above, the regular contacts they maintain with their households in origin countries, as well as the back-and forthmovements which illustrate transnational mobility (Portes 1999), allow their return to be better prepared and organised. While migrants are viewed as being successful in weighing the costs and benefits of return, the actual impact with local realities at home at social, economic and political levels may lead to the emergence and consolidation of transnational identities that shape the behaviours and expectations of the returnees. 2.7.4. Social Network Theory and Return Migration Just like the transnational approach to return migration, social network theoryviews returnees as being the bearers of tangible and intangible resources. Althoughthe respective impact of tangible and intangible resources on return migrant‘s initiatives is difficult to evaluate a priori, it seems essential to examine return migration with constant reference to these elements. Just like the transnational approach to return migration, social network theory views returnees as migrants who maintain strong linkages with their former places of settlement in other countries. However, such linkages are not the direct outcome of the abovementioned commonality of attributes. They are not necessarily dependent on Diasporas, as defined by 23 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh transnationalists. Rather, in a network theoretical stance, linkages reflect an experience of migration that may provide a significant adjunct to the returnees. Initiatives at home. Resources needed to secure return back home also stem from patterns of interpersonal relationships that may derive from the returnee‘s past experiences of migration. Fundamentally, whether they are highly skilled or not, economic migrants or refugees, returnees have to be viewed as social actors who may find ways to ensure their return to their homelands, and participate in the dynamics of cross-border networks. The social networks in which returnees are involved constitute systems of social relations that may have a communal or an associative basis. The former refers to long-term relationships between network members whose exchange relations are influenced by their relational contents. The latter refers to a selective group of actors whose relationships are defined in terms of associative membership. First, the growing diversity inherent in international migration flows (Stalker, 2003) suggests that the analytical and interpretative framework of return migration needs to be broadened. This should not only refer to labour migrants, whether skilled or unskilled, but also to migrant students, asylum seekers and refugees. Second, the emergence and consolidation of regional trading blocks, at a globallevel, has favoured the liberalization of markets, as well as the development ofthe private sector, in many developing economies. Despite the potential resilience of state interference in most developing economies, liberal reforms in many migrant-sending countries have created the basis for increased business activities, not only for non-migrants, but also for migrants in general, and returnees in particular.Third, cross-border mobility has been sustained by cheaper transport costs. These have made return a multiple-stage process. 24 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Fourth, technological means of communication have favoured the development of flows of information, as well as the strengthening of cross-border linkages, between origin and host countries, while allowing migrants to better prepare their return. 2.7.5 Resource Mobilization and the Returnee’s Preparedness In the context of this study, it is argued that the propensity of migrants to becomeactors of change and development at home depends on the extent to which theyhave provided for the preparation of their return. To be successfully achieved,return preparation requires time, resources and willingness on the part of themigrant. In other words, there exist various degrees of return preparation that differin terms of resource mobilization and preparedness. As a prerequisite tointroducing the conceptual framework, these criteria need to be further explainedand defined.Resource mobilization draws on the above-mentioned insights of social networktheory and pertains to tangible (financial capital) and intangible (contacts,relationships, skills, acquaintances) resources that have been mobilized during themigration experience abroad. Resource mobilization also includes resources thatthe migrants had brought with them prior to leaving their origin country (socialcapital). In fact, these two subgroups of resources are part and parcel of resourcemobilization. It hardly needs to be stressed that resource mobilization patterns varywith the experiences of migration of the returnees as well as with their socialbackgrounds. Preparedness pertains not only to the willingness of migrants to return home butalso, to their readiness to return. In other words, the returnee‘s preparedness refersto a voluntary act that must be supported by the gathering of sufficient resourcesand information about post-return conditions at home. Clearly, the returnee‘s preparedness goes beyond the free-choice basis that has been introduced by the Council of Europe (1987). To strengthen the link between return migration and development at home, return should not simply be viewed as a voluntary act on the part of the migrant but, above all, as a proof of readiness. Figure 2.1 clarifies the 25 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ways in which these concepts interact with each other, while being at the same time reflective of circumstances in the host and home countries. Figure 2.1 Return Preparation 2.7.6 Conclusion This conceptual caveat suggests that, owing to the growing diversity of returnees,we need to approach the return migration phenomenon while taking into accountnew variables explaining how, and under which circumstances, migrants return. Clearly, as Bimal Ghosh points out, return .is largely influenced by the initial motivations for migration as well as by the duration of the stay abroad and particularly by the conditions under which the return takes place. (Ghosh 2000, 185). The findings presented in Table 2 confirm his argument. At the same time, the reference to the returnee‘s preparedness (see Figure 1) and patterns of resource mobilization complements Ghosh‘s argument. This dual 26 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh reference takes ourunderstanding of how and why returnees may contribute to development a step further. This revisited conceptual framework induces us to think that the point is not somuch to focus exclusively on the voluntary dimension of return as to apprehend thelevel of preparedness of the returnee, i.e. willingness and readiness to return.Preparedness is far from being a vague notion; it puts emphasis on the returnee‘s ability to gather tangible and intangible resources when return takes placeautonomously. The higher the level of preparedness, the greater the ability ofreturnees to mobilize resources autonomously and the stronger their contribution todevelopment. Moreover, the theoretical insights stemming from social networktheory are crucial in understanding the ways in which returnees mobilize theirresources while at the same time being involved in the dynamic and maintenanceof cross-border social and economic networks. These networks do not emergespontaneously; rather, they are responsive to specific pre- and post-returnconditions. They also generate a continuum between the migrants experienceslived in host countries and their situations in origin countries. This continuumregards exclusively those returnees who benefit from a high level of preparedness.Conversely, it is non-existent for returnees having a low or no level of preparedness. These remarks are of resources to be mobilized. Then it shows that resource mobilization, which inheres in the preparation process of return and depends on the dynamics of cross-border social and economic networks, is a prerequisite to securing return. Finally, it argues that a continuum is needed to allow resources to be mobilized not only before but also, after return. 