GA GRAMMAR' 
NOTES 
AND 
EXERCISES 
By 
M. B. W ILK I E 
" 
OXFOR D UNIVERSITY P RES S 
LONDON: HUM PHREY MILFORD 
[930 
OX.FORD UNrvERSITY PRESS 
AlfE~ BOUSE, RC. 4 
LONDON EDIl-'DUROli OLASOOW 
LEIPZIO NEW YORK TORONTO 
lfELBOURNE OAPETOW:i 1I011BA.Y 
CA.LOUTTA 14AOruS SBA:iOBAI 
HU1fPITREY MILFORD 
.1 
1 
'I 
\Il LCCi I lit CCt.-$:.e.Jl 
PBll-"TED L'\' GREAT DRITA.IN 
1 
PREFACE 
'l'nIS book is an attempt to put into elementary form 
some of the rules wbich the Gn language follows. 
lt has no claim to be scholarly or scientific, but is for 
ordinary use by Gn teachers or others w ho wish to be 
able to explain the different parts of their own Ian· 
guage, or by foreigners who wish to know someth ing 
of Ga. It is necessal'ily incomplete, as everyday con-
tact with other languages naturally results in a constant 
ohange of idiom. 
That idiom, enriching the language, is enlil'ely 
different from the increasing use of an Anglicized-Gn.. 
by many of the younger generation, which shoUld be 
discouraged. It is spoiling the~of the language, 
and g rates on the ear of all who lov;rpl t is becoming 
com mOD, for instance, to say such things as I Bi IE 
kEdzi e 'ba', n literal translation from the English 
I Ask him if he is coming', i nstead of the real Ga 
idiom j E i IE ak E e-b e. 10 ?' li terally (Ask him that 
he is coming, or -?' 
The book is divided into two parts, the first being 
grammar notes, and the second exercises th ereon. 
Old-fashioned grammatical terms are used in certain 
insbmces, as suiting the Ga equivalent of an idea 
better t han a more modern one. 
In t he exercises, which are given botb in Gn and 
English, it must be remembered that there are often 
differen t ways, more 01' less good, of saying one tbing, 
' Vhell, therefore, n sentence is translated froUl English 
in to Ga, if it is not quite the sanH~ as the Oa sentence 
given, it does not fo llow that it is wTong. I n the 
vi Prelace 
stl.me wny, I .fi.ka 1e faa' can be translated into English 
either as I Lhe money is not sufficient) 01' I there i.s not 
enoLlgh money', 
Hardly any wOl'ds are the exact equivalent of words 
in n,nothel' language, especially when one is European 
and the other African. Further, the idiom of any 
language can rare ly be translated verbnUy, and the 
whole strudure of the senlence may be different. 
This makes it essential to learn the langua.ge as 
much :l.S possible directly from contact with Africans. 
Exercises sllch as these cun only 1)6 a help towards 
understanuing the I why and whel'afore' of th ings. 
But as the translat ions giveu are of necessit.y often 
very free, n comparative study of the Gn and Engl ish 
of these should be useful. 
I desire to record my indebtedness to previous Ga 
publicn.Lions. espeoially Christaller's .A,kra Spl'ache. It 
would be impossible to n:une all the African friends 
who ht\ve given most pat.ient and willing help. but 
I acknowledge it here with grateful appreciation. 
M. B. W. 
CONTENTS 
PRELIMINARY NOTES 1 
NOUNS : number, par. 2- 5; gender, 6- 8; case, 9 3 
ARTICLES: b:, 10- 12 ; kO, 13- 14 8 
ADJECTIVES: place, 15- 17 j formation of nouns 
from, 18; number, 19 i adject ive equiva-
lents, 20-3 ; comparisons, 24- 8 i adjectives 
of quantity and numel';ll s, 29; definite 
numerals, SO j formatioD of numbers, 31- 7 ; 
time, 38; indefinite numerals, 39 ] 2 
PRONOUNS: gendet', 4.0; number, 41; case, 42 j 
impersonal pron ., 43; emphatic prOD., 44; 
reflective prOD., 45 j interrogative pron., 
46; indefinite prOD., 47 ; relative prOD., 48 j 
demonstrative proll" 49 21 
ADVERBS: kinds, 60 ; adverbial ph rases, 51; 
negative adverbs, 52 j place of, 63; bit and 
d3<~ 54 26 
PREPOSITIONS: as in Ga, 55- 6 j other preposi-
tions, 57 ; verbs used as, 69 j prepositional 
phrases, 59 ; other expressions, 60-1 28 
CONJUNCTIONS: joining nouns, 62 i joining sen-
tencE's, 63--4 j relative conjunctions, 65 32 
INTERJECTIONS: 66-7. 36 
INTERROGATIVE WORDS: 68-9 . 36 
VEHBS: general rem;\l"ks, 70 -1; passive Yoice, 72 ; 
roots, 78; plurals, 74; duplicn.ting of, 75. 37 
IRREGULAR VERBS: form, 77; dg:i, 78 ; dg:ee, 79 ; 
substilutes for, 80 j otber uses of, 81-8. yE 
and be, 89 i yo, 90 j substitut.es for, 91-2 i 
other uses of, 93-7. ya. and tel 98 . 39 
REGULAR VERBS: preliminary note, 99 j indica-
tive mood, 100 i (nffirmath"'e) present tenses, 
101-3, note on use of habitu:u and can-
tinuntive tenses, 104 ; note on tone-marks, 
105 j llabitua.l tense, 106 ; past, 107 j per-
fect, 108 i continuative, 109 j future, 110; 
cOllsecuti,'e, III i imperatiY6 mood, 112 j 
viii Contents 
2nd, or indh'pct, imperati v6, 113 j compound 
imperatiVf', 114 ; conditional mood, 116 ; 
conditionnl perfect, 116; negative, 117 ; 
(negat ive) present :md past Lenses, 118; 
perfect, 119 j future, 120 j imperative, 121 ; 
2nd, 01' indi rect, impel'ative, 122 j compound 
imperativ0, 123 ; oote on use of e in certain 
negnti yes, 124 , 4-9 
VERBAL NOUNS: 125- 8 j persollnl verbal nouns, 
129 65 
RE, lIses of, 130-1, teuses of, 132 -7, use with ko 
and WO, 138 68 
SOME NOTES ON VERBS: ma and ta, 139 j place of 
object, 140 ; ti'tl.llsitive and illtl'allsiti,'e 
Yelbs, 141 , 76 
VERB COMBINATIONS: 142; ba ::lnd yll, 14.3 j to 
show determination, 144 j desire, 145 ; 
agreement, 146 j cOnHlHHlCElmen t, 147 ; con· 
tinuation, 149 j l'epelitioll, 149-60; abili ty , 
161-2, knowledge, 163; necessity, 164 j 
achievement, 165, pUl'pose, 156 j causatioo, 
157; ext}:\ notes on ha , 158; the end of nil 
nc lion, 159 77 
Com'OUND VERBS: 160 i Class I A, with gram-
matical completion, 161-2. Class 18, with 
gl'tl.llullatical subject, 163. Class II, double 
verus, 164 ; verbs with kE,166; odd note,166 &9 
SALL'TA 'rrONs 106 
A FEW KOTER ON 'J.'IlII.ES: kpo. 'ko, 168 ; k o, 169 ; 
immediate action, 170 ., past, 171 ; dUl'niion 
of, 172 i future, 173 i other notes, 174-8 . 110 
EXERCISES, Ga into English 120 
Engl ish into Ga 153 
Al'PI:NDIX 1. Vocabulary of wOJ'ds in GXGl'cises 
Ga-English 188 
English-Ga 203 
ApPENDIX II. General suggestions for beginners 221 
Simple examples of lenses. _ . . 286 
PRELIMINARY NOTES 
Vowels : 
Most Gn vowels are sborter than English ones, but 
some vowel sounds are long. When marked, the 
length sign is ' . 
Many vowels are nasal, the sign being -. As many 
length and nasal signs are not actually written, care 
must be taken in lea.l'ning each word from the tencher. 
The non-nasal vowels are pronoun.ced as follows: 
J.P.A. Card No. Similftr to tbe vowel sound in 
a between 4-5 Northern English 'man J (or as 
the French, Italian, or German a) 
Northern English' gate) (or as e 
in French) . 
Southern English 'fair I 
j bead ' 
0 Northern Eng" lish 'no' (or as in 
French' hotel ') 
6 Southern English 'pot' 
u 8 'put' 
(NOTE :-As the pronunciation of English vowels 
differs greatly in the various districts, it is impossible 
to give equivalent examples in English words which 
will satisfy all: it will therefore be necessary to learn 
all yowel sounds from the native.) 
Other foreign letters are: 
lJ = ng as ill 'song', which would be sol] 
J = sh 'shoot', Ju-t 
tJ = check" 'check', tJe:k 
d3= j ,,'jot', dgot 
B 
Prelimin(JIry Notes 
Sounds which should be learot from the teacher n.re : 
[w, tJw, d,3:w. 
Tone-marks! 
It is impossible to mark all the tones, in. the first 
place because it would require the marking of every 
syllable, and in the second place because there are 
sevemi d ifferent tones, and the distinction is so subtle 
that they can only be learnt by ear. 
But tone-marks are in some cases printed to dis-
tinguish one word from ::mother, and for showing 
tense, &c. \Vben marked, the neute accent (thus / ) 
stands for a high tone, and the grave (thus \) for 30 low 
tone. Roughly speaking, unmarked syllables occur-
ring before an aClite accent in a word are low. Un-
marked syllables occurring after a marked syllable in 
a word take the same tODe as the one marked. 
The importance of tones in Gn cannot be exagger-
ated. 'Vithout the propel' intonation Ga will not be 
understood, however carefully the words are otherwise 
pronounced. These tones can be lea,rnt by listening 
to spoken Ga. 
NOUNS 
1. There are two kinds of nouns-Proper and 
Common. 
A proper lloun is the name of any single individ ual 
of a class, e. g. : 
Kofi , Akua, Dodowa. 
A corumon noun is the name given to e,'eryUling 
of hhe same class. Common nouns are Simple, Collec-
tive, or Abstract. 
Simple-k an e, lamp, <\0 i ndividual as ODe object. 
Collective--asafo, company, several individuals as 
ODe object. 
Abstract-hewalE, strength, a quality or attribute. 
2 . NUMBER. 
Propel' nouns have only a limited plura1. 
Common nouns form the plural in different wnys. 
3. Proper 1unms, when names of people, take the 
word m ei, people, after them to form the plural, as 
Kofimei, Mensam ei. 
Th is may mean eillier 
(aJ aU the people of the name of Kofi or Mens. 
respectively. 
(b) K ofi ;lnd his people, Mensa and his people j or 
Kofi and the others, &c. 
4. Comllwn Nouns. No l'igid rules can be given fOl' 
forming the plura.l, t\S every rule is limited, but, 
spenking genemlly, nouns form their plural in the 
following ways: 
B 2 
Nouns 
(a) by adding i to the singular of nouns ending 
with i in the singultw, e. g. : 
bi child bii 
s~i seat s~ii 
toi car toli 
(E\xceplion nyemi brolher OJ' sisler nyemimei) 
verbal pOl'sonnl nouns ending in 10, DlO(l.ning the one 
who is 01' <1oes whnllbe verb conveys, e. g. : 
folD doer feloi 
c131110 lhief dguloi 
DltJulO worker nitIulol 
(exception-tjUlo scn>{lnt tjudgi) 
"6I'unl nonns ending in mo. 0 g. : 
wiemo word wierooi 
tom~ mistake tornal 
pilamo wOllJul pilamoi 
and nil othOI'S wh ich do nol come under the other 
hands, o. g. : 
btl: leo! ba: i 
gbt': way, 1'oacl gbe:i 
tJu room tIui 
(b) by nuding dgi to tho s ingular of many BOUDA 
with 1, m, u, 01' lJ at or Dem' the end, the ending 
being Hanany chl\nged slightly. 
gOIJ mountain godSi 
nano foot nadgi 
100.5 binl lofMSi 
nyomo deO! nyOdSi 
(kukuJ (t piece 01' parI) is fdso in this class} though not 
ending nnsnJly). 
Nowns 
There are many exceptions to this rule, such as 
suns pillow sunei 
okplo table okp15i 
kane lamp kauei 
tontoIJ mosquito tontolJi. 
(c) by adding m ei, people, to the singulm' . of per-
sonal Douns, especially those showing relationship. e· g.: 
tJ< f ather tS<mei 
us: grandmother -nimei 
nuntJo master nuntJomei 
nyemi brothC'r or sister nyemimei 
(bu t ko·tS., leop w'd-father of Ihe bush-Inkes i) 
(el) by addi ng bil , childre-n, to the siugulal' of many 
nouns giving an idea of something small. If the 
nOUll ends in 0 preceded by another yowel, th e 0 is 
dropped, e. g. : 
gbek~ child gbek~bli 
abifao baby ill, arms abifabii 
'Sa'fu amt 'fa'Subli 
pl€ko nail ple::kobii 
(e) irregularly, by a change of the ending from 0 to 
ai or ii, or by a complete change of word. 
The nouns in this class frequently form the ter mina-
tion of other words, wbich then follow the same 
formation of plural, e. g.: 
yo ' 1UQman yei biyo daught.,· biyei 
mo perS01~ mei gbomo human gbomei 
beiJig 
DO tlling nil heno limb, ~.c. h enii 
DU' man hii binu' son bihti 
.NOltnS 
(j) by dropping nyc in wOl'ds with that ondil1g, 
and ropln.cj})g it by i, mei, hil, or bU, e. g. : 
okwnfouyo farmer okwafoi 
WOIEDYO fisltermw~ wolEi 
oblanyo yOU1lg man oblahii 
Gauyo Ga man Gamei 
b lofonyo Europea1t blofomei 
kosEnyo peasant kos£mei or kosebii 
na.uyo friend nanemei 
(nnnenyo being Lhe originnl singular form, from nane, 
/001, one who wfl.lks with ono), 
5 . Some nouns have 0. double plural, such :\S 
lllal) tUItion madsi nations madgi'madgi peOl)les 
sane lu.le Bndgi tales so.dgisadgi tales 
Some have no plurnl at nil, such as names of things 
j-iut-t can be weighed or measlll'ed. and mnny abstract 
nouns, e. g, : 
mlu dust d U lJ darkness 
omo j'ice mi-Je: ,ioy 
(mu, oil, takes Lhe plural roui when different kinds of 
oil nl'e spoken of). 
Sarno hltve no singular) [ts 
had3i twins (tho sing. of which has gonG ouL of 
use) 
yibii fi'uit 
niyeuii fool! 
nibanii crops) and words formed jn t.his way. 
6. GENDER. 
In Gn. only persons and animals have gendel·. 
Nouns 
7. Persons. 
(a) Some have common gender, especially verbal 
nouns, e. g. : 
gbomo person dsrayela trader 
gbek~ child gbEtalo tra'vclle-1' 
nanyo friend nilelo wise person 
If distinction of gender is wanted, it can be shown by 
the use of the words YO', 'woman, and nu' , man, some-
times as a prefix} and sometimes as a suffix, e. g. : 
yo' nilelo DU' nilela wise 'lOoman, toiseman 
yo' gbElala DU' gbElala traveller (woman), 
t'l'aveller (man) 
gbeki3yo' gbekenu' girl, boy 
(b) Sometimes the words tJe:,falhet·, and nye, "mother, 
forming part of a word as prefix 01' suffix, indicate the 
gender, e. g." : 
maIJtJe: king maIJDye quee" 
(town's father) (town's mother) 
tJe:kwe uncle nyekwi3 aunt 
(c) Otherwise ent irely different words are used for 
two sexes} e. g. : 
wu lmsballd ~a ,oif' 
ni grandfathel" ni grandmother 
·(NOTE: TJE is also used to indicate the (possessor 
of' in many cases, and in this sense it has common 
gender, as in I Oke: mlifutJe: akaba na.nyo ni OkE 
rolllatJe: akanyie/ PI·OV. x..'Xii, 24. But as time goes on 
the tendency is to distinguish, and to use f nye' roore. 
Fo\' example: 
lJmotJ€, arutJe:, lalatJ€) notJe:, (farm OWn/W, hWl1ch· 
bach; siugcr, ow'net) have common gender. 
JikatJe:1 formerly used for both, now f"tk.anye also 
used. 
NOUl1S 
j1atSE house OZIn)cr formerly used for both, now Jianye 
in general use. 
wOlJtJE: fetish priest is never used for a woman, but 
always woyo'.) 
8. Animals. 
Distinction of gendel' is made by the use of uu' and 
and yo', e. g. : 
\Vll<>UU' cock wuoyo' hen 
gbenu' dog gbeyo' bitch 
tJicanu' bull tJinayo' cow 
There are it few distinctive [anns such as: 
to'agbo ram t o ' kpakp6 he-goat 
g. CASF_ 
The possessive case is formed by putting the possessor 
first, and lhe thing possessed artel' it, e. g. : 
Kofi wolo Koji's book 
loflo fine a, bircZ's wing 
uu' le: lllne {lte man's hand 
If the possessor is n plural nou n, the thing possessed 
inkes nn a. before it, a conkaction for aDlE, their, e. g.: 
lofOdSi afld3i birds' wi.ngs (birds their wings) .. 
bii a.nitSuDlo men's 1L'ork (m{)n their work) 
Other cases are shown by their position in the sentence. 
ARTICLES 
10. L €, 
The definite article, 110) the, is nendy alwllys used, 
nnd comes neter the noun, But it is not used when 
t he nOlln is the nUUle of n thing 1ike Lhe sun, of wh ich 
there is only one. 
'\ hulu nil' wa the sun is hot (the sun's mouth is strong). 
A,iicies 
rl' he syllable immediately before IE, or if n long vowel 
the last hnlf only,is l'flised by i t a. 'half-tone higher 
than it would otherwise be, and the Ie: is slightly 
lower. 
Ie: Seems really to h!'lve two tones, one of which, for 
ense in saying it, seems to be lent to the preceding 
syllable. 
H. LE seems to be used ex tensively to particularize. 
Note the following examples : 
mi miwieo i t is my tw'n to speak. 
mi m i wieo IE it is 1 who mn speaking. 
namo wieo ? whose tttrn is it to spea~? 
namo meo le:? who is speaking? 
namo ba' P who comes? 
namo ba.· Ie: P /Oho is 'it that is coming? 
meni yo od eIJ P 'what is in yotl,r Tiand? 
wani yo odel] le: ? 'What is that in you,r hand? 
Obvious ly IE here represents the origin:\Uy much 
longer clause: 
wi (dSi moni) wieo Ie: I am the one IOho is speaking. 
na.mo (d Si moni) \Vieo le: ? lOTiO is the one who is 
speaking? t 
namo (dgi moni) btL' le: P 'who is the one who is 
coming ? 
meni (n i) yo odel) Ie: P what is it that is in yO'u,r 
hand? 
12. Le: is also used with the possessive pronouns. 
mito' Ie:, my sheep ega Ie:, his rillg, 4·c. 
13. Ko. 
The article ko is not expressed when a noun is used 
i I) :\ gener:\l sense : 
fa' , a ,-h'cr ablogwa. a cllair ~ml£, a bell. 
10 Articles 
14.. In Gn i~ is l'enlly n definite article, not an in-
definite. It is used when a. particular person or 
thing is spoken of, and not just any ono out of many. 
In spenking of persons, a certflin one is more often 
meunt Lhan when spanking of thingSI so ko is more 
often met with in connexion wiLh persons tha.n with 
things. For t.he Sfl,tne reason it is more often used 
with the subject of n sentence than with the object. 
"When a description of the person or thing follows 
the noun, ko is generally used, as that description 
poinls to it bei ng a. definite one of its kind. This 
does not apply to evel'Y cnse in which an adjective 
desel'iLes lhe noun, but only when it is mOl'e par-
ticularized. 
NoLe the difference in the following: 
1. miYE wolo bibio' I hal'e a ~mall book. 
2. miYE \Volo bibio' ko nf he yo SEnamo dgogbaI] 
I IIIH'c a small book, which is rcry useful. 
miYE wolo bibio' ko n1 roll IJo dgogbaIJ I have 
a very interesting little book. 
miYE wolo bibio' ko ni tjoo roi oii dgogbalJ 
I have a little book which is very instructive. 
1. DYE faj yEt) you liave a white hal. 
2. DYE fai YElJ ko ni toi lE' dgog'baIJ yo" hat'c a 
10hite hat with (t. velY broad brim. 
1. yo' k pnkpa dgi IE she is a good womal1. 
2. yo' kpakpa ko yE mil lEI) (contr. for IE mli) oi 
suman gbek(;bH asane thcre i.s It good woman 
in the to'/on who loves childrcn. 
1. min tao yo' kpakpa nf Ie Jia ni tIuIDo I want a 
good woman who knows housework. 
1 1 
2. min tao yo' kpakpa ko nf atS€o Ie: AkuQ. 1 am 
looking /01' a good 100m an who i.s called A kua. 
1. ba.laroo yo' kpakpa ni boo eJia nitSumo he 
model) choose a good 1(J01JlllItl 'Who does her house-
work diligently. 
1. yo' kpakpa nf bO)' aJia nitSumo he model] dgi 
Ie: she is a good woman who does her honsC'lcork 
diligently. 
2. yo' kpakpa. ko ni boo eJia nitfumo he model) 
ba'ba. 01]0 a good woman who toorks diligently 
il~ her ]umw will come to you. 
1. mina DU' ye: Yehowa hefatamO) ne.' I have got 
a man (child) by God's help. 
1. Habel tJO to 'kw<lo; Ka.in tSo Jikpol) hulo A bel 
became a shepherd; Cain became a tille?' of the 
groumd. 
2. kpa'kpo ko y e: Y erusalem, y€ to'i agb6 Ie: 
masti there 1QQ.S a pool in Jerusalem, at lhe side 
oj Ihe sheep-gate. 
2. yo' ko n1 hie alabastro to be. a 'IOomam holding 
a bottle 0/ alabaster came. 
2. DU' ko ni hie nukpulu ke: nye aakpe you 1uill 
...... meet a man holding a 1(1aiel' pitelwr. 
1. ama. tIu y£ d,3£i a hou.se is built there. 
2. ams tIu ni do, ko yE dgei a large house -is buiU 
there. 
But eyen G:\ people themselves differ in the use 
!\nd non-use of ko in the sume sentence. The tendency 
is to use it more and more, unless the noun is very 
distinctly gen eralized. 
12 
ADJEOTIVES 
15. In On adjectives follow the noun they qualify, 
and agree with it in Dumber, as 
to' agbo Ie: egbo flle large sheep is dead. 
tIo kakadal]lJ ko ye: bie: there is a high tnc here. 
oye: nibii fe:fe:d3i pi' you have manv beaut'ijul things. 
16. But if tho adjective is really a noun used as 
such, it comes before Lhe noun it qualifies, and is not 
j nfiected for num bel' as 
dade awale h'on spoon; dade 9.walei iron spoons 
Jika go. gold ~'ing ; fika gai gold 1'ings 
klelJkleIJ no first thing; klelJkleIJ nU first things 
nagbe mo last lJ('}"son j nagbe gbli last days 
musubo' wiemo blasphemous word j mllBubo' 
wiem oi blasphemous words. 
17. Many phl'ases also which are descriptive of 
nouns and come after the noun in English, appe1U' as 
noun-adjectives before the noun in Ga.. Some fire 
more like the possessive case, 
tJo yibii jntils of the t1'CC, 
maIJtJEyeli bii children oj the kingdom. 
gbalo Ie: he sane slory oj the prophet (not prophet's 
story). 
l)wei lofOdg:i birds 0/ the air. 
IJo, lE no fofoiijlowel's o/theplain (wild flowers). 
18. Formation of nouns fl'Olll adjectives i e can be 
prefixed to most ndjectives to form it noun, :l.S 
fo~ bad efo~ evil 
momo old emomo old one 
Adjectives ) 3 
he' new ahe' new one 
di~ black edi~ black olle 
misumoo ahe' Ie: 1 like the new one 
emomo Ie: efite the oM one is spoilt. 
NUMBER. 
19. A djecbives, like nouns, form their plural in 
different ways . 
(a) by adding i to the singular, as 
agbo large agboi he' tle1D he'i 
(b) by adding d3i; if lhe adjeclive ends in ~ it is 
dropped, and sometimes the last syllable or vowel is 
dropped, as 
wulu large wud3i f e:f EO beautiful fEfe:dgl. 
d 3ur5 dea,' d3ud 3i kak.da~lJ lim!} kakad ad3i 
k uku short kukudSi. 
(A quite irregular form is mama old memedgi.) 
(c) by duplicating, sometimes with an i in addition. 
But while the singular has a low tone, the first in the 
repetition has a high tone, and only the second the 
low tone, as 
VO' deep v6'vo kusu' thick, bu$hy kusukusu\ 
titri' thick titritltri' 
(d) by adding bii. Tbe adjectives in this class 
lllosHy, if 4lot all, end in 0, and when preceded by 
anoUlsr vowel, the 0 is dropped. They are aU a.d-
jedives referring to size or sha.pe, as 
koklo' round kokiobii 
blo'blo slender bloblobii 
kpitio' short kpitibii 
pEmpEO' medium·sized pEmpEbii 
(irregular bibio' small bi bii) 
14 Adjectives 
ADJECTIVE EQUIVALENTS. 
20. Where in English an adjective is used with 
the verb 'to be', it is expressed in Ga in different 
ways. 
21. It is expressed by the rea l adjective.verb, in 
which the quality is shown by the verb root This is 
conjugnted as a verb, and comes under that head. 
It will be seen that there is a difference, even 
among these verbs of quality, in the tense used as 
equivalent to the I present ' in English, e, g. : 
Some are used in the I root' tense : 
kpa le: ti: the thread is thick. 
gbek~ Ie: da the child is big. 
eU E hi this is good. 
Some are Hsed in the continuative or in the habitual 
tense: 
IJ8.i dio charcoal is black. 
Ii ~tJu blood is red. 
tJora ne: IJdgo' litis medicine is bitter. 
Some arB used in the perfect tense: 
ami Ie: egbi the gum is dry. 
u u' De: egb:) this man is old. 
gb€ It ekodCS the 1'oad is crooked. 
(a) SOIDe of these adjective-verbs have only the 
verbal form) a.nd when wanted to qualify a noun 
directly) a rehltive phrase or a different qualifying 
adjective with the same meaning must be used, 
e. g.: 
lJO to be sweet: 
wonu n€ lJo this SOUl) is nice. 
maba 0 wonu ni IJo I will give yQt~ nice soup. 
Ad1ecti'Ves 15 
da to be big. 
tIu 1£ do. the lu)'use is big. 
ama tJn ni da. ko y€ dgEi a large house has been 
built there. 
ama. tJu agbo ko ye: dg€i a large house has beel~ 
built tltere. 
(b) Some of them have an adjective form in addi-
tion, e. g.: 
y£ to be white YElJ 'white 
eye:o fu ta' it is very white. 
mama YEI.) tohite cloth. 
gbi to be (l1'y gbilJ dry 
egbiko it is not dry. 
a.ble gbiIJ dt,y corn. 
22. It is expl'essed sometimes by the verb ye: with 
:m absbraot noun, e. g. ; 
eYE na'kpe: it is looncler/ul (it has wonder). 
eye: hiegbele it i$ shameful (it has shame). 
23. It is expressed sometimes by the verb fa and 
a nOllU. This is usually to show traits of character, 
e. g.: 
a'fe kolo he is foolish (he I does' the animal). 
s'fe osato he is insincere (he I does' the hypocrite), 
a'fe eka. ' he is brave (he I makes' courage). 
COMPARrsONS. 
24. Equnlity is expressed simply by using tamo, 
like, or a.kE, or takE (conk for tamo akE) as 
ewa. tamo tE it is as hard a.s a stone. 
eda tamo mi he is as big a.s [. 
25. Comparative superiority is expressed by the use 
of feJ surpass. 
16 .A djectit'es 
ehi fa mi be is better than 1. 
mida. fa Ie I a1n lJigger t/tan he. 
To strengthen the idea of superiority, a.'hii or kwra' 
may be added 
ehi a'bu fa mi he is 'much bettc1' than I. 
26. rfhe Superlative is expressed by using fa :rn: 
SlolKlssing all . 
ehi fe ~ he is best 0/ all. 
27. Inferiority is expressed by using tam::> with the 
negative verb. 
~idaa. tamo bo 1 am not so big as you. 
