i CONFLICTS BETWEEN GOLD MINING COMPANIES AND THEIR HOST COMMUNITIES; THE CASE OF ANGLOGOLD ASHANTI IN THE TARKWA-NSUAEM MUNICIPALITY BY ELIZABETH-JANE THOMPSON (10243746) THIS THESIS IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF MASTER OF PHILOSOPHY (M.PHIL) DEGREE IN POLITICAL SCIENCE JULY 2015 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh i DECLARATION This is to certify that this thesis is the result of research undertaken by Elizabeth-Jane Thompson towards the award of Master of Philosophy in Political Science in the Department of Political Science, University of Ghana. .......................................... ....................................... ELIZABETH-JANE THOMPSON (DATE) (CANDIDATE) ........................................... ........................................ PROF. E. GYIMAH-BOADI (DATE) (PRINCIPAL SUPERVISOR) ........................................ …................................. DR. SEIDU ALIDU (DATE) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ii ABSTRACT It is expected that there will be a cordial relationship between the mining companies and their host communities due to their (gold mining companies and host communities) supposed interdependence, However, the extraction of gold has caused widespread disaffection between gold mining companies and their host communities leading to significant backlash and occasionally, violent conflict. The research therefore, sorts to find the causes of the conflict between gold mining companies and their host communities using AngloGold Ashanti in the Tarkwa - Nsuaem Municipality as a case. The study was conducted to critically examine the issues that lead to conflict between gold mining companies and their host communities. The study used both quantitative and qualitative methods. It also used both primary and secondary sources of data. The study employed stratified and simple random sampling methods under probability sampling and purposive, quota and volunteer sampling under the non-probability sampling methods. The sampling totaled 135; 100 questionnaire respondents, 30 focus group discussants and 5 interviewees. SPSS software and content analysis were used to analyze the data. The study revealed the causes of the conflict to include; The Lack of and Inadequate Information, Selfishness on the part of the Mining Companies, Failed Promises, the Disregard for Local Authorities, Aggressive Nature of Mining Companies, Lack of Maintenance and the Negative Effects of Mining Operations on the Community. The study further revealed; the Disregard of Safety Rules By The Host Community, and Over Dependence on Mining Company as the Cause Of Conflict and lastly the Issue of Speculative Activity and In-Migration. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh iii The study therefore recommended education on; Mining laws, Reforms and Compensation, the Effects of Mining Operations, Traditional norms and Taboos and the of Importance Formal Education. Effective Communication and Consultation between mining companies and their host communities, Mining Companies and host communities should desist from Creating Dependency and the people should desist from Engaging in Speculative Activities. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh iv DEDICATION This thesis is dedicated to my parents; Mr. Reginald Ayensu Thompson and Mrs. Ruth Ayikaikai Thompson, my siblings; Hannah-Marian Thompson and Phylcia-Wynn Thompson, and to my best friends, Emmanuel Kobina Crentsil and Ruthlynn-Jane Crentsil. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh v ACKNOWLEDGEMENT My foremost gratitude goes to the Almighty God for His wisdom and infinite mercies. My special thanks to my supervisors, Prof. E. Gyimah-Boadi and Dr. Seidu Alidu for their guidance and contributions. I gratefully acknowledge the contributions and suggestions of the entire senior staff of the political science department, especially Prof. Essuman-Johnson, and my classmates. My special thanks to the manager of the Sustainability Department of AngloGold Ashanti Tarkwa, Mr. Emmanuel Baidoo, the chief and people of Teberebie, and the executive director and members of Wassa Association of Communities Affected by Mining for their assistance. I would also like to express my sincere gratitude to the late Dr. Mrs Elizabeth Rosalind Turkson for her immense contribution and support through my entire master’s programme. May her soul rest in perfect peace. Finally, I wish to express my sincere thanks to my parents, siblings for their prayers and support. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh vi TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION....................................................................................................... i ABSTRACT……………………………………………………………………….. ii DEDICATION........................................................................................................... iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENT......................................................................................... v TABLE OF CONTENTS…………………………………………………………... vi LIST OF FIGURES……………………………………………………………….. xii LIST OF TABLES.................................................................................................... xiii LIST OFABBREVIATIONS..................................................................................... xiv CHAPTER ONE 1.0 GENERAL INTRODUCTION AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK ………1 1.1 INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………. 1 1.1.1 Background to Case Study……………………………………………….5 1.2 STATEMENT OF RESEARCH PROBLEM…………………………………. 6 1.3 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK…………………………………………….. 7 1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS……………………………………………………. 11 1.5 HYPOTHESIS…………………………………………………………………. 12 1.6 OBJECTIVES OF STUDY……………………………………………………. 12 1.7 DEFINITION OF TERMS…………………………………………………….. 12 1.7.1 Conflict…………………………………………………………………….. 13 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh vii 1.7.2 Host Communities………………………………………………………… 15 1.7.3 Gold Mining………………………………………………………………... 15 1.8 SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY…………………………………………………. 16 1.9 LIMITATIONS OF STUDY…………………………………………………... 17 1.10 RESEARCH OUTLINE……………………………………………………… 17 CHAPTER TWO 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW……………………………………………………… 19 2.1 INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………... 19 2.2 STRUCTURAL ADJUSTMENT PROGRAMMES AND MINING SECTOR REFORMS…………………………………………. 19 2.2.1 Structural Adjustment Programs (SAPS)………………………….. ……. 19 2.2.2 Mining Sector Reforms……………………………………………………. 20 2.3 Land Tenure System and Loss of Land……………………………………… 23 2.4 HUMAN RIGHTS ABUSES AND LOSS OF LIVES………………………… 29 2.5 ENVIRONMENTAL, ECONOMIC, POLITICAL AND IMPACTS…………. 32 2.5.1 Environmental Impacts…………………………………………………… 32 2.5.2 Economic Impact…………………………………………………………. 38 2.5.3 Political Impacts……………………………………………………………41 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh viii 2.6 CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY (CSR)…………………………. 42 CHAPTER THREE 3.0 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY……………………………………………… 49 3.1 THE STUDY AREA……………………………………………………………49 3.1.1 Tarkwa-Nsuaem Municipal………………………………………………. 49 3.1.2 Teberebie………………………………………………………………… 50 3.1.3 Iduapriem Mine (Anglogold) Former Teberebie Goldfields Limited…… 51 3.2 RESEARCH DESIGN…………………………………………………………. 52 3.3 DATA COLLECTION………………………………………………………… 53 3.4 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES…………………………………………………... 55 3.4.1 Sampling for Respondents………………………………………………… 55 3.4.2 Sampling for Focus Group Discussion……………………………………...57 3.4.3 Sampling for Interviews…………………………………………………… 57 3.5 DATA ANALYSIS……………………………………………………………. 58 3.6 LIMITATION OF DATA COLLECTION……………………………………. 58 CHAPTER FOUR 4.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION………………………………………………. 60 4.1 INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………... 60 4.2 BACKGROUND DATA……………………………………………………… 61 4.2.1 Gender…………………………………………………………………….. 61 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ix 4.2.2 Age of Respondents……………………………………………………….. 62 4.2.3 Length of Stay in the Community………………………………………… 63 4.2.4 Educational Level ……………………………………………………………64 4.2.5 Employment……………………………………………………………….. 65 4.3 COMMUNICATION AND REFORM……………………………………….. 66 4.3.1 Knowledge on Mining Sector Reforms or Laws………………………….. 67 4.3.2 Communication…………………………………………………………… 69 4.4 LAND AND LANDED PROPERTIES………………………………………... 73 4.5 ECONOMIC, SOCIAL AND POLITICAL EFFECTS………………………... 75 4.6 CONFLICTS DUE TO EFFECTS OF MINING……………………………… 79 4.7 PROJECTS BY AGA………………………………………………………….. 82 4.8 COMMUNNITY’S PERCEPTION…………………………………………….85 4.8.1 Nature of Relationship between AGA and the Teberebie Community…..…86 4.9 CAUSES OF THE CONFLICT……………………………………………….. 88 4.9.1 Lack of Communication…………………………………………………… 89 4.9.2 Selfishness On The Part Of Anglogold Ashanti………………………….. 90 4.9.3 Issue of Failed Promises………………………………………………….. 92 4.9.4 Disregard for Local Authority……………………………………………... 93 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh x 4.9.5 The Aggressive Nature of the Mining Company………………………… 93 4.9.6 Lack of Maintenance……………………………………………………… 95 4.9.7 Speculative Activities……………………………………………………… 96 4.9.8 In-migration……………………………………………………………..… 97 4.10 TEST OF HYPOTHESIS…………………………………………………….. 97 CHAPTER FIVE 5.0 CONCLUSION, SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS……………….. 102 5.1 INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………... 102 5.2 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS…………………………………………………... 103 5.3 CONCLUSION………………………………………………………………… 104 5.4 RECOMMENDATIONS………………………………………………………. 106 5.4.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………… 106 5.4.2 Education…………………………………………………………………... 106 5.4.2.1 Mining Laws, Reforms and Compensation…………………………… 106 5.4.2.2 Education on Effects of Mining Operations…………………………. 108 5.4.2.3 Importance of Formal Education……………………………………... 109 5.4.2.4 Traditional Norms and Taboos………………………………………. 109 5.4.3 Effective Communication and Consultation……………………………… 110 5.4.4 Mining Companies Should Desist From Creating Dependency…………… 111 5.4.5 Desist From Engaging In Speculative Activities………………………….. 111 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh xi REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………….. 112 APPENDICES…………………………………………………………………….. 