2.8 Summary The state of emigration from Ghana, according to some studies is quite high. The emigration among male-headed households is higher than that of female-headed households in Ghana. The emigration rate is according to the migration literature is higher among urban dwellers 27 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh than that of the rural dwellers. The main reason for this is that the urban dwellers have access to better educational facilities, access to information about educational and other job related opportunities, and have the means to process the travel documents. The rural counterparts on the other hand have less privilege in some or all these enabling factors and environments. The literature has it that migration for educational purposes is on the increase, and students in Ghana generally depends on certain motivational factors which contribute significantly to their migration. The literature shows that the return migrants decisions to come home was in line with Cassarino (2004) conceptual model for return migration where several migration theories were considered by the return migrants before finally returning to their home country. This included the reliance on the social network theory, neoclassical and the new economics of labour theories by doing cost benefit analysis to ascertain whether such movement will be beneficial. The combination of the several theories allowed for better understanding of the experiences of the return migrants. 28 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY 3.0 Introduction The methodology section of the study report is very important in understanding validity of the study process and the findings and conclusions that are drawn from the study. Thus, this chapter presents a detailed report of how the entire study has been carried out in order to provide answers to the nagging research questions that guide the study. In this chapter, the researcher describes the study area so as to understand the findings in context. The research design, the sampling techniques employed the data collection and analysis techniques used, and the interpretation. The data management procedure has also been outlined in this section of the report. 3.1 The study area The study area is the Greater Accra Region of Ghana. The researcher limited the study to the national capital because of the majority of the population of the Ghana, and this is the area of the country that was close to the researcher. The Greater Accra Region of Ghana has 16 administrative Districts comprising two (2) metropolitan areas, Accra, and Tema. By land size, the Greater Accra Region is smallest of all the regions in Ghana but serves as a major commercial area that attract a majority of the migrants in the country, internal and international. The total population of the area as of the 2010 population and Housing Census was 4,010,054, and this is the second most populated region in Ghana (after Ashanti Region with a population of 478,380). The Greater Accra Region has been the administrative seat and capital of the Republic of Ghana government since 1877 (www.ghanadistrict.com). 29 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh With regards to ethnicity, the Greater Accra Region has two (2) major ethnic groups, the Ga and Ga-Dangme, with a religious mix reflecting the major religions in the country. The main economics activities include farming, fishing, and trading. There are other forms of activities that people engage in to earn their living in the region raging from construction to manufacturing, while majority of the people currently living in the region also provide services from which they earn their living. The area is the central business district of the country. Because the area has ports and harbor and an international airport, it has become an entry and exit point of migrants in the country. This suggests that most of the return migrants are more likely to be in the region. 3.2 Research design The study both explores and explains the integration experiences of the returned high skilled migrants in the country. The technique employed to study this topic was a mixed method approach. This entails both qualitative and quantitative research approaches that are triangulated to collect, analyze, and interpret the data to draw conclusions that are policy- oriented (Teye, 2012). In this research, the quantitative data were used to explore the integration experiences of the returned migrants, while the qualitative data were used to explain those experiences to provide a better understanding. The combination of the two techniques allowed for compensating for the weaknesses that are inherent in each of the techniques, thus, complementing each other to enhance a more nuanced understanding of the topic (Creswell, 2009). 3.3 Quantitative methods 3.3.1 Target population The target population for this study is the returned migrants. There are those people who were born as Ghanaians but left the shores of the country for education in other countries. The self- sponsored or family sponsored, the scholarship funded through grants and collaborations were 30 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh all included in the study. However, the basic requirements to qualify for the study include migration for education and training and returning to Ghana. The only exclusion is those who have just arrived from other countries after successful completion were not included since they do not have any such experiences yet. The respondent might have returned to Ghana over a period of at least one month and have been since working or searching for work. 3.3.2 Sampling technique and sample size The researcher employed the purposive sampling technique to select the respondents for the interviews. This was because the study purposely looked at the integration of returned migrants who are highly skilled. This was combined with snowballing since the returned migrants might have a network and common platform for sharing ideas and experiences. By this method, the researcher asked the respondent if he knew returned migrant who resides in the Greater Accra Region with emphasis on those who went for education and training. These methods were used to select a total of 45 respondents for the interview. Some interviewees provided the contact of other returned migrants for the data collection exercise. 