28 . 'rhe1'6 is also the expression fl11) , which is used 
in all idiomatic way, and which seems to be an equi-
valent to the English f pl'efel'abfe " in the sense of ' the 
best of an unsatisf3.dory choice', 'Vhen nouns only 
are used in the comparison, fal) slands alone, as 
fal) no that is preferable. 
fal) lala De: fe eue: lId.s s0119 is better than that (of the 
two this is best). 
''''hen sentences al'e used in the comparison, the 
form is: faI) lloni , ' . fa noni , , , 01' faI] noni , , . 
fa ah:, , " but the lnttel' is modern and' English', 
fat;) noni oyasra IE fa noni olJIDa IE wolo (oj the 
two altenw-lices seeing him is betttf than 'writing him), 
Also Matt. xvii i 6, 
Shortly put: to qualify a. noun-falJ j to qualify 
tl vel'b-fal] noni. 
'rhis expression might he best tra-nsb.ted by the had 
English' rather this than that', 
29, Adjectives of quantity, and numerals, come 
after adjectives of quality when both m:e used, with 
Ai/;jecti'ves 17 
the exception of the ordinal number, klslJk.lelJ or 
tJutJu, which comes before the noun. 
30. The definite numerals are all the numbers up 
to ten, and those formed therefrom, with oha., 100, 
and akpe, 1000, in nddi~ion. 
1. aka, ekome, or kame 6, likpa 
2, liayo 7, kpawo 
3, lit~' 8. kpa: nyo 
4, Od5wE .9. n€'hti 
5. enum" 10, nyo~ma, 
(eko is only used in counting, ekome is the inde-
pendent or noun form, Ilnd kome is used with a 
noun: 
hi mi ekoma give me one. 
eha mi wolo kome ~:!tE: he gave me on7y one book). 
31. Formation of numbers. The numbers seem to 
go independenUy tip to the rather unusual numbel' 
for building on-six, ekpa. From. this come the two 
following: 
kpawo (wo to produce?) seven. 
kpe. . nyo (ekpa-enyo six-two) eight. 
Nine, ne:'hu, is odd (the tones would fit eOE hu, 
this also), 
NyolJma, len} is as usual the Dumber on which 
succeeding ones are built. 
From 10 to 20 the numbers are literally 10-aod- I , 
10- and- 2, &c., e. g. : 
nyoIJma-k€-et~, 13 nyolJma-kt-D.€'hu, 19. 
Twenty is literally two·tens, but following the Ga 
l'ule that an adjective comes after the noun it qualifies, 
it becomes tens·two, nyoIJIDai enyo. 
18 Adjectives 
FI'om 20 to 30 the numbers are made by simply 
adding' and " with the ad ditional number wanted, 
e. g.: 
nyolJmai.enyo-ke:-ekome, 2L 
nyoIJmai-enyo-ke:-ekpa, 26 
All the other numbers are formed on t he same 
principle, e. g. : 
nyo1Jmai.-edgwe:-ke:-enumo, 45 
n yoIjmai-kpawo-kE-kpa'nyo, 'is 
nyo1Jmai-ne: ·hu-ke:-ete. 93 
until aha, hwulrc(l, is reached. 
32. Not aJI numbers have a pima!, but 10: 100, 
and 1,000, when used in the plural, take i after the 
singular, e. g. : 
obai enyo, 200 nyolJmai- et~, 30 (3 tens) akpei 
ne:'hu, }l,OOO. 
33. T he only ordinal number for which lhere ts 
a form is the first, 
klel)klel) (r'eferring more to order of number) ttnd 
tJutJu ( time). 
The othel's fire indicn.ted by the use of ni dSl which 
or who is, 
klelJk19lJ nCS Ie: lhe first thing. 
tJutJu ma IE: the first person. 
k10IJklelJ tJei 1E the first trees. 
moni dgi eo yo 1E fhe second lJcrson. 
fina: ni d3i enumo IE the filth door. 
34. Numbers used in groups, such as t six each', 
I four by four) &c., are sbown by duplication, as 
ha yei IE rn nkutui ekpaekpa give all the women 
sb: oranges each. 
AdJjectives 19 
nyeterea gb£i It edSWEd3W€ carry the pols f01l1' by 
I(mr. 
35. (Evory' with a number, is not often used in 
On i when i t is, it has to be shown very distinctly in 
a roundabout way, such as 
hi mei et~ kafu kome, mei ete k afu k ome give 
every three men one basket. 
36. abo is put after 10, I OO) and 1,000, to show an 
indefinite nu mber. 
nyolJmai. abO) scores ohai a.bo many hlmdrcds. 
hu'hn: is used for an innumerable number. 
S7. There is a peculiarity with regard to the hours 
of the clock in Ga. lJmh: bell, hour, and its plural, 
IJooE:dSi, are used irreg ularly as follows : 
I]mle: kome one o'clock. 
I]IDedg:i any::> two o'clock . 
.IJmedgi ete three o'clock. 
Ijme:dg:i edgwE lour o'clock. 
lJm€dsi enum::> five o'clock. 
l]medgi ekpa six o'clock. 
1]001£ kpawo se'l.'cn o'clock. 
I]wle: kpa: nyo eight o'clock. 
IJmlE DE'bu nine o'clock. 
IJmle: nyoIJma. ten o'clock. 
(with eleven and twelYe either can be used.) 
The form of the five numerals which follow the plural 
IJm€dgi is the Doun form, with the e prefix, and 
probably it is for euphony that the plural is used 
with these. The result is as it were to ma.ke it like 
(two hours, three hours', &c' J but' hour seven, hour 
eight·, &c. Originally it might h :.we been lJml€ ni 
dgi. kpawo hour which i.s seven, and so on. 
c 2 
20 Adjectives 
38. 'V"herens in English the word t time' covers 
several different idens, these are distinguisbed in Gao 
by different wox;.ds. 
'rime, as a whole, is signified by be. 
Time, menning occ!l.Sions, by Ji pI. fil, followed by 
numbey-'" • 
Times, 1e_a.ning multipJication, by t6i. 
j, e. be j£ f£ko it is not time yel. 
eb£t Jti en yo he ca1!!e twice. 
anumo t6i ekpa five times six. -~ 
39. Indefi)lite ' num era,) s also come after the noun. 
They are: -.' . 
enyie? how ?nuch? hOIf) man!! ? 
fla.' , Mall .. 
m U' enlil'c, 1vhole. 
pi', babao' much, many. 
kornei some. 
llo' little, Jew. 
us 
che fa.ii enyie P how '1IW1lY hats did you, buy? 
nll IE te alltlte waleI'. mei fia' aU thepcople. 
fa1 1£ f~ all the 'roots. 
asafo mu' h: the entire congregation. 
fufo pi' much milk. 
fMoii babao' many flowers. 
adekaj kornei some boxes. 
n1.1 fio· (L lilac wafer. 
21 
PRONOUNS 
40. GENDER. Pronouns have common gender. 
41. N UMBER. There are thl'ee singula.r personal 
pronouns, with the-ir plurals : 
ml I wo we 
bo thou nye you 
IE hc, she, it arnE they 
::--,\~. CAsE. The 1st pel's. sing. and '· the three pel's . 
plul':lral'e the same in nil cases, but . the ,2nd and 3rd 
s ing. are inflected for case, thus . 
JtTom. Poss. Obj. Slanding alone. 
2nd pel'S. 0 0 001' bo bo 
Bl'd pel's. e IE: Ie 
(a) f it', in the objective case is understood, not 
expressed, e. g. : 
ole yo' DE? • . • mile 1£ YO1/, kno'IO tllis lOoman I 1 knolO 
her. 
ole wolo De? . . mile you km)l(J thi.,s book? Ikno'W it. 
In speaking of a place dsei there is generally used: 
o.ni ol e Ga, 10? .. mile dSE:i do you kn01l) Accra? 
I kllOto it (I know there). 
(b) mi is often contracted into m, IJ , or n. 
(c) When the possessive pronoun stands alone, wit.h 
no noun expressed, it is formed by adding no thing, 
to the pronoun, 
mi.no my thillg, mine, 
o.mEnO t/1(,,'i1' thing, theirs. 
(d) If n possessive pronoun comes before n noun. 
beginning witb a vowel, the vowt!l is almost always 
22 P"onouns 
dl'opped. Ie: lltc, is also generally used with the poss. 
prall. and noun, unless the noun is one which is 
unmistalmble. 
In writing, the possessive pronoun is joined to its 
noun: 
nkutu orange j mikutu Ie my orange. 
okpolJo horse j ekpolJo Ie: his horse. 
aftalJu flag; WOfl8.IJR Ie: QUI' flag. 
minye my molher. 
(6) Nomi native pronouns are joined to the ve1'b, hut 
objective ones are written separately, e. g.: 
e'ba he is coming 
mite Iwcnt 
nyefea akil. . be umve ! 
a/bi 0 noko you w'e being aske(l something 
43. The impersonal pronoun is SilO'Wll by the use of 
ame:, coull'acted inlo a. 'I' his is the only form for the 
passive verb, e. g. : 
ake:o nakai one says,so, it is said 
ah[1l. aIDE nako they 'Were given nothing (one did 
not, &c.) 
I1pila le: he was wounded 
44. Emphatic pronouns are fOl'med in two ways: 
(a) by adding dientfE ownself: midientJE; bodientSe:, 
wOdien tJe:, &e. : 
Ie: dientJE ate he himself llJimt. 
nyedientJE nyeann. Ie: ycm Y01wselves 10ill see him. 
(b) by repeating the pronoun: 
mi mito I went ?nyself 
bo ole you know U yourself. 
23 
Emphasis in exception to a thing is shown by using 
Ie: after the pronoun: 
mi Ie, miyaa. (others may go but) I ant not going. 
wo Ie, wok pIe we have agreed (lOhatelJ~r others diel). 
Emphasis in identifica tion is formed by adding 
nOlJIJ to the pronOUll, repeating the pronoun, as in all 
these, if there is a verb : 
Ie: nOIJIJ eke:- it 1MS really he 'Who saicl it. 
wo nOlJI) "De: ads is 1'tally 10e. 
45. Reflective pro-nouns are formed by adding he to 
the pronoun: 
mihe myself. ehe herself. n yehe yourselvcs. 
These are used in the objective case after reflective 
verbs. And all the above forms can be combined 
wHh the reflective form for emphasis, but especially 
dientSe. 
epilo. ehe lie hurl himself 
epila. ledientIe: ehe he hurt his own self. 
46. Interrogative pro-nowl-S are formed from three 
iutel'l'oga.lh'e syllables, which help to make other 
interrogative parts of speech also. They are: 
me, nEl, te? tchal, which? 
Thus you get : 
namo ? pl. namei ? (ne mo ? ne mei ?) lolu; ~ 
meni ? what f 'What is it l 
ne gbomo ? which person t 
te gbi ? what day? 
te noni '? 1Qhich ? 
mehewo? on accaunt 0/ what t 'why ~ 
negb E? which way 't 10here l &c. 
24 P"onouns 
me has also the meaning of I whitt sort of? '; 
roe gbomo dgi Ie:? 'what sort oj a man is he? 
47. Irulefi!}1Ue pronouns are made fl'om the small 
wOI'd ko Ct, combined "riLh roo persoll, and no thing, 
or fl"o111 fe all, with 000 and no: 
moke, pI. meikomei SOllIe one. 
mokroko, pl. mei krokomei (l!}wther one. 
mofemo ereryone. 
mokomoko anyone at all (with neg. verb '1'10 011e 
al all). 
noko, pI. oiikomei or nibii kornei something, any-
anng. 
nokroko, nii krokomei atwl!tcr thing. 
nofena elJerything. 
nokonoko anythmg at all (with neg. verb nothing 
at a10. 
NOTE: 'rhel'e I1.l'e no 'negative pronouns I in Ga. 
'fhese nl'e fOl'med by using negative verbs, as 
make baa no one came-some Olle (anyone) did not 
come. 
minaa noko' I saw l1othing-I did not see some-
thing (anything). 
48. Rehltive pronouns. After a noun the relative 
pl'onoull, ni which or who, is used. 
From that small word nt these and other relative 
words are ronde: 
moni the one 1()Tto, pI. lDei ni 
mommo 11t evr1'Y one fOltO. 
moko Ol' mokomoko nt a?ly one or anyone at (tll 
who. 
noni the thing that, pl. nii n t 
Domno nt ellerylhi'llg that. 
Pronouns 25 
noko or nokonoko ni anything or anything at all 
thai . 
So also the a.dverbs beko sometime, hako somel.l)lIet'e, 
and the adverbial conjullctions: . 
beni 'lwum- the time that 
heni '/Ohore-the place Lhnt 
boni how-the way that 
betebe ni 'IOhetwI,tw-every time that 
heftThe 01 'IOl!e-rever-every place that 
bof~b" nf lunoevet'-every manner that. 
At the end of the phrase beginning with these 
relative words must come the IE belonging to the 
nouu, just as if the phrase f.rom 01 Look the place of 
lUl adjective, us 
l£d3i (01 yo d3£i) 1£ boats (lOhieh are (/..,~) tlte. 
49. Demotlslrativepmnouns. These are: 
mODE lhis person, pI. menEmei. 
ent this thillY, pI. entruei. 
no that thing, p1. DomeL 
e. g. mODE dsi mitfE ihis is my father. 
D ornei dgi guonii th ose are trade good,s. 
Like these, but used as adjectives, :,lre : 
ne: th is, coming after the noun. 
ne:ke: . .. De: this, emphatic, with noun in the middle. 
naka.i . . . Ie: that same, with noun in the middle. 
naka.i ... Ie: nOl]I) that same, more emphatic. 
no ... Ie: that, with noun in the middle. 
e. g. satJo ne: hi this bed i.s good. 
mi.oa nakai nu' Ie: I saw that same man. 
no gbomo Ie: enaa. oii that lIIan cannot see. 
26 
ADVERBS 
60. There a l'e adverbs which teU something about 
time, as 
agbe:ne: now i 1010 still j nye yesterday. 
There are those which tell about pi:'l.ce, as 
bie: here; d3€i (hel'c j heko somewhere. 
There are those which tell a.bout manner, as 
diJJlJ quietly j kplakpla hastily j blEo gently. 
There are those which express degree or measure, as 
fiofl.o little by Utile j tIc very, too. 
There are those which are interrogative} as 
negbe: ? where?; mehewo ? why?; enyie ? how1nuch? 
51. Some adverbs can only be expressed by using 
nouns or verbs introduced by ke; or Y€, 01' such 
words, as 
eke; mi'Je: fa he did it gladly (he with gladness 
did it). 
ata he ye: nile lla' he answeruZwisely (he answered 
in accordance with wisdom). 
wokw€ arne: ke:-kpe we looked round at the-m. 
SOIDe others are formed from verbs 'which are cou-
jugated, as 
miba etJEko I came not long ago (I came, it was not 
long). 
mile IE etJe: I ha~'e known him long (I have known 
him, it is long). 
52. 'l'here nt'e no negntive adverbs in Gn; negation 
must be shown by the verb, e.g. : 
Adverbs 27 
minako IE de. I have never seen him (I have not. seen 
him ever). 
abe: hekoheko it is nowh&re (it is not anywhere). 
eyako dSei pel] he has never been there. 
But cel'tam adverbs have a separate form fot' use 
with verbs in the negative. 
(a) repet.itive form: 
gbiko always becomes gbikogbiko. 
hako can be used with the negative, but hekoheko 
can be llsed only with the negative. 
(b) different word: 
ekoI) again becomes dOIJIJ . 
koko'ko not at all is only used with verbs in the 
negative. 
63. Adverbs generally come after the verb, but 
many can be put firs t for emphasis, as 
w6 maba to·morrow I will come. 
dSe:igbe: ete he 10ent that way. 
ftofio Ie: ookase you 'IOilllcarn it gradually. 
crhe tone is slightly changed in this form-e. g. in the 
first sentence w6, which has a high short tone, is 
slightly lowered at the end-w6, presumably to re-
place by tone a d ropped ni-w6 ni it is to-mornno.) 
As n rule the order is (1) manuel', (2) degree, (3) 
place, (4) time. 
54. biE and dg:ti here and there can be used peculiarly, 
almost as if they were nouns. They can form th e sub-
jed of a senlence, or be put in the possessive CllSe, as 
b i e: ye: fe:o I here' is beautiful. 
bie: bii the people 0/ ( here'. 
b i e: gb e: (here's' 1Qay-tltis way here. 
dgci maIJbii the town's people oj I there '. 
dg€i m&~tJ€ Mng oJ' th.r, '-that place. 
28 
PREPOSITIONS 
55, Prepositions as they are in English do not exist 
in Ga. But the idea which prepositions convey must 
be expressed somehow, or there is no clear relation 
between certain words, e. g. : 
Pul lhe hook ... lhe table. 
Until another idea is supplied the table seems to 
have no conllsxion with the book. The preposition 
fills the blank: 
H e is walking ... the seashore. 
Until a. preposition connects the two, jt cannot be 
known what the connexion between the two ideas is. 
The want IS supplied by the coned link, according 
to whether he is walking to , from , Oll, or by, th~ 
shore. 
r n Ga there is the same need for connexion of ideas. 
'Vhat supplies ih is? 
56. In the African mind every object has many 
parts or sides, for which there,is a word, as in English, 
but the Afl'ican particulal'lzes much more than the 
European. 
he outS"ide 
hew;) 1'OUlui about 
mll inside 
hie/ace 
se bac7~ 
maSel by the slde oJ; ?"lea?' 
no the top side, on 
/' 
Prepositions 29 
lJwei aboue 
Ji, JiJi ,,,,aM part 
te 'middle 
na' end, mouth / 
yi, yiteI] t<Jp, head 
1)0 side, as in close contact, to. 
These words describe the pa,-t of the object r~ 
ferred to: 
tJumo okpl0 10 no dust the top of the lable. 
ek\ve: DU' Ie: hie he looked (at) the man's face . 
mimli wo 10. 'm.l} inside got on fire-I got angry. 
efifi ewo mUdgi it..s wnder part is dirty. 
They are really nouns, but these same nouns are 
used to complet.e the sense, as we would use preposi-
tions of position, a.nd sometimes 1\ sentence mny men.n 
either of two things : 
ekWE ehie may mean (1) he looked at his face j (2) he 
looked in front oj him. 
In the first case the pass. pron. is Don-reflective, in 
the second reflective) but the context makes the 
meaning cle..'l.T. 
\ 'Vhen used as prepositions they are treated as 
nouns: 
mibo' Ie: ye: tJu Ie: 8£ 'my garden is-at the house's 
back (roy gnrden is behind the house). 
ete am€tel) he 10C1lt their middle (be wen~ among 
thero). 
ebadamo tJo 1£ fiji he came stooil the tree's underpart 
(he came and stood under the tree), 
nyiemo miSE lC(dk my back (w:\lk behind me). 
57. Other prepositions 3,re formed in other ways. 
30 Prepositions 
58. Some 3,l'e formed from verbs, e. g .: 
ye: fa be (ftt a place) is used for fat) when the ' at' 
is not included in the verb: 
afo mi ye: Ada I was born at Aclda (one bore me 
'it was at' A .). 
hi to give is used for f for I with persons, and is 
conjugated as a verb: 
eIJIDRa wola ehaa. Ie: he d.icl not 'write jor her. 
mafe maha 0 I will do ·it for you. 
mihe noko miha Ie: 1 bought something for her. 
fa to make is llsed for' abou t ·, meaning uncertainty 
of the exact amou nt 0 1' time: 
nafe ohai enyn it will make 200, meaning about 
200. 
mabo. aaCe IJmEdgi ekpa l will c01lleaboul6 o'clock .. 
maba aafe lJme:dSi ekpa mB (roli adds to t he 
vagueness). 
ke: to take (irreg. verb combination) is used for 
'wilh " to e::s:press instrumentnlity: 
eke: tJo yi roi he took stick beal me (he bent me with 
a stick). 
gbobilo k€ til gbeo ko·tfE a hunter kills a leopw'd 
with agu,n. 
59. Some are expressed by prepositional phrases 
with yE to be, e. g. : 
yE is associated with the before-mentioned I parts) 
or'" sides " i f the verb is not a verb of motion, and 
when the verb is not yE itself : 
mina IE yc. tfu 1£ mli I saw him (being) in the room. 
etfa btl yE tIo ko JlJi. he aug (t hole (being) under 
(l, tree. 
P'I'I'Jpositions 31 
efe DEke: y€ DU' Ie: hie lie (Ud this (being) in/rant 0/ 
the man. 
Some of these fire used idiomaticnlly nlso) and there 
are other words which with ye: COI'm prepositiona.l 
phrases : 
ye: ... he concerning 
ya ... hewl) on account 0/ 
ye: .. . nadgiaI] instead of 
ye: . . . ns. ' according to 
yE .• , gbEfaIJ 1IJith 'regard to &0. 
minuko noko ye sa.n, Ie: he I have hear.d 'liothing 
about the matter. 
a.dgie eyi ye: emodelJb::,. Ie: hewo he 1.ca-s praised jOI' 
11 is d,Uig(tJlce. 
eba'fa ene: ye: mino.dpalJ he will do this 'instead 
a/me. 
femo ene: ye: oJiwo' Ie: De.' do this according to your 
promise. 
akEko mi noko ye: gbekebii Ie: agb£faIJ thcy toW me 
!wtlting 'with regard to the child1'cn. 
Sometimes the sentence can be inverted for emphasis} 
and in some cases the ye: is dropped) but the following 
examples of how the aboye sentences can be said 
differenUy will show bow difficult it is to draw dis· 
tinct.ioDS : 
minuko sane 1£ he noko. 
emodel)bo' Ie: hewo Ie: adgie eyi. 
mi mioadgial) eba' fe ene: ye:. 
oJiwo' 1£ no: 1£ femo enE-. 
gbekiJbii Ie: gbe:fal) IE a.kEko wi Doko. 
60. Some ide3s wbich necessitate prepositions in 
English ate expressed otherwise in G3, e. g.; 
32 P'-epositions 
I have not seen you for a week mina bo DE: otJi nE, 
or UmEDE d~i otfi oi mina bo, or minako 0 otJi 
8.)1:)1) De. 
He went before ?ue etjo roihie. 
It was written be/ore his birth alJrna dani afo Ie. 
She di(l so every day for sia; years efe nakai dn:gbi 
afii ekpa sOIJIJ. 
61. (Witllout' can only be expressed by an indirect 
phl'ase: 
1vitlimd me ye can do 120tki'YI9 kt dgee mllJ IE nyenyeIJ 
noko nyefe (if it were not for me). 
a bod.y without sphit -is dead gbomotJo ni mumo bE 
mli dgi gbonyo (a body in which is no spirit). 
you went there without me of! roi ete dgEi (you left 
me, you wenl there), 
do 'flot eat without me ka'ye ofi: roi (do not eat and ' 
you leave me). 
I shan l'I{)t eat without you miyee miJU 0 (I shall 
not eat~ I shall not leave you). 
no one ties a knot without his thumb (p;'overb) moko 
Jll g01Jti se el]mo5 kpo (ooe does not leave his 
thumb behind, he does not tie a knot). 
OONJUNOTIO~S 
62. In Gn there is one conjunction which joins 
nOUllS and pronouns only, the word ke, ancZ. 
mi'yaha y€le kE I]katie ke tJmnlo' ke nii I am 
going to buy yam, groundnuls, beef, and so on. 
yo ' ne ks: awu baya Abude kE AkroPol] This 
?Voman and her 7wsband will go to Aburi and 
Akropong. 
The disjunctive 1001' a10 01' generally takes the first 
C(}nj!Vllctions 33 
form when used to join words only, and the second 
wben used to join sentences. 
nu' 10 yo'? man or 'wQ1na,n ~ 
nye 10 w6"? yesterday or to·morrozo 1 
ebaba alo aba-a.? is he caming or '1lot 1 
83. There are ma.ny conjunctions which join sen· 
tences, and they help to show the idea which the 
respective sentences convey in relation to each other, 
e. g.: 
mibi Ie: noko oi eha. mi heto. (ni) sequence. 
I asked him something aml he answered me. 
atfE mi okplo he, Ji mikplee d 5Ei } 
ya·. (Ji) disjunction. 
I was invitecZ, but I 'Would -not go there. 
dgee mlifu Ii mOl) dole: nL (j1 mOIJ) differentia-
it ;s not (£1l9C'1' but rathel' sorrow. tiOD. 
iotroducing 
m ibi Ie: ake: ebaba 10 ? (ake:) sentence 
I askecl him if he 'were coming. } as object. 
miIJtao oi oba-fata. milie. (Di) 
I 10ish you wo-uld come and help me. 
ke:dsi mite dge:i IE, mahe mahii. o.} 
(kEd5i) condition. 
if I go tllere I loill buy it fo r you. 
eto IE, nobe\vole: ete Jia. (nohewoh:) conse· 
lie 100S Ured l therefore he went home. quence. 
ete fia edgake: ew Ie:. (edga.ke:) cause. 
he went home because he fOGS tired. 
ele~ dsa okE' IE. (d5&) exception. 
he ftill not /1.'11011) 1I nless you tell him. 
ona. Ie: alo onna Ie:? (alo) alternative. 
did you sec him or not? 
D 
34 Conjunctions 
ekole: abatIwia Ie; tEl, alo abayi le:. } compound 
(ekol •. .. alo) altemat ive. 
he will be either stoned or beaten. 
eko!€ mi-ke:-le: bawie hie ke: hie . (ekolE) possibility. 
l)el-/wps I shall speak to him face to face. 
find many othel's, of which some examples are: 
tamo boui as j rn Ie: in spite oj evelything; tJe: 
although j enyie nOIJIJ how nwchmm'c; nl mbasroo 
how much less; babao ni, however much i nakai 
nOI]1] even so i ke:dgee . .. le: if not; k~le: never· 
theless; no se: hu Ie: besides that jake: nl . 
hewole: since; ani moal), ani moaIJ Ie:, moalJ, or 
moal) Ie:, while on the contrary. 
64. ilJany of these might equa.lly come under the 
head of adverbial phrases, and are too individual to be 
classified. 
As examples the following are given; 
roi po ebato mi, ni enyie n01)1) etol) mitJe: it 10ill 
lirc even me, and how much more my lather. (Note 
tbe second verb in the negative). 
Iii abo ni okwto ene: It obakai mi as o/len as you 
look at this yon will1'emembeJ' me. 
babao ni mikpata Ie: It, babao ni emli wo In. dgi 
no the more I soothed him the angrier he gol. 
'l'hel'e is a specially close connexion in Ga between the 
conjunction no hew olE there/ore, and the prepositional 
phrase hewo f Oll account of, for the sake of', as this 
phrase enll govern not only f\, noun but a sen lence. It 
will be bes t seen by examples: 
1. ebe Jika, nohewole: ehee noko he lias no money, 
therc/ore he buys nothing. 
Gonjwllcl;ions 35 
2. ehee noko, ye: ,like. nl ebE Ie: hewo he buys 
nothing, on account of not lLav-itzg any money. 
3. sbe jika. hewo IE, ehee noko a.s he has no money, 
he bu,ys nothing. 
4. sbE jlka. hewo ni ehee noko Ie: it is 012. account 0/ 
his having 1to money that he lmys nothing. 
6. nOhewo ni ehee noko Ie: dgi ake: abe: flke. the 
,'cason that he bu,ys nothing is that he has no 111oney. 
(nohewo thing on account o/which = reason) 
6. fika ni ebe: Ie: hewo ni ehee n ok o Ie: it is on account 
of tlle money 'which he has not got that he bltyS '1l.othi1Jg. 
66. There are also tbe relative conjunctions, pro-
noun and adverbial : 
m oni the one who; noni tllat 10hich i heni where i 
beni 10h~; boni how; dani before j matemo nf 
whoever, &0. 
The Ie: referring to mOl no, h e, be, &0" comes at the 
end of the clause which they introduce. This is in 
accordance with the usual rule of order (1) noun or 
pronoun, (2) qualifying adjective or phrase, (3) nrhicle. 
mile mo (ni ha.l Ie: I know one '101w came the. 
mibaya he(ni obatJO mil 1< I wil! go place that yrm 
10ill show me tlie. 
INTERJECTIONS 
66. In Gao there 3re lllany words in the nature of 
a call or c.ry, h avtllg 110 conne:dou with other words 
in a sentence, but expressing quite independently 
emotions or feelings of various sorts, e. g. : 
calling some one lie, after Dame ending in low tone, 
as Kwaos' ; 60'. nfter name 
ending in high tone-Kofl60', 
D2 
36 Inteljectiol!s 
ngreAtnenli be, iH1', d 3ogba;lj, odgogbQ,lj I y O'. 
confil'mn,l ion om o.lee I ~k04.. l 
J1f>galion dabi,6oh6. 
displeasure, SOl'l'OW ac! 
grief, pain ad3ei I 
condolence kp6o! 