126 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh xii LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 4.1 Gender 61 4.2 Age 62 4.3 Length of stay in Teberebie 63 4.4 Educational level 65 4.5 Employment 67 4.6 Knowledge of Mining Reforms/Laws in Ghana 68 4.7 Examples of Mining Reforms 68 4.8 Information on decisions by AGA 70 4.9 Confrontation due to Communication 71 4.10 Issues Involved 71 4.11 Knowledge about Lost Property 74 4.12 Confrontation Due To Loss of Land or Property 75 4.13 Conflicts Due To Effects 80 4.14 Effects of Mining Activities That Cause Misunderstanding 81 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh xiii Figure Page 4.15 Effects of Mining Activities That Cause Misunderstanding 81 4.16 Effects of Mining Activities That Cause Misunderstanding 82 4.17 Projects 83 4.18 Projects 85 4.19 Projects 86 4.20 Perceptions 86 4.21 Effects of Projects on Perception 87 4.22 Relationship between AGA and Teberebie 88 4.24 Reasons for Conflict 88 4.24 Reasons for Conflict 89 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh xiv LIST OF TABLES Table Page 4.1 Age 62 4.2 Length of stay in Teberebie 63 4.3 Educational level 64 4.4 Educational Level * Occupation Crosstabulation 66 4.5 Crosstabulation on Existence 69 4.6 Regularity of Information 70 4.7 Knowledge on Lost Property 73 4.8 Descriptive Statistics 75 4.9 Descriptive Statistics 76 4.10 Descriptive Statistics 79 4.11 Test of Hypothesis 97 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh xv LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS Key AGA AngloGold Ashanti AGAIM AngloGold Ashanti, Iduapriem Mine AGC Ashanti Goldfield Company AILAP Agricultural Improvement and Land Access Programme CGML Chirano Gold Mines Limited CIL Carbon-in-Leach CIP Carbon-in-Pulp CSR Corporate Social Responsibility DISEC District Security Council EPA Environmental Protection Agency FGD Focus Group Discussion FIAN FoodFirst Information and Action Network, GAGL Ghanaian Australian Goldfields Limited GFG Gold Fields Ghana GRA Ghana Revenue Authority IFC International Finance Corporation IMF International Monetary Fund L.I Legislative Instrument MMDAs Metropolitan, Municipal, and District Assemblies MNC Multi-national Corporation MOFA Ministry of Food and Agriculture NCOM National Coalition on Mining University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh xvi NGO Non-governmental Organization OICI Opportunities Industrialization Centres International PAPs Project Affected Persons PAYE Pay As You Earn PNDC Provisional National Defense Council PNDCL Provisional National Defense Council Law SAP Structural Adjustment Program SPSS Statistical Package for Social Sciences TB Tuberculosis TGL Teberebie Goldfields Limited URTI Upper Respiratory Tract Infections U.S United States WACAM Wassa Association of Communities Affected by Mining WBCSD World Business Council for Sustainable Development WHT Withholding Tax University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 CHAPTER ONE GENERAL INTRODUCTION 1.1 INTRODUCTION AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK Mining is considered the fifth biggest, second oldest and most important economic industry after agriculture. It involves the digging of the earth to extract natural minerals. (Down & Stocks, 1977). Ghana’s history of gold mining can be traced from its colonial name, Gold Coast. Some scholars argue that gold and other metals were mined and traded by the indigenes of Gold Coast before 1471 when the Europeans arrived (Ofosu-Mensah and Ababio, 2011). The methods used were equally traditional labour intensive. However, these methods were developed and mechanized by Pierre Bonnat between 1876 and 1882. His methods helped to establish Ashanti Goldfields Corporation in 1895, which began operation in Obuasi. It was later on that the Gold Coast Geological Survey team under Sir Albert Ernest Kitson, through research found deposits of diamonds, bauxite and manganese (Anaman, 2009). Ghanaian nationals operated in the small scale mining either legally or illegally using rudimentary methods in rural impoverished communities. The British introduced the Gold Mining Protection Ordinance early in the twentieth century and that led to a ban on and the collapse of indigenous mining. This is because, the ban led to the seizure of certain rights formerly enjoyed by the indigenes in the gold mining sector during that era (Kekeli, 2009). However, the Provisional National Defense Council (PNDC) government headed by President Jerry John Rawlings introduced the Economic Recovery University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2 Programme. The programme gave rights and recognition to artisanal and small scale mining through its Mining Sector Resuscitation Program in 1983 (Kekeli, 2009). Gold has remained a predominant mineral in the country produced by both small and large scale. Dumett (1987) posits that almost ninety percent (90%) or more of the gold produced in the country during the early 1990s were through underground mining from the Western and Ashanti Regions (Dumett, 1987). As stated earlier, gold is not the only mineral produced in Ghana, large reserves of gold and other mineral resources like bauxite, manganese, salt makes Ghana a country for exploration, mining and the processing of minerals. Ghana is the second largest producer of gold on the African continent and the tenth largest producer of gold in the world (Revenue Watch Institute, 2011). It is estimated that 2,488 metric tons of gold approximately 80 million ounces were produced in then Gold Coast and now Ghana between 1493 and 1997 (Ghana Chamber of Mines, 2005). A remarkable instance was in 1992, when gold production rose from 327,000 fine ounces in 1987 to 1 million fine ounces (ghanachamberofmines.com). Mining is considered an investment that requires huge capital, regardless of the type or kind of mining being undertaken, be it surface or underground mining and also a high risk business venture (Wood, 1997). Due to its huge capital and high risk nature most developing countries in Africa like Ghana, have little or no resources to mine and exploit the natural resources they have; they therefore resort to giving total or limited rights to foreign investors to do so (Bridge, 2004). This has led to the establishment of companies University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3 in resources-based communities by foreigners. Thus greater part of the mining industry is controlled by expatriates who operate with the state of the art technology (Bridge, 2004). Ghana for example in March 1994 had the intent of selling off fifty-five percent (55%) of her stake in AGC. It was at estimated selling price of two hundred and fifty million United States dollars (USD250 million) (ghanaweb,2011). News about the sale of stake in AGC was received by majority of the citizens with disappointment because they felt it would lead to foreign ownership of the country's gold mines (ghanaweb.com). However, the government assured the citizens that it was going to maintain its final say in all major stock acquisitions. It went further to state that they plan to invest some of the capital derived from the stock sale in local business to boost nation’s reserves (ghanaweb, 2011). Apart from selling the state’s stake in AGC, successive governments have given out most of the state’s mineral consignment to foreign mining companies because of the unavailability of capital to do exploration on their own (ghanaweb, 2011). Therefore, the mining industry in Ghana has companies such as Adamus Resources Limited operates at Nkroful, AngloGold Ashanti operates the Iduapriem mine in Tarkwa and the Obuasi mine (ghanachamberofmines, 2013). There is also the Chirano Gold Mines, Ghana Manganese Company at Nsuta, Goldfields Ghana which operates in Tarkwa and Damang, Golden Star Resources in Bosogo and Wassa Akyempim, Newmont Ghana Limited in Kenyasi and New Abirem and Perseus Mining Ghana Limited operates in Ayanfuri and Nanankwa (ghanachamberofmines, 2013). These companies have been fully licensed to operate in their host communities and are members University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4 of the Ghana Chamber of Mines operating in the Western, Eastern and Brong Ahafo regions of Ghana (ghanachamberofmines, 2013). Currently, the mining sector contributes about 17.5% of Ghana’s total corporate tax earnings, and 27.6% of government revenue. For instance, a mining company like Gold Fields Ghana made a total payment of one hundred and fifty-seven million dollars ($157 million) in the form of corporate taxes, royalties to the state from January to December 2010 (ghanaweb, 2010). Similarly, Newmont Ghana (Ahafo Mine), made the payment of GH¢49,813,472 (25,593,933) corporate income tax, GH¢12,387,599 (US$6,430,652) mineral royalty, of GH¢3,116,175 (US$1,626,816) withholding tax and GH¢7,912,199 (US$4,148,799) for pay as you earn tax (Newmont, 2013). For the first six months of 2013, Newmont Ghana paid total taxes of GH¢152M ($79M). Newmont Ghana has made a total tax payment of GH¢904M (US$563M) to the Ghana Revenue Authority since it began production in July 2006 (Newmont, 2013). The mining sector as at 2010 had employed more than 28,000 people to work in the large scale and mines support service in the industry (ghanaweb, 2010). 1.1.1 Background to Case Study AngloGold Ashanti Limited is a global gold mining company formed in 2004 by the merger of AngloGold and the Ashanti Goldfields Corporation. The company was formed on 26 April 2004, after the High Court of Ghana approved the merger of AngloGold and the Ashanti Goldfields Corporation three days earlier. This came almost a year after the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5 merger was announced on 16 th May 2003. In the transaction, Ashanti shareholders received 0.29 ordinary shares of AngloGold for every Ashanti share (anglogold, 2012). The Iduapriem Gold Mine is an open-pit gold mine situated 10 km south of Tarkwa, in the Western Region of Ghana. The mine is owned by AngloGold Ashanti and consists of the Iduapriem and the Teberebie operation, which were merged in 2000. Majority-owned by the Ashanti Goldfields Corporation from 2000 onwards, ownership of this 85% share of the operation was transferred to AngloGold Ashanti with the merger of Ashanti Goldfields and AngloGold in 2004. AngloGold Ashanti originally only owned 85% of the mine but acquired the remaining 15% in September 2007 (anglogold, 2012). The new company owned an 80% share of Iduapriem, with the remaining 20% held by the International Finance Corporation, and a 90% share of Teberebie, with the Government of Ghana holding the remainder. Combined, this accumulated to an 85% share for AngloGold Ashanti in the whole operation. In September 2007, the company acquired the remaining 15% as well (anglogold, 2012). 1.2 STATEMENT OF RESEARCH PROBLEM. Most developing states during the 1970's and early 1980's were practising either socialism or communism form of governance and were mostly politically unstable. This led to the states mostly opposing the establishment of Multi-national Corporation’s (MNC) in their territories because of their mistrust (Dunning, 1998). This action hampered investments because the state controlled almost all the economic aspects of the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6 states including the mining sector. Most investors saw developing states environments non-conducive to invest (Morgan, 2002). However, this hostility meted on MNCs by developing countries changed from the 1990’s through economic globalization (Luo, 2001). Terms and conditions attached to loan and trade agreements increased cooperation between MNCs and national governments and compelled governments or states that were opposed to MNCs to corporate. This is because there is the assertion the state stepping aside and allowing free market capitalism would help develop the state (Greider, 1997). This led to the establishment of MNCs including mining companies in most developing countries, but the state did not fully lose its stake in the trade or its economy due to capitalism, as it made laws to regulate the activities of the market. Thus, Ghana opened up its economy to enable some multinational gold mining companies to invest and mine gold in the country. Having been accepted by the national government due to their neoliberal economic policies, these companies expect that they will receive the same level of acceptance or even better from their host communities. Also Gold mining companies (foreign and local) believe that their contribution to development at both national and local level is enough to earn them a good relationship between them and their host communities. However, that seems not to be the case on the ground, as some members of the local communities have become the main opposition to the activities of gold mining companies in Ghana. This opposition brings about conflict between the gold mining companies and their host communities and such conflicts sometimes lead to loss of lives. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 7 For instant, Peru’s long-standing mining-related social conflicts blew up in the last week of May, 2012, in the southern province of Espinar, where police shot and killed two local community members who were protesting for greater benefits from giant Swiss mining company Xstrata (Slack, 2012). Similarly, the Minas Conga project in the northern province of Cajamarca was also hit by protests as community members blocked highways to prevent construction of the project by US-based Newmont. The project worth $5 billion is Peru’s largest foreign investment. This work therefore, seeks to find out the causes of the conflict between gold mining companies and their host communities; using AngloGold Ashanti Company Limited as the case study (Slack, 2012). 1.3 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK The research is situated in the Frustration Aggression Theory of conflict. Developed by Dollard et al (1939) the theory posits that, aggressive behavior or aggression implies that there is the existence of frustration and similarly, frustration will lead to some form of aggression. That is to say that that where aggression exists, there is frustration, and where frustration exists, there is the probability that aggression may occur. The theory states that, aggressive beahaviours in the society, such as social movements, riots and attacks occur when people are frustrated, frustration caused by the blocking or the preventing of one’s effort aimed at achieving a particular goal or goals (Friedman & Schustack 2007). The theory further explains that, frustration causes aggression and the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 8 cause of the frustration is mainly the target for the aggression, but innocent people may also suffer from misplaced or misdirected aggression when the source or cause of frustration is unreachable (Dollard et al, 1939). Pastore (1950) defines frustration basically as the denial, prevention or deprivation of some benefits or goal desired by an individual or group. He further defines frustration to exist when a desired answer or response to a goal or request suffers interference (Pastore, 1950). Thus a person whose hope of achieving a particular goal is thwarted will be frustrated so will a group of persons who seek for a particular good will be frustrated if that aim is thwarted. Baron and Richardson (1994) suggest that there are four mediating factors which influence frustration, which is often the antecedent to aggression but for the purpose of this research two is discussed below These are first; the Magnitude of Frustration; talks about the intensity of blocking a goal. It states that, the level of frustration translates to the level of the aggression (Baron and Richardson, 1994). This is to say that aggression born out from the partial blocking of a goal will not be as intense as one born out of a complete blockage of a particular goal. Second, the Arbitrariness of Frustration, this talks about the unexpected or sudden block of an anticipated goal. This talks of situations whereby one has the hope or expectation of arriving at or achieving a particular goal but that goal or aim is blocked or halted abruptly. It is arguably a strong antecedent to an aggressive behavior because of the shock that mainly comes with it (Baron, & Richardson, 1994). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 9 Aggression is defined as an action done or taken with the sole aim to harm or cause damage; it can be physical and non-physical, direct or indirect (Baron, & Richardson, 1994). Direct aggression is aggressive action taken with the sole aim of causing harm or hurting the agent that caused the frustration whilst indirect aggression is meted on relations. Indirect aggression mainly occurs when agents that caused the thwarting of the goal are out of reach (Baron, & Richardson, 1994). There are many areas where aggression manifests in our society today, such as domestic violence, riots, demonstrations, road-rage, and war. Aggression is also seen as a form of expression of displeasure through non-violent means such as demonstrations and strikes, and/or violent means such as riots, wars (Stearns, 2003). Linking this theory to conflict, Talikka (1970) argues that frustration can be economic, political and social. He argues further that, when a group of people become economically or politically frustrated, conflict or conflict strategies could easily be predicted. Economic frustration can be in the form of;  Rapid increase in prices of goods and services.  Loss of livelihood (either fully or partially) (Talikka (970) These forms of economic frustration can or mostly lead to the competition of scarce available resource. Competition over scarce resources has been argued to be one of the main causes of conflict, (Merton, 1988) Additionally, Merton (1988) posits that, as the struggles for control over scarce resources persist in our societies, those who lack control over resources will be taken advantage of. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 10 Talikka (1970) further argues that those who tend to struggle for control over resources but never achieve their aim, become to be politically frustrated. Karl Max gives a clearer picture when he argues that that ruling class will often oppress the others. Political frustrations according to Talikka often lead to conflict. Applying the theory to this study, the researcher seeks to use the theory to as a background to finding the causes of the conflict. The theory tends to give frustration as a form of guideline to finding a solution to the above research problem. From the theory one can deduce the indicators of frustration. That is to say, to arrive at the conclusion that an individual or group is frustrated the following should be present or identified; a) A goal set to be achieved or being achieved b) An attempt is being made deliberately or non-deliberately to thwart that goal c) A goal has been thwarted or made difficult to achieve. Identifying the causes of frustration may help unravel the causes of conflict between gold mining companies and their host communities. Additionally, the theory attempts to explain why people scapegoat, this means that it seeks to explain why people may vent their aggression on an innocent entity which may not be the source of the frustration (Whitney and Kite, 2010). The researcher intends to use this to ascertain whether the conflict between gold mining companies and their host communities could be because one or both of them may be “scapegoating” University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 11 Geen and Donnerstein, (1998) argue that the theory is explained with variables that are easy to understand and variables that are found in our everyday lives such as people, institutions and goals. Selg (1971) argues that the theory is well structured to help explain why violence occurs. It gives a causal agent to violent behavoiur, which is frustration. Also, it does not involve overly abstract concepts or elaborate procedures. It is very close to common sense - seeming to be built on it (Zillmann, 1983) However, Maslow (1941) and Rosenzweig (1944), criticize the theory by arguing that frustrations lead to aggression when the frustrations come with their accompanying threats. Buss (1963) similarly insisted that the thwarting of a goal reaction in and of itself does not instigate aggressive bahaviour but frustration will lead to aggressive behaviour when the frustration involves an element of attack. 1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS The central question that this research seeks to answer is:  What accounts for the conflicts between AngloGold Ashanti and the people and Teberebie in the Tarkwa-Nsuaem Municipality? The research seeks to find answers to questions such as:  What are the actions and inactions of AngloGold Ashanti and Teberebie that generate conflict between the company and Teberebie community?  Why those actions and inactions generate conflicts? University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 12 1.5 HYPOTHESIS In furtherance to the above problem the researcher has framed the hypothesis as follows:  Conflicts between gold mining companies and their host communities may occur if mining companies’ operations have negative effects on or frustrate the basic means of livelihoods of the host communities. 1.6 OBJECTIVES OF STUDY The main objective of this research is;  To identify the causes of conflicts between AngloGold Ashanti and its host communities. Other objectives the researcher seeks to achieve are:  To identify the action and inactions of AngloGold and Teberebie that causes confrontations between the Teberebie community and AngloGold Ashanti  To assess why those issues generate conflicts.  To offer relevant recommendations to help to resolve such conflicts. 1.7 Definition of terms This study attempts to define key terms in the work to help settle on a contextual meaning useful to the work. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 13 1.7.1 Conflict. Johan Galtung (1958) defines conflict as the “pursuit of incompatible goals.” A scholar like Coser, defines conflict as a struggle between opponents over values and claims to scarce status, power and resources (Coser, 1956). Conflict is also said to exist whenever incompatible activities occur. One party is interfering, disrupting, obstructing, in some other way, making another party's actions less effective (Deutsch, 1973). And Folger, Poole, and Stutman (1997), see conflict as the interaction of interdependent people who perceive incompatible goals and interference from each other in achieving those goals. One can deduce from the above definitions that, conflicts have features such as, interdependence, interaction, scarcity, incompatibility, interference, opposition, and struggle. Thus, conflict can be said to exist where two or more interdependent parties, struggle or oppose each other with the aim to interfere or frustrate the other, to distract the achievement or attainment of one’s goals, due to the scarcity of resources and/or seemingly incompatible goals. According to Folarin (1998), conflict can be divergent, symmetrical, complementary, and parallel (Folarin, 1998, p. 50). He states that;  Divergent Conflict: Divergent conflicts occur when every member of or group within a society is practically pursuing individual goals that are different from the corporate goal of the society, and which are difficult to reconcile with the common goals. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 14  Symmetrical Conflict: Symmetrical conflicts occur when co-operation is hindered by the pursuance of the same goal by two or more separate entities or groups. Due to the indivisibility of the goal, there ensues a breakdown in the existing relationship.  Complementary Conflict: These types of conflicts are a product of a misinterpretation of the goals or intentions of one party by another. Though the goals of one group complement those of the other, they are mistakenly perceived as being contradictory or opposed to one another.  Parallel Conflict: this is a type of conflict whereby each party reserves the right to make its decision and execute it. Parallel conflicts are said to be relatively harmless, so far as each of the parties recognize the limits of it rights and powers and does not go beyond them. For the purpose of this study which seeks to study the causes of conflict between companies and their host communities; conflict will be defined as interactions that range from court summons, confrontations, minor disagreements and demonstrations to riots and or violence (Kemp et all, 2011). And particular interest will be taken in the symmetrical type of conflict proposed by Folarin (1998) because the research focuses on the relationship between gold mining companies and their host communities. 