3.4 Quantitative data collection 3.4.1 Questionnaire survey The study employed the use of structured questionnaire which was administered on the field to collect data. Thus some questions were close ended and some were open ended. With the close ended questions, respondents were given a range of options to select the most appropriate answer from. The quantitative survey questionnaire was used for the purposes of generalization of results of the findings (see Babbie, 1990).The questionnaires were administered by the researcher through face-to-face interviews with the respondents. The questions covered: 31 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh  The bio-data of the respondents  The migration history of the respondents  Factors that help with the integration  The challenges of integration  The advantages of integrations  How respondent navigates the economic and social environment of Ghana after return 3.4.2 Quantitative data analysis The quantitative data were analyzed using the Statistical Software Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). To do this, the data were cleaned to ensure consistency, coded and entered into the SPSS. The software was used to organize the data for analysis and interpretation. The software was used to generate statistical tables with frequencies that made the interpretation easier. Thus frequency tables, graphs and chi-square analysis were done to establish some statistical relationships. 3.5 Qualitative methods 3.5.1 Identifying participant and sample size Key informants for the in-depth interview were selected using purposive technique. This was done during the administration of the questionnaires and those who had insight to the objective of the study were consulted about the questionnaire survey for further interview in order to gain deeper understanding into the issues of return migration with regards to the objectives of the study. Five (5) key informants consisting of three males and two females were selected for the in-depth interview. 32 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.5.2 In-depth interview guide For the qualitative data, an in-depth interview guide was used to collect data selected return migrants within the Greater Accra Region. This enabled the researcher to, first of all, get more information in lengthy conversations with respondents in a face to face interaction. Thus the conversation further explored their decision to return, re-integration models they relied on among others. The researcher again sought insight into the factors that helped with their integration into the Ghanaian society and labour market. Also, the challenges, experiences they encountered during their stay in Ghana were interrogated to help in reaching the aim of the study. One detriment of in-depth interviews is that only a few respondents can participate in the interviews, thus it findings or results cannot be generalized.  The interview guide helped to gather information on their re-integration models they relied on in readjusting into the Ghanaian economy. Migration-decision making prior to coming to Ghana and the reasons for choosing Ghana  Factors motivating them to return to Ghana and their contribution to the Ghanaian society. As Preskill and Jones (2009) have noted, the interview guide for the qualitative data is generally useful for exploring attitudes and feelings and to highlight issues that have not surfaced in the administering of the questionnaire. 3.5.3 Qualitative data analysis In-depth interviews were recorded by the researcher. All the interviews were carried out in English and Twi which was the common language the researcher and the respondents could communicate in. The interviews recorded were transcribed without any difficulties and then coded and put into themes by referring to the objectives. This supported the explanations of the quantitative data. 33 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.6 Ethical considerations Ethical considerations are very crucial in any research. The main reason for ethical consideration in this study was to prevent or minimize harm. Respondents were very well informed about the purpose of the research as well as the benefits from participating in the research. They were duly informed about the use of audio recorders and the publishing of their interviews. The respondents were duly informed that participation was voluntary and they could end the interview at any given time should they wish not to continue. Nevertheless, respondents were assured of confidentiality and hence all names were referenced with pseudonyms. 3.7 Limitations of the study The study was limited by time constraints since the researcher had limited time to produce the study report. This affected the sample size which could have been bigger. However, the small sample size did not affect the study results. It was very difficult to have access to the respondents for the interview. This was because I relied on contact to get to them and many of the contacts were wrong and have to chase for different contact information all over again. 34 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FOUR DATA ANALYSIS, INTERPRETATIONS AND DISCUSSIONS 4.0 Introduction This chapter addresses the following objectives which includes migration history of highly skilled return migrants and their economic characteristics on the origin country as well as the challenges the face as return migrants during the process of re-integration. 4.1.1 Background characteritics of respondents Table 4.1 below shows the background characteristics of the respondents to give a better understanding of their re-integration experiences. The Table 4.1 shows that more than three- fifth (64.4%)of the respondents are males. while the remaining constitute the female population. With regards to their age, the data show that most of the returned migrants fall within the age group 30-39 years representing more than two-fifth (46.7%). Those within the age group 20-29 years constituted 31.1 percent. This shows that majority of the return migrants are in their youthful age group, when effectively harnessed or employed, will help reduce the unemployment situation in the macro-economy of the country as it will improve their standard of living, while they pay taxes as a source of revenue to Ghana. Employing people in this age group will also reduce the rate of social vices that come along with their unemployment. This argument has been provided by some other similar studies such as that of Debrah (2007) over a decade ago. Should these people be self-employed, they are also more likely to provide employment opportunities for others and this will help put or maintain the country on the path of development (Poku, Aawaar&Worae, 2013).It is very important to mention that the return migrants are highly skilled youths. The data further shows that. Overwhelming majority (88.9%) had post-graduate degrees while just a few (11.1%) had first 35 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh degrees. This finding is a reflection of the type of skills these respondents have and how it can impact the economy of Ghana. The findings from this study suggests there are a lot of highly skilled youths in the country who could offer their labour for employment for the personal benefit and that of the country (Debrah, 2007).The data show that courses of study offered by respondents include Development Study, Conflict Management and other Social Sciences, Education, Medical Sciences, Agriculture, and Technical and Vocational courses. The study also shows that majority of the respondents (46.7%) are currently married, while the others are either ‗single‘ (33.3%) or co-habiting (20.0%). The study shows that returned migrants in Ghana have the necessary knowledge