E'llCOIl I'flgel1len~ m6! 
congralulation aek6! reply, yael. 
astonishment IHElJ 1 anokwtiLe! t\(l,~ 
I disclaiming' koae: I 
anu olhers loo numerous Lo mention. See Fleischer, 
page !l8. 
67. 1~hel'e are nlso mn.ny snl Iltations for sel occasions, 
wiUI /:;eL replies, which might ulmosL come inlo this 
t:~logol'y, fro111 the nature of them. 'l'hey nre fa ll ing 
hu'se!y inLo disuse, nnd English salutations taking 
Lheil' place, which is n. g .. (>~~L pity, as the Gn ones are 
much 1110rG intel'esting. S01110 are given ll~ter. 
IN'l' lmROOA'l'lVE WORDS 
68. rrhere fire inlen 'ogo.Live words in add ition to 
lhose under olhol' parts of speech, 
ao. If Lbe question is one thn~ requires nn answer 
in eilher Lhe tLffil'llllLtive 01' nogative, iL is simply put 
in the Co I'm of a slatemenl, and intorl'ogalion is shown 
eilher by tono or by interrogative words, 
The following at Lhe beginning of II senlence show 
n question: 
ani? for general use, used with 01' withou t 10, 
Int&rrogative Word" 37 
nta ? taking rather for granted what follows. 
t6'? I, " ') 
aso ? rather indicn.ting a controversial attitude. 
bE ? meaning (is it not so that? ' 
The fo lIomng arB placed at the end of a sentence: 
bE"? as above, can be used at tbe end instead. 
10? (from 10 01' alo 'or ') used with 01' without ani. 
Examples : 
eba., 10 ? has he come? 
ani eba, 10? " 
ani ana mako y e: dgri? Did you see any one th~'e ~ 
uta onu he momo? I wpect you have hear,Z 0/ it 
alJ'eady? 
t6 to eftte? Th", is it all spoilt ? 
aba. IE [tka IE, be: ? You: gave him the money, did you 
'not? 
aBo woW eIa. Ie: mli koni drama Ie: afa.? Then are 
ICC to cgnlimlc hi sin that grace may abouruZ ~ 
VERBS 
70. Some verbs are complete in themselves. 
Mnny a.re incomplete, and need an ohject or an 
adjunot to complete ilie sense. 
71. The pronoun is joined to the verb in writing in 
the nomina.tive. 'it', in the objective case, is omitted 
entirely. 
72. In Gn. there is no proper passive voice. This 
is shown by using the impersonal pronoun, one, as 
the doE'll' of the nction, while the oue to whom the 
nction is done is Illude the object of the verb. 'one' 
in On is Q, a contraotion for amE, the vague' they'. 
38 Verbs 
he 10(fS wounded jor ow' transgressions becomes one 
wounded him, &c.-apila IE yE wonot5moi IE 
ahewo. 
he was gi1)en a ero/en becomes one gave him a crOW1l-
aha IE akekre. 
73. Verbs ill Lhei l' root. fo rm al'o mostly m ono-
syllabic, beginning wi~h a consonant and end ing with 
a vowel, e. g. : 
da, tal fe, ka, tao, nu, bo, rna, fo, hi. 
but there fire a number of t.wo-syllabled ones, and 
a few ending in the ufLSnl n or 01, such as dgim, kpalJ , 
dgwol). 
74. Many V6l'bs have it plural form, if the subjecls, 
objects, or places of doing fi re many. The plural is 
fO I'med in [om' ways: 
«(&) by inserting j ).1 ai' I I ' between consonant and 
vowel. In some CMes Lhe plural takes a high tone, 
even if low in the singll!tu', but in olh el'S it remains 
low, as 
do. 10 be big, pI. dl'a bo to cry out, pI. bI6 
ta 10 sit, pI. tra fo to cut, pI. do 
ta to louch, pI. tl'a lJtDO to Uc, pI. lJm15 
It will be seen lhnt sometimes the vowel sound 
ch anges, and sometimes also there is tbe sound of the 
vowel between the two consonanls) so slight us hArdly 
to bo noticed, :\$ 
d(')l'a, b(o)lo, f(o)lo 
(b) by adding mo, with no change in tone, as 
k~ to lie, 1'1. kilm~ k~ to break, pI. ~ijmo 
mi1 to pZacc, pI. mamo so 10 perch, pI. 80mb 
39 
(c) by adding i at the end, or before the last vowel, as 
gb6 to (lie, pI. gb6i tfwa to sl1'ike, pI. tfwla 
In the last, the insertion of the i before the a seems to 
raise the toue of the ft. 
(d) quite hregulnr as 
J 
fE ti; to cast away, pI. fErE w6 to lift, pI. MI. 
fWi.(fi) originally tf< f/l , 
and tfEre fwieiJi) 
76. to show repetition of a deed, many verbs can be 
doubled, n.s 
ame:yeye nti, ame:nunu dai tlulyate CWld drank con. 
tinually. 
The second time the verb is higher than the first time, 
i. e. the repetition has A. higher tone ilian the original. 
If the vowel of the vorb is a short one it is lengthened 
a litUe, but not otherwise. If DO object follows the 
verb, i is added. 
ame:mi'yeye' nii , ame:mi'uunu' dB.'i, amemi'. 
hehei, amEmi'h5ho' nti. 
76. There nl'e fairly regultu' rules for the formation 
of moods, tenses, &c'J but there are several quite 
irregu ll\r verbs, and n. great variety of idiomatic " erbs. 
IRREGULAR VERBS 
77. The form of the verbs showing' being' are very 
limited, and quite irregular, but they are very im. 
POl'taUt. 
78. DII. 
(a) dgi shows who or whrLt some one or some thing 
is. There must always be two subjects in apposition 
10 Irregul(!,· Verbs 
with dgi, even i f one is ( i t' (understood). The sub· 
jf'ct on which emphasis is laid is put first, e. g. : 
miuye dgio you are my mother (' my mother al'e 
you l 
bo dgi minyo yo u are my mother. 
obiyo' dgi 1e slteis your daughter r yOUl' daughter is 
sh"). 
Ie dgi obiyo' it is she who is your (laughter , 
moni te It dgiDll the one who went am I. 
midgi moni te Ie: I am the Olle who went. 
(b) 'Vhon one of the subjects is' it', this vcrb cnn 
tnka Lho forlll ni or l), coming aft.er ihe oiher subject, 
lhe I it' being included in Lhe vel'b, e. g.: 
midgi, mini, or mil) it is I. 
mitJE ni it is my father. 
obi ni it is your child. 
le: ni, or lEI) it is he. 
(c) 'l'hesp. ll l'O Lhe on ly two ways in which dgi can 
be used. It can never be used as Lhe vorb 'to be' in 
English, wiih no adjective, ioshow a. quality. Unless 
the ndjccLive is a db'ecL complement of the noun, the 
ve l'be ye or fa 01' a real adjective-verb is used, e. g. : 
( lle is bad' can ba 
gbomo rOI] d3ile he is u b(aZ man, 0 1' 
eh ii he is not good. 
I This waLer is clear ' CD n be 
DU kroI]krolJ ni it is clear water, 0 1' 
nu ne: y e: kro'IJIJ lhis waleI' is clear, 
{T he road is good' can be 
ed3i gbe: kpakpa it is a good road, or 
gbe lrpn.kpa ni " /I or 
gb£ 1£ hi thc road is good, 
IneguZa;r "Verbs 41 
The emJ.lhasis is different, of course, in ilie different 
ways of expression, but the distinct.lon is very slight. 
79. DIEE is the negative form, and it can be used 
in t.he same way as d3i 
edgee mitSe: he is 1Wt 'my fathe,.. 
l]katie: dgee tSoyibii groundnuts are not a fruit. 
or it can be put at the beginning of a sentsnce can· 
tuining dgi or other verbs, negating them. H ere it 
is more a wOl'd of negation than a vel'b, e. g. : 
dgse mitIe: ni he is not my lather (not my fath er 
is be). 
dgee tSoyibii dgi l]katiE" 1lotjru,its are grrnmdnuts. 
dgee osofo d~le: 'uot a minister is he. 
dgee bie: aba. not here he came. 
The negation there is more empha.tic. 
80. These words dgl, ni , and dgee are used for the 
past tense also, but for other tenses-future, impera-
tive, and noun forms 1 other verbs are used, e. g., fe, 
tjO, and y eo 
eeye osofo he 10ill be a ministtr. 
nyefea gbekebii kpakpai! be good children I 
ootjO mibi Y(jU toill be my child. 
O THER USES OF DIl MfD DIEE. 
81. This verb is also used to form ot.hel· parts of 
speech. 
82. It forms the conjunctions kedg:i, kedgee, and 
d3ikul, . 
The phr~e which it introduces is treated as n noun, 
in t.hat it has to be followed by the article Ie:, e. g. : 
kEd3i (ona I,) IE . kE'mo IE nak.i if it is (), lel! 
him so. 
42 hregula.· Verbs 
The brftcketed pad, taking the place of the noun 
necessary after dgi , takes also the article It. 
ktd3ee nakai IE, belE olaka. m.i if it is not so, then 
you have deceil'ed me. 
aYE biE dgikule:, mibi Ie: naa egbo if you. had been 
here, my child would not have died. 
literally the ideil. is 'say it is_', (say it is not-', and 
d51kulE- ' it is perhaps ', 
83. In its s imple form, it makes the conjundion 
' w'l1ethel' '. Sometimes it is changed t.o dgitpJ , or 
d3i. 
egbo d3ilJIJ milee (be died it was I know not) I do 
do not know whether he died. 
woote d3i lJl) milee I do not know whethc1' 10e 
shall go. 
84. \Vith the double use of it and the addition of 
0 , it m!l.kes whether ... 01'. 
e'ho' noko, y d £ d3io, duade dgio, milee (she was 
cooking something, ynm be you, cassava be you, 
I know no t) she was cooking something, u;hether 
yam or caSSlWU I do no! know. 
Sometimes the dgi is uuderstood, nnd the 0 stands 
alone. 
eeha.-o ebal)-o, ekEko mi sane ko (he will come, 
he will not come, he has not s.1.id to me) he has 
not lold me whether he 'Will come or not. 
85 . It also mnkes the adverbial conjunction adgi, 
pe1'lalj)s, possibly from an extinct future tense of dgi. 
abE adgi !-like ' he doesn't seem to be there '. 
80. It makes the adverb dgeeIJmo (originally 
43 
dgeeIJmEue:), j it is not to·day·, meaning a 10'119 time 
ago. 
eba ~eeIJmo he came a long time ago. 
S7. There is a peculiar use of the neg. dgee in 
nnl'1'ative. Stories, especially fabl es, begin with the 
word: not in its negative sense, nor 3S a question, but 
as an affirmatioD, e. g. : 
dgee DU' ko kt el)Q ni amEyo tliere was once a man 
and his uJije (lit. is it not a man and his wife and 
they were?) 
8S. A very common use of dgee is in forming a 
question by beginning with it and ending with 10?, 
or without 10 but with a questioning tone: 
dgee nu enu, 10 ? was it not 'water he drank 1 
dgee Ga. ete ?ICas it not Accra he went to? 
89. YS AND ITS NEGATIVE BE. 
to be, in the sense of l to exist', or 'to have, 
possess ' . 
(a) Ye: is used to meaD that a person or thing 
simply exists, or that he or i t is at the place men-
tioned or understood. This is the only form in which 
can be expl'essed the Engl ish phrase f there is ' or 
( lh<lr0 are', meaning such things are in existence, 
e. g. , 
Nyol)m;) y€ Gael e.xists, or there is a God. 
eYE, moko Y€ he i.s there, some olle is there. 
helai srotoi pi y E tllC1"C are many different illne$Ses. 
mi y e: bie:, eye: dgEi I am here, he is the-reo 
tJofa.tJe:: ko ye:: Kole Bu alere is a cloctol' at K.B. 
nuntJo Ie:: ye:: J!!. ~he 1)Ul.ster is at home. 
14 11Tegu/c", Verbs 
Neg. 
NYOIJlUO SE Ie: moko be: dOI)l) there is no God but 
Goel (literally behind God anyone is not lUore). 
ebE, mako be: he is not there, no one is there. 
belatJe:mei pi' be: there arc not many sick people. 
mibe: biE, ebe: dgei I was not here, he 10as not there. 
tforatJe: ko be: Kole Bu there is no docto'" at K.B. 
nuntJo Ie: be:.fin. Ie: the master is not at home. 
(b) to have or possess. 
oye: nanemei pi' you have 'many friends . 
woye: nye kpakpa we have a good m()tller. 
Neg. 
obe: nanemei pi' you have not 'many friends. 
wobe: nye kpakpa we have not a goo{Zmother. 
If 'exist I is thought of in the sense of' to possess 
life ', it can be understood how this verb expresses 
both these ideas. 
90. This verb takes the forlU yo, n contl'action of 
the habitual form YEO, when it comes arter a relative 
word, whether obviously such, or where it is under-
stood: 
(a) after a relative: 
noni miyo IE, no lllilJo·haa 0 ne: that which I have 
I giveyoll, 
nu' nf yo biE IE: ete the man who 'was here has gone. 
moni yo toi Ie:, bi nf enu lie that has ears let him 
hem', 
ablogwai nl yo d3Ei IE faa the chairs which moe 
there are too jew. 
(b) sentence inverted for emphasis: 
biE miyo it is here I am, 
45 
koloi pi' dientIe: miyo it is ve-rY11uulY animals (that) 
I have. 
hi k ometo' eyo it is an only child (that) he hmJ. 
nakai eyo it is so (that it is). 
(e) interrogative words: 
meni yo odel) Ie:? what (is it that) -is in YOUlr hand 1 
negb€ oyo? 1.ohf!"re (is it that) you, are? 
enyie oyo ? how many (is it that) you have? 
(d) emphatic pronouns (repetit.ion of proD.) 
mi miyo bi< (i~ is) I (that) am here. 
1< eyo tSu I<~ (it is) he (that) is in the room. 
91. Ye: call be used for the past tense, both for' to 
be I and I to ha va', but it has no other tense. The 
verbal noun yO\ is seldom used: if used at all it is in 
such a. phrase as 
yo ' ekE·mi yo (emphatic) he certainly was with me. 
92. There is a form of the future, which is used 
only in the expression 
aYE! let it be! so be itl 
For the ordinary future and other tenses, other 
"arbs must be used, e. g. ba come, ya. go, hi live, or 
remain, for the verb j to be '. 
I 'will be there roibaya dgEi. 
he lcill bc at Christiansborg eeba Osu. 
lie win be still there eehi d5Ei 1010. 
na, to get, for the verb' to have '. 
1ft:: trill haft' ~l'ater woomt nu. 
hc It'l1l havc a chance eena hegbc. 
OTurn USES OF ye;. 
93. This verb is also used in other ways. 
46 Irl'egulcw Verbs 
94., YE, llsed as a verb in its capacity of interpret-
ing either ! be' or 'have', is joined with nouns, 
adverbs, or adjectives, to show a quality, e. g. : 
from fEO beauty (herEo beaufy of body) (fEono thin!! 0/ 
belJ.llly) comes the verb yE fEO to have beauty-be 
beautiful j neg. be: fEO not have beauty. 
fEO, fEO, dgEmei ye: fEO beauty, beattl,!/! that place 
has beauty, i, e, a is beautiful, ben.uLiful there. 
(Fl'oln an old hymn,) 
fl'om bIEO, soft, l)C(tcejt<l, gentle (bIEO! gently) comes ye: 
blEO Lo be peaceful, quiet, gentle. Noun blEofemo. 
alee Doni dgi blEofemo Ite doesn't knolO w/tat gentle. 
ness is. 
from mobo pity (verb-os. mobo to look at with pity) 
(verbal noun - mobonnIe: lite looking at with pity) 
(achrerb-mobomobo sorrowfully) comes the vel'b 
yE mobo 10 be pitiful. 
sane IE yE mobo 1/ is a pilifu~ story. &0. 
96. YE with mli. Besides meaning' in, inside I, 
yE roti also means t to be hue '. 
eyE mli it is true, somel iOles contl'acted to OYEI} 
ebE m.li it is nol h'ue 11 ab€l]. 
90. Y€ u.s n. preposition. Some verbs, those of 
motion, &c.) used wiLh ndvet'bs or place-names, need 
no preposition, the preposition being included in the 
-verb, e. g. 
eeba Osu he Icill come to Clwistiansborg. 
edgE Abokobi lie comes from Abokobi. 
ohio La he lh'cs ai La. 
But. when tho preposition is not included in the 
verb) y£ is used to conuect the verb and the object of 
IPregul ar V (;rbs 47 
locatioD, even when the object of location has a pre-
position-word of its own, e. g. : 
af;) mi yE AblotJ1ri I tOM born (being) in Europe. 
a.na. Ie: ye: IJIona. . he was seen (being) at the seasho1'e. 
eba mli. nakai ye: X .X. yin::> it came to pa.ss thus 
(being) in the tim. of K.K. 
ed5i efa. ye: NYOlJIDO hie 'it is a sin (being) in God's 
sight. 
ew~' y e: tSu mli he sleeps (being) in a roo'm. 
eta Ji ye: s~i no he sat doum (was) on a stool. 
ete dSci yE fwi'li roli helOent there (being) in a 
carriage. 
If the locntion comes first, the YE is put at the end, 
but it is sometimes omitted, e. g. : 
AblotJiri afa mi ye: Europe I was born in. 
eba mli ye: no be Ie: roll it came to pass in that 
time. 
no be Ie: mli eba. roll it came (0 pass in that time. 
97. As a. preposition there are many combina-
tions. 
ye: .. . Da,' (lit. it is at Lha mouth of) = a.ccording to, 
amd'e noftlno y E owiemo IE n a' thcy did evel'ything 
according to your word, 
aba.kodso 0 y£ onifemo 1£ Da' yat(, 10ill be judged 
according to your doings, 
yE ..• hewn (lit. i t is round about) = on account of, 
for the we of 
feme y£ mihew o do it fo r my sake. 
hi uti 10 . yE hewo giIJ6 me 10/ · jar it (on nccount 
of it). 
48 
yE , .. he (lit. beside it) = ftbout it. 
miye: he noko ke 'mo I have something to say about 
it (it, understood, before he). 
miye sane DE he noko ke:'mo 1 have somethIn.g to 
say about this matier. 
ye: . gbe:falJ, ye: . . . nadgtalJ, with regard to, 
instead oJ; 4'c, 
98. Y A, to go, with its companion TE. 
These two together form one verb. In some cases 
yo. ouly is used; in other cases only te j and in two 
tenses it is mixed. 
PilSi. PCI/cct. TJabitual. 
(J went) (J lta.v, gon,) (I go habitually) 
mite mite miya: 
ote 6te oya' 
ete ete eya' 
wote \Vot.e woya. 
nyete nyeto nyey-a: 
amEte am€te arnEya: 
llu'le: te UU'le: ate nu'le: ya: 
Coniimwtive. Future. See no. Imperative. 
(1 am going) (I shall go) (go!) 
mi'ya mate ormibaya 
o'ya o6te obaya ya,l ! 
e'ya eate ebaya 
womi'ya woote wobaya 
nyellli'ya nyeate nyebaYI1 DyeYELI1°! 
amEDli"ya amEate amEbaya 
DU" Ie lJya Du"Ie: !late DU" IE baya 
Irregular Verbs 49 
I,~a'ir. Imper. See 113. Comp. IllIper. See 114. 
(I' am to' go, he is, we are, (let me, him" us, them, 
they arc, the man is to go) the man, go) 
miya h~ maya 
eya h~ eya 
w6te 01' w6ye. h~ w6ya or w6te 
am£ya h~ ameya 
nu' IE a.ye. h~ DU' IE aya 
Negative. The pronoun in the negntive tenses is 
only high in comparison with the verb. 
Past amd Present. Pel/ect. Fulu1'e. 
miysa. miyB.ko miya~ 
6yaa 6yako 6yil'] 
eya.a. eyako eya'] 
woys&. woyako woyalJ 
nyeyaa nyeyako nyeYBl) 
amEyaa. amE:yako aIDEyaIJ 
nu ' IE: eylia. DU' IE eyako nu' IE eyal) 
Imperatives. Compound Im4Jcrative. 
Is~ 2nd 
~kaya k"h~ mi~e 
ka'ha. ete 
okays ke,'ha. wote or womi'ya 
w6Myil. ka'hi aroEte or amEmi·ya. 
nyekay.· 
am£kayil. 
DU' IE akaye. 
REGULAR VERBS 
99, All verb roots have their own tone, wbether 
low, mjddle, high, or double-toned, nnd these do not 
chnnge 6..'l:cept wben it is necessary as a sign of a tense. 
E 
50 Regula.' Verbs 
Tenses are shown by these changes in tone, either 
in the vurb 01' pronoun, 01' by a. prefix 01' suffix. 
The lones of Lhe verbs in some tenses are very 
confusing, being very il'regular. In the examples 
g iven, the l'e is a vfll'iety of verbs of different class. 
'Vhat is called 'e clnss' l'efers to a peculiarity in the 
formation of the negtltive, and it is explnined later. 
See par. 124. The VGl'bs given are: 
nu to drink: low·toned e clnss. 
ba to come: low-toned, ao exception to the e class. 
bi to ask: high-toned. 
gb19 to open: high-toned. 
ho' to cook: two-loned e class. 
rro show how the verb is used after a nOUll, it is 
given with Kni, agid's name (the same thing) j nnd to 
show how the pnssi,'e voice is made, the impersonal pro-
noun is given, which is the only form of passive voice. 
100. lmlicative .Mooel-which makes nssel'tions. 
101. In English what is called the Present Tense 
covers se"el't~l different ideas: 
(a) There are verbs such as 
I ask you lhis. I thank you. I congratula.te you. 
These show a Bingle notion in process of being done. 
(b) There fire others such as 
1Jw !iou-se stands by the 1'ivcl', I know already. The 
garden is big. I owe him ?Jlone1j. 
These show n fix.ed state of being somewhere or some-
thi ng, or n. stftte of mind existing, or an inherent 
quality of mind 01" body. 
(c) There are others again such as 
I go to this school. I see him el)e1'Y day, I write 
quickly. 
Regn/evr Ve·rbs 51 
These show n thing which is being done continually, 
but Mch time a separate noL. 
I n Gn distinction is made between these, and with 
a few exceptions quite logically even from the English 
point of view. 
(a) is shown by what is called the Continuative 
Tense, or Progressive. 
roi'de. 0 Ii 1 am thanking you. 
mi' kpa. 0 fa.i I am begging you. 
mi'lJB. 0 I am greeting you. 
mimbi 0 ake . . . I am asking you . . , 
(b) is shown by what might be called the Limited 
Present, as its use is confined to the verbs of this 
class. It is just a Root tense, with no inflection of 
any kind, corresponding to the English. 
tfu Ie: de. the l~e is big. 
efe Ie: he surpasses him. 
ehi it is good. 
tIo ko rna. dSEi a tree stands there. 
miYE fa.u pi-. I haue many hats. 
efa. it is ellough. 
mina. mt'Je: I am happy. 
mile Ie: I know him. 
(c) is shown by what is called the H abitual Tense, 
miya.' skul da' gbi I go to school el)ery day, 
e\vieo oyo.ya. he speal,:.s quickly, 
mihaa. IE: J ika. I gil)e him money. 
miwo' biE: I sleep here, 
102. D gi and yE: with theil' negatives belong to 
(b) nnd to it also belongs the irregular verb-particle 
kE: to tuke, which is used with ba and ya. to make 
'bring ' and C take away', 
E2 
52 Regular Verbs 
The Continuntive and the Habitual are given among 
the general tenses of verbs, but as the Limited Present 
is confined to this class, it is given here. 
Naturlll ly the impersonal verbs (such as fa to suffice; 
d" to grieve) cannot be conjugated in the different 
persons, but other verbs (such as hie to 7101d; Ie to 
know) are conjugated through the tenses as other verbs, 
and only differ in this tense. Dgi, yE, and kE have 
only this tense fOflll, though used for the past also. 
103. As examples Ie, da, and an .w;personal verb, 
lJo uo:, to please, are given: 
(I know, (It pleases me, ~.~) (I am big, g·c.) you, 4·c.) 
mile mida 6lJO mina' 
ole ada elJo ona' 
ale ada 61)0 eno. . 
wale wodra, 8IJO wona' 
nyele nyedra eIJo Dyeua: 
amda amedra 8IJO amec a' 
104. }),Tole re Habitual and ContinuaUve Tenses. 
In Ga, verbs always take the Habitual instead of 
the Continuative form nfter relative pronouns and 
conjunctions, whether obviously such, or wbether 
understood: ") 
(a) ordinary relatives: 
milee moni ba' Ie: I do not know who is coming. 
bani ewieo 1010 Ie:, ame:ba while lie was still speaking, 
they came. 
ele noni efeo Ie: he 'knows wha·t he is doing. 
(b) interrogative words: 
meni oreo? 'Wliat are you doing? (what is it that 
you, &c. ?) 
Regula,' Verbs 53 
namo ba,' IE? who is coming? (who is it that is 
coming '?) 
negbe: oya' ? 10here are you going? (where is it that 
you, &c.?) 
enyie otaoo '? how much do you 1.uant ~ (how much 
is it that, &c, 'I) 
(c) sentences inverted for emphasis: 
nakai mitaol) that is what I am ·wanting. 
bie: miliao ~i i ye it is here I am selling. 
(d) emphatic pronouns, 
mi miwieo Ie: it is I who am speaking. 
Ie: efeo Ie: it is he who is doing it. 
ame: ame:kwEO Ie: it is they who are lookh¥} afiel' her. 
105. NOTE :-As i t would be inlpossible to print all 
the tones, only an indication of them is given here 
and there in the verbs which follow. As the first 
person diffel's from the othel's) which are generally 
ulike, tones fire mostly given only on the first and 
second pe.rsons. These with the notes at the beginning 
of each tense should help slightly, but they can only 
be learnt properly by the e:\r. 
106. Habitual Tetlse-formed. by prolonging t.he 
'a.' in verbs whose root ends with that vowel, by 
prolonging toe '0' in verbs whose root ends with 
I 0', and by adding '0' to verbs with o~her vowels. 
Verbs ending in plain 0.. or 0 show this extra length 
by tbe sign " but verbs ending in 8., a, take another s. 
Similarly those ending in 0 take the sign " but those 
euding in other \'ow$ls hilye 0 added. There is uo 
ohauge of tone in the pronoun or in the verb root, and 
the additiou!\l vowel sound is low. Even the high 
verbs are middle rather than high. 
(I, thou) hc, wc, you, they. one, Kaj, drink, come, ask, 
54 Regniar Verbs 
open, cook, in the sense of being in the habit of doing 
so, or doing i t at different times.) 
minu\) wiba-' mibio l migblEio mihoo' 
Ciuuo aba' obio ogblM> ahoo 
enu.:> eba' ebin egbleo ahoo 
wounD wnba: wObio wogbleo WDho\) 
nyenuo nyeba' nyebio nyegbJeo nyehoo 
amenua ameba' arnebi;) ame:gbleo amehoo 
anuo aha.' abio agbleo ahoo 
Kainuo Kai ba' Kal bio Kal. gbleo Kai hoo 
I (m i slightly higher) ~ mid. low. 
107. Past Tense-tbe plain root of the verb, preceded 
by the pronoun, all low tones, except where the root 
of the verb is different, and then it. keeps its own tone. 
(I, thou, he, we, you, lhey, one, Kai, dramk, came, asked, 
opened, coo7ted.) 
minu miba mlbi migble '"iniho,1 
onu oba obi ogble aho" 
enu eba ebi egble aho' 
wonu woba wobi wogble woho ' 
nyanu nyeba nyebi nyegble nyeho' 
amEnu amEba amEbi amEgble am€ho ' 
anu aba abi agble aho' 
Kai nu Kai ba Kai bi Kai gble Kai ho' 
108. Perfect Tcnse-exactly the same as the above, 
except for a difference in tone. The pronoun takes 
a middle-high tone, the verb retaining its own, 
In I arne ' the tone is always on th e second syllable. 
(I, thou., he, 4'c, havc drU'nk, come, asked, ~·c. ) 
minu miba mibi 3 migble mlho" 
6nu 6ba 6bi 6gble 6ho,l 
enu eba ebi egble eh o' 
3 hi slightly lower 
RegulOJr Verbs 55 
wonu woba wobi wogbLe woho' 
nyenu nyeba. nyebi nyegble nyeho' 
aminu amEba amibi amtgble ameho' 
anu aba abi agble aho' 
Kai enil K8i~bii. Kai 6bi Kai egble Kai ehl>' 
109. Continuative Tellse- being in the net of doing 
somelhing-11his form is used for both past and present. 