1.7.2 Host Communities There is no uniform definition of community that exists in the social sciences; scholars across disciplines agree that it includes dimensions of geography, social interaction, and University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 15 identity (Hillery, 1955; Lee and Newby, 1983). Which dimensions are considered most important and what form they take depends on the discipline and subject of study. In an attempt to distinguish the various types of communities with which business interacts, Dunham et al. (2006) propose a typology of four categories. Communities of place are the geographic locations surrounding corporate facilities or operations. Communities of interest are advocacy groups that share a common purpose driven by a particular agenda such as preventing cyanide spillage into water bodies. Virtual advocacy groups also share a common purpose but it is usually broader than a particular interest and entails mobilizing people to participate in a short-term effort such as anti-globalization protests at trade talks. Finally, communities of practice are professional work groups whose members share a common identity and mutual obligations. This work focuses on communities of place and thus seeks to define host communities as the geographical locations where gold mining companies are situated. 1.7.3 Gold Mining Gold mining is the process of extracting of gold or gold ores from the ground. There are several techniques and processes by which gold may be extracted from the earth. Gold ore are mostly extracted from the land or water bodies (MacDonald, 1983) This work will be based on gold extracted from rocks in the land. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 16 1.8 SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY Academically, this study will contribute to the discussion of the relationship between Gold mining companies and their host communities. Practically, the study’s significance lies in the fact that it will help bring out the roots causes of conflict in gold mining areas especially areas where gold mining is done on land, and recommend solutions to such conflict. This is important because such conflicts can lead to loss of lives. For example, there was a shooting incident at Brim North, a district in the Eastern Region of Ghana in November 2005. It was reported that police officers killed a resident and injured three others. The incident happened when the residents of the area staged a protest against Newmont Mining Company's over a proposed method being used to compensate local farmers for economic losses. (nodirtygold.com) Also, happenings around the globe (example Peru) tends to give one the impression that resource conflict if not well manage can plunged a county into civil wars. And civil wars have their own political, economic, and social disadvantaged effects on the state. (nodirtygold.com) Apart from that, its affects the operations of gold mining companies in such communities which adversely affect the income the state benefits from their operations. 1.9 LIMITATIONS OF STUDY University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 17 A key limitation to this study will be identifying the facts from sentiments especially with account from indigenes and the mining company on a particular issue or area of conflict. Nonetheless, the researcher will do her best to decipher the facts from the sentiments. 1.10 RESEARCH OUTLINE Chapter 1: Introduction. This chapter introduces what the study is about and also gives an insight into the background of the study topic background to case study, statement of research problem, hypothesis, research question, theoretical framework, significance of study and limitation to study and research design. Chapter 2: Literature review. This chapter consists of various studies that have been conducted by different scholars on the subject matter and the various conclusions that have been drawn on it. Chapter 3: Methodology. This comprises of the type of research design, sampling procedure and sampling framework of the study. Chapter 4: Data Analysis. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 18 This chapter deals with the analysis of all the data that was obtained from the research. Chapter 5: Discussion, Recommendation, Conclusion. In this chapter the findings will be discussed. Recommendations made where necessary and a conclusion on the study reached, based on the attained research results. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 19 CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 INTRODUCTION. There exist documents, books, articles and other literature on the conflicts between mining companies and their host communities. Some of these conflict degenerate into violent conflicts. Others have been observed to be non-violence, ranging from protests marches and work stoppages, legal hearings as well as local and international campaigns. This chapter thus, seeks to give and overview of existing literature and research which have been done to address the conflict between gold mining companies with special attention to literature that focuses on the research question. The review will be done on six main thematic areas. 2.2 STRUCTURAL ADJUSTMENT PROGRAMMES AND MINING SECTOR REFORMS. 2.2.1 Structural Adjustment Programs (SAPs). SAPs are economic policies proposed by the World Bank and IMF for developing states. The promotion of these policies has been through the conditional adoption of the policies for the provision of loans (WHO, 2005). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 20 According to Akabzaa and Darimani (2001), the policies largely focused on trade liberalization policies, public expenditure policies, state-owned enterprises reform and public sector management. The framework included minor policies such as;  Liberalizing imports and export promotion policies to bring about major changes in the mining sector  Facilitating the access to foreign financing to buy equipment and spare parts needed for the rehabilitation and expansion of existing mines. This resulted in improved levels of foreign investment and increased productivity, because the development of the mines increased international confident in the mining sector and state as a whole.  Realigning the price and incentives system to favour the production sectors, especially the export sector,  Limiting government’s control of the economy, resulting in the liberalization of the economy  Restoring monetary and fiscal discipline  Encouraging the private sector to development 2.2.2 Mining Sector Reforms Jacob Songsore et al., (1994) cited in Akabzaa and Darimani (2001) list some of the sector reforms in the mining area to include: i. Changes in the legislation governing the mining sector to make it attractive to foreign investment. ii. Increasing fiscal liberation of the mining sector. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 21 iii. Strengthening and reorientation of government support institutions for the mining sector. iv. Privatization of state mining assets. Similarly, the privatization exercise according to Jacob Songsore et al, (1994), cited in Akabzaa and Darimani (2001), was carried out in different ways including the following;  The government to gradually let go of its control of the mining sector by selling off its shares in these mines to the private sector. For instance, the government gradually reduced its stake in then Ashanti Goldfields Corporation form 55% to 19% in 1998, through the sale of its shares initiated in 1993, while that of Ghana Bauxite Company, was reduced from 55% to 20% in the same year (Akabzaa and Darimani, 2001).  The complete divesture of state-owned mines to the private sector whilst the government maintains a statutory 10% free equity. Foreign companies were invited to participate in management contract agreements and they had the liberty to buy the ones they found viable. Goldfields South Africa for example purchased the Tarkwa mine in 1995, after it had ran it on management contract from 1993 and 1994. Johannesburg Consolidated Investments (JCI), also South African company, purchased the Prestea mine in 1997 after managing in on contract from 1995 to 1996 (Akabzaa and Darimani, 2001). However not all mines were managed on contract before it was sold, the Dunkwa Goldfields and Ghana National Manganese Corporation for insatnce were sold outright (Akabzaa and Darimani, 2001). v. Provision of environmental laws and changes in the laws governing the mining sector. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 22 Ghana, since the inception of the SAPs and Mining Reforms from the 1980s, has various pieces of legislation newly formed or revised to propagate mining sector reforms, (Akabzaa and Darimani, 2001). SAPs have led to the loss of stake and/or control in the exploration of minerals on their land. Studies have shown that the absence of direct community control of, or meaningful participation in, mineral wealth remains a major factor in the communal resistance and socio-political conflict witnessed in the natural resource-endowed regions of, Nigeria, Peru and other states in the world, (Ikelegbe, 2005) For example, Junín in Ecuador brought to halt a copper exploration project, because the people felt that the state adopting SAP’s had opened its doors too wide for foreigners and they had lost certain rights in the community (Kuecker, 2007). According to Kuecker (2007), 200 residents in May 1997 came together to demonstrate their displeasure towards a proposed copper mining operation on their land. They burnt down the mine’s exploration camp (Kuecker 2007). Ghana in order to qualify for funding from the IMF and it associates, was obliged to implement a set of economic and social policies that included devaluing the currency, adopting a flexible exchange rate, reducing inflation, reducing public services and cutting down government expenses (particularly in education, health, and welfare), removing trade barriers, privatizing public enterprises, and promoting economic growth through export, (Ghana, 1984). These measures made up of Ghana’s, structural adjustment adopted in the early 1980s. There was an increase in international confidence which resulted in more foreign investment.(Akabzaa and Darimani, 2001.) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 23 However, structural adjustment failed to ultimately improve upon the livelihood of the citizens. For example, trade liberalization destroyed many local industries and led to the sale of many local companies to foreigners, some had to even shutdown completely (Konadu-Agyeman, 2000). This increased the rate of unemployment in the country as people were rendered jobless Policy reforms in the agriculture and mining sectors were improved or modified and that undermined the viability of small farms and weakened food security, and the privatization of public entities and the cut to social spending resulted in higher costs restrictions (Akabzaa and Darimani, 200), (for example, for electricity) and user fees for services such as health care and education (cash and carry services).The above overview seeks to posit that, structural adjustment have led to indigenes or communities hosting mines having high expectations or making unrealistic demands, and when they are unmet, lead to conflict. Also SAPs have resulted in host communities and sometimes a country as a whole, having little or completely losing stake in the minerals explored in their communities and the country as a whole. 