and skills in areas of need to the country, Ghana. This was one of the main findings in Awumbila et al (2008) in their ‗migration country paper‘, suggesting how beneficial it would be to integrate them on their return for national development. Table 4.1: Background characteritics of respondents Variables Frequency Percent Sex Male 29 64.4 Female 16 35.6 Total 45 100.0 Age 20-29 14 31.1 30-39 21 46.7 40-49 8 17.8 50+ 2 4.4 Total 45 100.0 Educatinal status Basic education 0 0.0 Secondary education 0 0.0 Undergraduate 5 11.1 Post-graduate 40 88.9 Total 45 100.0 36 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Marital staus Single 15 33.3 Married 21 46.7 Cohabitation 9 20.0 Divorced 0 0.0 Widowed 0 0.0 Total 45 100.0 Program studied Development studies 10 22.2 after migration Peace and conflict 8 17.8 management Agriculture 8 17.8 Medicine/Pharmacy 12 26.7 Education 4 8.9 Technical/Vocational 5 11.1 Others 2 4.4 Total 45 100.0 Source: Fieldwork, 2019 4.1.2 Years spent in Ghana after return Number of years spent after return were explored. It was evident from the findings that, more than two-fifth (44.4%) of the respondents spent 1-3 years while more than a third (35.6%) stayed between 4-6 years. The rest of the years spent constituted just one-fifth (20.0%) of the total outcome. The reasons for the short period of stay could be attributed to the assignment most of them came to do. One respondent had this to say; I came under the UNDP program called TOKTEN which is the transfer of knowledge through expatriate nationals into my home country. I came to help the agriculture sector because I am an agricultural engineer so I spent 2 years which was the duration for the contract I signed (A male respondent, 2019) 37 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.2: Years spent in Ghana after return Years spent after return Frequency Percent 1-3 20 44.4 4-6 16 35.6 7+ 9 20.0 Total 45 100.0 Source: Fieldwork, 2019 4.1.3 Respondent’s reasons for migration Though reasons for migration have either been economic or non-economic (DeHaas, 2010; Awumbila et al., 2011), many people migrate base on their own specific reasons. It was in this vein that respondent‘s reasons for migration was explored. Out of the 45 respondents sampled, more than half (55.6%) cited education as their main reasons while little more than a fifth (22.2%) mentioned skilled training followed by job opportunities at the destination (13.3%). The rest of the reasons for migrating were less than 10 percent. The outcome of this finding is a reflection that reasons for migration were economically induced than social reasons. This assertion is consistent with work done by Muniz-Solaris et al. (2010) that most people migrate because of economic reasons. 38 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.3: Respondent’s reasons for migration Reasons for migration Frequency Percent Education 25 55.6 Skill training 10 22.2 Job opportunities 6 13.3 Family reunification 3 6.7 Others 1 2.2 Total 45 100.0 Source: Fieldwork, 2019 4.1.4 Percent distribution of reasons for migrating by gender Reasons for migrating with regards to gender were explored. Out of the male population, more than a third (37.9%) cited education while skill training as a reason was 24.1 percent. Within the same population, those who mentioned job opportunities were 3 times (17.2% - 13.8%) more than those cited family reunification. Again, the female population saw family reunification (50.0%) as the main reason for migration followed by educational purposes (31.3%). The reason could be that female‘s attachment to familial issues are enormous as compare to their male counterpart. However, there was no significant association (χ2 = 7.102, df = 5 and p-value = 0.513> 0.05) between reasons for migration and one‘s gender. One female respondent had this to share: In fact I initially moved for the purposes of joining my husband but later I took the initiative to further my education over there. I am a nurse now with specialization in optometry (A female respondent, 2019) 39 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.4: Percent distribution of reasons for migrating by gender Gender Reasons for migration Total Male Female Education 11(37.9%) 5(31.3%) 16(35.6%) Skill training 7(24.1%) 1(6.3%) 8(17.8%) Job opportunities 5(17.2%) 2(12.5%) 7(15.6%) Family reunification 4(13.8%) 8(50.0%) 12(26.7%) Others 2(6.9%) 0(0.0%) 4(4.4%) Total 29(100.0%) 16(100.0%) 45(100.0%) (χ2 = 7.102, df = 5 and p-value = 0.513> 0.05) Source: Fieldwork, 2019 4.1.5 Respondent’s reasons for return Return migration in recent times have been extensively highlighted due to it benefits for the origin countries (Tonah and Setrana, 2017, IOM, 2015). It was on this premise that respondent‘s reasons for return were ascertained. Out of the study sample, more than a fifth (22.2%) of the respondent cited return to family while one out of every five (20.0%) respondent mentioned marital purposes. Those who mentioned creation of companies constituted 13.3 percent. The outcome of the finding revealed that most of the reasons were for return were socially induced. A male respondent had this to say: My reason for migrating was for economic purposes but my return is more of social because I have establish myself very well and it was time to come and marry and begin to raise a family (A male respondent, 2019) 40 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Another female respondent reiterated that: Initially I came to open up a shop to sell second-hand clothing but wanted to make it formal. In fact the process I have to go through though I have all the requisite documents, officers of those institutions were expecting monies from me before issuing the certificate of commencement. Due to the delays I stopped and rather concentrated on my family wellbeing (A female respondent, 2019). Table 4.5: Respondent’s reasons for return Reasons for return Frequency Percent Return to family 10 22.2 Business purposes 7 15.6 Creation of companies 16 13.3 Marital purposes 9 20.0 Teaching in a university 3 6.7 Total 45 100.0 Source: Fieldwork, 2019 4.1.6 Relationship between reasons for return and gender A bivariate analysis was conducted between two independent variables (reasons for return and gender) to ascertained whether there exist a relationship. With regards to the male population and in rank order, the most significant reasons for return were return to family (37.9%), creation of companies (27.6%) and business purposes (17.2%). Among the female population, more than half (56.3%) cited marital purposes followed by business (18.8%). The disparity in terms of the reasons could be attributed to female attachment to familial issues as compare to 41 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh their male counterparts. This assertion is consistent with work done by Koser and Kuschminder (2015) who expounded that female‘s commitment towards social issues with respect to the family system surpasses that of the males whose focus is more economical. However, there was no significant association (χ2 = 10.314, df = 6 and p-value = 0.613> 0.05) between reasons for return and one‘s gender. Table 4.6: Relationship between reasons for return and gender Gender Reasons for return Male Female Total Return to family 11(37.9%) 2(12.5%) 13(28.9%) Business purpose 5(17.2%) 3818.8%) 8(17.8%) Creation of companies 8(27.6%) 0(0.0%) 8(17.8%) Marital purposes 3(10.3%) 9(56.3%) 12(26.7%) Teaching in a university 