In the 1st person there is a choice of the prefixes 
mim-, min-, mi', or mil), or even ID, in which is 
inoluded the pronoun. The choice is made according 
to which sounds best with the verb. 'rhe tone is 
high. In the 2nd and Brd sing., the pronoun vowel 
is prolonged, but keeps So fow tone. In the other 
persons the low-toned mi- is used, or ro, 0, lJ , 
aCCOl'dblg to euph ony! between the proo. and verb. 
(I am drinking, coming, asl.:ing, g·c.) 
mi'nu mimba. mimbi 
o'ou o' be. o'bi 
a'ou e'bs. e'bi 
womi.'nu wombs. w::>mbi 
nyemi'ou nyemi'ba I!yembi 
amtmi'uu amemba am€mbi 
a'nn o:ba a'bi 
Rai mi'nu Kai mi'ba Rai mi'bi 
mi~gble milJho ' 
o'gbl. o'ho' 
e'gble e'ho' 
w::>migble w::>mi'ho' 
nyemigble nyemi'ho' 
ftlm£IJgble ame:IJho' 
a:gble a.'ho' 
Rai mi'gble Kai mi'ho' 
56 Regular Verbs 
More nod more in coll oquial speech IJ is being used 
with all verbs for the 1st pel's. sing. and the plural 
pronouns. 
no. Future-is formed by a prefix. There al'e two 
forms. One is that in which the prefix I ba' comes 
before the verb and lhe othCl' is the form given below. 
J 
It. is difficult to define when they are used l'espectively, 
many people using one in n. sentence where otbers 
would use the other. It is similar to, but not equi-
valent to the use of 'shall' and 'will', Speaking 
roughly, the rOml given below is used for pure futurity. 
and the' ba' form is used 1110ro to indicate intention 
or vol iLion. 
mibanu I (tln going to drink. 
aID Eke:' ake: amEbayi Ie: lltey s(titl lltat tltey·we,.e going 
lo beM him. 
abaflo tJei IE aJwie Jl the trees toilt be cut down. 
ani oke:-mi ba,bn, 10? will !I{f/(, come with me I 
In the 1st person the ba is short; in the other 
persons it is longer, but in wrjting the lengtb sign is 
not usually given. 
l 'he second fOt'm is: 
(I, thou, he, 4'C, 10m (lrink, come, a-sk, 4·c.) 
manu mAbA mabi 
06n11 o6bil o6bi 
eeu'll _obi Geb£ 
w.,bnu wo6bA w>l6bi 
uyenn'll ny_Aba nyeabi 
ame:aou amEaba nme:abi 
nan'll aaba f1abi 
Ka.iaanu Raina,ba Kai alibi 
Regula,. Ve)'bs 57 
magble maho' \ 
o6gble o6ho'\ 
eegbJe eeho'\ 
wo6gbIe wo6hoA 
nyeagble nyeaho'\ 
ame:agble a.me:8.ho·\ 
nagbJe aa.ho·\ 
Kai aagbhl Kai aaho" 
111. 00liseclttive-(a convenient name to use here 
for the tense of a verb following another to whose 
nction it is consecutive). It is one of the commonest 
tenses in Ga, often not recognized, as only the tone 
distinguishes it from the past, except in the 1st pers. 
sing. It covers largely the subjunctive and potential 
moods and also most cases whe.re the infinitive is used 
in English. 
Some of the verbs after which it comes 3,re: sumo 
like (w ith a.ke: or ni), tao 10ish (with a.ke: or 01 or 
wiUlout), kple agree (with a.ke: or nl), hia be necessary 
(with akE), sa (with akE). 
After conjunctions like konl, and its short form ni, 
the verb is in this form. 
\Vith certain auxiliary verbs (such as nye, ha, &c.) 
the second verb is in this form in the future and nega-
live tenses, but with compound verbs in the future only, 
ome examples follow: 
eIJDla mi wolo ake: ma.ba. he un'ote 11Ie to come. 
hi madgo milie lel me rest. 
e ·tao ni mala he wants me to Sing . 
miIJtao ma.ya I 'waut to go. 
minyee ma.fe I cannot do it. 
wiemo \Va' koni eou speak loudly that he may hear. 
aehe eye he lOill belie-t.·e. 
58 Regu/ar Ym'bs 
manu rnaba mahi magble rnaho' 
6nii oba 6bi ogble oho' 
enii aba ahi egble aho' 
wonu wDba w6bi wogble woho ' 
nyena nyeba nyebi nyegble nyeho' 
am€:nu amEba ame:bi nm€gble ameho ' 
anii abo, "bi agble aho' 
Kai ann Kai aba Kai libi Kai agble Kai aho' 
112. 111lj)cralivc Mood. 
1i'irst 01' Direct -'rhe s ingular has got two forms. 
::Most monosylh\bic verbs take the first, j. e. the root 
form of the verb only, but with a high tone. This is 
not quite regulal', as some of the verbs take a short 
and sbat,p high tone, while others with the salUG root 
tone take n longer tone, beginning lo~v Ilnd rising, e. g. : 
ba! comc, ya"! go, Uo.'!! sec, but nal behold, gbe"! 
kill! 
All two-syllable vel'bs, and some &/na-syllable ones, 
form the impel" sing. by adding 'roo' to the root 
verb. This is the same· f~'m as the yerbaJ.noun, and 
the tone makes the distinction. In the "'-impel". it is 
high, e.g. : 
rorno! do, gblerno! open, tS_kerno ! c7utltlJl', kt"rn6 
or kE:m6 ! tell, say. 
rrhe plural impel". is formed by adding a to the 
p"onoull and verb, and giving the pronoun a high tone. 
sing. uti eUE! bal bi lE! 
pJur. nyonua eDt nyeba' ! nyebla IE ! 
(d1'ink this! comc! ask him! 
sing, gblem6! hO"m6 nil ! 
plur. nyegb16a! nyehoa nii! 
open / cook!) 
Regula?' Verbs 59 
113. Secot!(Z or I ndiret;t I mpe-rative-a tense which 
shows an indirect order} or command given through 
another persoll, almost equivalent to the English ' is 
to, am to, Me to '. The verb has a short and sharp 
tone. 
Roft abo. wo ! Kofi is to come to-mOt1'01o! i. e. has got 
to comE'. 
mths, 10 P am I to came ~ 
a.ke: wolo Ie: amadg6 Ie: mrs! the letle-r mu.st be sent 
him. . at once I 
\Vote! let us go ! 
eke:' mi ake: mife nakai he told me I was to do so. 
(I am to, he is to, toe arc to, they are to, drink, come, 
ask, 4'c,) 
minu miba roibi migble miho' 
ani! eba ebi egble eho' 
w6nu w6ba wobi w6gble w6ho' 
a.mtnu a.mEba amehi amegble ameho': 
114. Compound Imperative-fol'med by the direct 
impel'. of ha, let, and the Consecutive tense of the 
other VCl'~. But' a' after both in plural. 
(Let me drink, co-me, ask, g'c., let him dr-ink, g'c.) 
ha ma.nu hi maba hi mabi 
ba. enu hi eba he: ebi 
nyehia \vouua nyeblia. woba' nyehaa wobia 
nyehaa awtnua nyehaa ameba. ' nyehaa a.m€bia 
hi magble hi maho' 
hi egble hi eho' 
nyehaa. wogblea. nyehaa wOho'a 
nyehaa amegblea nyehia am€ho'a, 
60 Regu/((1' Verbs 
115 . CondWonalllIood. 
Present-a condition which is open to fulfilment. 
This is shown by the use of ke or k£dgi nt the 
beginning of the conditional clause, which should end 
with IE, and be followed by the main sentence. The 
verb after ke:dgi clI.n be in the habitual, progressive, 
or future tense, according Lo the sense in which it is 
used, but. it is most orten in the plain root tense. 
This is said to be Lhe past, the idea being that the 
ac tion of t.he conditional verb would be finished before 
the consequent nct.ion would be done. 
ke:dgi cba. Ie, ke Ie: ene: -if Ite comes give him lhis. 
kedgi onu he It, hi mnle if you hear about it let me 
know. 
kedgi mibi Ie: IE, ebaha mi he to if I ask him 71e will 
give me an answe,', 
kedgi ooha mi kpa IE, no Ie: mati if you would give 
me the string) .f w(ntZd tic it. 
kEd3i nyeafo,ta wohe IE, no IE wooda DyeIi ifym(. 
UJould help us, we would be grateful. 
116 . . Perfect-a condition" hich shows what might 
have beeo) or a vain wish. This is shown by the use 
of kule: or dgikulE. The clause mny begin with ed3i, 
or it roay be omitted. It is not used with dgikule: as 
it is included iu that word. 
edgi ote kulE, eh i if you hatl gOl1e -it would have been 
good. 
eba kulE, mafe if he had come I would have done it. 
kule: mana he mi'fE I s/touZ(l have been so glad o/it! 
edgi miwo nakai Ii, kulE mafe if I luul promised 
I tcould have done it. 
edgi okpa mi fai, kUlE malJo-fa 0 if you had begged 
'me I would have forgiven you. 
Regulw· Verbs 61 
117 . NEGATIVE FORlll. 
Both forms of the present, and the past and habitual 
tenses, have one fOl'm of the negative which answers 
for all. It is made by lengthening the verb vowel 
sound, and giving it a high tone. \¥hen there is no 
adjunct to the verb, and the verb finishes the sentence, 
the tone falls slightly .t the end. 
Mi a1 ways has a high tone in the negative, differing 
from the obber pronouns. 
In writing the negative the last two vowels must 
always be identical, e. g. ehs,a, efea, efaa, onuu , 
mibii, &0. 
118. For Present and Simple Past Tenses. 
minuu miMa mibii migblee mihoo 
6nuu obaa. obii ogblee 6hoo 
anuu ebaa ebii egblee ahoo 
wonuu wabaa webii wogblee wohoo 
nyenuu nyebaa nyebii n yegblee nyehoo 
ame:nuu amebas. ame:bii ame:gblee ameh oo 
anuu abaa. abii agblee ahoo 
Raieniiii Kai b aa Kai bii Kai gblee Kaiehoo 
119 . Pelieel, formed by adding ko to the verb, the 
verb having a higher tone. 
m inUko mibako Ihibiko 
6nuko obako obiko 
enuko ebako ebiko 
wonuko wooako wobiko 
nyenuko nyebako nyebiko 
ftm€Duko ame:bako ame:biko 
anuko abako abiko 
Rai 6n'ilko Kai ba.ko Kaibiko 
62 Regu/c.,. Verbs 
migbleko mihoko 
ogbleko 6hoko 
egbleko ehoko 
wogbleko wohako 
nyegblcko nyehoko 
ame:gbleko aIDe:boko 
agbleko ahoko 
Kai gbleko Kai ehoko 
120. Flltl/re, adding l) to the verb, and I'l\lsing its 
tone if low. 
minul) mibiiIJ mibiiJ migbl.~ mihol) 
6nu~ oM~ obi~ ogblO~ 6ho~ 
euuI) ebal) ebil) egbleq abol) 
wonulJ WObfU) wObil) wogb1elJ woholJ 
nyenUlJ nyebaIJ nyebilJ nyegblelJ nyeholj 
8ID€llUIJ ame:ba!) ame:bil) ame:gblel) nmEhoIJ 
&nUl) abal) abilJ agbleq ahoq 
Kat eDulJ Rai ba~ Rai biiJ Rai gbl.~ KaiehoIJ 
121. Imperative. In the sing. thers is no pronoun, 
but' ka" is prefixed to the Yel'b. In the pimal the 
pronoun takes a high tons, n short' ka.' prefixes the 
\'arb, wh ile ' a I is added as R. suffis:. 
ki.. .. /nu ki'l;' bi ka:' gb16 
nyekauua nyekabiit nyok!1gblOa 
ka: ' b6'\ 
nyekah6a 
122. Indirect Impcrativc-' ka. " short and shnrp is 
l)ut before the verb, and the prononn takes n high 
tOlle. I am not to drink, goc. 
Regular Verbs 63 
mikduil mikllb~ mikabi 
ekllnil ok.bit tlkllbi 
woko.nu wokaba wokabi 
a..mEkl1nu ame:kuba ame:kabi 
aka,nu akaba akabi 
Kai akanu Kai akab a Kai D.kabi 
mikllgbl tl mi kaho" 
okolgble ekaho" 
wokagble \vokaho' 
ame:kagble ame:kaho' 
I1kagble o.kaho· 
Kni akagblo Ka.iaka.ho· 
123. Compound Imperative. Do not let me drink, 4'c. 
kn:ha minu ka:ha miba ka'ha mibi 
ka.'hn. enu. ko:hK eba. ka' h'ii. obi 
ka'hii. wonu ko:hn wob£\. ka'h'ii wobi 
01' or or 
ko:ha. wominu . ktl.'ha womiba. ko..'uii. womibi. 
ka:hli n.me:nu ka:ha ameba kn: h o. a.me:bi 
0" or or 
ko:hii aroe:minu ka'hil amEmiba ke'ha ame:mibi 
kn'hn. migblo ka'ho. miho' 
kn'ha ogbl. ko. 'h ll. eho' 
ka'hil wogble ko.'h n. woho' 
or or 
ko:hi womigble kG.'hs. womiho' 
ka:hu. ame:gble ka:h'il amEho' 
or 01' 
ko:hii o.uu:migble ka:h'B. ame:miho' 
NOTE ON NEGATIVES OF VERBS 
124. It will be seen that the vOl'bs ho' and nu differ 
from ~hc other Y rbs, no~ quito following the general 
64 Regular Verbs 
rule. The tones are different and an extra e appears 
in places. The reason is that although the negative 
requires a high tone, ::1 great many verbs cannot well 
givE'- up their low tone. In such verbs e is prefixed, to 
take the high tone, so that the verbs can retain their 
low one. The e is used when the subject is il. noun, 
but when the subject is a pronoun the e is merged in 
that, and the pronoun takes the high tone instead. 
The verbs to which this applies afe : 
(a) low monosyllabic verbs, as 
ya to go. da to be big. nyE to hate. tIE to last long. 
ke to make a lJresent of, and many others. 
. ' 
(b) long monosyllabic verbs with a twofold tone 
(low, high), as 
he>" [0 cook. ff.i"' to cease. te' to hide. fe' to do. 1€.1 
to be broad, and many others. 
(c) verbs of two syllables, the first of which is low, 
the second high: 
kase to lear'll. madge (0 send. Sedge I to comfol1. 
dgidgG to disturb, and others. 
But to this ru le there are again exceptions, or in Qther 
words, some verbs of the above classes fo llow the 
general rule for all verbs, .as 
dgu to 'UJash. ye to eat. be. to come. wo to'loear, &c. 
The probable reason for this is that in so ma.ny eases 
there are two verbs exactly the same and with the 
same tone, meaning quite different things, and it is to 
make a distinction between them. 
1 Not in Accra. 
65 
VERBAL NOUNS 
125 . Verbal Nouns are formed in different ways. 
(a) through the lengthening of the vowel in low· 
toned monosyllabic verbs, as 
ba' a coming. ye.' a going. boo a crying. fU' a bwy-
ing. dss· division. dsu· tltift. Ie· "--now/edge (with 
nu, lJs,' , &c.). 
(b) by adding mo to verbs whose vowel is high 01' 
long, two-toned, or .strengthened by 1 or r in the 
second syllable : 
bi a.sk : bim::>. fa do: femo. h oi begin: boimo. 
bio shout: blom::>. tIa,ke change : tJakemo. ha. 
give: hamo. he receive: hamo>. kli lie; k ama. 
ta.o seek: taomo, and all two-syllable verbs. 
(c) by ndding IE. The verbs in this class are mostly 
those showing a quality, as 
dss to be rig/it: dsalE. d so to be quiet: dSOIE. fa (0 
be plenty: fOJe. ke to be long: kclE. hi tc be good: 
hil E, &0. 
(e1) one in n class by itself: ye to eat : yelL 
(e) ~ome verbs have a choice: 
gbo to die: gbale, gbomo, or gboimo. (gbele is 
a regular nOUD, death: the others are the real 
infinitivel sjng. and pl.) 
gbale sOIJIJ ki ewe nothing bu,t death lay be/are 
him. 
mifta. Ie:: eboi gbomo my wound is beginning to heal. 
a mE:boi gboimo they are beginning to die (of plants 
or people in great nwubers). 
66 Verb,d N01mS 
tJe: (0 remain lang: tJE' or tIElE (wben actions 01" 
things !l1'e spoken of, SE comes before it ~ SEtJE', 
BEtJEl'). 
wa to be strong: wa", or wale:. 
IJma to write: IJma', 01' l)male:. (lJma1e: is used for 
finished writings, literature, and IJma' for the act 
of writing, as a compound with wolo, &c.) 
(I) verbs with roots endi ng in mo, eit-her lengthen 
the vowel in the first syllable, or take an extra. vowel 
aftel' it, e. g.: 
tam::> to be like: tn.'mo. warno to creep: wa'mo. 
SUmo to lot.'c: suom:>. sum6 to serve: suomi> (or 
sumomo). 
126. 'Vhen verbs have an adjunct to complete 
them, that word is prefixed to the verb to form lhe 
verbal noun, the vexb baving its noun form also: 
tJake tIui to change the l/utrt: tJuitfakemo. 
tSu nii to work: citJumo. 
!Jilla wolo to write (book): wOlolJma·. 
kana wala to J'ead : wolokanemo. 
te fi to stU'Il(Z tip : [lte·. 
To strengthen t.he verb, and emphasize the action, 
the verbal noun can be put fil'st, and the subject and 
verb follow. But in the case of verbal nouns which 
are formed by lengthening the vowel, the length is 
not given, In others, too, such as gbo, the verb root 
only is llsed instead of the verbal noun, e.g. : 
to mike:·to I certainly kept it. 
tJo.kemo matJo.ke I will truly change. 
Ie ele he certainly kIUJlCS, 
yi a.yi Ie: he was actually beaten. 
lakamo amclilka. Ie (hey really deceivul him. 
gbo egbo he did die. 
Verbal Nouns 67 
For the negative) dgee can be prefixed, negativing 
what follows: 
dgee to mikE·to I did not keep it. 
dgee yi ayi h: it was not a beat ing he got. 
dgee dgu edgu it was not stealing Ite did. 
127. The verbal n ou n is used for the participle in 
English, o. g. : 
eba.' IE hia. maya. his coming hinde-red me f ron). going. 
be. ni aba. IE dgi okadi his coming 'was a sign. 
For the negative ' not to', a phrase is necessary, e. g.: 
ya. Di eyaa IE do mi his not going grieved me. 
be. ni obae. 1£ shU your not coming was bad. 
femo ni miCee IE htl mihie gbo my not doing it 
made me ashamed. 
to oi mi-k€ too 1£ dgi noni hi emli wo Is. my not 
keep ing it was what made him angry. 
a.mEmli wo Is. yE he nl ehee eyee IE hew;) they 
zoere angry with his not believing (with t he believ-
ing which he did not believe). 
12B . T he verbal noun is also used where an English 
infinitive is usod when showing purpose or intention, 
and nfter cadain other verbs, e. g. : 
e·bs. Bane 1£ yeli. he is coming to settle the palaver. 
e'bs. no le: femo lie is coming (0 do the thing, 
e'ya mei 1£ kw£mo lie is going to look a/tel' the people. 
ewoo ba' he did not manage to come. 
eboi blomo he began to shout. 
er3' na.kai femo he ceased to do so. 
efo' nakai femo he does so often. 
eroo ns.kai femo he does fl ot often M so. 
ewa.a. femo it is /lot hard to do so. 
F 2 
68 Verbal Nowns 
129. The doer of an action is shown by the suffix 
10: 
tSu to ,vork: tSulo. 
gba to prophe.~'Y: gbal». 
hie kli to be alive: hiekaio. 
fa to do: felo, &c. 
But not all verbs can be treated so, i. e. ba, yD.. ha, 
&c. With those a phrase must be used, e. g.: 
moni ba IE the one who came. 
moni he. IE the giver. 
NOTES ON KS 
130. kE to take, as fundamentally in an African's 
mind, expresses a sense of union, a bringing togelher 
of two ideas for a common purpose, e. g.: 
mi'yahe 10' kE yEl£ kE nii I am going to buy meat 
and ywms and so on (a union of all the things that 
were bought). 
etfe: mei anyo ke·ba he caUed two people to come 
(a union of calling and the result, a coming). 
ekE-bawo kukwEi IE mll lte' unlL put it in the pot 
(a union of two actions, taking and placing). 
okE-fe skekre ni OkE-fi eyitIo yau made a ct'OtW 0/ 
it and put it on his head (a nnion of taking and 
making j taking and binding), 
mikE-nye ae..ba. biE ekoIJ I 10ill come here 'with you 
again (a union of one person with others in 
eoming). 
eko ekE-he. IE he took it and gave -it to him (a union 
of two actions). 
Noles 011 K e 69 
ekE-tJe yi mi he beat me 10itlt a stick (a union of a 
person and a thing for a common action). 
uu kE kpulu, Ull ke: gla·se jlf;g oj toatr:r, glass of 
water (n union of jug and water, glass and w~l;er). 
lokp6iJ kE ena: nyanyodsi ete a lln'ee-prongecl flC?h-
hook (n union of a hook and three teeth). 
klante ke: ena: ntai ete three-edged SlOord. 
KE, 1\S tl1luslated in a Britisher's mind: 
(a) kE = and, or willi, joining nouns and pronouns: 
mikE-mitIe: te I wellt 'tuW, my father. 
miYE alO:>l)te kE: tJinai ke: to'i I have a cat, 
cows, and sheep. 
(b) kE = with, distinguishing a feature of the first 
noun. 
ma~tf' k. [ilia akekre a king ,uitlt a golden 
croum. 
UU' ko kE: hilJ mEi fOd3i a man 10ith ell a eyes. 
(e) ke: = with, joined to abstract nOUD, to tnke place 
of adverb, showing accompanying emotion. 
mikE mi'IE baba I will come with pleasure. 
ekE mlifu jl arnE he left them with angel'. 
(tI) kE = with, showing wbat is used for the action. 
gbobilo kE t il gbeo kO·tJE a hU'nicr kills 
aUger lOith a gum. 
ekE' okE-fe noko he said ym to&rc to make 
something with i.1 . 
akE-ydE 10 duade 10 amada fio fuCUi fitfu 
is made with yam or cassava 01' plantain. 
(e) kE = with, meani'ng containing, or contained in. 
nu kE kpulu jug of 'water, jug 10ilh teateI'. 
OillO kE kotoku bag of rice. 
70 Noles on J{e 
(/) ke = in dil'ccL com bination with n verb of moLion, 
fl8 ndjunct. of u. pl'eviolis verb, tnkcs the 
pineo of t.he English infinitive, j to', 
otfe: arne: f a' ke-bu. he called 'Item all to come. 
080.' obo kE~to IIC1J1'cp«recl himself to go. 
e te .fi K::e-dg:o kpo he 1'OSC up (0 lIo out. 
«(I) icE = ns lI sed for t.h o Pl'opositions t.o, fl 'OI11 , and 
lhl'ough . 
odgo foi kE-t.O Ga he 1'Wl to Accra. 
cwo ndoko.. IE ke-ba j1a he carried. tfle box to 
Ihe house. 
uogbe: ono. k£-dg£? where did yolt gcl it/rom? 
mikE-mndgc kE-tJ5 mino.nyo ko DO I sent 
i f through olle a/my j'riamls. 
(II) ke: = in comb innt.ion wit.h mall)' vOl'bs, is usod 10 
)llonn j 10 tnlte nnd~. ke: simply joins tho 
snbjNlt. nnd lh o objeot, find lho yorb is 
inncclod I\ccol'(ling t.o tonse. (See Inior.) 
mike nu bn J look 1(l(licr camc-I bmugTtI 
walt'l'. 
131. lie: used with Q(//('I' verbs to CJ.PI'CSS (t I /a1.:i11!1 I 
(l1I(( u}Iother actioll. 
1)(5 ca n bo lIs\?'d inslMd of ke. It is a maLtcl' of 
ohoice Jor euphony's sake, but ke is much more 
com mon. 
(1) If ke: is \1s\?'d, kE t.akes tho pronoun as n prefix, 
nnd Lhe \'o rb Inkes nil tho infloct ions (likewise with 
:\ Houn). 
(2) If 1)0 is used ((I) ",jib I it I (understood) for the 
objoot, 1)<S is tronted simply I\S if it won) part of {,he 
vOl'b, P .'ououn I\nd pl'eJix go before it, find suffix 
Notes on Xc: 71 
after the verb; (b) with an object expressed, IJo and 
the other verb both take the pronoun and both are 
inflected nccording to tense, and the object comes 
between the two. 
(3) If 1)5 is used with a verb of motion, e. g. ba, ys., 
dge:, &c., ke: must also be used as a prefix to the verb 
of moHon. 
132. Exwmples oj tenses. 
The examples in each tense show: (1) ke:, with (it) 
as object; (2) ke:, with a defined object; (3) IJo, with 
(it) as object; (4) 'lo, with a defined objec~ 
133. Past. 
No inflection for either ke: 01' 1)0. 
(1) eke:~b'ii enye, eke:-yato dgti he gave it to his 
'mother, he put it thC1rJ. 
(2) mof8mo ke: noko ba, eke: mama 1e: to adeka 
mli elJery (J'1W brought something, he took the cloth 
and put it in a box. 
(3) wOIJo-madge amE, efe s§ii anyo ni 6IJo-mamo 
solemotSu l£IJ 10e sent it to them, he made two seats 
and placed them in the church. 
(4) elJei ame: eto madgi Ie: 8.mli, 8.IJo eyitJo Ie: afo 
ka. mli ke:·ba he placed them in the t01l)1l.S, his head 
wa.s thrown in a dish and brought. 
134. Habitual. 
ke: , the vowel 0 or a after the verb. 
lJo, the vowel 0 or a. after the other verb when (it) 
is used. 
IJo, the vowel 0 or a after both verbs when the 
objeot is defined. 
72 Notes on K e 
(1) eke-woo kukwEi Ie: mli , ekE-haa bo da'DE, 10 ? 
he puts it in the 2Jot, does lie always gh'c it you. ~ 
(2) mike: fika pi' baa le: da;gbi, mikE dada feo eo€" 
J give him a lot of moncy every da,y, I make litis '/Il; th 
imn. 
(3) Jikpo~ III Yehowa ~~-haa 0 DE {his is (he land 
which God [jives .I10U. 
( I) wOlJ50 yibii woho.a 1£ dn'DE we gi/H} him fi'1.lit 
triu,'(lYs. 
136. Future. 
kE) an before the main verb, in alI persons, whether 
the object is (iL) or n defined one. ba. enn be 
used instead. 
1)(5, lakes tlJe ordinnry prefixes of the future tense 
before it when (it) is used. '1'he other verb 
Lakes nothing, but is joined by n hyphen to 1)0. 
1]0, wIlen the subjecl is defined, takes Lhese snm9 
prefixes before it. but Ihe second verb nnd 
pronoun nre in lho consecutive tense. 
(1) eke:-a.o.dse kpo, mike:-naba he will bring it forth, 
f 1Qill bring it. 
(2) mike:-1e: namu. 'o.me:tolj, mjke:-DYO aato Dye-
jlkpOI) 1€ DO I wilt place Idm in thcir midst, I will 
)Jut you in YOw' counl"y. 
(3) eelJo-ma. okpl0 Ie: no he will place it on thc table, 
(4) malJo arne: mato d,3e:i, eeIJo wodgi Ie: eha. 0, 
kodgolo Ie: o.tlIJo IE awo tJuIJ I will kcC)) them therc, 
hc trill Oil'c you Ihe books, lite judge 10illlrnt him ,in 
prison. 
136. I1J1pcl'atirc, 
kE-sing. pel's. wilh (i l) as object, ke followed by 
verb root. 
Notes on K e 73 
sing. pers. with expressed object, a prefixed to 
main verb. 
pl. , with (it) as object, main verb t.1.kes suffix B.. 
pl., with ~ expressed object, main verb takes a 
both as suffix and prefix. 
~i5-witb (it) as objeot, just prefixes tbe verb (but 
not often used in the sing.). In plur. second 
verb takes a as suffix. 
lJo-with a defined object. Sing. pel's. IJo keeps its 
root form, th e objed follows, and the second 
verb takes its pronoun o. 
In the plural both verbs take the pronoun , and 
both h aY6 the suffix B., 
(1) kE·ba bie:. ke:·ha. Ie:. nyekt .haa Ie: Ming it 
lIet:e. give -it to him. (you) give it to him. 