2.3 LAND TENURE SYSTEM AND LOSS OF LAND Land tenure can be defined as a legal or customarily contract between individuals or groups regarding the ownership of land (Islomov, 2007). Boltayev (undated) posits that, land tenure systems become an institution when the rules of contract regarding land ownership regulate the behavior of people in the society. The rules governing land ownership determine how properties or lands are allocated in a given society, because University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 24 they determine who has the power or authority to use, control, and transfer land, and the responsibilities and restraints attached to a particular land (Boltayev, undated). He further explains that land tenure plays an integral role in the socio political and economic structures of the society (Boltayev undated). Land tenure rules could be enforced through proceedings in a court or through customary structures in a given community, but they may either be well defined or poorly defined with ambiguities and the ambiguities give room for exploitation (Boltayev undated). Land tenure can also be defined as procedure by which one gains the right to obtain a land or the rules governing the distribution of land among people. Land tenure in Ghana is a dual system, governed by a title registration system (made up of different laws and legislative instruments) and by customary systems peculiar to different societies (Pooley and Agyeman, 2003). Communal land ownership is the main system of land acquisition practiced in most rural areas in Ghana; this is a form of land tenure whereby land is owned by an extended family, clan or s community of ancestrally related people (Pooley and Agyeman, 2003). A leader is then appointed to hold the land in trust for the members and also regulate the usage of the land as well (Pooley and Agyeman, 2003). However, they argue that these appointed leaders that do not have complete or sole rights over the communal land, because it is believed that the title to the land belongs to the whole community whilst the leaders hold it in trust for them. Lands belonging to individuals are acquired or individuals who own land acquire them either through the community leaders or by inheritance (Pooley and Agyeman, 2003). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 25 Dual land tenure and administration systems in Ghana according to Pooley and Agyeman (2003).are recognized under the following categories of land of land ownership: • State, or public lands are lands acquired by the state, mostly from traditional authorities for activities or infrastructure in the people’s interest. Such lands are solely managed by the Land Commission, and the prupose for which the land was leased out is always defined (e.g. a school, clinic) (Pooley and Agyeman, 2003). • Stool/skin lands, are lands owned by a group of people. It includes, lands owned by a community, clan or tribe. The chief or clan head is mostly the custodian of the land. The custodian of the land is mandated to consult local elders or kingsmen before selling or leasing a part or whole to families or outsiders (Pooley and Agyeman, 2003). They argue that stool lands are supposed to be kept save for future generations although that has recently not been the case in practice. However, stool lands can be given to individuals and/or families to farm on, after which the said land are returned after produce are harvested (Pooley and Agyeman, 2003). • Private and family/clan lands are lands that are bought by individuals, families or clans, received as gifts or by inheritance (Pooley and Agyeman, 2003). The laws of Ghana do not allow for the existence of freehold title to land. This is to say that lands can only be leased to non-Ghanaians for a maximum of fifty (50) years; he or she then has the liberty to use the land for residential, commercial, industrial or agricultural purposes. The lease can be renewed after the fifty years has elapsed. But lands can be leased to Ghanaians for a maximum of ninety-nine (99) years and also subject to renewal when it elapses (Pooley and Agyeman, 2003). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 26 Legislations governing in most developing countries hardly recognize community or traditional land titles, because their governments have the sole power to give mining licenses, (Mcfarlane, 1997). Mineral deposits have mostly been deposited in the remotest areas around the world. Such regions are mostly populated by indigenous people, and state influences before the discovery of the mineral deposits are low. In Ghana, Kasanga and Kotey (2001) argue that, there are various disorganized land tenure and management systems. They are of the view that the land tenure systems in Ghana are heavily governed by law and they were not introduced until recent times. They also believe that, public lands are divided into two groups: They are the compulsorily acquired lands and lands vested in the head of state. Lands that have been compulsorily acquired from individuals or families the public good or interest must be compensated for under the State Lands Act of 1962 (Kasanga and Kotei, 2001). Vested lands are not compensated for but the affected community has an interest in it and reaps the proceeds from it whilst the government holds legal title to them (Kasanga and Kotei, 2001). Land tenure or land management systems are managed by the state. There are mostly some ambiguities in the regulations that give that create opportunities for law enforcing agencies, individuals or business entities to manipulate them (Mends and Meijere, 2006). Before the colonial period, private property or individuals owning properties, especially lands were non-existent in the legal sense. It was during colonization, that colonialist practiced a new land management and allocation system through which they adapted land management to the needs of the colonial state and capitalist mode of production. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 27 Colonists made sure that they took charge over to any unclaimed or undocumented land (Mends and Meijere, 2006). These lands were then passed on to the states after independence. This management system helped the state to own mineral concessions and by that governments had authority to give the concessions to international large scale mining companies and for small scale mining (Mends and Meijere, 2006). Additionally, distribution of lands for exploration lies solely in the authority of the state and this gives the governments the sole right to minerals in its territory. This explains why, applications for mineral exploration or mining license go through series of scrutiny by only government agencies related to the field of mining, environmental protection, and forestry (Boateng, 1997) In general, these discussions take place among national agencies, with little consultation with local communities. As a result, proposals, acquisitions, and mining rights are often conferred with little or no local input from communities and sometimes without the knowledge of local leaders (Antwi, 2002; Conduah, 1996). Communities are then informed of potential development, mostly by the mining companies themselves, other than by government agencies. This has led to complex and often highly contested encounters between mining companies, the state and the host communities (Antwi, 2002). Additionally, Asabere (1994) notes that, indigenous groups are mostly ignorant of the mineral rights laws in the state. This is because most of these laws were made without consulting the will be affected communities, since they were mainly made before mineral discoveries were made in such communities. Although they have been made with little or no consultation with affected communities, they have been able to replace the traditional land tenure systems with the new laws (Asabere, 1994). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 28 This may explain why there is conflict between artisanal miners (galamsey) who take permission and authority to operate from their kings or chiefs and large scale mine managers who mostly take theirs from the state. Furthermore, Barnett (2010) is of the view that mining takes up a huge amount of land and if there are people living or working in a particular area where a company has license to operate, those people are usually displaced. People are required to leave their homes and their livelihoods, sometimes voluntarily but more often involuntarily or by force, and relocate to a new area. Akabzaa and Darimani (2001), note that in Ghana, mining takes up large tracts of land, from the indigenes who are mostly farmers. They tend to lose their lands and their means of livelihood because mining activities do not serve as the second choice to acquire income since it cannot absorb the people who have lost their means of livelihood due to the impact of mining. Farmers and small-scale miners who lose their land to mining companies have very few means for survival in the formal economy. Moreover, Ghanaian laws provide for a certain level of resettlement compensation, however some of these settlements are woefully inadequate and those that seem adequate, many farmers lack the financial skills to manage their compensation allotments with prudence, which deprives them of sustainable livelihoods, (Akabzaa and Darimani, 2001). The displacement of communities and loss of land is a cause of conflict between companies and communities, particularly when people are moved to an area where they have less access to resources and a source of income than at their previous settlement (Barnett, 2010). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 29 2.4 HUMAN RIGHTS ABUSES AND LOSS OF LIVES Human rights abuses have been reported to be among the major causes of conflicts between gold mining companies and their host communities. Examples of such abuses are; In Indonesia for instance, the military and security forces employed by Freeport McMoRan, the company that owns the Grasberg mine, murdered 22 civilians. According to reports, Freeport also testified that it paid off the Indonesia military in August 2003, to shot two American schoolteachers and one employee near Grasberg, the world's largest gold mine (nodirtygold, 2003) Many companies employ private security firms to guard their mine sites and prevent illegal miners from digging for gold on their concessions (Barnett, 2010). In Ghana however, the laws do not grant private security forces permission own and use arms. As such most mining companies rely on the state owned security forces to protect their plant and workers. These security personnel sometimes abuse their mandate by reacting with force during peaceful local demonstrations. Local police in many mining areas are perceived to be ineffective because they are under-equipped and not well trained (Carson et al., undated). This is because most of the state’s mining concessions are situated in remote or not so developed towns and villages. This leads to some mining companies, such as AngloGold Ashanti, summoning the military to patrol their lands. There have been several reports of police and military personnel committing many human rights abuses, ranging from arbitrary arrest to unlawful killings (Carson et al., undated) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 30 For example, WACAM published that officers of the Ghana Police Service in the Brim North District in the Eastern Region of Ghana, shot and residents who were protesting against the proposed method that Newmont Mining Company was going to use to compensate local farmers for the losses they were going to incur due to the mining operations in the area. The shooting incident led to one resident being shot dead and three others injured (wacamgh.com). But the police service’s reason for shooting was that, the Police Commander had received a call from the Newmont Mining Company that there had been blockades on all roads in the town by youth. The residents had done that to distract the movement of company vehicles and workers in and out of the company, thus halting their operations (wacamgh.com). Similarly, there were clashes in Ghana between then Ashanti Goldfield Company (AGC) and artisanal miners. The clashes according to the Ghana Commission on Human Rights and Administrative Justice resulted in severe human rights violations (wacamgh.com). For instance there were recorded cases of murder and severe beatings in the Sansu mining community between 1994 and 1997. These brutalities were said to be perpetuated by the security guard and dogs of AGC and the states military (wacamgh.com). Furthermore, there were instances whereby mining companies contract the services of private securities, not licensed to possess and use arms, these security persons engage in several human rights abuses some even leading to the loss of lives (wacamgh.com). For example, there was a shooting incident at the South Tailings Storage Facility of AngloGold Ashanti Obuasi Mine near Dokyiwa Village. the during which 23-year-old Mr Kwame Eric of Binsere, near Obuasi, a 23 year old man was shot by a security personnel from a private security organization contracted to man the company. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 31 According to Mr. John Owusu, General Manager, Public Affairs of AngloGold Ashanti, Ghana, a group of residents unlawfully entered the South Tailings Storage Dam area. This made an official of Ghanatta Security Services, the private security company contracted by the Obuasi Mine, to allegedly discharge a firearm and in the process hitting Mr Eric in the back and was taken to Government Hospital in Obuasi by colleagues (wacamgh.com). AngloGold Ashanti was reported to have assisted medically from the Company’s hospital in Obuasi and to transport Mr Eric via company’s ambulance to the Komfo Anokye Teaching Hospital in Kumasi. AngloGold Ashanti reportedly said it arranged for specialist care, and was going to bear the full costs of treatment, and was closely monitoring the condition of the patient. The incident was also reported to the Obuasi Central Police Station for further investigation and the Municipal Commissioner for Human Rights and Administrative Justice was briefed on the case” (wacamgh.com). Lastly, Ghana's National Coalition on Mining (NCOM) (2006), states that the youth of Ntotroso in the Asutifi District of Brong Ahafo Region went on a peaceful demonstration against the failure of Newmont Ghana Gold Limited to honour promises of employment made to them by the company before the commencement of their operations. The afternoon after the demonstration, three (3) vehicles (one Tata bus, one Pick-up truck, and one Mitsubishi Pajero) full of soldiers arrived at Ntotroso. On arrival the soldiers, numbering about 60, commenced an indiscriminate assault on the people using canes and the butt of their guns. They went from house to house, brutalizing and forcing them out of their dwelling places. They finally “kidnapped” 13 people and detained them in police cells at Sunyani for three (3) days. They released them without charge. Victims of these brutalities include: University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 32 • Alhaji Aziz Saani, Ntotroso Zongo • Nana Akwasi Amakyi III, former Chief of Ntotroso Town, Asutifi District, Brong Ahafo • Nana Kyei, Chief Priest, Ntotroso Town, Asutifi District, Brong Ahafo • Ruth Ntim, Ntotroso Town, Asutifi District, Brong Ahafo The above examples and incidents are said to cause conflicts between the mining companies and their host communities because some of the residents tend to retaliate or launch a counter attack. 2.5 ENVIRONMENTAL, ECONOMIC, POLITICAL AND IMPACTS 2.5.1 Environmental Impacts Burke (2006) on the effects of mining operations, stated that the process of mining operations affect the environments of the mining communities negatively in various ways including creating dust, pollutant leakages from tailings and slag, changes in land use, acid mine drainage and exhaust pollutants. “Mining is one of the most environmentally harmful practices on the planet because of the way in which it disturbs the land and the chemicals it uses to extract minerals from the rock ore” (Barnett, 2010:10). Mining operations mainly commences with the clearing of land and vegetation for surface mining operations (Akabzaa & Darimani, 2001). It is estimated that mining companies use forty to sixty percent (40-60%) of its total concession for the citing of mines in general, make available space for heap leach University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 33 facilities, tailings dump and open pits, mine camps, roads, and resettlement for displaced communities (Akabzaa & Darimani, 2001). It is argued that the percentage of land reserved or used for such activities has a negative effect on the land, affecting the vegetation which is the main source of income for the people (Akabzaa & Darimani, 2001). Erosion can be a major concern at mining sites because of the large area of land disturbed by mining operations and the large quantities of earthen materials exposed at sites (U.S. EPA, 1997). Erosion may cause significant loadings of sediments to nearby water bodies, especially during severe storm events and high snow melt periods. The ultimate deposition of the sediment may occur in surface waters or it may be deposited within the flood plains of a stream valley (U.S. EPA, 1997). Acid mine drainage is a common form of pollution at many metal mines. This is because metals such as gold, copper, silver and molybdenum, are mainly found in rock with sulfide minerals. Sulfuric acid is produced when sulfides in the rock are removed and exposed to water and air during mining (U.S. EPA, 1997). This acidic when present in water can dissolve other harmful metals in the surrounding rock. When this remains unattended to, the acid mine drainage may runoff into streams or rivers or leach into groundwater. Acid mine drainage may be released from any part of the mine where sulfides are exposed to air and water, including waste rock piles, tailings, open pits, underground tunnels, and leach pads, (U.S. EPA, 1997). For example, mine effluents had been discharged without check into water bodies, soil and air between 1947 and 1992, thereby resulting in the degeneration of the environment (Carboo and Sarfor-Armah, 1997). According to Amegbey and Adimado (2003), University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 34 residents had been officially reported 11 cyanide spillages between 1989 and 2003 in Tarkwa and Obuasi in the Western and Ashanti Regions respectively. If mine waste is acid-generating, the impacts to fish, animals and plants can be severe. Many streams impacted by acid mine drainage have a pH value of 4 or lower – similar to battery acid. Plants, animals, and fish are unlikely to survive in streams such as this (Amegbey and Adimado, 2003). Ore mills generate large amounts of waste, called tailings. For example, 99 tons of waste is generated per ton of copper, with even higher ratios in gold mining. These tailings can be toxic. Tailings, which are usually produced as slurry, most commonly dumped into ponds made from naturally existing valleys, (US EPA, 1994). These ponds are secured by impoundments. Also, According to Earthworks, mining ends up producing a lot of dust and liquid waste which reside in tailing dams, these dry up in the atmosphere and create dust for the individuals living around the mine sites. The metal produced is refined further in a type of furnace called a smelter, in which a very high temperature is used in order to extract a more pure metal. This kind of technology produces air which contains nitrogen, sulfur, acid rain, lead and greenhouses gases, thus polluting the air (Earthworks, 2004). Metals are particularly problematic because they do not break down in the environment. They settle to the bottom and persist in the stream for long periods of time, providing a long-term source of contamination to the aquatic insects that live there, and the fish that feed on them. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 35 There have been instances where cyanide spillages have heavily polluted rivers and ground waters killing livestock and fish, as well as destroying fields and crops affecting the indigenes most. For instance, it was estimated that about 100,000 or more tons of wastewater filled with cyanide and heavy metals flooded into the Tisza River in Romania, when a tailings dam at the Baia Mare mine split open in January 2000. More than 1,400 tons of fish were killed and potable water supply to about 2.5 million people was contaminated (Earthworksaction, 2013) To avoid the expensive cleanup cost, and because the company (Esmeralda Exploration Limited) was not covered fully by insurance, it went bankrupt. The bankruptcy was to protect the company and its shareholders. However, the citizens whose lives were directly affected by the spillage received no compensation or “protection”. The affected citizens unfortunately received no such protection (Earthworksaction, 2013) Similarly, the Concerned Farmers Association at New Abriem and other major and minor groups have protested against Newmont's mining plan and its compensation. They claimed that the compensation offered by the company is not enough to compensate for ruining their lands and livelihoods. They gathered over 200 petition signatures to present to the government (Anane, 2006). In the petition they claimed that they had been experiencing sleepless nights due to the the trauma of relocation, loss of farmlands and livelihood, new diseases especially the upsurge in malaria cases as a result of the open pits and other stagnant pools of water in the open trenches that will be as a result of the operations Newmont Ghana Gold Limited in the communities (Anane, 2006:1) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh http://archive.rec.org/REC/Publications/CyanideSpill/ENGCyanide.pdf http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/1146979.stm http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/642880.stm 36 Also the noise and vibration in mining communities created by the mobile equipment, air blasts and vibration from blasting and other machinery will ultimately cause damage to the auditory system because of the effect of high-pitched and other noises it creates. It also causes is cracks in buildings causing them to collapse, stress and discomfort (Akabzaa and Darimani, 2001). Mining activities in Ghana have caused widespread ecological degradation, and Ghana’s Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has, since its inception in 1994, lacked the necessary capacity in terms of both human and financial resources to carry out its job of ensuring compliance with the nation’s environmental regulations (Armstrong, 2008). When such things or instances occur or when they perceive it to be an event that may occur in future, the people or indigenes tend to protest, and such protest leads to conflict. For example; Newmont officials were forced to defend the company in an Indonesian court where they were charged with illegally dumping mining waste into the sea near the fishing and diving community of Manado (Perlez, 2006). In Ghana, according to Antwi-Boasiako (2003), data from the District Medical Office, Tarkwa, indicates that diseases such as malaria, diarrhea, upper respiratory diseases, skin diseases, acute conjunctivitis and accidents are the top ten diseases in the area because of the impact of mining. Respiratory diseases are also on the rise in the area. The incidence of upper respiratory tract infections (URTI) is relatively high in the area, with an annual average of 840 reported cases. Pneumonia and pulmonary tuberculosis follow, with annual reported cases of 199 and 109 respectively (Antwi-Boasiako, 2003). District Medical Officer of Health, states that TB has a history in the area; this is because the rock formation in which gold is found has very high silica content. The dust generated University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 37 thus contains silica, which causes the silicosis, tuberculosis and silico-tuberculosis diseases. The miners and residents who inhale this dust are prone to these diseases. This explains why there is a high level of silico-tuberculosis among miners in the area (Antwi- Boasiako, 2003). A 1989 study conducted in one of the mines showed that, in the area there had been a 1.2/1000 incidence of silico-tuberculosis while the incidence of pure silicosis was 1.9/1000. The average incidence of tuberculosis reported in the in the District is 0.5/1000 as against the national average of 0.003/1000 (Antwi-Boasiako, 2003). 