2(6.9%) 2(12.5%) 4(8.9%) Total 29(100.0%) 16(100.0%) 45(100.0%) (χ2 = 10.314, df = 6 and p-value = 0.613> 0.05) Source: Fieldwork, 2019 4.1.7 Countries return migrants came from Figure ( ) presents information on countries return migrants came from. It was evident that, more than a quarter (26.7%) of the respondents returned from the UK followed by those from the USA and China constituting 17.8 percent. An emerging country of some of the returnees was Norway which had 15.5 percent out of the total responses obtained. The high percentage for the UK could be attributed to the colonial ties and common language. One of the respondent during an in-depth interview had this to say: 42 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh I purposively travelled to the UK because I know my integration process will be easier as compare to other countries. There exist friendship between Ghana and the UK and we both speak a common language which is the first step of adaptation (A male respondent, 2019) Figure: 4.1:Countries return migrants came from 30 26.7 25 20 USA 17.8 17.8 UK 15.5 15 Canada 11.1 11.1 Norway China 10 Sweden 5 0 Percent Source: Fieldwork, 2019 4.1.8 Status of return migrants abroad Status of return migrants while abroad was explored. Out of the 45 respondents sampled, more than three-fifth (62.2%) were permanent residents (regular) whereas semi-permanent residents (Students) constituted 15.6 percent. Those with tourism status but have stayed there for long were just 13.3 percent of the total outcome. The general implication is that large section of the respondent were regular abroad. 43 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.7: Status of return migrants abroad Status of return migrants Frequency Percent Permanent resident 28 62.2 Student 7 15.6 Tourist 6 13.3 Other 4 8.9 Total 45 100.0 Source: Fieldwork, 2019 4.1.9 Respondent’s experience after return Respondent‘s experiences after return were ascertained. In rank order, the most important experiences respondents had were moderate (26.7%), bad (24.4%) followed by very bad (20.0%). The rest of the experiences were less than 20 percent. Although Ghana as a country through successive governments have put in place policies and programs such as home coming, diaspora engagement policy and the establishment of diaspora bureau to attract return migrants and aid in their re-integration processes, the outcome of their experiences were generally negative. One of the respondent had this to share: My experience in general was not the best, even your own people knowing that you have come from abroad can inflate prices of goods and services for you. When you rent a car, they can increase the fare because they assumes you have brought money from abroad (Male respondent, 2019) 44 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.8: Respondent’s experience after return Respondent’s experiences Frequency Percent Very good 5 11.1 Good 8 17.8 Moderate 12 26.7 Bad 11 24.4 Very bad 9 20.0 Total 45 100.0 Source: Fieldwork, 2019 4.2.0 Sources of funding for education abroad When asked the kind of funding, most of those who were on scholarship said they were on scholarships offered by the governments of the various countries and other organizations as a social responsibility to help people from the developing world. The data in Table 4.9 below show that majority (15, representing 55.6%) of the respondents were funded by the government of the host country. This shows that there are a number of countries that offer scholarship opportunities for countries as a way of helping them. According to the study, majority of these scholarship opportunities are offered to countries in the developing world for which Ghana is a part. From Table 4.9, the Government of Ghana has also offered some of the respondents the opportunity to study in other countries. The main aim for this scholarship is to train people in some areas of study to come back and use the skills they have developed and the knowledge they gain in helping the country. According to the data, 15.6% of the respondents benefited from the government of Ghana scholarship. The data show that majority of the return migrants had some scholarship for their education. The Table further shows that the foreign universities sponsored 22.2% of the respondents, Non-governmental organizations and other 45 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh international organizations also sponsored 6.7%, while 13.3% won the scholarship for projects that were won by some faculty members in the universities they attended. In order to find out how knowledgeable and skillful these returned migrants are, the researcher tried to find out the criteria for selecting the students for the scholarship awards.The qualitative data tried to find out if respondents had some knowledge about how they were selected for the various awards of scholarship. The following are some excerpts from the transcripts. A beneficiary (also a returned migrant) who was interviewed said: Well, I don‘t know much about that but from the illegibility criteria for the Commonwealth shared scholarship, the applicant must have obtained a very good or excellent class for the first degree, and must not be above a certain age, I have forgotten(A-29-year-old return migrant). This confirms what Little (2010) said in the work ‗Access to Basic Education in Ghana: politics, policies and progress‘. The foregoing analysis shows that those selected for scholarship awards are the academically good students. When good and excellent students get the opportunity to learn at levels of education they become very skilful in solving societal problems (Obeng, 2013). To confirm this, another respondent mentioned that the applicant must be from a developing country. In her own words, she said: The scholarship I had was solely for applicants from developing countries, and must have written the GRE with good passes. I wrote the GRE and passed. I added that to the other documentations required and they selected me(A-31-year-old female return migrant). The above two quotes suggest that the beneficiaries were very brilliant students who could contribute their quota to national development in many ways if they were employed. The 46 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh selection criteria excluded the students who were below average in their academic performance. The data from the study also reveals some element of other influences apart from the selection criteria offered by the universities. A young man said: When the scholarship comes through the government of Ghana, I think there is some element of politics in it, because sometimes you need to see some people who may not take anything from you any way, but, you know…the criteria, when the government of Ghana is involved is some way(A-37-year-old male return migrant). This quote from the 37-year-old respondent reveals the element of political influence on the selection criteria for scholarships that pass through the Ghanaian government. However, this influence will also not select applicants who are below average but may have implications on the integration of the returned migrants in Ghana. The data from the interview also reveal that most of the people on the government of Ghana scholarship of those scholarships that pass through the government of Ghana bond the beneficiaries to work for the government for some period of time before they could leave for other jobs in non-public sectors (Owusu, 2006). When asked ‗what are the conditions attached to the scholarship, the popular response was ‗we are required to come back to our country and work‘, or ‗the visa expired immediately after successful completion of the program‘. The foregoing analysis from the quotes above all point to the fact that most of the scholarship packages require that the beneficiaries go back to their home countries where they would work for their own country. 