(2) n yeke:-duade Ie: abe.', nyeke: ka-lo' a.Ja: h e. 
ke nu aba bring the casSai)a. paint it 'With 
lime. bring water. 
(3) n yelJohaa Ie:. !Johs. Ie:. nyelJomaa Jwi'1i Ie: 
no (you) gi've it to him. give it to him. put it 
in the cart. 
(4) nyelJoa enii nyehe.a IE. IJO IE OWO tfUlJ giue 
him his things. pitt him ·in priso-n. 
137. Indirect I mpemt'ive. 
This tense is used in the 2nd pel's. sing. inde-
pendently with kE but not with IJo, which must 
h ave :J.ll introductory sentence. 
In ordinary regular verbs there is a difference 
between the I ndirect Imperative and the Consecutive 
in the 1st pers. sing., all other persons being the 
same in both tenses. But with k E this difference 
74 N oles on Xc 
di s:.l.ppCnI'8, bein g il'l'ogulal', so boLhhave been mel'ged 
in this pla.ce into one. 
A few senlences nre g iven firs t for eomp::u·jsoll , to 
s how how ke: hides Lhe lensf'. 
NOTE : mo.ba is consecutive, miba. is indirect im-
pel'uLive. 
CO Il8. esa akE mabo. I must coone (it is ]'ight I that 
I co mo'), 
e'8um~ oi m aba Ite wan ts me to come (he likes 
I t hal I come '). 
etaoo ni mo.bo. he does not 10(m t me to come 
( • • • f that I co me '). 
1. r. eke:' Ilk€: mibo. lie says I am to come. 
Cons. eaa nke: mi·ke:·ba I must bring it. 
o'sumo akE mike-be. he wants me to V1'ing i t. 
otn.oo ni mikE-bn /i (' clof's not w(t?ll me / 0 
oril1g it. 
1. 1. eke:' llkE: mikE:- ba he says I am (0 bring it. 
Co ns. osa nke: mike: wolo Ie: abo. I ?Imst bring lite 
book. 
o'sumo ake: mlk€ wolo Ie: abo. he 1IJan iS me Lo 
bring the book. 
etaco ni mike: wolo IE aba he docs not wa11 t me 
10 bring the vook. 
r. 1. eke:' ak.e: mikE '\Volo IE aba he says 1 am to 
bring the book, 
ke:- wilh (it), no inllex ion, j ust ke: prefi xed to lhe 
"el'o. 
wiLh defin ed object, 11 profi xed to Lhe verb in nIl 
pel'sons. 
Ii i-no inilexion, buL the pl'onoun lakes th e tone of 
Ihis tense, high and short. 
Notes on Kc 75 
(1) 6kt·fe akekre ni OkE· fi eyitJo. 6kt.ya d3Ei. 
ake: ' amEkt-ba you, arc fo make a crown 0/ it and 
croton him 10ith it. yO!t, a1'e to lake it there. they 
are told to bring U (it is said tbey fire to bring it). 
(2) milJsumo ni mike:-minye aba.. eke to ' ni he 
be: kpa ko aba. I ~oant to bring my molher. he is 
to bring a sheep 10ithaut blemish. 
(3) he. ni ",~5.me. tJu lE~. ekE· o~5.wo kafu mll 
let it be put in the room. he says you arc to p ut it 
in a basket. 
(4) era ake: aIJo Jik& Ie: ato hie:. wosumoo ni W.:H]O 
sali Ie: ni woyah5 he ordered that the money was 
to be kept here. toe 'want to take the seats and sen 
them. 
138. Eo pick up, w6 (h616) !ift, like ~5, when used 
with verbs of motioD, such 38 ba, ya, and dSE, require 
ke: always before tbe verb of motion, e. g.: 
aka ke:·ba. ako la. ke:-ba. msk::> fai Ie: k€-ya.. 
mB.k.o kE-ate. ma.IJo wolo IE kE-ate dSEi. malJo 
kE-bll. ew6 dsatIu Ie: ke:-te. eeIJo enibii Ie: n 
ke:-ba bie:. nyeIJoa Ma.dei ne: nyeke:·yahaf1. Ie: 
lie urought it. he brouglit fire. 110iU lake the hat 
away. I tom take it Q1oay. I will take the boak 
the-reo I trill bring it. he took the load away. he 
trill bring all his things here. take these clothes to 
him. 
SOME NOTES ON VERBS 
139. Mi to place, and ta. to SUI nre peculiar in tlw.t 
the use of ke: with them changes the verb from nn in-
transitive one to n transitive, e. g. : 
76 Some Notes on Vm'bs 
ablogwa ko rna dgEi a chair stood there. 
eke: ablogwa ma dgE1 he placed a chair there. 
ew6 ablogwa ke-ma d,3€l he placed a chair there. 
ema dgEi. ekE-rna dg£-L it stooel ihere. he stood it 
there. 
eta dge:i. eke-wi ta dgEl he sat there. he set me 
there. 
mikE-tn. dgei 1 set it there. 
(NO'l'E: eke-mi ta dge:i also means he sat 1fJith me 
litere,) 
This change from lnLrans. to trans. does not n.pply 
to to Ii. 
e te Ji he 1'ose up. 
ete 1£ Ji lie raised him ulJ. 
ekE-Ie: te Ji he 1'05e up with him. 
(Ther e Lh p change is made by LheinLroduction of 
an object only.) 
140. Place of the object. 
,;Yhen that-s is both a dil'ect and Iln indirect object, 
theinc1irect comes fi rst, as in English, unless two 
fiCtions are expressed and t'~o verbs used, e. g. : 
cbi lUi noko he askecl 'me something. 
etfci mi II ii he ((tUgM me (things). 
lJmG. Ie: \Volo 1wite him (t letter. 
maha 0 uoko I 1IJill give you something. 
make Ie: eDE I will ( dash' Mm this. 
egba mi sane ko he told me a stOt·y. 
milJma wolo mimadge lE I wrote a letter arul sent 
it to him.. 
141. T1'atn.silive and l1ltmnsilive. 
(NOT~~: these terms refer here to the Ga verb, not 
the English one, which js sometimes passive.) 
Some Noles on VeTbs 77 
Some verbs can be either transitive or intransitive, 
e. g.: 
yi obo or yi to to be 1,,11. 
hi.e .kpata pe-rish. 
te Ji 1"ise up. 
ba jl to come down. 
yi (moko or noko) obo or yi to to fill. 
kpata (moko or nOko) hie destroy. 
te (moko).fi raise up. 
ba (moko) .fi bring down (humble). 
kpulu I. yi obO th. jug 100. lull. 
mumo kroIJkroIJ Ie: yi Ie: obo he was filled with the 
Holy Spi,it. 
amEfti amehie kpata. they were an cZestroyed. 
wobakpata amehie loe lOill destroy them. 
So also with ba tmd bo to prodtu;e, in conuexion 
with the soil. They can be used transitively with 
IikpolJ as subject, or they can be used in tmnsitively. 
Jlkpo~ n. bo' able dsogbo~ thi.< land produces corn 
'Well. 
ftkpoIJ ne: boo y£le: dgogbaIJ this land produces yam 
well. 
able bEl.' ye: dgti dsogbalJ corn grolOs well there. 
yde: boo y€ biE dgogbaIJ yam grows 'well here. 
VERB COMBINATIONS 
142. Sometimes verbs are combined in a sentence 
to show SOUle modification or express a.n idea relating 
to the aotion. 
143. To show a previous coming 01' going to do the 
action, be. to come., and ya to go, are used 3S auxi liary 
78 Verb Combinations 
verbs. The forln in which they are used will be 
found in Fleischer's Gram11lar, p. 57. The difference 
between ba as Rn fl.ux ilial'Y verb and ba as the prefix 
of the fuLIi ['€I Lense is in the tone and the 1ength of 
yowel, e. g.: 
mibn mtbMJ5 I came to leach. 
mibatjo I1oillleach. 
144, Dclcrmination to do an nction is sometimes 
shown. by the I11Ol'e lone, which is ShOl·t and 8hm'p. 
illate Jam gOi11g (future tense). 
wOte lot us go (2nd imperative with ha dropped). 
145. J)esire La do an action is shown by the verbs 
to.o lo want, nnd sumo to like, followed byakE or ni, 
find Sl verbal clause. Ake nnd of cnn be omitted witll 
tao, bu t not with. sumo. The second verb takes the 
Consecubve,forln. 
milJtno maya hako I want to go somewhere. 
a·tao of ebo toi flo he wants to U.sten /01' (1, little. 
wotaoo ake: wohe 'we do not want to buy. 
a'surno ake eya beko he wishes to go somewhere. 
misumoo ake: ml-ke:-l e: abo uauyo I do not 'Wish to 
be his fl'iend. 
misumoo ni mafo I s/loul(llike to do it. 
146. Agreement to do an ll.ction is shown by ~he 
verb kpl~ to agree, It C!11l stand olono, or take a 
verbnJ nann after i t, Ol' ni wi~h a verhal clause. If 
Lho vet'hal noun has I\n adjunot, that adjunct comes 
be~woen kpl~ and Lho verbnl nOll n. 
mikplEJe I do riot agree. 
mikplee eyi' le: I do not agree to his being beaten 
(1< = tho). 
Ve'rb GombvlUttions 79 
mikpliJiJ Ie: yi' I do not agree to beat him (Ie: = him). 
mikpliJiJ ni ayi Ie: I do not agree that he should be 
beaten. 
ekpl iJEJ eoe: femo he is umoiUing to do this. 
gbekil Ie: ekplEJEJ tJn Itl) botemo the child /Could not 
enter lite room. 
ekplel) dgE:i ye.' he uri'll not go there. 
ani nyemi'kplEJ wolo Ie: IJma' 10 ? do !IOU agree to 
the letter being 'wrillen? 
Unwillingness is also often sh own by the use of 
the verb in the Present Negative. 
miyaa I will not go mibaa. I lOillllot come 
efee he will not do it waha.B. we will llot give it . 
147. Beginning to do an act ion is shown ei ther by 
boi or dg8 fiji. They a.re interchtl.ngeable, but dge 
fiJi is mOl'S formal. 
]3oi is followed by the verbal n OUD, whiie with dge 
fiJi it com.es in the middle of t he two words. As in 
every case whers the verbal noun has an adjunct, th e 
adjuno~ oomes before i t. 
aboi tJu I e: IDa: the house-building has begun. 
eboi femo he has begun (0 do it. 
ame:b5iko nikasemo they 'wfe not begun to lear n. 
eb5i lrue. he began singing. 
edge laJa. Ie fiJi he began the song. 
nyedsea ftft eko~ begi/! agai/! (pl.). 
148. 'f o continue to do a.n aotion is shown in 
ditTel'()n ~ W!l)'S, acoording to the sense. 
(a) ki he to contil/ue, ka being inflected, and he 
remaining unchanged. This cnn be com pleted by a 
verba.l nOUD, coming between the two words, or the 
90 Verb Combi nations 
pl'onoun can be I'epeatcd with another verb, tho 
second vo!'b tAking the SRIlle tense as ka ho, except in 
tho futuro nnd !lftol' the negative, wben the coosecu-
tive tense is nsed. Sometimes 1010 is added to make 
I he sense fullol', 
eka wlemo 1£ he k€-yaJi nyol)tol) he confinuC(l 
speakmg till after midnight. 
ekiia he ewieo n: hu he continues speaking a long 
time. 
oeka he ewie lie will confitlUe speaking. 
illllk'ii he mala. I will continue singing. 
nyekaa be oyesolea go on praying. 
n yekaa. solemo he go ol11Jraying (noun form). 
tb) hie mli , which has mOl'S Lhe sense of continuing 
ill something. Hie is inHecled, 1l11.d mli remains un· 
ohanged. It is completed by lhe verbnllloun between 
tho f wo words. 
nme:hie hemo-ke-yeli. mli tltey continued ill fai th. 
w:>bahie solomo kE faikpamo mli wa· we will co,,· 
Ii,we hard ill prayer (lJul supplication. 
(c) hi mli , which menns more remaining in n 
cedai n slato, ,\llll is really used with nouns rather 
Lhan vet·bal nouns. 
aso wahl eJa IE roll koni drama IE afa ? are lOe 
then 10 continue in sill that grace may abound f 
ohit Ji yE nii. DE rn mli he did not contin.ue in all tllese 
tltin.Qs .. 
(d) ya no, tJn, no, find others of the sort, menning 
10 go on nnd do. 
ya· no ni ofo go on doing it! 
etJo. DO flo he went on (" little. 
Verb Combinations 81 
149. Repetition in doing an action, doing it often, 
is shown by the use of fo to often being the only way 
of translating it. Fo is conjugated nIl through as an 
ordion.ry verb, and takes the action after it in the 
verbal noun form. 
efDQ bie: b a. · he does -not often CQme here. 
woro· nu ' 1e: sram:;> we o/leu visit lhe man. 
mifoko ene: femo I ha/)e 1Wt O/lM done this. 
maCo dge:i ya' I 10iU often go there. 
(There is also tbe ordinary adverb kpitiokpitio 
often, whioh can show repetition. Sometimes it is 
used with fo too, but that is redundancy.) 
150. Slightly different from the above is sa.", a 
verbal also or again, another form of asaI} It pl'e-
cedes the telling of a second action, or shows repeti. 
t ion of an aotion dOlle b€lfore. 
Sa. . is a defective verb. It is never used in the 
negative, and whatever tense the main verb is ill, sa', 
while taking its own pronoun, seems not, to be in· 
fleeted except in the imperative, and sometimes in 
the future tense. ' Vheu it is thus inflected, the 
following verb is in the Consecutive form . 
esa: eba he came again. 
ehoo uli ni esa.· ebe:o tJu le:IJ she cool..'S and again 
she sweeps the room. 
miIJdgu mihe ni misa' mhJfo uli ahe I am bathing 
and I am also !fa.shing things. 
mibawo mitade Ie: ni misa' mibabu fai I shall 
wear my coat, and I shall also put on a hat. 
mibasa.· ma.wie 01' masa' mawie I shall speak 
again. 
sa,'mo ome ekol] speak agaiIJ/ 
o 
82 Verb Combinations 
161. Ability or power to do an netion is shown by 
lhe verb, Dy~ 10 be able. It is sometimes used in the 
habitual lense, but more often in the fuLure. 
Both nye and the other verb take pronouns, and if 
tbere is :m object it en n cOlUe b~tween the two, or 
else afte.l' the second verb. If it is the hab itual tense, 
both verbs take that tense, but in the future or with 
nyE! ill the negative, lhe other verb takes the con-
secutive tense. 
rn~ny§o e~E miCeo 1 I can do this, 
mlnyeo mlfeo ent r 
eoyao fufui eJia she can beatjufo. 
manyE\' ene mare } 
m anyE! mafe em: I u'ill be able 10 do this. 
manye ak£: mare enE 
eaDye DiJi etJl~ 1 he will be able to worl.:. . 
eenye et tl un f 
millyeO eUE mare I cannot do lhis. 
onyEie ofe ent you cannot do this. 
enya') biE aba he ccmnot come here, 
152, ''' ilh the verbs ne. to see, [tnd nu to hear, ny~ 
is never used. Either one sees 01' hears, or one does 
not. 
millaa Ie: J call1101 see him, 
minuu I cannot hear. 
153. ](nowledge of how to do an action is shown by 
the use of the verb Ie to know, followed by the verbal 
noun. 
mile enE femo I know (how) to do this. 
ele wolokanemo he knows (lIOW) to read, 
'''hen Ie is used ·in the ordinary sensa of knowing 
sl)lllething, not hOlO to do something, it is followed by 
Verb Combinations 83 
ake: and a verbnl clause, or by' an ordinary noun Qt' 
pronoun. 
mile ake: egbo I know that lie has died. 
ole IE, 10? do you, know kim? 
milee mal] De: I do not know this town. 
wale ake: eba we h,"t10W that he came. 
NOTE: Ie is different from all other verbs in that 
the on ly distinction between the affirmative and n ega-
tive in the present and past tenses is in the tone. 
The vowel is not lengthened, and only the high tone 
makes the difference. In wraing sometimes the high. 
tone mark only shows the negative, bu t it should 
rightly be wr.itten lee, even if not spoken thus. The 
long tone is sometimes used to mean inability to learn 
something nfter continued effort. 
154. Necessity in doing an action can be shown in 
three ways: by the use of d3a, esa akE, 01' eilla akE. 
They are interchangeable, but dga is the strongest 
find most imperati,'e j esa a.kE means rathel' 'it is 
right that I and is most commonly used j ehia akE 
shows more tbat l\ certain action is necessary before 
something else will result. ' iVith sa akE and hia a.kE, 
the verb in the cbuse which foHows is in the Con-
seoutive tells~ , 
Dg8., like kEdgi , seems to follow a line of its own 
and takes what would seem to be the past tense. This 
can be Lest seen ill the verb ya. to go, where the past 
tense is formed by te, ' I luust go' is dga mite. Dga 
really denotes exception, and the foregoing can be 
understood if thought of as implying unfortunate con· 
sequences unless the act ion has taken place. 
dga ofe, dg8. mife you must do it. I must do ·it. 
esa o.kt ofe. esa. akt mafe you, ought to do it, I 
ought to do it. 
G 2 
Vet" GomlJinntions 
ohin, ake: ofo it is nccessu,'!J tltat you, do it. 
dSQ. WOiIosc 1£ dsogb al) we must b,ing !tim up 
l u'Opcrt!l. 
oao. n.ke ah a Ie aka !Iou must give hi.tn some. 
oh in ake: wOlJmo. Ie: wolo we 1/tu.st 1Q1'itC him (' 
leifer. 
dgl1 agbo Ie Ite mll-st be killed. 
OBa uk£: o.gbc Le: Ite Oltgltt to be kille<l. 
166. A cltievclncnl of nn notion, nil idea of having 
accomplished 01' Ill/lung-od to do something, 01' in the 
llogflLivQ fill ielon. of 0. Lhing not yet ncconlp lishod, but 
whio h wi l l evonlunl ly-be /:lO, is shown by tho use of 
un. to (Jet. Cl'his VGl'b i$ (\150 used in nn ordin:1.1'Y WZly 
1'0 1' j gol 'J find to supply tho doficient tenses of ye [0 
/wve). 
I,n th is oxt l'I\OI'dinnI'Y sonse it ann be used in nil 
lOIlBOS. 'I' ho "ol'b wh ich fo llows it has its own pronoun 
and lrlkes tho Mille lonse IlS niL, except in tho fuluro, 
impol'nLive, nnd Il l! nognlivo leJlsos, when it hilS lhe 
ConsoollLivo fO l·m. 
k€ miud. mife unkal 1e: ... ,r I manage to (lo tit is .. 
mOl Ie: rn un, 10 oue: c!lerybod!J got to know this. 
mu.l1l\' ffill.ba. J will manage to come. 
oou!\.' otJn,ko he l!'ill tIIcl1Iagc fo change. 
eOl\ko obn. he IlCls 1101 !Jet come. 
wonatto wobi Ie: wo hewe '1101 !Jet asl..-cclltim.. 
miut\.ko ml\y~ I am 1101 [lohltJ yet. 
rnibc ndlto oJe my lime has not!Jel comc. 
enltko Obi\. IDOl) 1e: lOli he Iwd '1101 yet come 41/(0 lite 
town. 
1'\11010 oke 1E dg;l NYOlJIDO lN101IJ Owt Be is God (' got 
lo Imow'J. 
Ve1'b Gombinat iOlls 85 
Na is also used to express a longing. 
mimi ni dse na! 'loQulcl it 'Were ?light! 
mina ni mi-k€-le: yo! 1.(Jould that I were 'juith him! 
The idea of ncb ievement is also shown by the use of 
we, to ' mallage', but it also conveys the idea of 
unwillingness sometimes. Wo is followed by the 
verbal nOUD, and is generally used in the negative, 
though sometimes otherwise. 
miwoo ba' I did not manage to COlne. 
miwolJ femo I am not going to do it. 
156 . Purposely to do a thing is sh own in different 
ways. 
(a) by hie ka. he, ha.ving the idea of j being alive to 
it that'. 
Hie is the subject and takes a. possessive noun or 
pronoun before it. Ka is the verb for inflection. He 
remains unaltered. 
The nction w hich follows must be introduced by m. 
In the a.ffirmative, ka and the following verb take 
the snme tens; except in the future, when the second 
one is in the ConsecuUve form. 
In the negativE'. either verb can be in the negative 
according to the shade of meaning, but not both in the 
same sentence, ns the examples will show : 
ehie ka he ni egbe DU'IE he purposely killed the man. 
ebie kiii he ni egbe DU' 1£ he did not purposely 
kill, ~·c. 
ehie ki he ni egbee nu' 1£, Ji. epila 1£ ke:ke: he 
pwpos£1y did not kill the man, but only wo-u,nded him. 
mibie ka.a he ni mifeo I do it purposely. 
(b) by dS. gbE, h,wing the ide. of going out of lhe 
8G Ve"b Combinations 
way Lo do some thing. Dge is the verb, and gb e: 
l'emains unnllored. 
In t.he nffi ,'mntivG ni is not used, and the verbs 
follow the usual rule of Lhe tenses with two verbs. 
If t.henil is negat ion applying to pU,rlJOSC, both vel'bs 
take lhe negfl.t.ive, and oi i s not used. But if the 
negation nppl ies oll ly to the action, then ni is used 
arter dgo in lhe affirmative. 
edgo gbe: egbe DU' Ie: he pWl'oscl,y killed the man. 
edges gbe: ogbee OU' Ie: he £lid not pwposcl.y kill the 
man. 
edge gbe: ni egbee DU' IE, Ii opUs. Ie: kEke: he pur-
posely did 110t kill the man, but only Uloundetl him. 
midgeo gbe: mireo I do it jJU11)Osely. 
(c) hy kwn., when tho idea is l':l.ther 'wantonly', 
ekwa. eflte tJo le: he pwposcly spoilt lltc (rce. 
o..mEkwn amEhan. IE: wolo the!J I)Urposely withheld 
ihe book/rom him. 
kwa okwa Ite did it wantonly. 
157. Causing to do :t thing is shown by the use of 
ha. to give (make, cause or let). 
Hi is conjugated exncUy us when it is used for the 
ordinnry vel'b to give. 'l' he vorb showing the other 
notion foll ows with jls own pronoun and neceSSfiI'Y 
tense inIleetion. Ni between is opUonal. Hn. and 
the other verb t.'l.ke lhe StlllHI tense except in the 
future !\nd in nil negative tenses, when the seoond verb 
is in the Consecutive forill. 
eha ehe d35 aho it s'Ulprisecl him (it made he WfiS 
sUI·pl'ised). 
ohomo-ke:-yali Ie: aha obe own. 0 your faith has 
V IJ'rb Gombincttions 87 
made you wlwle (your faith h as made your body 
has got wbole). 
IE, eh is. wore;> ne:ke: noko gbonyo llE': it -;$ he 10ho 
makes us do this worthless thing. 
ehaa mafe he did not let me do U. 
eha enu he made him d)·ink. 
aha agbe IE he had him killed. 
mihaa. ameba dOIJIJ I did not let them qua17'el hmge1' . 
ahas. ayi Ie lie did not let him be beaten. 
wooha. a.fe nek€ 'we will have this done. 
hi ni ma.fe let me do it. 
hii. efe nakai let him do so. 
ha m imalJ IE aye. let 'my people go. 
mabs. ni ohao' maba? 'why do y()1.~ not let me come? 
158, Extm notes on he. . 
(a) ha, when used as the verb to give, needs no 
preposition with it The indirect object follows the 
Yorb, and the direct object comes last, but in many 
cases kE is associated with it, and the objec.t follows ke: : 
militia. h: nil I give him things. 
mitJe ba.ha miJl.ka. 1ny father will give me money, 
namo kE-ha n ye? who gave you, it? 
ekE alo1)te 1£ h a mi he gave me the cat, 
But when ha is used iu conuexion wit.h another verb, 
i t takes rather the place of the preposi tion C for' in 
English: 
miIJma wolo milia 1E I un'ote a letter /01' he1', 
etJuo nU ehaa mi she 'works Jetr me. 
femo enE oha IE do this for him. 
wonu ne: fa.a. baa. wo fii this SOlq> is not enough /01' 
u.s all. 
88 Verb Gomvinations 
There might sometimes be obscurity of meaning in 
such a sentence as milJma.. wolo milia 1£1 which 
cou ld mean (1) r \note 3. letter (intended) for him. or 
(2) I wrote a Jetter (acting) for hi m, 
To avoid this. such distinct ions as these al'e made: 
miIJma wolo milia. Ie I u;rolca letter (acting)Jor him. 
milJma wolo miyaha. Ie: I wrote a letter (intended) 
for him. 
yo' De: lJho uti IJha roi this lOoman is cooking /01' me 
(instead of me). 
yo' ne: boo nil ehaa mi ni maya this 100man cooks 
jor me (is my cook) 
(b) it is used in its seDse of 'let ', to form the Com-
pound Imperative, and will be found among the verb 
tenses. 
(e) A peculiar use of ha to give 01' sliOio one's self, 
idiomatic. 
b::mi eyo baa. lunD Ite is in himself 
boni efe 6.hli dgi no thal is hOlf) he did. 
159. To finish doing an action is shown by the use 
of La 0\· gbe na. 
(a) ta is generally used in the perfect tense, eta. it 
is finished, ill the sellse of something having come to 
an end. It remains impersonal, and follows the sub· 
ject find action to which it refers. 
mite eta I have quite done it. 
wotJu nti eta /lie Iw.re finished working (we have 
worked i it is finished). 
(b) gbe na to "-ill [he '1Jlf)uth of, soruething, can be 
used eith er with the verbal noun, coming between the 
two words, 01' with another verb preceding it to show 
Ve·rb Combinlttions 89 
the action, while it follows to indicate completion, in 
which case it takes the same pronouu as the preceding 
verb. 
egbe enitJutno IE no. he has finished his 'Uiork . 
milio' nn migbe us. I have finisheil cooking (I have 
cooked, I have finished.) 
wagbe niiho'mo Ie nB. ~oe have finished the selling. 
o.gba sane IE agbe os. the telling 0/ lhe story was 
finished. 
COMPOUND VERBS 
160, Compound verbs are very varied :.\lld very 
confusing, and the following is only an attempt to 
separate out the differen t kinds. Only n few out of 
many are given in each division. 
1'bey lDay be divided in to: 
Class 1. (A) verbs with a grammatical completion. 
(B) verbs with a grammatical subject. 
Class II. double "erbs. 
CLASS I 
] 61. A primary verb, conjugaled in an ordi.nary 
wny, combined with another part of speech either as 
subject or as n grammatical completion, genernlly 
object, wh ich is Dot inflected for case, but may have 
an enlargement of its own. 
(Al 
162. Verbs with n gl':J.illmatical completion or 
object. 
90 Compound Verbs 
(a) Verbs with an impersonal or general completion. 
"\¥ilh ye to eat : 
ye nit cat ye kunim be viclon'tjus 
ye sekE be macl ye lJkomo 11IQunl> 
ye fo be guilty ye bern be innocent 
ye anokwa be faithful- ye awulJa be jealous 
ye aft spend a year ye egb;) be equal 
ye malJtf€ be (I.: killY ye 080fo be a minister 
&c. 
ye sane judge a casc, and others , can also be made 
personal . 
kod301o Ie: eye sane IE the judge has settled the 
palw;er, 
me gbi no obaye eaane Ie: ? what day lOill Y01.l.judge 
his cuse ~ 
miye afii anyo ye: dgE i I spent two ye<I1'S there. 
eye bam, am Ey e fo he is innocent, they arc guilty. 
nyeyea anokwQ.. dn: always be failhful. 
With fe to do, 
fa hedgo be laey fa gidigidi be disorde-rly 
fe aka be brave fa yarn. moww (native custom) 
fa klalo get 1'cady fa mobo be miserable 
&c. 
ka'fe hedgo do not be 7azy. 
amdeo gidigidi they are disorderly, 
famo aka! be brave I 
wobafe klalo 1M lOW get ready. 
With bo (0 create, form, unite, 4·c. : 
bo model) be lZiligellt bo guo. .Qullter for council 
bo musu blaspheme bo nsrn encamp, drill 
bo oSa give way-cry bo su make a ball of swish 
(ke: moko) bo nanyo be fi'ielldly with some ont;. 
GOIl~po!lnd Ve>'bs 91 
amEbo gus. y E malJtfe: Ie: fie. Ie: they mel for coIl-neil 
in the chief's house. 
abo m"deI) dgogbaI) ye: eniikasemo Ie: mli he lOas 
'Very diHgcnt in his stu-dies. 