2.5.2 Economic Impact Most countries in the world with mineral or ore deposits especially developing countries see these minerals as one of the main source of revenue. The country is able to generate revenue from the exploration of the minerals through the income taxes paid by corporate bodies in the sector, royalties, rents paid for concessions, services, customs and harbour duties paid during export and importation of goods, income taxes paid by employees, and social security contributions from employees and their employers, electricity and water charges paid to the state (Akabzaa & Darimani, 2001). In Ghana, mining sector attracted about US$3 billion of foreign direct investment between 1986 and 1997. The sector is deemed to record the highest foreign direct investment capital. For instance the 3 billion US dollars stated earlier represented more than 60% foreign of all foreign direct investment in the country (Akabzaa and Darimani, 2001). The state used most of the funds to rehabilitate and expand existing mines. It also University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 38 embarked on new exploration projects, developed new mines and established mining support companies to produce or supply vehicles, mining equipment and laboratories (Akabzaa and Darimani, 2001). Although mining sector is considered the leading earner of foreign exchange in the country: providing government revenue, capital and social infrastructure to the public, direct and indirect employment, and aids in development communities of mining areas, most people in the mining communities who are mainly farmers may lose their land or have their water bodies contaminated thus their livelihoods and their main source of income (Akabzaa and Darimani, 2001 : MMSDP, 2002), ultimately becoming unemployed. This is because mining has adverse effects on the land and vegetation - the main means by which the people generate income (Akabzaa & Darimani, 2001), but these farmers rendered unemployed by these effects hardly get the opportunity to work in these mines when they are estalished. This leads to the increase in unemployment in the community and the country as whole. Furthermore, Earthworks (2004) posit that, there are many mining communities with very high unemployment rate because they are filled with people looking for jobs in order to take care of their families. This includes farmers that have been displaced by the setting up of mines. Mining also results in a high cost of living in mining communities. This means that the price of acquiring vital amenities and goods including, water, health and accommodation is more than the average individual can afford this is because since an income and food generating activities such as agriculture, has been affected by mining companies through the acquisition of their farm lands. There has been a decrease in food production which University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 39 has resulted in high food prices because more of the food stuffs must be transported from near and far villages and towns, sometimes on bad roads thus increasing the prices of the food stuff (Akabzaa & Darimani, 2001). Similarly, the monthly income and wages of some Ghanaian staff in the mines are indexed to the US dollar, raising their income tremendously above their colleagues in the public sector expatriates are also paid internationally competitive salaries which create a very wide gap in the various income levels in the mining communities. These high levels of income have caused the prices of goods and services in the town to increase (Akabzaa & Darimani, 2001), which results in unsustainable livelihood especially when many farmers lack the financial skills to manage their compensation allotments with prudence or invest. Such circumstances drive indigenes to either oppose the setting up of mines in their communities or they make conscious effort to protest or undermine the activities of mining operations, leading to some level of conflict between the two entities. Contrary to the above, the African Review Report on mining reported that most conflict between host communities and mining companies are due to the fact that, when the companies are done with exploiting minerals in a particular area, they relocate to another area. In doing so, they do not necessarily carry along workers, especially those employed by virtue of the fact that they lived in that particular company, renders the youth unemployed. Thus when this is noticed by a host community-to-be, they do their best to prevent the rapid exploitation of the minerals through conflict, so that for as much as the company delays exploiting, they are sure of remaining employed. So they create conflicts for their personal gains. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 40 Also, “No Dirty Gold” reported in 2004 that, most youth in mining communities, lack the skill to work in the mining companies, thus making it difficult for mining companies to employ them, however, when they apply for the job and they are not offered, they feel cheated by the company because they feel the company is in their community and thus, they should be given priorities. If this is not done, indigenes feel cheated and that brings about strained relationships leading to conflict. Mining is arguably an unsustainable job or venture because minerals are non-renewable resources. The destruction of the traditional employment base is followed by the lost of the mine itself, when ore deposits are exhausted, the jobs disappear because the company or companies relocate (www.miningwatch.ca). Most mining projects have a lifespan of 10 to 40 years, after which the mining companies explore other locations for minerals and relocate. Even amenities such as schools, clinics, and other services provided for by the companies lose their funding (www.miningwatch.ca). When this happens, some mining staff and the entire community are left to fend for themselves regardless of what they lost during the mine’s operations. The curriculum used to trained people or students who wish to work in the mining sector is manly skewed to suit the industry. Miners due to their curriculum have few other marketable job skills; this makes them jobless when the company they work for folds up (www.miningwatch.ca). Such “jobless ex miners” join forces to oppose the setting up of new mines or already operating mines in near and far towns and villages. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 41 2.5.3 Political impacts. Politically, the state is somehow seen to have lost some of its monopoly over the use of force to some of the mining companies because, some of these companies have access to state military persons who fight to defend the companies but not the citizens. An instance was in July 13th, 2005, when the Ghana military opened fire on demonstrators in Prestea for protesting against the negative effects the Bogoso Gold Limited’s mine operations had on their community. The open fire got seven people wounded, including a 13-year- old boy (Armstrong, 2008). The mining companies may usurp state authority, using the police and military as accomplices. The security service providers engage in brutalities, such as the destruction of important cultural/spiritual heritage in the form shrines and others (Aubynn, 2003). The also use them to forcibly evict people shooting and use them to halt demonstration or disperse demonstrators. The dispersal mostly lead to a shoot-out resulting in the killing of demonstrators (Aubynn, 2003). Other violations include unlawful arrests and detention, violation of communities’ economic, social, and cultural rights, violation of the right of communities to clean and healthy environment and demolition of communities without due process of law (Aubynn, 2003). When people find themselves in such situations they feel neglected or abandoned by the state and as such, try to defend themselves. They either use processes within the law or outside. These actions by the mining companies and the host communities, can easily create to conflict. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 42 2.5 CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY (CSR) Corporate social responsibility activities or projects in mining communities are considered especially by mining companies as the main channel through which they pay back to the community. Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) is concept that has attracted worldwide attention and has become a common concept in the international political and economic setting (Lantos, 2001). This can be attributed to the advent of globalization and international trade, this is realized by the business complexity and the new demand for enhanced transparency and corporate citizenship. The main reason why companies adopt CSR is to create for the business corporations an obligation to work towards meeting the needs of stakeholders (Clarkson, 1995). Though CSR is popular in many business discourses, there seem to be the persistent lack of agreement on what it really means. There exist different perceptions and expectations of CSR from different stakeholder groups, different standards, and different practices; this explains the fragmented understanding of the concept (Clarkson, 1995). The International Organization for Standardization Strategic Advisory Group on CSR, defines CSR to as balanced approach used by organizations to address economic, social and environmental problems in ways that aim to benefit people and the society as a whole” (International Institute for Sustainable Development 2004:4). The World Business Council for Sustainable Development, (WBCSD) defines CSR as a commitment or decision of business to contribute to sustainable economic, political and social development (WBCSD, 2001). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 43 CSR, according to Waddock et all (2002) is defined a decision making process in an organization mainly commercial mining projects to anticipate, respond to and manage their social responsibility, particularly in the areas of their operation. It consists of voluntary as well as obligatory provision of support in financing and managing infrastructure and other community related activities. Two major camps in the CSR debate can be asserted. The first camp posits that a corporation is a legal construct and has only the two responsibilities bestowed by the law creating it, namely making money for owners and obeying relevant rules (Greenfield, 2004). Another group believes that corporations act intentionally through the intentional actions of their staff, managers and board, hence they must adhere to the duties and obligations of any good person or citizen , but in their case it is on a corporate scale (Hancock, 2005). The first view translates into a narrow conception of corporate responsibility as simply entailing economic and legal responsibilities, while the second translates into a broader conception of CSR entailing a wider range of economic, legal, ethical, moral, and philanthropic responsibilities. The main argument of the first camp is closely associated with the classical perspective, which suggests that the core function of business is to provide goods and services that lead to the maximization of profit within the framework of legal requirements (Quazi and O’Brien, 2000). The focus here is on the economic and legal responsibilities of business. From the perspective of the second camp, businesses are expected to assume responsibility and conform to the principles of morality, accountability, and integrity with emphasis on potential contributions and interventions. This translates into attempts at University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 44 meeting the expectations such as protecting the environment, developing the community, conserving resources, and philanthropic giving (de la Cruz Deniz and Suarez, 2005). Similarly, Carroll (1979), proposed a four-part definition of CSR. In this model, he differentiated between four types of corporate social responsibilities: economic, legal, ethical, and discretionary. He also presented the argument that firms wishing to effectively engage in such programmes needed to have; a definite definition of CSR, an almost thorough understanding of the issues for which a social responsibility is required or needed, and a specification of the philosophy of responsiveness to these issues. The first category that Carroll (1979) discussed is a responsibility that is economic in nature, entailing for example providing a return on investment to owners and shareholders; creating jobs and fair pay for workers; discovering new resources; promoting technological advancement, innovation, and the creation of new products and services. For example Gold Fields Ghana Limited, a multinational mining company has donated GH¢100,000.0 to the University of Mines and Technology, Tarkwa. The donation was made to assist the University complete the construction of its Geological Engineering Laboratory and to purchase equipment for the laboratory (www.umat.edu.gh) Business from this perspective is the basic economic unit in society and all its other roles are predicated on this fundamental assumption (Carroll, 1979). The legal responsibility is the second part of the definition and entails expectations of legal compliance and playing by the ‘‘rules of the game.’’ From this perspective, society expects business to fulfill its economic mission within the framework of legal requirements. However, while regulations may successfully coerce firms to respond to an issue, it is difficult to ensure that they are applied equitably (Pratima, 2002). Moreover, Solomon, (1994) is of the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 45 view that most these regulations if not all are reactive in nature, leaving little or no opportunity for firms to be proactive. He is of the view that these laws circumscribe the limits of tolerable behavior, but they neither define ethics nor do they ‘‘legislate morality’’. In essence, ethical responsibility overcomes the limitation of law by creating an ethics ethos that companies can live by (Solomon, 1994). It portrays business as being moral, and doing what is right, just, and fair. Therefore, ethical responsibility encompasses activities that are not necessarily codified into law, but nevertheless are expected of business by societal members such as respecting people, avoiding social harm, and preventing social injury. Such responsibility is mainly rooted in religious convictions, humane principles, and human rights commitments (Lantos, 2001). This seeks to explain why of host communities and/or host countries are seen to be putting pressure on MNCs to develop a new relation to ethical standards in their activities. (Jirasek, 2003) The last type of responsibility has to do with the choice companies have in deciding on activities or projects that they are willing to contribute to. When they make such contributions they are considered philanthropic (Frederick, 1994). For example, Newmont Ghana has made significant contributions in agriculture by the establishment of the Newmont’s Agricultural Improvement and Land Access Programme (AILAP). The AILAP in the Ahafo mine area has supported over 5,400 affected farmers to restart farming. The assistance is given through a number of interventions including the acquisition of land, provision of farm inputs such as seedlings and fertilizers and agricultural extension support from their partners; the Ministry of Food & Agriculture. In Akyem Project area, Newmont Ghana has assisted over 1,400 farmers in 11 communities University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 46 with inputs such as seedlings, fertilizers and agricultural extension support. So far, they report to have spent over US$21million on AILAP in Ahafo and Akyem. AILAP has remained successful with support from their partners, including the Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MOFA), Project Affected Persons (PAPs), Land Access Review Committee, Opportunities Industrialization Centres International (OICI), Asutifi District Assembly, Birim North District Assembly and local Chiefs (newmontghana, undated). A scholar like Zwetsloot, (2003) identifies the three actors or forces that influence the global acceptance of CRS to include the MNCs who seem to have embraced CSR as a productive force to enhance their entrepreneurial success. He also identifies that the influence local indigenous communities of some developing host countries has on MNCs reflects in CSR activities, (Zwetsloot, 2003). Mainly through discourses, the host indigenous communities of MNCs appear to have become the significant other in the profitable operation of mining projects (Whiteman and Mamen, 2001). He identifies the third group of actors or factors influencing the MNCs to fulfill their CSR function, to be the non-governmental organizations (NGOs). They are mostly seen championing the cause of ethical justice in management and production of goods and services everywhere, NGOs of some developed countries have systematically campaigned against MNCs for exercising excessive influence over public policy of governments, environmental degradation, appalling wages and corrupt practices. In an effort to respond to the bombardment of pressures from the NGOs, MNCs have modeled their business practices to have a positive impact on host country and communities, workers and profit (Zwetsloot, 2003). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 47 CRS can be implemented with profit and non-profit/philanthropic intentions. Some examples of for-profit CSR initiatives are - developing a marketing channel for rural population where a company is empowering poor women entrepreneurs to sell company products or strengthening health delivery systems in rural locations by selling the company healthcare products through the health care delivery system (Clarkson, 1995). Examples of non-profit initiatives can range from corporate giving initiatives to community development initiatives such as livelihood promotion, setting up schools or digging a well in a village. Further, while some organizations contribute without any desire for publicity; others want to contribute with a wide publicity in expectation of a positive brand image. Standards of CSR practice not only vary from one company to another but also from one industry to another. Some organizations tailor their CSR activities to reduce harmful effects to the community or environment as a result of the business they are involved in (Clarkson, 1995). For example, oil companies focus on improving air and water quality or soft drink companies invest in replenishing water for the community from which they draw water. The CSR activities of some companies are targeted at ensuring the continued supply of people and products for their operations. For example, food processing companies may invest in agricultural promotion programmes for constant supply of quality raw material and technical education programmes for a supply of qualified workforce. To skeptics, CSR is antithetical to sound business practice and serves to dilute its focus on wealth creation (Murray, 2005) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 48 Proponents however characterize CSR as essential for successful business operations and as an opportunity for business to look beyond narrow economic returns and take the wider social concern into consideration (Rudolph, 2005). Some scholars like Wood (1991), Goodpaster and Matthews (2003), have argued that mining firms just use CSR as a means of ‘shutting up’ some of the loud mouths citizens and opinion leaders in the communities, however, the projects or programmes are not able to shut everyone up, others may end up seeing those projects rather as insults. They tend to repel the companies instead of accepting them. This ultimately ends up in conflict between the mining companies and their host communities. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 49 CHAPTER THREE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 3.1 THE STUDY AREA 3.1.1 Tarkwa-Nsuaem Municipal The Tarkwa-Nsuaem Municipality is one of the 17 administrative MMDAS (Metropolitan, Municipal, and District Assemblies) in the Western Region of Ghana, established by Legislative Instrument (L.I.) 1886 in 2008. The Tarkwa-Nsuaem is located between Latitude 400’N and 500 40’N and Longitudes 10 45’ W and 20 10’W. It shares boundaries with Prestea Huni-Valley district to the north, Nzema East Municipality to the west, Ahanta West District to the south and Mpohor Wassa East District to the east. It covers the total land area of 2354 km² (Government of Ghana, 2012). The Tarkwa - Nsuaem Municipal Assembly has a total of forty-three (43) Assembly members. This is made up of thirty (30) elected members and thirteen (13) appointed ones. With about 438 communities, it consists of one (1) urban council and five (5) Zonal councils namely, Tarkwa urban council, Nsuaem zonal council, Nsuta zonal council, Simpa zonal council, Dompim zonal council and Benso zonal council, (Government of Ghana, 2012). According to the 2010 population and housing census, the total population of Tarkwa- Nsuaem Municipality is 90,477 which comprise 48.43% female and 51.57% male. The economy of the Municipality is made up of mainly agriculture production. About 68% of the entire active population is engaged in agricultural production whilst the remaining University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 50 32% find themselves in the area of commerce, private informal sector and hospitality industries (Government of Ghana, 2012). The private informal sector is one emerging sector that is attracting quite a number of the population recently. The emerging private informal sector underlines the need to create an enabling environment to maximize its contribution to economic activity in the Municipality (Government of Ghana, 2012). The major economic activity is mainly agric. There are other supporting activities such as industry, commerce and others, (Government of Ghana, 2012). 3.1.2 Teberebie Teberebie before its resettlement was a small village, surrounded by forests. The community derives its name from the river close to the settlement which is called Teberebie meaning “shaking head”. (Minnah II, personal interview 29 th March, 2014). Teberebie was the first resettlement village in the Tarkwa-Nsuaem municipality, then known as the Wassa-West district. The resettlement was necessary to make way for mining activities. The land, which the mine was constructed on, was a stool land owned by the Apint