47 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.9: Sources of funding for education abroad Funding source Frequency Percent Government of the host country 16 35.5 Government of Ghana 7 15.6 Foreign university 10 22.2 NGOs/Int. organizations 3 6.7 A call for a project (from grant) 6 13.3 Self/family 3 6.7 Total 45 100.0 Source: Fieldwork, 2019 4.2.1 Re-integration modules adopted by highly skilled return migrants Return migrants perspectives with regards to re-integration modules adopted in order to participate fully in home communities activities were explored. Key strategies relied on by respondents had elements of transnationalism activities which aided in their economic, social and cultural re-integration. With respect to economic re-integration, social networks to secure formal employment as well as relying on the network to set up private enterprises. These networks for securing formal employment were either blood relation or friends. This assertion is consistent with Putnam (2001) where he emphasized that, such reliance on social network can either be strong or weak ties. One respondent who benefited from such network had this to say: Am currently working with one of the telecommunication companies in Ghana because I have an MPhil in Telecom Engineering from University of Stockholm. I applied for this job because one of my uncles was working there and he link me to 48 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh see the Human resource manager for the process to follow and this was how I had the job (A male respondent, 2019) In spite of the educational level and job experiences from abroad, the findings indicated how significant the role of network play in re-integrating returnees into the economy of the home country. Aside economic re-integration, social re-integration as opined by Cassarino (2000) and Arowolo (2000) indicated how returnees readjust socially through the support of friends to secure accommodation, access their own personal expectations as well as community expectation about them. One female respondent had this to share: I think prior to returning, every migrant should try to secure a place of abode in order to avoid the unnecessary pressures from many landlords and tenants (Female respondent, 2019). This revelation according to the respondents are decisions returnees have to make in order to their personal place of abode for their own comfort and independent life. Culturally, readjusting into the Ghanaian society was significant for the respondents. The readjustment to Ghanaian music and food, other rites such as naming ceremonies and funerals among others were some of the hurdles the respondents had to embrace upon return. The in- depth interview revealed that such practices were similar to what they engaged in while abroad which include regular phone calls to family and friends and the continuous usage of their native language. These were made known during special ceremonies like Independence Day, Birthday and Christmas parties. The respondents further indicated that these activities were conducted close to what is been done here in Ghana which in turn keeps them in touch with mode of dressing, native foods among others. In light of these, respondents confirmed how these practices contributed towards their readjustment in the home communities they found themselves. 49 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Furthermore, another area which was essential with respect to the respondent‘s re-integration was the attitude of Ghanaians towards rules and regulations governing life in general. One of the respondent had this to share in that regard: Am a Ghanaian and it very sad to see my fellow Ghanaians ignoring rules that are pertinent in our everyday life, for example driving rules, road signs among others. Whenever you try to prompt them about it, all you get in return is insult. At the long run we had no option than to accept it in order to readjust for our own re-integration (A female respondent, 2019). 4.2.2 Challenges faced by return migrants in the study area In as much as return migration brings about benefits to the origin countries and the migrants themselves, it is also accompanied by some challenges. It was in this vein that respondent‘s challenges faced were explored. A third (33.3%) of the respondents cited time spent at social gathering (churches, weddings, funerals etc) as a major challenge while societal expectation of return migrants (28.9%) and unstable prices of goods and services affected them negatively. Those who mentioned bureaucratic processes for service constituted 15.6 percent of the total outcome. Table 4.9.1: Challenges faced by return migrants in the study area Challenges Frequency Percent Bureaucratic processes for services 7 15.6 Time spent at social gathering 15 33.3 Societal expectation of return migrants 13 28.9 Unstable prices of goods and services 10 22.2 Total 45 100.0 Source: Fieldwork, 2019 50 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.2.3 Percent distribution of challenges faced by Gender Gender perspective on challenges return migrants face were explored. Out of the total male population, more than three-fifth (65.5%) cited societal expectation of return migrants while those who mentioned time wasted at social gatherings constituted 17.2 percent. Those who cited bureaucratic processes for essential services were 3 time (10.3% - 6.9%) more than those who cited unstable prices of goods and services? Similar responses were obtained from the female population but higher among males than females. The overall implication is that societal construction about return migrants must change and afford them services at the same rate as those who have never migrated especially in developing countries. These challenges has been highlighted in the literature by Bartram (2005)who explicated that such societal pressures on return migrants deter them from settling in their home countries for a longer period hence re-migrate after a while. One of the respondent had this to share in that regard: In fact being a return migrant is not easy at all. While there is family pressure on you to solve everyone‘s problem, anywhere your identity is ascertained, your treatment becomes different but mostly in a negative way. I attended my friend‘s mother funeral in her hometown and everything that has to do with donation my name was mentioned (A male respondent, 2019). 