Witb d50 to produce : 
dge la.su smoke dg6 1)wane discuss, 
doubt 
d 50 hi bleed d 5 • • Iagb" joke, sport 
dge kpo go out, come out dge bai produce leaves 
dge IJma. smell sweet dg8 fu smell bad 
fofoi ne: edgee IJm a. this flower does not smeU sweet 
(has no scent). 
edseko I .. it has not bled. 
amEIJdg8 IJwaue yr:. sane ko h e they a1'e discu,ssing 
a certain maUer. 
edge kpo fio he has gone out /01' a liltle. 
Vnrious: 
ta ft sit down kpe BE be late 
ka. Ji lie (lolon here no answer 
bu Ji bend down gba. sane converse 
te Ii ".jse up tjO nii teach (things) 
gbo' .fi Jal! do!oll tJu nii work (do things) 
kpa J1 wander kpe yo' marry (sa.id only of 
man) 
ba Ji conu doum ye: mli be true 
kpleko .fi descend be: mli be untrue 
yip be. nii produce (above ground) 
ki he continue wo nU 
to he answer bo nli (in "t he earth) 
bu abe: tell a parable (these three used with 
Jikpoq) &c. 
ete Ji mrs. ni edse kpo he rose quickly an,tl we"J out. 
92 Compound Verbs 
mikpa Ji y € hefebe I wandered everywhere. 
sane Ie y € mli tlte story is true. 
yaka j'i, ka'gbe' fi- go and lie down, do tlot fall. 
okpe se tJO yOI~ m'c 'Vcry lale. 
negb€ obatfu nil y€? where will you wotk? 
\ oblanyo llE kpe y o' Dye lhis yowng man tJlc£I'ricd ycslct'clay. 
JikpOlJ De ba' nii d30gbal] this land is very fertile. 
(NOTE.-When fi forms pal'~ of a verb and is followed 
by nil advel'b of place, or a prepositional plunse showing 
plnce, y E must always be used, When Ii is omitted, 
yE is a lso omitted, i. e. : 
eta. s~i 1£ no he sat on the seat. 
obi Ji yE sEH Ie no ItI, sat down on the seal.) 
(b) Verbs with a particulnl' or personal completioll, 
which requires a possessive noun 01' pl'onoun as prefi x. 
I n many of these it is only when the 31'd pel'~. sing. 
is used that it is evident that the completion is the 
rea l object of the verb, and the nOlln 0 1' pronoun in 
{he possessive case. 
Tolting pronoun to match Ih e subject: 
ba dg61] beha,ve fa. he defend sc~f 
tu h ie frcrum dgu he 'wash self 
tJe bie be JfiendZy ye he be free 
ku Se:4.~Jl back dgo he rest 
tJake tfui 1'(pent (change fwa he "cpell l (bln~e 
heart) self) &c, .. "10); 
aba. . edgel) d5ogblll) he behavcs 10ell (he bn's 1~{ 
d3e~). .'if 
LUeba otu ohie ? why are ,!!ou/rolfming? 
amEku aLUES€: amEte Jla they t'urned anclwent home. 
mad50 mihe flo I wilt rest (' l·ittle. 
CWlJpownd Verbs 93 
fa SE It efwa ehe ni ete after that lie 1'cpentea and 
wenl. 
NOli-reflective. 
,"Vith mIi inside: 
bote mb cnl&r It' mll 'widen inside 
hi mll remain in fo mli pass over 
dga mli dilJide do mli bend 
roo mli hold or catch hold 
nyehia. Kristo mli, nyerua. emU abide in Christ, 
abide ill Him. 
abote Ide IE mli he got into the boat 
mo emli we.' hold him tightly. 
inodo mli I ,DiU bencj (it). 
With na. . mouth: 
buB. DO: g(/,thc,' Ia. na' Q.Ptn (bottles, tins, &c.) 
sa na. . taste gbl e ns.' open (mouth, door, 
&c.) 
flo os.' accuse 1]8. n s.' shut 
gbe os.' finish (kill wie ne.' address 
the mouth of-) 
mala tJensi Ie: na.' ma.hii. 0 I 'will open Ihe till/or you. 
egbleko adeka. Ie: n s.' he has not opened the box. 
a.mEflo ena. ' they accu.scd him. 
obua. amEoa' y E hekome he gathered them in one 
l liaCt'. .. 
,,1ith fiji uncler part: 
ba. fiJ i. come under to JiJi found 
dse JiJi /xgin no. J1Ji understand 
tJO JIJI ""'Plai» 
min&.a fiJi kwra I do not understand at all. 
oto odasei l€ a.fi.Ji (hOll hast jcnmded thy testimonies. 
COInpolt'nd Verbs 
maba eJiJi I'lofU come under him. 
tJOmo mlet ne: aJiJi e:JJ.lJla,in these laws. 
With hie fi"": 
g be hie 'malce aslwme(l kpata hie destroy 
ka'gbe mibie do not make me ashamed. 
ebakpata eheny£loi 1e: abie he 10ill destray Ids 
enemies. 
vVith 6E back: 
dam" se: sland surely for 1& se: jasten behind 
y o se: perceive (fully) no, se: profit 
d.i se: desire 
madamo ese: y e: sane ne: roli 11uill be surety jor Jdm 
in this matter. 
orai n e: ni oia mise: please hoo7~ me behind. 
'Vith yi, yitfo, or y itfoIJ head: 
tfwa yitfo strike the head gba yitfolJ split the head 
gbo yi ilia it the hair Jwa yi comb the hair 
ba: yi s)Jare lJ& yi ' storm' at some one, 
(to shout and stnmp) 
eke: lem a gba eyitJolJ he sp7it his head with an a~e. 
ame:ag b" ame:yi they will plait thei1' hair. 
ka: ba: eyi do not spare him. 
,Vith he outer part: 
fo he It.'(fS/t ta he (,(Juch 
dg:u he bath fata he help 
wa h8 pain 
fo> ni bii lE a.be wash fhe things. 
madgu gbekEJbii IE ahe 1 10ill bath the children. 
e'wa mihe I feel pain, 
ft. IE ~W. ehe the sore pains him. ·1 
ya.fata amEhe go and help them. 
Compound Verbs 95 
\¥"ith no top: 
ha. DO CQver IJm~ nO) add to 
bu no CQuer ye no 1'ltIe over, conquer 
to no err against tJumo no wipe 
OkE enE a.ha eno cover him with this. 
mito ono I have wrongell Y()I.t. 
tJumo okpI5 IE no lOipe the table. 
General: 
bi (moko) Ji ,!Sk/ol' (same one) 
sa hiepkase 
d3ie yipraise 
gbla toi plmish lJ (pull the ear) 
wo toiI] whisper (~ " (put in the ear) 
kll hie scold 
tJi ta. mention 
ba tfine comc inio onels nosl1'il = one crn.ves 
for -
tJine come out of one's nostril = one gets 
tired of-
wo toi no give private informativn (lift some 
one's ear up) 
ebi oft, am£bi eJl he asked/or !Jryl.l, they a.sked/or him. 
eso. mime babao dientJE it pleased me very greatly. 
magbla amE:toi I shall pU'nish them. 
kB,"ki1 ewe yakatJwa' do not scold him u.nnccessarily. 
akwadu ed39 mitfme I am tirea of banana.s. 
(c) Verbs which generally take an indirect object, 
though some can also be used wi~hout. 
It is often hard to distinguish the indirect object as 
such. The direct object of nn English verb is some· 
times the indirect object in Ga. 
'Vith regard to these verbs i~ is becoming very 
96 COlnpo!l!Iul Verbs 
common to prefix a to the completion when the noun 
befol"S it is in the pIu!":l1 form , e. g. ewo mei f~ alJa., 
he gave advice to all (put into all people advice). Met 
is the indirect ohjed, IJR the direct j there is no pos-
sessive case in the reln lion of the two. The use of a 
results in ' he put into nil people's advice '. But the 
mist;l.ice is so widely spread that it seems impossible 
to stop it. 
fe (make) fEO be pleasing to (some one) 
kpa fai bfg of (som' one) (take off hat to) 
bo toi obey (some one) (listen to) 
bo k oko warn (some one) (close fist to) 
ba. gb€ allow (so-me one) (give way) 
tJi gbE: hinder (some one) (close way) 
dgie gbe: accompany (some one) 
gba sane tell slm'!J (0 (some one) 
wa lJa. advise (some one) 
wa yi be crud to (some one) 
Je gbeyei fear (some one) 
bo ahora disgrace (some one) 
ye onukpa. be olde'r than (some one) 
ye he odase bea1· witness to .cit) 
fe noko or eko do somcthing about (it) 
no. tJUl be contwt or pleased with (it) 
tJu nti make use oj (it) 
gbo guo despise (some aile or some thing) ~~ 
\vo gbeyei frighten (some one) , 
ye fEO mock (some one) ... 
wo hie ny am gwc glory to (some one} 
In tbe foregoing he or bi~ tuke a possessive pronow\~ 
or noun befol'e them, unless it is I its ', which is Eot 
expressed. .;. 
am£batji 1£ gb£ they 1~illltinder him. 
GOJnpo!<ncl Ve"bs 97 
amtw& IE: yi naakpa they were very cruel to him. 
nyeboll. nyefnloi IE atoi obey YOllY parents. 
mibon Ie koko dOIJIJ I shall not 1Qa1'Jl him again. 
famo be eka do something about it. 
ha mi eka, matJu he nii git;e me some, 1 sltalluse it. 
ameJe koloi Ie: gbeyei they 'Ulete afraid o/the animals. 
eaaa ake: obo IE ahora. it is not right to disgrace him. 
(d) Verbs which in addition to a. g rfllllDlatical com-
pletion have a.lso an object. H ere the noun or pronoun 
is ill the objective case, and the completion adverbial. 
ba (moko) Ji humble (some on.) 
da Ji thank 
tEl Ii raise 1tP 
wo (moko, noke) fi promise (some one) somethi·ng 
to tIui Ji b. patient (tIui taking reflective poss. pron.) 
~me tIui Ji be patient (tIui taking refleetive poss. 
prOD.) 
b& he Ji humble self (he tnking reflective poss. prOD.) 
bu (mako) bern pro'1lowlce (some one) innocent 
bu fo " guilty 
dge. aba ahe Ji you, must humble yourself 
mite IE': Ji ni eda mi ji I raised him up and he 
thanked me. 
amEto am€tIui.fi a'hu tllty werc very paticnt, 
abu IE': bem he was judged innoccnt. 
ma. wo 0 n akai Ji I will promise you that. 
(t') Verbs ,yhich can also take a clause to complete 
them . 
mikpaa. Ii a.kE': ebafe nakai I do not suppose he will 
do S(). 
ekpa. mi fai ni mah&. ele he begged me to let him 
know. 
98 C01nllonnd Verbs 
ha mi gb£ ni mafe give me lea.ve to do it. 
wobo amE: koko ake amEkaba we warned litem not to 
come. 
ewo mi Ji ak£: efel] d01JlJ he promisecl me not to do it 
again. 
mi1Jwo 0 lJa ni OkE-if: akabo nany o I advise you 
not to make /rie1lds with him. 
and others. 
(B) 
163. A grammaLical subject com bi ned with a verb. 
The subject is generally personal-part of a persoD, 
sometimes of a thing, abstract or concrete, a.nd takes 
a noun or pronoun prefix. 
' ;Yitb be Qulsidepart. 
be y £ fEO be beauUjul he d30 be gentle, soft 
he ye be sick be kpokpo t1'emble 
he d3e fii smell badly he d36 I)ma smeu' sweetly 
he we. be strong he bie. be necessary, laddng 
he we. he pain, hurt he ye ~tt be fortunate 
he yE gbeyei be dreadful 
(with h o we. he, the second he takes the reflect. 
\ pt=}rs. pron.) 
(with be hia the he is sometimes dropped, or the 
verb used with akE and a clause). 
wolo DE he ehia (or IJhia) the'fc is ur..gent need ;jo;~s 
book. 
noko (he) ehia mi I am in 1zced 0/ something, 
ehia ake: ere nakai it is necessary he should do this. 
amEhe yE feo they m'c beautifuL 
ehe ye gbeyei it i.s dreadful, 
Compound Verbs 99 
ohe yE nii you are fortunate. 
ebe IJWa. ehe his body pains him. 
With yitSo, yitSoIj or yi head: 
yitSoIj wa be cruel. yitSoIj k ii be ",aa 
yitJo gba have headache yi ne. w ale. be sale or saved 
yi kpa be bald yi fa be S'u,jjicient in number 
miyitSo Ijgba mi I have a headache (my heud split~). 
eyi bana. wal&. he will be saved. 
eyitJoIJ wa he is cruel. 
With ns.' mouth: 
ns. · ba be sharp (knife, ns.· ka be open (door, &c.) 
&c.) 
na: IE reach (in quantity) na.' to make mistake (in 
speaking) 
na' tJe be eloquent na· tJi be stapped, closea 
ns.' we. be obstinate na· fii be ope" (bottles, &c. ) 
ne. · tJs. adjoin ns.' hom;) . .. no 1..."1/,010 by 
heart 
na' kpe Ji be gathe,.ed DO: kPE he be astonished 
together (he being reflective) 
kak.la. DE DB,' baa. dgogbal) this knife 1..5 not very shalp. 
mina' hamako lala Ie na I do not l...-nOlO the song 1ly 
heart. 
kE eou be po IE, ena.' bakpE ehe if he even hears of 
it he lOiU be surprised. 
SmEOs. · yakpe Ii yE JiB. ko they met at a certain liot($e, 
mills.' to mOIj , Ii efee noko I made a mistake, but it 
dOC$ not maUer. 
mei lE: a.na· fro ohai eo yo the people reach 200 in 
number. 
eot na' tfe. kl6IJklelJ no IE: no this one adjoins tlle 
first. 
u2 
100 COInponllcl Verbs 
With mli inside. 
roU hi Dr kilUl mli wo In. be angry 
mli dgo be gentle mll ro. be angry 
mi fli be glacZ 
(mU fii is followed by retl ec li\'e pronoun) : 
nmEmli hi nae.kpa {!try arc very kind. 
enye mli wa 10. Iter mother was angry. 
miDlli mtli roi I am light·hearted, glad. 
WiLh hie fa ce: 
hie gbo be shy, ashamed. 
hie t~ be cunning. 
hie do be ecalous, 
bio t~ be awake, fuake UlJ. 
, hie wa be bold. 
bio di br giddy. 
hie kpata prl'ish, be dcstro!Jcd. 
hie ka. Ii bc sober-minded. 
hie so (moko) esteem, 'respect (sC»Jle one). 
hie tJe (moko 01' nOko) long/or (some once)' something). 
hie kpa no forget. 
bie dge no " 
hie Y£ DO Ita/lc in mind. 
hie be. no recollect. 
hie ka. no hope, expect. 
(In tho vorbn l noun of the fil'st four, hie is pl'C-
nounced more like ho-b(i)e t~·. h(i)e gbelo, &0. 
The diITerence between being shy and bejng Il8hnmed 
is s hown by the use of diffel'ent tenses-miMe l)gbo 
I am shy (my face is dying) j mihio egbo I a1n~ashame(l 
(my fuce is dead). 
The last five enn take either an object, or ake and 
n. following clause). 
Crrmpound Verbs 101 
mihie do' NYOIJIDO sane he I 1Oa·s sealous in God's 
cause. 
amE fEJ ame:hie kpata. they all perished. 
ehie egbo y e: esu Ie hewn he is ashamed of his con-
d'uct. 
nu' Ie: hie so enanyo Ie: the man respected his /rima.. 
ohie akakpa wolo IE no do not f orget the book. 
millie kpa no B<ke: ed5e kpo I forgot that he had gone 
out. 
millie eba sane 1£ no I have recollected the matter. 
wohie ki no a.ke: ame:baba we hope that they 10iU 
come. 
A number with ye express natural feelings. 
homo ye (moko) hunger affects (some one) to be 
hungry. 
kumai ye (moko) thirst affects (some one) to be 
thirsty. 
WI) ye (moko) sleep affects (some one) to be sleepy. 
flH ye (moko) cold affects (some one) to be cold. 
rni yeo mo tjo yE dge:i one is too cold there. 
\ VO lJye mi I am sleepy . 
homo ye mei IE rn all the people 10etC hungry. 
Odd , 
nine Jt no receive. or attain (hand resch on). 
minine efe: owolo Ie: DO I have received your leiter, 
CLASS II 
164, Double ·verbs-two verbs used together to ex-
press one idea. 
\Vhile each verb is independent and the second verb 
102 Compound Ve>"bs 
has a pronoun exactly tho Mme as the first oue, in 
some Lenses Lhe two verbs differ froln each other. 
In the affirm. H abitual tense the 2nd verb takes 
H abitua l also. 
In the affirm. P nst lense the 2nd verb t.akes Past. 
In the nffil'm. P ed eet tense th e 2nd verb takes 
Perrect. 
In t.h o affirm. Cont.inuative tense the 2nd verb takes 
Cont inuntive. 
In lhe nffirm . Future tense the 2nd verb takes Con~ 
secntive. 
In the nffi ,'m. Imperative sing. tense the 2nd verb 
takes Consecutive. 
In the nllirm. Impemtive pill. tense the 2nd verb 
takes Imperntive. 
One exception is the verb ka. kw£, test or C;l'amil1e, 
which in the Continuative tenso takes the second verh 
in the consecutive. As the literal meaning is 'try 
seo " it is quite logical I am trying, that 1 may sec. 
In the negilLive they ill'e the same in al l tenses, except 
in lhe impel'iltive, when in t.he 
s ingular-only tho firs t verb takes kD, Dnd the 2nd 
t.he consecutive nflirmative. 
plural- only the firs t verb takes kO, but both take 
the sunh 0... 
E.ramples of vel'bs in this cl!lss. 
(The objecl is in what is the logic!l.l pInee in respect 
of the l'enI meaning of the wOI·ds.) 
he (obj.) y e (receive, ent) believe 
ka (obj .) kw€ (try, see) test, examine, prove 
Compound Verbs 103 
wi. (obj.) tjo (ind. obj.) (speak, show) advise, ,·eason 
foith 
d5ad5. (obj.) tjo (iud. obj.) (declare, show) intimate, 
am/.Ot~tJce 
Y. bua (obj.) assist, help 
gbE (obj.) Jwa scatter 
tJl (obj.) wo (mli) p"sh (into) 
tJl (obj.) to p"Z ~ff, postpone 
tI< or SE (obj.) ro, and its plural , throw away 
t u (obj. ) wo (moko) d.~ give ill c1wrge to (some olle) 
wi. (noko) Jl (moko) speak against (some on.) 
Tbe first four can be used with a clause instead of 
object, in which CASe the olause, introduced by akE, 
follows the 2nd verb. gbe: Jwa can be used intl'3.nsi· 
tively- ame:gbe: ameJwa they spread O'ut or scattered. 
Examples of tenses with he ye and ka kWE. 
past mihe miye, mi- neg. mihea miyee, mikaa. 
ka mikwe: mikwEe: 
perf. mih6 miye, mi- miheko miyeko,mi-
ka mikW€ kako mikwEko 
hab. miheo miyeo, mihee miyee, mikae. 
mika' mikwEO mikwEe: 
cont. mi'he mi'ye, mihee miyee, mikaa 
miIJkamakwe: mikWEe: 
fut. eahe eye, aeks ehel] eyeI), ekalj e -
ekWE kWEIJ 
imp, hemo oye! k. ka. . he aye! ka. · ka. 
OkWE! okwe:! 
imp. pI. nyehea. nyeyea.! nyekabee. nyeyea.! 
nyeka.' nye- nyekaka' nye-
kWEa. kWEa.! 
104 Compound Verbs 
The verbal nouns are formed by joining those of the 
two individual verbs together by ke: : 
hemo-ke:-yeli, ka: -ke:-kwe:IDO, wiemo-ke-tjomo, 
dg:adgemo-ke-tjOmo, gbE' .k£-Iwamo, yeli-kE-
buamo, tJimo-kE-mliwo" &c. 
E xamples of sentences : 
ka' kEke: m ika: mikwEO I am only making (~ trial. 
ml1Jka Ie: makWE I am testing him. 
ka Ie: okwe: ake: ehi, 10? try him and see if he is 
good. 
ewies etJOo wo dgogbalj he did n()t ad-vise us well. 
ka 'tJi mi owo bu Ie: mll do net lJuslt me into (he hole. 
NYOlJIDO aye abua mi God help me! 
N YOIJIDO aaye abua wo God will help us. 
ame:gbe: wui Ie: amEfwa they scaUered the seeds. 
nyekayea n y ebua' Ie: kwra' do not hell) him at all. 
eohe sane Ie: eye you will believe the story. 
edg:o.dg:6l) sane 1£ e tJolJ wo he will 'I1ot announce the 
matter fo us. 
ewieo eJio mi he speaks against me. 
matJi wolo IE IJma' mate I 10m put off 10riting the 
letter. 
165. Verbs with kE. 
These hn.ve been already mentioned with ke fn 
para. 131, but there are some idiomatic ones, such as: 
(a) With either kE 01' J)o, in the sense of 'take ': 
k£ hie fo (moko) no (take face throw some one on) = 
trust in (some one). 
kE he fo (moko) no depend on (some one). 
The verb is declined as explained in 132, where k£ 
:l lld an expressed object are used. The objects hel'e 
Compound Verbs 105 
are hie and h e which take a reflective pronoun (ac-
cording to the subject) as prefi x, the pronoun being 
possessive. The word put in plnce of moko is also 
in the possessive case, whether noun or pronoun, 
e. g. : 
mi·ke: mihie aaro NYOI)IDO no 11uill trust in God. 
ekE ahie efa ono he lias trusted in ya/t. 
kE fa jOJ'fjive : 
This can be used with or without a direct object, 
and has also an inditect oue j it is deolined accord-
ingly, fo llowing the ru les for ke: with or without an 
expressed object) e. g. : 
ke:-fa mi (or) IJo-f& mi forgive me. 
okE-minatomoi Ie: &fa mi forgive me 'my errol'S. 
mllJo..fa.8. Ie: I did not forgive him. 
ekE-aafa mi he will forgive me. 
malJo-fa 0 I 1Oill/orgive '!Imt. 
(b) 'Vith ke: only. H ere ke: h:\s the sense of 'with ' 
or I and' : 
ke: (moko) ye egb:> to be cqualwitlt (some one). 
kE ( " ) bo nanyo to be frie-nds foitlt (some one). 
kE ( I' ) kpe to meet (some one). 
When kpe is used in the ordinary sense of I to 
meet·, it can only be used in this form, with k€, 
e. g. : 
mi-kE-IE kpe he and I met. I met him. 
ekE-mi ekpee he did not meet me. 
okE-nu' ko bakpe yE d3£i !fou fOill meet a man 
tliere. 
When used without k£, kpe means quite other 
things-to invite, or to help SODle oue (in the wny of 
106 Compound Vm-bs 
lightening a burden), and in conjunction with the 
word yo', it is used for 'marry', but is only spoken 
of the man, in the active voicf', e. g. : 
ebakpe yo' he W-illma1'1Y. 
milee ake: okpe yo ' I did not know you ha(l married. 
Of the woman kpe can only be used in the pn.ssive 
voice, e. g. : 
abakpe Ie: she lOill be m(~rried. 
166. An odd but interesting verb is rna no mi, to 
confi1·m. It has reference to the old times, when any 
resolution or law had to be confirmed by beating it on 
the drum, mi being the special drum. The idea is 
' I beat it on the drum " i. e. I confirm. 
Only ma is inflected; m! is unchangeable. 
ema no mi ake: D3u abafe he gave assurance that it 
u;ould be clone on M rJnduy. 
SALUTATIONS 
167. As these have fallen so much out of use, there 
is great diversity of opinion about some of them. 
Some say certain of them are used in the morning, 
othel's say in the evening, and so Oil, so correctness of 
detail .is Ilot guaranteed. Mnny are untransla.tnble 
without explanation. 
(a) JJ1ondng. 
awoIj. awol) '? (to older people). Reply.- awo hi. 
owol) ? (to young people only), R, miwo hi. 
odge rora.. R. ya' anyeroi &c. 
J 
oJwie'! (said to be mostly used by old men). R. 
ya: anyemi. 
Salutations 107 
(b) General. 
od5e ko? (said to be used by old women). R. ya· 
anyemiJ &c. 
mini ko (said to be used by old women). R. ya: 
ena., &0. 
te oyo tel) ? R. miye: dsogbal} 
oye: dgogbalJ, 10 ? R. ~~J miye: dgogbal) : bo oy e: 
d5ogb 'IJ? 
maniilJ ? maniIJ ? R. mal) dgo. 
omaniiIJ ? (to younger people). R. mim' IJ d50. 
mi'IJa 0 (to fam.iliar friend). R. miIJhere 0 no. 
(0) Evening. 
miyawo. R. yO', yawo dgogba:g. 
wo dgetJEremo. R, yO', ke: wo dguro. 
(d) Visiting. 
Before entering I'oom or yard: ago I R. ame ! 
vVelcome from householder: oba. ke: omany e! 
On hearing good news: omanye! 
On finding people at food': ha nil aba! R. (yo·) 
nil ba. ba ye niil or nyehaa. uu a.b a I (yo ') 
nii b o.. ba ye uti! ! or (host says) onina woo 
R. mmina. nye7 or mmine ye: mIi. 
When food just finished (host says): anane eIwia 
wuoi v;ourjoo( has ",-i re» out lhe!Q101s). 
The end of a visiL 
m,iyaba ! R . YO', yaba. ' d3ogbfUJ. yaba-o! or 
yaba-61J (to juniors): yaba-e-~ (to superiors). 
mibasra. nye (I llat'e ,tJisited you). R. yo', wOIJda. 0 
Jl. yaba d3ogbalJ· 
I This can b~ used for other things too, i. e. nyehaa. nitJumo 
Ilblll 
J 08 Saltllatio1/.~ 
mib8.lJa nye (I have greeted you). R. yo', wOlJda 0 
Ji. yaba d3ogba~ . 
mibawie Dyena' (I IWVC spoken with y Olt) . R. yo', 
wOlJda 0 Ji. yaba dgogbalJ . 
miyakwE: dg£i dB. (like good·bye in the meantime). 
R . yO', yakw€ dgd dgogbaI} 
(c) Co;/.gmtulatory. 
aeko! R. ya '8! or ae cnol) ! 
ullnyeko, aenyeko! (to severa]). R. ya'e! or 
ae nyenol)! 
m6! (well done). R. ya'iL 
ofe no! (you have done sQ'lnrlhing). 
milJdguro! (after:L birth). 
(f) C""d~lence. 
kp6! ak€E noke or be otJu yak ano! (after n 
denth). 
kp6o! (in answer to lhe cry of pain adgei). 
due! (from. Twi). 
0) Thanks. 
oyiwal a. dOlJl) (contracted from oyi ana wnla ni 
okagb o dOlJlJ 'may you. live and never die). 
J/.. ko'd. J i 01' Db' Jida' (do not thank). 
na.'nye oyiwnla dOIJIJ (said the day after = (thani,s 
fat' yesterday'). 
Do..'nyesE oyiwala dOlJlJ (said a day or two nfter). 
kt migbo po kn'f6 mi (said by women when they 
are sp.,ecinlly pleased = if I even die do not weep 
for me!). 
(It) In connexion with travelling. 
If one comes from a distance and gl'oots a fl"iend, 
iL would be said 
e·lJa. Ie: he is greeting httn: or elJa. IE: he greeted him: 
Salutations 109 
bu~ of t he friend 's greeting in reply, it would be said 
e'6s. lE he is greeting him (in answer) or efta. IE. 
On coming from another place, A, returning, says 
A. d gtibii mbi nye (the people there greet you.). 
B. yo·. heni od3" J ? A. blEO (if one). 
or B. yo·. he (ni) nyed 3"J ? A. blEO (if roore). 
B. d3EibiiIJ ? A. arnEYE d3ogba~. 
or AkUBetJEme~ ? A. amEyE d3ogba~ . 
AbudetJEmeIJ ? (according to the place come 
from). 
B. oIJ8. kE obtilJ ? A. amEyE dgogbalJ or sane ko 
bE. eSa. ko be: moko he. 
A . se:' rn ? B . SE' dSOJ , 
A traveller on departing says 
nte (I am going). 
miyi mli (J am selting out). 
miJi nye k€. omanye (1 am leav-ing. you IOUh peace) . 
R. onyle kE gbid3UTo (Ukc--gooa l"ck to you t). 
A tmveller arriving a.t a place where some have 
preceded him, says 
hie fl$? R. hie d30. 
(i) Sellding greetil/gs. 
1)8 Ie: oha. mt (to some one in the same town). 
ke: 'mo Ie: ske:: mimbi IE: (to sotUe one at a.nother 
plnce). 
()) homowo salutations. 
IJo waia., 1)0 wale. r R. yD.-O', 
a.fl no.' kplo. R. ya-o', 
kpa 'n yo auina. woo R, ya-o·. 
wofe momomo. R. ya-o', 
110 Salutations 
WQSE aft b enE wotra. Ji nclr€ nOIJ lJ. R. ya-o· . 
aloIJte diIJ ko akafo woteIJ. R . y8.-0· . 
One called whi le he is eating, answers a.go' , 
A younger one answering an elder's call also 
answers ago ', 
(k) B e/ore tclling a fable or native story. 
nta Jo lJkata. ? R. milJhere 0 no. 
uta nye 10 IJkata. nye 'I R. womihere 0 no. 
(shall I ,'elate to you or 'not? I (we) am (are) 
attending). 
A FEW NOTES ON TIlllES 
168. Epa'ko is generally used introductornIly, but 
not invariably. It gives the idea of something 
just accom plished, and a possible implication of delay 
in its having been done. 
kpa.'ko mi-kE madse I ha,vcju.st sent it. 
kpa,'ko ere he has just done U. 
kpa' ko mina IE I saw him just lhis moment. 
meba ni kpa'ko dani okE-madgeo? why have you 
only sent it now? 
169. Ko seems to have either an impatient or an 
emphatic meaning. Bn. ko I is somewhat as we would 
say f Come on now J' 'Oh come!' 
170. To show immediate action. 
(0) Applicable to any time: 
nyolJlo at once. 
amra, amra h: immediately. 
&mra nOlJlJ, amra IE 001)1) immediately (sh'onger). 
(b) Applicable to present time: 
biane: now, at lhis moment. 
A. Few Noles on Times III 
biane to DE now, at this very momeut. 
amra ne: n01Q. 
amr5mro DE nolO. 
a.mra DE nOlJIJ at this very lime. 
ngbelle: now) at the present Ume (in a wider sense). 
agbe:oe: ne: just I1()W, at this presen.t time. 
(c) Applicable to any t ime, but h aving more t he idea 
of quickness in the deed : 
m.rs, mramrs. at once. 
oya~ oyaya qu,ickly. 
Examples : 
femo nyoIJlo! do it at once! 
ha woyi mli nyoIJlo let u.s start at once. 
h'S IE tSora. ni enu n yolJlo give him medicin.e to drink 
at once. 
beni ena. Ib.i Ie: ete Ii amro when he saw me he 1"Ose 
up at once. 
amro h: ete Ji ni edge kpo he stood up at once Clrnd 
10em out. 
amrS nOIJIJ 01 mitJe: Ie: IE, ahere mi no the very 
'1lwme-nt I called him he answered me. 
kEdg} eba 1£, nyebanu h e amra Ie: nOIJIJ if he 
comes you shall Ju:a r of it immediately. 
ekpa. enine mli oi a.mr a h: DOIJI) OU' 1£ he W(l. 'Ie: 
he stretched out hi$ hatul ana imm.edialely tlle man 
became toell. 
mibaya ds.e:i bia.ne: I wiU go there at once. 
willa IE bianE to' ne: I saw him just this moment. 
b lanE to' nE Ie: mibe: eko at the present moment 
I hal)c none. 
mibe: deka. awrti nE I have no time ju.st nQ-W. 
a.mr5 nf mibe: be. orai UE, b e. be kroko I have 
,w time just nOlO, plea..se come a'lOther time. 
112 A Few Notes on Times 
matS€: Ie: amro ne: nOJ)lJ I will call him this 'very 
momenl. 
kerno Ie: ake: miIJtao Ie: amra: ne: nOlJIJ lell him that 
I want him this ndnule. 
amra ne: nOlJlJ abake:' mi ake: miJayo' Ie: egbo 
I have bpcn told just this moment that my rnotlwr-in-
law is dead. 
eye: bie: agbe:ue he is here now. 
kleIJk.leIJ Ie: wofeo nakai Ii wofee nakai agbene: 
'We 'Usccl to do so, but toe do not do so now. 
nyelee agbeue: DE, Ji wos€ uyebala VB know not 
now, but ye shall know he1'cajter. 
ete Ji oya he rose up at once. 
e' tao nl wotJu nil Ie oya he 'Wants us to do the 'Work 
quickly. 
nyefea mramra! h'Ulr1'lf up! 
mei kornei baba rora Ii meikomei hu bakpe SE 
senne will come early, but others wilt be lale. 
(The above examples have been glven rather fully, 
so that the use of I Ie: ' migbt be seen in the formation 
of sentences. ''Vhen a phrase that might ordinarily 
COIDe a~ the end of a sentence is puL at the beginning 
for emphasis or f01' some other reason, 'IE:' is added 
to it. In some cases the word is omitted but is 
represented by a tone, as in the example where tones 
are given.) 
171. Past 1'imc. 
(a) A point at whioh something did 01' did not take 
plnee, can be expressed by-
a simple mention of past time: 
mina IE D3u I saw him on Monday. 
aba nyes€. Ro' d3i otJi he came last Saturday week. 
A Few N oles on Times 11 3 
ewu gbo nyese: aft!£. Iter husba11d died last year. 
agba. he S!l.na ko dgeeljma a story lOas told aboul it 
1011g ago. 
kusum Ie: dg£ dgeelJmo be 'be the custom wme /1'om 
very kmg ago. 
a counting back fr om the presen t date: 
ljmEnE dgi. otJ i ni mine. Ie: I saw him a week ago. 
lJme:ne: dgi gbii at 'S Ie: mite dge:i I 10ent there three 
days ago. 
ljmEDE dgi otJii edgwe: ni miha ye four 1.oeeks ago 
I got in. 
(b) A poin t fro m which someth ing bas or has not 
gone on can be expressed by : 
the use of the verb boil to begin: 
me beyino ene: boi Ie: femo ? fro/)~ what time did 
this trouble !tim ~ 
mihoi Go. kasemo n yes e: a.fi IE: I have been learning 
Ga since last year. 
ebei bie: bo.' n yes e: nyolJ Ie: no he has been coming 
lie-re since last month. 
a counting ollwn,rd from that time: 
ah e mi 'ye k EdgE gb i n o n i eba hi e: ie /rom the day 
'hal he came here he lias been sick·, 
ere n akai. ktdS£ beyino ni maIJ tfE IE gbo he ha.s 
delle so since tilt' ti lile that the king died. 
mi.-kE-lE bo nanyo kEdgE no be Ie mll I have belm 
friclld.s u'ith him ever sillce then. 
the use of the verb tfe to be long (in time) : 
mina bo etIe it is a l<mg ame siuGe I saw you. 
mina. bo etf£ko it is not 101lg since I saw you, 
114 A Few Notes on Times 
minye ba biE etJ€ -my mother has not been here/or 
alollg tillle. 
nyekt' nakai etfEko you snid so not long ago. 
(c) But fol' boLh of the ideas-a point of time from 
which something has or has not gone on, and il. point 
at which something did or did Dot take place- the 
commonest way of expression in Ga is by the use of 
ne:. In English a distinction is made by the words 
I ago' and 'since '. In Gn the rest of the sentence 
shows which is meant. 
mine. IE otJi ne: I sa·w him a week ago. 
atft nE ni mina. Ie: I saw him a 1Qeek "90. 
minako Ie: otfi. SOl]IJ De: I have not seen him for a 
week. 
otJi SOlJlJ ne: oi miuako Ie: I ha.ve not seen him jor 
(1, u:c£'k. 
eba otJli any:> ne: he came two weeks ago. 
mile gbomo ko afli et~ m: I knew a man three years 
ago. 
ni miba. biE ne: roibo' model) do.' since I came h&re 
I have always oer:n diligcnt, 
mebs nE: ni Koft boi ehe sa:m'D '? hOll) [-<Jug is it 
since Kofi began to get 1'cady? 
aft nE: ni wobOi Jika na' bUQmo it is a year since toe 
slarted collecting ?/loney, 
dg:eeJ)lno liE: meni ofe o ? lChat haue you been doing 
all this time? (since this long time), 
172, Dll1alion of time, 
(a) A length of time spent in some way C.'lll be 
shown by: 
the use of ye, to spend: 
ebaye aft yE: dg:Ei he toill slay there/or a yeat', 
A Few Noles on T bmBS 115 
eba.ye aft mu' he tom stuy a whole year. 
ebaye afl kome he 10iU stay one year. 
ma.ya atl y€ Ga. kasemo> Ie: mll I will learn Ga lor 
a year. 
eba:ye ot.p. ye: bie: ba; Ie: mli he will take a week to 
come here. 
(l. simple mention of time: 
makase Ga a.:ft kome 1 10ill learn Ga for a year. 
kanemo wolo lJmle:tfwai etiJ read for t'wee 7lOurs. 
fern" na.kai otfti eny., do so jor two 10eeks. 
by using y e: roli to menn in the duration of : 
magbe Ga kasemo nB.· y e: aft mli I toilllearn Ga 
in (the duration of) (t yea-r. 
ebaba bie: ye: otJi rob he 'loill come here in (the dura-
tion of) a week (i. e. he will take a week to come.) 
by using sOIJIJ, during whole: 
efe nakai da: gbi afli anumo 5"1]1] she did so every 
day for jil)e yea·J'S. 
ehe mi 'ye otSii et~ sO!l IJ he was ill for t/wee whole 
1veeks. 
by using ke:-yo.Si, until: 
femo ene: do.' gbi ke:-yaJi nyolj kome do this fo r 
a whole month. 
m~ be oba."tjo l e: nii ke:-yaJi. ? /01' how long will you. 
(ooch him ? 
Compa.risons to show different shades of meaning: 
maye aft ye: Ga.-kasamo roll I unll spend a year in 
lcun/ing Ga. 
maknse Go. aft kome I toiU leal'''' Ga jor a year. 
I 2 
116 .A. Few Noles on Times 
makase Go, y€ aft mli I 1Qilllean~ Ga, in a year. 
Different wa.ys of sayi ng lhe same lhing: 
mebe oke-knse €IDE? hOll) long did goo take to learn 
ads? 
mebe aye y£ ent kllsemo mll? how lOl19 (1hZ you 
trdce to learn this? 
mabe aboi ent kasemo? how long did VOlt take to 
learn lhis? 
(b) There are of eOlll'se other words and phrnses 
expressing duration of time, sllch as: o,'hu, be roli 
ni, gbii a.bo:> nl, dsee1Jmo nt, &c. 
mim~ IE o,'hu I wailed/or him a long time. 
be mli 01 roi-k£-nye yo IE, nyefee nakai 'while [ 
W(lS wilh you" you dhlnol do so. 
gbii abo 01 mihie ka. IE, mibakai bo as long as I 
lire I wilt rememuer you. 
dseelJmo DE ef£ko midel) lola all this long time it 
has nel'er reachetl me. 
173. FUture lime can be expressed by: 
a simple mention of time in the future: 
gboi Ie baba Soha.: the strangers wilt comc on Friday. 
wobaya d5d wose aft we 'will go there next year. 
cOllllting from. a cel'tain time forward: 
ebn,ba Ro' ni ba' ne otJi he will come on Saturday 
week. 
1)IDEne otJi. IE wobl1yi mli we shall set out a week 10' 
day. 
biE otJi benE aaye gbidguro in ((, week lItey will be 
havi'ng a jest ira!. 
by using BE, after in combination with a future point 
l 
of time: 
A Few Notes on Times 117 
otfti etiJ SE IE wooyi mE in three 'weeks 10e shall start. 
aft BE Ie: ababa. he 10ill rome in a yeat', 
gbii ed3WE BE IE mibana I shall get it -in jOU1' days. 
by counting the time left before a certain point: 
eJwe: otfti ete ni ebakpe yo' he 'lOill be married in 
three 1.oeeks (it remains three weeks and . .. ). 
eIwE IJmlEtJwai ekpa n.i ababoi it 10m be begun in 
six hours (it remains si."t hours and . ..) . 
eJwe: nyoIJ kame ni a.bara. Ie: kEdSE: dge:i he will be 
tralls/erred from there in a month (it remains one 
month and ...) . 
by the use of other phrases : 
ebatfe: dani ehe aawa. Ie: he 1l~il7 not be strong for 
some Ume. 
etfElJ ni oba.na nako you 'will see somethi1ig be/ore 
lony, &c. 
174. A Note on SE: 
Se:, 'at the back of', is used to show a day or time 
before or after-a.t the back of-another day or Hme. 
Last. nyesE Dgu last Monday (the Monday behind 
yesterdny). 
nyesE all last year (the year behind yester-
day). 
nyes£ otJi la..st '!Deek (the week behind 
yesterd aY)J &c. 
Next. WOSE: a.fl next year (the year beyond to-
morrow). 
WasE: does not necess..'uily mean the very next dny 
I\fter to-morrow, b\lt rather n future da.y. 
If emphasis is wanted on the fact that it is the very 
next day, the expression used is: wo ni dSi wo-
118 A Few Notes on Times 
to-morrow wMclt is to-morrow. Similarly nyeSE: does 
not necessarily mean yesterday, but may be a day or 
so earlier. The emphasis used in tllis case is: nye 
kpa'kpa nye -yesterday close yesl&rday. 
175. The day following a certain day is expressed 
by: eno dgetfEremo h:. 
enD dg:etJe: remo Ie: ete Ii mra the following day he 
"ose ul1"ly. 
The day, week, &0./ following a cert.ain event or 
point of time is expressed by: ot n yie St. 
nY(1) nf banyie no SE: Ie: WOOIa gbe: the month after 
thai we will tmvel. 
gbi ni nyie obi e: -ba: IE se: IE nyoIJmo De: lhe day 
after VOlt came here it 1'ai11ed. 
176. Th ings happeni ng in a ce rtain period or time 
are shown by the use of mii Ie: a.t the beginning, and 
y e: .... .. mli at the end, of a sentence: 
no gbii IE: amli Ie: moko be: Jika or moko be: Sika 
yE no gbii IE amU in th ose days no one luul money. 
efomo be mli IE etJE be: or etJe: bE y t efnmo be IE 
mli at tile time of hi.s birth his father 'was ?lot there. 
gbe:kE l)me:d3i eoyn mli Ie: maba I will come in the 
afternoon at two, 
177, Every is expressed by da ' always or fiJ all! 
da' gbi , da' afi, do.' nyoIJ ; gbi-f8-gbi , ati.-ffl'·atl, 
otfi-rn-otJi, &c, 
Every 2nd., 3rd. &c, by do:", nt dg:i, or nf 
j 
d3i ... fi!: 
nyefea nakai gbi-~-gbi nt d3i gbi enyo no do so 
every 211(1 day, 
A Few Noles on T bmes 119 
mite dge:i da ' gbi ni dgi gbi etiJ' le I 10ent there 
every Bra day. 
aWOD Ie: nyomo da ' otfu edgweheispaidev&ry/our 
tGeeks. 
ayeo gbidguro ne: da: ail. ni dgi aft ete Ie: mli this 
feast is kept every 3ra year. 
178. The use of mli and no: 
'What day 10m 'Uou, come ~ me gbi obaba ? 
what week ioill you, coone? me otfi. mli obaba. ? 
10hat month 'will you, come 1 me nyoIJ no (or mli) 
obaba ? 
10hat year will you come? me aft no (or mli) obaba ? 
10hen 10ill you co'me ? or what Ume 10Ul you come? 
mebe oba.ba? 
EXERCISES 
NOT1~ : The l'eference numbel'$ (without brackets) are 
those of the paragraphs in the GI'ammnr Notes. 
Fil'sl Part, GA INTO ENGLISH. 
(1) 
011 the lise oj ko ancl l€.. See 10, 13, and 14. 
(NOTE: It is presumed thnt fit leas t as much as is 
Lo be found in the six ]essons for beginners in the 
appendix is a ll-andy lmown.) 
(a) SlIbjcct without ko: 
Gbomo wiDe. Gbo' ewiee. Kolo ewiee. 
Kole ni. Gbo' ni. Wuo lli. Gbomo ni (01' 
gbomolJ). Blofouyo ni (or BlofonyolJ). 
GbE yE dgEi. Okp15 yE tfu IE mIL Akutu yE 
okplo IE no. 
Sa'i ye: no.dgi. OkplO yE n adgi. Gboma yE nadgi 
enyo. Wuo yE nadgi enyo. Gbo' ye: nadgi 
edgwE. 
GbOUlO dgi mi. GbOUlO fOJJ dgi 1£. 
(b) Object without ko, 
Hn. mi \Vuo (01' k e wi \Vuo) . Hii mi o.doka. liS. 
mi silL 
Mil)tno fa i. MilJto.o akutu. O'tao akwadu, 10? 
Miye: nkutu . Mi YE akwadu . EYE wuo agbo. 
MiYE adeka. E YE faL 
Miha IE WllO (o r m'ike IE wuo). Ehii. (ke) mt 
n,kutu. Eha. (ke) mt akwndu. Eke mi faL 
Mike 1£ wuo agbo. 
a" into English 1 21 
(c) Subject ulilh ko : 
Nu' ko yE bie:. Kola ko ye: gbe: Ie: no , Yo' ko 
y e: dga Ie: no. Gbe' ko y e: tIu Ie: mli. Wuo ko 
be tfu IE mIL 
Blofony o ko be. bie: . Blofony o ko h e ene:. 
Blofonyo ko he gbe' b ibio ' ko. Yo ' k o basra. 
mi. Yo' ko ke mi wuo n E. Nu' ko ke:' nakai. 
(tI) Obj,ct with ko , 
Miye: fa.i agbo ko. Miye: gbe' bibio' ko. E y e: 
adeka agbo ko. Eye: kola agbo ko. 
Mihe gbe' bibio' ko. Ehe adeka agbo KO. Eke 
mi kola bibio' ka. 
Yo' DE: ho kolo ko. MilJ tao blofonyo ko. E'-
t ao UU' ko. 
M ike:' nu' ko nakai. Mibasra yo' ko. 
(e) Le:: (Note that when the pass. prOD. is used 
before a noun beginning with a vowel, the vowel is 
dl·opped.) 
Wuo Ie: ye: gbe: Ie: no. Gbe' IE y e: dga Ie: n o. Lo' 
Ie: ye: okplo IE no. 1]0' Ie: ye: bie:. Blofonyo Ie: 
yE tf U IE mli. 
Mhvuo Ie: yE: gbe: Ie: no, Egbe' IE: y e: dga Ie: no. 
010 ' Ie: ye: okplo Ie: no. MiIJo' Ie y e: bie:. 
Negbe: gbe' bibio' 1e: yo P Meni nu' le: hs P Meni 
yo' le: he::> P 
N egbe: mifai Ie: yo? MilJtao mifai Ie:. N egbe: 
m id eka Ie: yo P MiljtQ.o mideka Ie:, 
Da nu' Ie: ft. Mida. yo' Ie: Ii. Mike yo' Ie: noko. 
Mike nu'· Ie: tro. 
Hi le ;[o.i le. Hi mi miw uo Ie. Eke m.i egbe· Ie: . 
122 Exercises 
(2) 
Plurals oj 1wuns ancl adjectives. See 4 nnd 19. 
Study the order of the adjectives and practice 
fluency in the changes. 
(a) Adding -i to /onn the plnr. 
atade he' atadei he'i, ato.dei he'i srotoi, 
atadei he'i sr"toi pi- ye adeka Ie: 
mIL 
gbe sroto gbe:i srotoi, gbEi he'i srotoi, 
gbti he'i srotoi et~ y e: dgti. 
nitIulo kpakpa. nitIuloi kpakpai, Go. nitiuloi 
kpakpai, 
Ga nitSuloi kpakpai anyo ye: gbe Ie: 
no. 
(1.1) Adding -dzi to form the l)lur., part 0/ (he sing. 
being dropped. 
sane [01] sadg:i rodgi, sadgi memedgi fl5dgi, 
minu sadgi memedgi fOdgi pi', 
lele wulu le:dgi wudgi, tIc ledgi wudgi, 
tIo ledgi wudgi eny" ye: dze:i. 
lotto YEIJ lOlodgi yedgi, lofOdgi yedgi f£fedgi, 
miye: lowdgi yedgi fefedgi anumo. 
(c) Mixed irregular. 
modiIJ mei didgi , mei didgi agboi, 
mei didg:i agboi ekpa ye dg:a 1£ no. 
nanyo kpakpa no,nemei kpakpai, nanemei kpa-
kpai srotoi, 
nanemei kpakpai srotoi pi' miyo. 
nu' kakadal)l) hil kakado,dg:i, hii kakadadg:i pi', 
hii kakadadgi pi ' ye gbe Ie no. 
ar< into Engldsh 123 
(3) 
Adjective ve-rbs. See 21, 22, and 23. For verb forms 
used bere see 106, 109, 118, and 124. 
(al Adjectives whiclt have verb jo}'ms also : 
Modi~ ko yE tJu IE mli. 
EfB.i Ie dio. Etade Ie: dio . Ekotoku Ie: hu dio. 
Egbe' IE dii. 
Fofoii ftfEdgi et~ ye: kpulu 1£ mli. 
EtJuru Ie: ye: fEo. EYEIJ Ie: yE fEO . Ene: hu yE feo. 
Kpulu Ie: bE fEo. 
Nibii ye:dgi et~ yE okp15 Ie: DO. 
Mama h: yEo. 1)0' IE yEO. SikU IE yE:o. Okp15 
h: yU. . 
(b) Equivalents, different in lorin, bu.t 10ith the same 
mean·ing: 
Mei agboi et~ ye: gbe: 1£ no. 
Yo' 1£ da. Efai 1£ dn. Egbe' Ie hu de.. Ebi Ie: 
eda.a.. 
Mei kpakpai et~ De: minQ'Demei n1. 
Nu' lE: hi. Eqa hu hi. Amebi Ie: hu hi j Ii 
a.mEgbe' Ie: ahii. 
TIei kakadadgi e t iJ ye: a.bo' ne: mli. 
TIc De kt . Ene: hu kE. Ene: kE kakadaIJIJ ' Ene: ke:e:. 
(c) YE and fe : 
EYE miJE. Sa.ne IE: y€ mt'Se. Eie: yE mi'Se:. Dga 
Ie no y E mi'fe. Dge:i bE mi'fe:. 
Eye: mobo. Sane Ie: ye: mobo. Gbek~ Ie: nii y E 
moho . Bela IE yE mobo. EbE mobo. 
E'fe kolo. MiIJfe kolo. Yo' IE IJfe kolo. Ewu 
IJfe kolo j fi ebi lE efee kolo. 
E 'fe hedso. Mi~fe bedS o. Nu' IE ~fe h edsO. 
EIJa !Jfe hedso. Ebinu' lE efee hedso. 
124 E Xe'rci.ses 
(4) 
Degrees of Compa.rison. See 24--48. 
(a) Equality. (0) Comparative Superiority. (e) Super. 
lative. ((l) Inferiority. 
(a) Bit y E m,i'fe: tamo (a) Sune ne: ke: tamo ene:. 
Abude. 
(0) Anum yE mi'JE fe biE. (0) Sune nc kc fe enE. 
(e) Akpal'u yE mi'JE fe reo (c) NEke:sunene:kEnde. 
(d) Nsawam be: miJe: (d) SllDe ne: kE€ tamo ene:. 
tamo hiE. 
(a) Lotto De: do. tam:> wuo. 
(b) Gbe' de fa e1o~te. 
(e) Okpo~o de a'hu fa amEre. 
Cd) Wuo edaa tamo alo1Jte. 
(al Fofoi nt tJuo tamo 1:1.. (b) Minyemi 1, de fe mi. 
Etade Ie: diD ake: l)ai. Fai DE ye: feo f~ ene:, 
Abola IE: wa ake: t£:. Bi€gbe: Ie:' fe dgEi gbe:. 
1]0' tIi' tamo Bikli. Abolo h: wa fa te:o 
(c) Minaoyo De: da fe WI) (el) 81kli wan. tamo te:o 
reo Nu' m: ehii tamo boo 
Fai De: ye: feo Q,' hu fa Mitade Ie: be: feo tamt> 
f~. enE. 
MidgatJu IE tft· fIJ reo Abollua eIJoo ta.rot> 
Abolo ne: hi k\Vro: fa akutu. 
re 
(e) With fa~: Fal) gbele fe hiegbele (01' Fa~ 
gbele y€ hiegbele he). 
Fe~ bOrno fa dgu" 
Fal) noni ogbo mOl) fa noni ora ene:. 
Fat) noni homo aye bofenoni odgu. 
Glt into English 125 
(5) 
Nwnerals. See 29-38. kpa. fai 162 (0). k€-fa 165. 
(a) Simple numbtrs. 
Mo~mo y€ yitSo kame, k€ gugo k ome, k€ lilti 
kame. 
Miye: toil enyo ke: hilJmcii anyo, k€ Didgi anyo 
ke: nadgi enYD. 
Kola y€ nadg:i edgwe:. 
Niue y€ wa:bii enumo j wa: bii l E:re feD n y olJma.. 
Nyodgi nyoljma-k€-enyo yo aft kome mli. 
Otfu edgw€ yo nyoIJ kame mlL 
Gbii kpawo yo otJi. mlL 
1)mlEtSwa: i nyoIJIDai-enyo-ke:-edgw€ yo gbi kome 
mll . 
(b) Orclinal nwnbers. 
KlelJklelJ gbi I. Dgu ni, 
N oni dgi etlllE l:o. 
N oui dgi edgwe: 1£ So'. N oni d~ enumo Ie: Soha. .. 
Noni dgi ekpa IE Ro', Noni dgi kpawo IE RD-
N €k€ gbti DE te feD otfi. gba', 
kome. 
N egbt l:o nyemi IE yo P 
(c) Tlw clock. 
Rulu teo Ji aafe IJm€dgi enumo 10 ekpa.. 
Mei pi' teo.fi. lJme:dgi enumD-k€-fa. 
Mei pi' hu teo Ji ljml€ kpawo 10 k pa'nyo. 
Gbek§bii IE ya' skul l e bi ljml€ kpawo-kE-fa.. 
Am£ya" skul ekoIJ Iwane IJIDe:dSi eny"" 
A tIW8. enyie 1> AtIW& lJme:dgi et§". 
Enyie atIwQ.? AtJwa IJm.le: n y oIJma·ke:-fi. 
126 Exercises 
«(l) Times as (occnsions '. 
Eba Iikome k<k<. Mite e~~ Iii enyo. MitI€!< Iii 
et~. EdgE mi Sii ekpa. biiks. ebio Jii kpawo. 
Ekpa mi fai Jii uyolJroa. MikE-fa Ie: Jii nyoIJooa. 
Wowie he Sii abo. 
(c) ]/tlltil'les. 
Enyo t6i enyo feD edg:we:. Et~ t6i et~ fea nt'hu. 
Ekpa t6i enum;) feo nyoIJooai at!;. 
(f) 
Wokoneo ekomekome. Wonyieo enyo-nyn. 
Wole: edg:we:-dg:we:. Hii. arnE akutui et~- et~. 
Be.. arne: enumo-enumo. 
(6) 
VarioIlS1JrOn()!ozs. See 42-48. 
NOTE 1. eJiol,J, agtdn, is only used when the verb is 
in the nllhm" its equiva lent with tl neg. verb being 
do~~. .---l 
2. Begin at Lhia point t6 notice carefully the 
difference between ni, a1Ul i ni, it is j ni, the l'elative 
pt'onoun tu/to or 'Which j and ni, (koni), in order tltat. 
(<<) Wodg:i ne: Ie: wonii nL Ekome dgi mino j 
ekome on0l) j ekome hu minllnyo Ie: nOl)o -
WodientJe wofe. MidientJe mife mino It:~ 
bodiontJt: oJt: one It:; minanyo It: dientft: Je 
eno It:. 
MinalJyo Ie fe , [1 ewoko nyomo; bo It: 0St:, ni 
owo nyomo momo j mi Ie: mift:, ni mi hu 
mibawo nyomo. Mi nOIJIJ mikt:;) nakai. Bo 
owo nyomo It: momo j mi nOIJlJ mibaye he 
odaso. 
Ga into English 127 
(b) Minamokoyeablaofl: Nama oi? 
IE no . 
Mil ee moni dg:i. Meni etaoo P 
Milee noni etaoo. Mebe ona. moko yE a-
b la.na.' IE no? 
MinamokoYEablana.' Mokomoko bE dSridoIJIl' 
IE no lebi DE:. 