51 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.9.2: Percent distribution of challenges faced by Gender Challenges faced by return Gender migrants Male Female Total Bureaucratic processes for 3(10.3%) 2(12.5%) 5(11.1%) services Time spent at social gathering 5(17.2%) 4(25.0%) 9(20.0%) Societal expectation of return 19(65.5%) 9(56.3%) 28(62.2%) migrants Unstable prices of goods and 2(6.9%) 1(6.3%) 3(6.7%) services Total 29(100.0%) 16(100.0%) 45(100.0%) (χ2 = 9.061, df = 7 and p-value = 0.289> 0.05) Source: Fieldwork, 2019 52 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FIVE SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 5.0 Introduction Many Ghanaians further their education in other countries, particularly, in the western countries. This is due to the high cost of higher education in Ghana coupled with many scholarship opportunities available in awarding countries. Most of this scholarship schemes are initiated to help brilliant students from the developing countries such as Ghana. In most cases, beneficiaries are required to return and work for the development of their countries of origin. However, given the high rate of unemployment in the country, there is the need to find out whether or not these return migrants are integrated into the Ghanaian society. Although some work have been done on return migration both its benefits and challenges, little attention have been paid on how highly skilled return migrants contribute towards their home country and the re-integration modules they use to readjust smoothly. The objectives the study addresses include investigating the migration history of the highly skilled return migrants, re- integration modules they adopted to settle as well as the challenges they faced. This chapter summarizes the main findings from the study, draws conclusions, and makes recommendations for policy formulation or consideration. 5.1 Summary of findings With respect to the background characteristics of the respondents, more than half were males. This is consistent with studies done by Reyes et al. (2016) who explicated that men return more as compared to women due to the patriarchal influence they are able to manifest within their household certain. Again most of the return migrants were youthful, especially those within the age group of 30-39 years followed by those of ages between 20 to 29 years. This confirms work done by Awumbila et al. (2011) that the most people likely to migrate are the 53 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh youth and this reflect in the ages of the return migrants. The findings further reveals that, duration spent after return was within the range of 1 to 3 years as compare to those spending more years which was less than 40 percent of the total outcome. In terms of reasons for return, more than one-fifth (22.2%) cited return to family followed by marital purposes. This is an indication that most of the reasons for return were socially induced. Large proportion of the respondents (26.7%) came from the UK followed by those from the USA (17.8%). The high patronage of these countries was as a result of colonial ties and common language. Most of the return migrants were legal residents but their experiences in their home country and for that matter the study area was generally negative since those who cited very bad and bad as their experiences constituted more than two-fifth (44.4%) of the total responses obtained. As deduced by Cassarino (2004) framework for return migration, most of the respondents relied on their social network for jobs, accommodation which aided in their economic and social integration and readjustment. In terms of challenges return migrants faced, time spent at social gathering (churches, funerals, wedding etc) constituted a third (33.3%) of their challenges while societal expectation of return migrants and unstable prices of goods and services were more than one- fifth with respect to challenges they faced in Ghana. 5.2 Conclusion In exploring the challenges and benefits of re-integration of highly skilled return migrants, the study has identified that major reasons for their return were of social than economic which contradict most of the work done on return migration. However, those who returned were more of males than females which reflected in the reasons for their return. In terms of re- integration modules relied on by respondents most of their adaptation processes were in line with Cassariano (2004) framework for return migration which expounded that most of the return migrants relied on social network theory as well as neoclassical and new economics of 54 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh labour theories has part of their re-integration processes. These theories provided the platform for them to acquire jobs, accommodation among others which aided in their economic and social integration. With respect to challenges, time spent at social gatherings as their major challenge since they could not believe one have to spend the whole day at a funeral or a wedding of a relative or friend. Again, societal expectation of return migrants place a lot of pressure on them since all friend and relatives were coming to them to solve financial problems for them with the notion that return migrants are very resourceful. Bureaucratic processes for service rendered as well as unstable prices for goods and services affected them negatively during their re-integration processes. 5.3 Recommendations The researcher provides the following recommendations for policy considerations: 5.3.1 Policies 1. Policymakers should formulate policies that would allow Ministry in charge of youth and employment to provide a platform where these return migrants can upload their profiles and documents for job applications. To this effect, the labour market should reconsider so that employers will use that institution to advertise job vacancies available in their companies. 2. The policy on diaspora engagement should be extend to cover the needs of return migrants since the policy is in the light to attract back migrants with skills and resources accumulated abroad. 55 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5.3.2 Area for further research 1. A similar study can be done with a large sample size for the purpose of generalization by expanding the return migrant‘s category to include others cross major cities in the country. 2. Again, further research on push-pull factors that attract return migrants from destination countries in terms of gender. 56 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh REFERENCES Adhikari, R., &Grigulis, A. (2013). Through the back door: nurse migration to the UK from Malawi and Nepal, a policy critique. Health policy and planning, 29(2), 237-245. Anarfi, J., &Jagare, S. (2005). Towards the sustainable return of West African transnational migrants: what are the options? Paper for World Bank conference on New Frontiers of Social Policy, Arusha, Tanzania. Asare, P. (2012). Labour migration in Ghana. International Affairs Officer, GTUC Atuahene, F. (2008). Higher education finance in Ghana. International higher education, (50). Bartram, D. (2005). International labor migration. Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave. Bastia, T. (2011). Should I stay or should I go? Return migration in times of crises . Journal of International Development (23), 583–595. Wiley Ltd. Betts, A. (2013). Survival migration: Failed governance and the crisis of displacement. Cornell University Press. Black, R., King, R., &Tiemoko, R. (2003, March). Migration, return and small enterprise development in Ghana: A route out of poverty. In International Workshop on Migration and Poverty in West Africa, University of Sussex, United Kingdom (Vol. 13). Cassarino, J. P. (2004). Theorising return migration: The conceptual approach to return migrants revisited. International Journal on Multicultural Societies (IJMS), 6(2), 253- 279. Dako-Gyeke, M. (2016). Exploring the migration intentions of Ghanaian youth: A qualitative study. Journal of International Migration and Integration, 17(3), 723-744. Dartey-Baah, K., Amponsah-Tawiah, K., &Sekyere-Abankwa, V. (2011). Leadership and organisational culture: relevance in public sector organisations in Ghana. Business and Management Review, 1(4), 59-65. 57 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh De Haas, H. (2007). The Myth of Invasion: Irregular Migration from West Africa to the Maghreb and the European Union¸ International Migration Institute, University of Oxford. De Haas, H., Fokkema, T., &Fihri, M. F. (2015). Return migration as failure or success?. Journal of international migration and integration, 16(2), 415-429. Debrah, Y. A. (2007). Promoting the informal sector as a source of gainful employment in developing countries: insights from Ghana. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 18(6), 1063-1084. Frimpong, S. K. &Nubuor, S. A. (2013). Research on the Chinese Investments in Ghana. Journal of Economics and Sustainable Development,ISSN , 2222-1700 Ghana Immigration Service (2017). Welmove to Ghana Immigration Service. Available at: www.GhanaImmigration.oorg. 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Access to Basic Education in Ghana: politics, policies and progress. 58 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Mazzucato, V. (2007). Return migration in Ghana: An overview. Report commissioned by OECD, Paris. Mensah, E. A. (2016). Involuntary Return Migration and Reintegration. The Case of Ghanaian Migrant Workers from Libya. Journal of International Migration and Integration, 17(1), 303-323. Muniz-Solari, O., and Ray, W., eds., AAG Center for Global Geography Education.Muniz- Solari, O., Li, W., &Schleicher, Y. (2010). Migration conceptual framework: WhyNabila, and A.F. Aryee (eds.), Migration Research Study in Ghana, pp. 97- 113. Owusu, F. (2006). Differences in the performance of public organisations in Ghana: Implications for public‐sector reform policy. Development Policy Review, 24(6), 693-705. Poku, J., Aawaar, G. M., &Worae, T. A. (2013). Educational sector reforms in Ghana: a review. Global research journal of education, 3(2), 20-31. Puplampu, B. B. (2007). Employee motivation in Ghana: a factor structure and measurement tool. ActaCommercii, 7(1), 193-206. Reyes, H. L. M., Foshee, V. A., Niolon, P. H., Reidy, D. E., & Hall, J. E. (2016). Gender role attitudes and male adolescent dating violence perpetration: Normative beliefs as moderators. Journal of youth and adolescence, 45(2), 350-360. Spencer, J. W., & Gómez, C. (2004). The relationship among national institutional structures, economic factors, and domestic entrepreneurial activity: a multi-country study. Journal of Business Research, 57(10), 1098-1107. Tiemoko, R. (2004). Migration, return and socio‐economic change in West Africa: the role of family. Population, space and place, 10(2), 155-174. Van der Geest, K. (2011). North‐South migration in Ghana: what role for the environment?. International Migration, 49, e69-e94. 59 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Walsh, J. P. (2015). Organization and Management Scholarship in and for Africa… and the World. Academy of Management Perspectives, 29(1), 1-6. Wong, M. (2014). Navigating return: the gendered geographies of skilled return migration to Ghana. Global Networks, 14(4), 438-457. Yamada, G. (1996). Urban informal employment and self-employment in developing countries: theory and evidence. Economic development and cultural change, 44(2), 289-314. Yendaw, E. (2013). A study of the underlying determinants of return migration of international return migrants to the Berekum Municipality, Ghana. Zimmermann, H. J. (2011). Fuzzy set theory—and its applications. Springer Science & Business Media. 60 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDICES APPENDIX A QUESTIONNAIRE This questionnaire has been designed purposely to study the re-integration of return migrants in Ghana, especially those in the Greater Accra Region. The study is an academic exercise for the award of MA Migration Studies at the University of Ghana, and your responses will be much appreciated. Any information given will be treated confidentially. Section A Socio-demographic Characteristics of Respondents 1. Sex of the respondent 1. Male 2. Female 2. Age of the respondent…………………………. 3. Highest level of education 1. Basic 2. Secondary 3. First Degree 4. Masters/Mphil 5. PhD 6. Other……………………… 4. Marital status 1. Married 2. Single 3. Divorced 4. Cohabiting 5. Widowed Section B Migrant‘s Destination and Purpose for migrating 5. Which country did you travel to?..................................... 6. What was your main purpose for migrating? 1. Education 2. Skill training 3. To join family 4. To work 5. Other (please specify)……………………………………. 7. How long did you stay at your destination? 1. one year 2. Two years 3. Three years 4. Four years 5. Five years 6. Six years and above 8. During your stay abroad, did you engage in any form of education or training? 1. Yes 2.No 9. What kind of training/education? 1. Bachelors education 2. Masters/Mphil 3. PhD 4. Vocational training 5. Other (please, specify)……………………….. 10. Was it funded/on scholarship? 1. Yes 2.No 61 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 11. If yes which type of scholarship/funding?..................................... 12. What was the condition attached to the scholarship?................................................... Experiences of returned migrants 13. How many years now since you completed and returned? 1. One year 2. Two years 3. Three years 4. Four years 5. Five years 6. Six years and above 14. Since you came, are you working? 1. Yes 2.No 15. If yes, what kind of work?.......................................... 16. If no, did you apply for employment? 1. Yes 2. No 17. If no, have you ever been shortlisted for an interview?1. Yes 2. No 18. If no, how many times? 1. Once 2, Twice 3. Three times 4. Four times 5. Five times 6. Six or more 19. What do they tell you about your performance in the interview? 1. No response 2. They offered me the job but pay is not good and I declined 3. They tell me I have not qualified 4. They tell me I will hear from them 5. Other………………….. 20. If you are married, how many years now……………………………… 21. Has the community ever invited you for discussions concerning development issues in the area 1? Yes 2. No? Challenges and Benefits 22. What challenges do you have integrating with the people here?............................. 23. What benefits do you have over those who have not returned………………………....... ………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………. 62 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 24. Please tell me how you have been integrated when you returned to Ghana after your study (Prompts: how people see you, economics, employment, marriage, how people treat you). 63 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDIX B THE INTERVIEW GUIDE 1. Can you share your life experiences in Ghana since you returned? You may want to look at the area of employment and marriage. 2. Please what can you say about the success of your return to Ghana? 3. Can you explain how well you have been able to reintegrate ever since you came to Ghana and in what area are still finding it difficult to reintegrate? 4. Tell me about your experiences as a retailer 5. Can you share with me your experiences here in Ghana compared to life abroad? 6. Why did you migrate? 7. In general, have you been well integrated when you came to Ghana? 64