Gbek~ DE: ne. ooke YE Meni ena. y£ J ikpoIJ IE P 
JtkpolJ· 
Ena. ananu yE: JikpoIJ. Nokonoko bE: dgEi dOIJIJ. 
Make madge mi ooke M eni ni P 
IJmwE. 
Milee DOni d~. E YE Name k£-madg:6 bo P 
adeka. m li. 
Milee moni ke:-madse Q-tao ole Doni dg:i P 
mi. 
RES', mi'tao male Gblemo adaka. IE DO.' oi 
noniy'o adekalemli. OkWE. 
Nu' of yo ablana' IE no 1£ ete. 
Ananu of yo fikpOlj IE edgo foi . 
Midsie duku oi yo ad eka. IE mli 1£. 
(7) 
..d.dt'crbs. See 60- 64. Tenses see 112, 120, and 121. 
NOTES: 1. pelJ (with affirm. verb in past tellse)-
el'a (once). 
da (with neg. verb in past tense)-ncIJcr (once). 
2. fe , to do, is used for' be' in the iruper. mood. 
(a) Nyefea diIJIJ. Nyefea amro nE. N yefea kE 
wi·JE. Nyefell. PEPE·pE. Nyekafea. basabasa. 
Nyekafea koko·ko. 
128 Exercises 
(b) EtJe mi truka-_ EtJe mi wa-_ EtJemiJii et~_ 
EtJe mi yakatJwa-_ 
(0) E'sum<> mi naakpa. E'sumo mi lElEI} E'sumo 
millo', Esurooo roi koko'ko. 
(d) Meb a. ate dg:EigbE? MilJsumo nakal. Meba 
ni ony ieo segbE JOlJ!)? Nakai misumoo. Minyieo 
blEO' , Minyiee oy a. 
(e) Mebs abare ? Efe l] gbikogbiko. Ere momo. 
Ebara wo. 
(J) Ot. d3ei p.~? Dabi, miyako d3ei do_ R~ - , 
mite dgu momo. Dabi, mUee dgEi. 
(8) 
Post"positions. See 57- 01. See 158 a for use of hi ns 
j for I 01' ' lo '. 
130 (h) fOI' use of ke Lo form ' bring, g ive, put ', &c. 
(a) Ba milJo. MikE-O bay a b ako. Nyiemo 
mihie . KWEmo tJu ne: mIL Sa ' ka JikpolJ Ie:. Sini ye: 
okplo Ie: he. Adaka ko ye okpl<S Ie: nO), Wodg:i 
babaa ye: adeka Ie: mIL 
Yaw6 adeka Ie: ni OkE-rna fina'le:sEYEIikpOIJ, alo 
y E sa' tIo Ie: fiJi. Dg:iemo wodg:i Ie: ni OkE-Jwie Ji ye: 
okplo Ie: DO. Ke: wolo ne: a.ha. roL W 6 ablogwa 
omi saroflE Ie:: na', Mibata Ji yE ablogwa IE no ni 
mak o. ne wolo IE fio' maha. bo, Ta. mimasei ni obo 
mi toi dg:ogbaI]' 
(0) Minoko eIo.dg:e , Ome ni elndg;e ? Misamfe' 
bibio' Ie: eladg:e, Hi ma-tao mnha o. Ebe: okotokui 
le amli. Ebe: sroto' Ie na', Ebe amaBEi. EbeJina' 
Ie M-_ Ebe Jikpo~ Ie_ Ebe sa -tJo Ie JiJi- Ebe aJwiJwe 
Ie: Be:. Ebe: nibil ne: lI.teIJ. Ebe: latE Ie: no, Ebe: 
oduku le: mnBEi. Ebe bie: kwra' , Ekole: eye otJiilo 
Ie: IJo, Negbe: eyo P Ebe: kpata Ie: Ji. Ebe: SEtSu lE 
Ga into English 129 
mlL Ebe: Ji:a Ie:. Ebe: tJudSi Ie: atelJ. Eke: samre' 
Ie: ete ma. 1(1) ni ebii gbe: . 
(9) 
OonJuncticms. See 62 and 63 . Be: mli see 95 . 
Moke bi mi noko oi miha 1£ heto·. 
Mako hu bi mi noko Ii mitoo he. 
13oclientJe: abaha. Ie: heto ' al0 mihale: beto'? 
13en€ sane I E be: mli, Ii ekale eba'fe nakai. 
Ereo mi ake DU' Ie: amale kwra.', 
Dg;o. ofe nakai, edg;ake: onukpa. dgi o. 
Onukpa. dg;l 0, Dohewole: ssa ake: oCe ne.kai. 
K~ ore nakai Ie, ebahi. 
EhiIJ kWl'a.', ake: dg;a ofe nakni. 
Minanyo dg;l 0, ni mi'sumo osane. 
Mi'sumo asane, Ji milee ogbci. 
Ani ole mi 0.10 alee mi1' 
Ekole: mibasra Dye wose:. 
Efeo roi ake: mibasra nye momo. 
Mibaba w6 ed3ake: mibana deka.. 
Mibana dekii \Vb hew:> Ie mibaba. 
Ke:dgi mib a Ie: mitJ€1J pi', 
Mib81J ake: dg;8. o'sumo nakai. 
(10) 
Itltc'jections. See 66. 
Nyeboa tOl eel! 
Kt mako piln ehe IE:, akeo IE akE 'kpo !'o 
Kt oye kunim IE, abake: o bo akE ' aeko ! j ° 
DSll. ohere DO ni okE' 'yaoei!' , 
KEdSi 0Yllsre. moko ni 0' tao obote tSu IE m.li IE, 
ke:'IDO ( ago I, 
K 
130 EXI!1·cises 
Moni yo tIu 1£ mli Ie: bakE' t am~' dani obote m IL 
KEdgi. moko balaka.. '0 ni ofe noko ni ehii IE, k E'mo 
Ie: ake: 'kpao'. 
1 Moni abuu Ie: IE, akEO lE: ake: 'tJia! '. 
Xi: obawia wiemo kani be: fEo IE, ke:'rno' tafiatS€! '. 
Ke:d3i wuo ba tJu Ie: roli IE, JWiemo 1£ Dj. ek e:' 
'sue: I' , 
KEdgi mako ke:' ( ao!' IE, 'Ole ake: coko ado Ie: . 
Re mako badgE bo yakatJwa' IE, obaba ake:' sua! ' . 
KE: onuu Doni mikEo I E, ke:'mo m i ake:' maui'? 
0.10 'h~ ? ' 
(11) 
Verb lenses. See 75, 106-110, 112, 119-122 . ake: see 
130 d. 
(a) Kwe:! mOdil) ko roi'ba. E 'fi s ina.-le, ni e·IJrno. 
E'kw e: b i Egbe: Ii enaa mi. 
(b) Lofodgi fl..ikio ye: lJwei. Agbeo lOlodgi kamei 
n1 ayeo. Arnaa ekomei hu aWQD dade-tfui amli. 
Ehii. 
(c) Dge:i m alJbii Ie: b e y e: amEtelJ. Ame:gbegbe' 
amEba pi', Edo malJ tJe: Ie: naakpa, Ji amEbuu. 
Cd) OWie musubo' wiemo 6fi DU' oe. 6ta eo~. 
Ofe efn, Ji ou' Ie ek eko ooko. 
(e) Oso fo Ie bafie Nyo1)mo wiemo y£ sOlemotfu 
leI). Moko batJwa. so.1Jku. Mei 1£ f§ bala., Ji 
solemo 1£ S£ dg:Ek€1) . 
(/ ) Ake kakla foo niL Ake awale yeo niL Ake 
nyaoyadgi to.' niL Ake guga yee nli. 
(g) Ka'ho biegbe. Ira'Yo. dgri . Ka'hao mi. 
Tfakemo otadei Ie:. Kasemo ollii Ie. F erno oyn! 
Gn into Engli,sh 131 
{h} Nyeboa. mi toi. Nyefea. diIJIJ ! Nyedsea. 
dge:i! NyekaJwea ye blohii lEIJ. Nyekabloa. ye: 
dgEi. NyekadgEB. mi! 
(12) 
Remembering, forgetting, hoping. See 163. 
(a) Mihie kpa. samli no. Ohie kpa. okotJa Ie: no . 
Wohie ekpa. papam no. Wohie ekpa wonibii 1£ 
anD . Wokaii nibil Ie: . 
(b) Mihie kpako ono. Ehie kpako migbei Ie no . 
Amehie kpako sroto' Ie: no. Amilia kpako samfe'i 
le: ano, Am£kai nibil Ie:. 
(e) Dg8. oIJm8. egbci koni ohie aknkpa no. Obie 
akakpa. milJawo' Ie: no. Nyehie aka.kpa' nyeJiwo·j 
It: ano. Nyekaia nyeJiwo·j Ie: . 
(d) Mihie dg:6 sane Ie: no. Moko kai mi sane Ie:. 
REke: ni mihie be. no ekoIJ. Agbe:ne: mihie y e: no 
befESbe. 
(e) Moko kaiko mi sane IE:; Jl mihie edgeko no. 
Mihie ye: no de.' . 
(1) Mihie kpa no akE lai IE re e ta. Amilia kpa 
DO ake: gboi baba. Ehie ba.kpa no ake: ehie mi 
oyoma. Mime kpB.1) no ake: o'tao ene: eko. Ohie 
akakpa no ake: abatao 0 w6. 
(g) Mihie k'S no £ike: ohie erne. ~ijltJoIO Ie: hie kB. 
DO uke: moterno enu. Wohle ka no a.ke:nyeba.kpl~ . 
WolEi Ie: ahie k'S no ake: amEbagbe lO 'i p i', 
(iI) Wolrnyo IE hie kai no akE eboSE J"tkpo~. 
Mihie kii.a. no ake: ebafe. MibE hie-no-kimo s.kE: 
K 2 
132 Exercises 
ebakase nii aye.. Okwafonyo Ie: be: bie-Do-kam o 
akE: tJei ne: hakwe. 
(ll Minun tSo 1£ ~kw£ gbo ko gb£. E odsolo 1£ 
bakwe: adasetoi IE: agb€:. Ka'kwe: mi gbe: koko'ko . 
NyekwEa gb:>l Ie: agbe: lJmEne:. 
(l3) 
Interrogative words 0/ all sorts. 68. 
Mi·yo Sera fi· 
Nama ke: mi bayaP 
Bo IE, meni ofeD P aci o'sumn ni okE-mi aye. P 
Odsogb.~. W6te. 
Negbe: wobaya P W6ya 1]8 1£ no, 10 P 
Nto ole dge:i mamo? 
Osumoo dge:i P Meba? 
Oke:' ahum nf ban ins. bo ye: d3e:i hewolj P 
LElE:lJ? be: oreo sraws. gbeyei? 
Menihew;) ? egbeo roo hewD, be: P 
Beni ahum 1e: banina bo IE, te ofe tel] P 
Te noni oIeo gbeyeim0J],srawalonyoljIDo-pmoP 
To enyo Ie: ~ woo abe gbeyei ? 
Ble: m~ gbe: no wotJ<5 ke:-ya P ninedguro 10 abEku 
gb£ ? 
Wooy ...S era fi y£ ~o-Da·. 
(14) 
Passive Voice. 72. 
A'tao mi. 
A'kwe: boo 
A'wulale: . 
A'sum" mi dgogbaIJ . 
Ga into English 133 
Ahala. nye. 
AkE' wo mama. 
Agbe tJui Ie: ana.·. 
Abuo IE pam. 
Abakwe: bo gbE. 
Abaha mi heto· . 
Abahie IE d3ogba~. 
Ale ogbti kE-te fo~~. 
(15) 
Pl"mls of verbs. 74. 
Note how some take plurality from the subject, 
others from the object. 
Sing. of verb. PI",.. of verb. 
Akutu De: da. Akutui IE dre.. 
Yo' Ie: egb». Yei Ie: 8gb»]». 
Gbe: Ie: IDa dge:i. Gbe:i mam» dSci. 
Wuonu' Ie: boo Gbek~bii IE b]». 
Kola Ie: egbo. Koloi Ie: sgboi. 
Nu' IE tJwa tu IE. Asrafoi Ie: tSwie. tiii . 
Wolo Ie: ka. okplo Ie: 0». Gbeke-bii Ie: kim» fie. Ie: 
mlL 
Nu' IE fo tfo IE. Nu' IE 110 tfei anidsi IE 
efwie Jl. 
Koft ta okpoIjo IE no. Mina mei pi' t ra. okpoIj.:>i 
an.:>. 
MitSE Ijma. mi wolo. Ame:ljmla ame:gbri. 
W6 okplO Ie: kE-ba. Skulbli Ie: hole okploi Ie: 
ke:-te. 
Ata eSE kaplE IE sIc. Gbekebii]e: Se:rE to-kai Ie: 
amEfme Jl. 
) 34 Exercises 
(16) 
Dgi, with iis 'neg(dive and its ll se in olhel' 1Qays. 78 and 
79. 
Ca) Affi""', Neg. 
EnE: dgi klelJk16IJ no. Dgee bo mitaoo. 
No dgl o.me:yil)to. Dgee IE dgi d3"lo IE. 
Edgi kpatamo oka.di. Bie: dgee heni ahio. 
F~ dgi yaka-sadgi. Mama ne: dgee bo ono ni. 
Wo dgi mei D1 ehala. Efemo dgee noko ni wa. 
TJOmo roi moni dsi 1£. Ke dgee bOI] Ie:, nama ni? 
Ebii dgi arne: m. Ani dgee be aba bie: le:? 
Nama dgi ohefatalo? Enye 1£ dgee Ga.-yo' ni. 
Adeka Ie: na' dgl yii Eba mo~ Jl dgee yE 
nyolJma. suomo n8.', 
Knuei Ie: ayibo dgi Ki: oyaa 1£, dgee milie 
kpa·nyo. sane ka. 
Hani ekw~o titri ye: dgi Dgee nibil 1~ ni kplEo 
fa'taL dgi Jlka. 
Nohewo ni eke:' nakai Ie: Dgee mom roll eN kEke: 
dgi ake: ehea eyee. dgi moni etu ehia. 
(b) Substitutes /0" dgi. 80. 
Femo eka'io I 
Feroo bi kpakpa aha mi. 
Ferno mi'fEdselo aha mi. 
Eba·tJO onukpa. 
Nama ba'ye otoyitJo? 
Eba: tjO nmEtelJ nilelo. 
Ani to'hi u€ ba'fe to' kpakpa, 10? 
(e) ""Vhealerl eilhe1'. , , or, ne-ither ' , , 1Wr, 83 3nd 84, 
LE dgio, milee. ElJo 0, elJoo 0, dgee ehe 
sane ko. 
Gu into Eng/ish 13 5 
Ahea mommo, gbek~ A bu Ie: 0, abuu 1£ 0, 
dgio, onukpa dgio. ado;) Ie: . 
Oye 1£ 6IJmoIJ dgio, cho' Ogba 0 , ogbaa 0, sane 
dani eye dgio, eIJo. It bad3e kpo ke. 
Bo dgio, Ie: dgio, nyete lJ Ehi 0, ehii 0, kE-baha. 
moke nyeIJ atere. mikEke:, 
Ebaya dg:io, eyaIJ dgio, Hela 0, homo:> 0, rn 
bo Ie: sa. ake: eye.. mid51's.. 
Mibawo Ie: IJa' j abo toi Oha. mi 0, ohaa. mi 0, 
dSio, aboo tOl dgio, eaa. mibako. 
ItclientJt. OkpH~ 0, okpl~e 0, 
mibaya. 
(17) 
Ye: and its negative be:. 88. 
(a) A.ffi11". Neg. 
Eye: ma lEl). Eb£ mei Ie:: ateIJ. 
Minye yE Abude. Ebe: Dodowa. 
Nu yE: bu Ie: mll. 1)0- be: wonu 1£ mIL 
TJoIa. y£ to Ie: mIL FuCa be: tJanal Ie: mIL 
Mei pi' y £ gb£ Ie: no. Mei pi' be: tIu Ie: mli. 
Beni awiso Ie: miye: d gEi. Beni eha Ie: mibe: dgti. 
TJo yt Jia It hie. Eko be: Jia Ie: se:, 
Nu' Ie: yE: Jiks. pi', Mibe: atadei pi', 
Miy€ awa..lei edg\vE:. Ebe: wuohii pi', 
Nu' De: yE: to'i ke: tSi- Ebe: tIinai ye: b i e:. 
na.i. Ebt JikiJa~ yt eJwapo I. 
Miye: Mto'i enumo. mli. 
Oblanyo 1£ y e: wodgl Moni be: tIe: ke: nye It:, 
pi', a.tIe:o le: awusa.. 
Yo' ne: yE bii ekpa.. Ke:dgi moko be:. nane 
Ani eyE: Jia, 10 P kpakpa he, edgoo foi, 
136 Exercises 
(b) Thef onn yo. 90. 
N arno yo dgEi le:? 
Meni yo odel) le:? 
Akuse ey o. 
MiJla Ie: mei IE U yo. 
Moni yo glasetJu mli Ie, ekoo te: etfwaa mo. 
Mei ni yo tIu Ie: wli ke: mei ni yo agb6 Ie: nn: Ie: 
~ mi'fa ho' 
Nama yo hegbe: ake: efe nakai ? 
Meni oyo ye: Jia Ie:? 
Bo ake:' oyo gbe' fefED ko le:? 
H~', midgt moni yo nakai gbe' Ie:. 
Mei nt yo bewah: IE, ehiaa arne: tIof5.tIe:. 
Nom miyo Ie:, mino ni. 
(e) Substitutes f or YEo 92. 
Ebaba bie: woo 
Wobahi Kumase aft. 
Mibaya Ahokobi RD' 01 ba: De:. 
Ani be hu obaya 'Jwe:mo' le:? 
Wo IE mibabi Ga Swane rou' IE ~. 
Mei eoya aahi J)moJi; aalJo mokome ni RaJi 
mokome Ie: . 
Obana. uu boni sa, 10? 
Mibana oroo wo lebi ke-dze: Ga. 
Moni tIua nil IE, Ie: sbana. nyornowo. 
Mibana miwolo Ie: hato' kE-dgE No'te IJ5. 
MinaIJ Jika boni fa oi kE-mi aayaJe: d3€1. 
OdoIJkofoi Ie: ke:' amebana tokotai pi' otfi kome se:. 
(a) Used to fo rm adjectives. 94 and 96. 
Eye: mob:> ak£ egbo. 
EYE fe:o akE ofe nakai. 
Ga into E'ngl'ish 137 
EYE na:kpE ake: minuu he. 
EYE mi'fE ake: ena hewale: . 
EYE gbeyei ake: asusu he. 
EYE lJm10 ake: edgo rai. 
Eye: oro' akE abo enE tro. 
Mama DE yE tal). 
Egbele 1£ ye: mob;). 
Sane De; yE I]mlo. 
Fofoi DE yE fEO. 
EYE mli ake: ehe dgo. 
EYE mE ake: manso dg:wa' maI]o 
Eye; mli akE modeI] boo yeo kunim. 
Ebe mli o.ke: w6IJ gbeo mo. 
Eb€ mli ake:: ehie wa'. 
Eb£ rull a.ke: aye eno. 
(e) Usecl lo s1lol p osition. 96. 
Mina Ie: yE dgEi. 
Agbe us.' yE mihie. 
Afo IE yE ID8.lJtJe: DE yin:>. 
Ena gbEi yE ta IE: mIL 
E'fWE ye: agb6 Ie; De,'. 
Woto Ji ye: gbe; ~E no. 
Ehu yE fa. . IE: be. 
Wofi 1£ yE fa.' IE st . 
Wod30 wahe yE go~ IE JiJi, 
(/) I lliomatic 'use o/same. 97. 
Mate yE owiemo IE: US', 
Are yE gbidgUIO IE be\vo . 
AmEba yE sane IE he. 
Yt migbEfaIj Ie: edgrna. 
Mi'sumo enE ye; no nadsialJ' 
138 Exercises 
Ewiee dOIJlJ yE no SE . 
Ye: eDEmei re aSE IE: ellie emea. 
Suomo DS,' efe. 
EnE heWD Ie: etu ehie . 
(18) 
Ya and its lenses. 98. 
Ete Dodowa, 01 ebaba woo 
Nye Ie: wote dgci, oi w6 10 wase: Ie: wobaya ekolJ. 
Do: otJi le: miya' dgEmei reo 
Mi 'ya dgEi amra DE. 
Eke:' miya nyoIJlo. 
LEdientJe: eya! miyaa! 
Nyefe nyeya: ! 
Ani oyako rna lEI) ? 
Woyn~ d3ei do~~. 
Eke:' wokaya dgEi dOIJIJ. 
Mokroko Ie: bays.. 
Mike:' Ie: ake: miyalJ. 
KO:ha DU' IE mi'ya dgEi. 
Ke: ete Ie: d3a eku eSE aba eya. 
Eta ktui bene: eba momc. 
(19) 
Verb tenses. 100-123. 
(a) Present and Continuative ten.se. 109. A pietlll.·e. 
MiIJkwe: mfonu.'i ko. EtJotJro gbogbo Ie: he. 
Mfoniri Ie: de. j ele:' oi ekE hu. 
MiIJna gbomei ke: nii srotoi babao ye: mIL 
MiIJUil yo' ko mi'ho' nli ye: tJu ko he. 
Eta Sel fEfea ko no. 
Gbek§bii anyo mi.'Ji fuf'ui ye: emaseL 
Ga into English 139 
TJo k.k.da~~ ko rna d~.i, ni nu· ko ~tJu illi y. 
fiJi. 
E'gbo noko tamo lema-tJo. 
Hii an yo damo eSE &ID€IJkW€ enitJumo Ie: . 
Mi1Jna WllO ke: ebu ye: dg.WEi Ie: mIL Ame:IJtao 
noko a.mEys. . 
Gbo· ko hu ka Ji y. gb.te~. E·t.o ewo, Ji 
.dodod~i l)gba en.· tJ5. 
Hulu ~tJo pam. 
Mi'sumo mfoniri ne: naakpa. 
(b) H abitual tense. 106. WalEi ahe sa.ne:. 
ali a long net wi th floats and weights, to catch 
herring. 
toga. n similru' net to catch large fish. 
adro. a drag net 
tJa.·ni another of the same kind. 
k~fl. a flat fish full of bones. 
tIlle. another kind of fish. 
Mei fiJ ni gbeo la', a.lo a.mEys.' \VUO IE, wotJEO a.me: 
o..ke: \vuoya'!oi. Titri Ie:, wuoya'loi abii nOlJIJ tJomo 
wuoya'loi. Ame:gbe:i dientI€. nl akE-tfe:o arne: dgi 
wold. WolEi dgi mei kamei ni he yo mi'Se: wa', 
AmEdgeo amEnitJumo Ie: JiJi labi maI]kpa., Ii aya: 
,vuo lebi , Swane, ke: gbEke: fie:. Aya.· wuo gbi-n-gbi 
dga. Dgufo pE, edgake: Dgufo Ie:, edgi IJIo gbi. Wuo 
srotoi ni afo' ye.. ' dy: ali wuo J toga wuoJ kaIJfta 
'WUo, tfue WUO, kE adra. gblamo, TJa'ni 10 
adrigblamo IE, no lE,Jikpol) adamoo ni aSata ' kE-ba' 
fia no; kEkE IE yei IE be..' 10' IE. hemo, kEkE. IE ahoo 
o.hlla amE. 
W01Ei dgi mei ni nitSumo waj rni ni na' we. yeo 
amE j homo hu yeo amE S&IJlJ dientSE, edgo.ke: dga 
140 Exercises 
ame:ku a.mese ameba Jio. dam ameyeo nil kpakpa. 
l:ikn Dam;) ye: aInEnitSumo IE mli mOIj, Ii noni ehii 
mOlJ dgi akE dgee beCEfbe anaa 10'. KiJlE: bei oi 
anna. 10' Ie, amesa' ame:ledgi Ie, ni ame:ioa ameya.i Ie. 
A bei ete: Wiemo kpakpa dgeo mlifu. 
Ake:o kame dani akeo soya . 
l)me: kame flteo IJIDEl reo 
(c) Past tense (Most of tbe verbst but not all, are in 
this tense. 107. Go. adesa ko; 'Boni fe ni dgwelJIDo 
ba', 
Be ko Ie: ou' ko ye: 01 atSeo Ie: Ata' Ananu. Ake: 
01 etaoo oi make ana dgwel)IDo ta)llo Ie: hewD IE, 
ete oi eyabua dgw6IJIDOi re ana:, ni stJe: ebi Kwa-
kute 01 aba kani o.meya oi ame:yafEre ame:Jwie. 
Beni ameya: IE, amEbana tIc ko of able gbe: Ie: no. 
Ats.' Ananu nyee etJ5 tIc Ie: no, oi eoyetT hu oi etfa 
eJifi, nohewO» )e: arnEWO dge:::oei gbii ate. 
Gbii etE! oa,'gbe mli Ie, Kwakute ke:' Ie: ake: '0 
Ate.', ofe bulu tfO! Ani ony?j~ ni oke to-ke-d5welJmoi 
Ie ama f i, ni otf5 tfo Ie no koni. owo ekol)? J Ni 
Ata' Ananu kE' '0 mibi, mike' benE d5weIJmoi flS 
mi-kt-ya' IE, ani moalJ miJi eko yE BE J J 
(d) Pet/eet tense. 108. 0110 lal. ko. 
Latfabe IE eho, 
NyolJmo eboi nEmo, 
l:ikpolJ efe flODO', 
TJei Ie eboi afofro gbamo, 
Bai efUiU.'i. 
Oflo fofali epue yE lJa IE na, 
Okwafoi IE egbe ammii ah a humo na.' , 
AmEdu able pi', 
Ga into E ng/:ish 141 
AmEte:oteo ' tIei pi' hu. 
IJwei etSe. 
Dg91J adg;) wuludu', 
Oflobe IE eSe: eta.. 
(e) Neqative verbs. 118 nnd 119. Ga abEi komeL 
Ka fOj) loftS. 
:!:wi1afo etJOo fwil afo gbE. 
YitIo kome eyaa a.dgioa. 
Moko kE sisai gba.a ta.. 
Wuo Dane egbee ebi. 
Moko eree kolo Iii enyo. 
Awoo ni alae. . 
Noko ni ayee IE, ahoo. 
Nudgo ekwoo gOl]. 
Toii enyo Ji enuu sadgi enyo. 
Mo 6nye:£ mo yaks.. 
TutJoIa kE 1& yea. 
Abole flo ehii yell . 
Noni bako dalE eyE IJIo St. 
(l) Future tense. 110. NYOIJIDO Wiemo mli 
kukudgi korneL 
Made. 0 Ji kE mitSui mu' IE re. 
Ooye oninena' nitSumo nri, Di aahi aha. 0 hu. 
Oona. obii a.bii. 
EhiIJ onane aIane. 
~wa.ne Ie: hulu ejQ.lJ 0, ni nyo'IJ hu nyoIJtfere efel] 
o noko. 
Yehowa aabu ohe kE-adgE eiol) fa mll. 
AmEatJOmo emaIJ. 
Kane 10 hulu kpEmo ehiaIJ arne:. 
EtjUdgi it: aasUDlo Ie: . 
Moni ma.leo h:, ebotelJ mll kwra' , 
142 Exercises 
Nama baye nii DE ahe adase? 
Mibakumo mibolJoi Ie: maJwie Ii. 
MibalJmij nye gbe: oi nyeya. 
Ke: nyena atatu roi'wo ye: aDai IE, nyeke'o ake 
j NYOI)IDO baDe:'. 
(0) Imperative mo()(l. l)a kpakpa, 112- 114,121- 123. 
Kn/wo rno rob la yakatfwa' 
Ka·gba. mako on.' yaks.. 
~i kedg:i o·tao owo mei 1)8. kani ameCe kpintilJIJ 
Ie, ke'mo IlrnE enemei: 
Ka.'ha tSansi kai dgwere Ii yin.. 
Ka:ba ou kpotoi rna. Ii oi atSii aIwiee. 
Kn:ha hi abifao fufo bef(;be oi efoo. 
Nyo'l) IE ka'h'ii bi abifao nii. 
Ka'fo gbekEf bibio' 10' hAmo. 
KWEIDO dgogbal) kant nofG"no he atfe. 
Be'roo okpono da:gbi. 
Gbe adododgi, edgake: ameke: hela. ba', 
l:wiemo tOlJtolJi ke-dgE amasei. 
Nyehaa nyetiafli Ie: amii atSea dgogbal). 
NofEJ:no 01 obaye IE, oke: noko aha no. 
Ri 010' dgw€i oma. Ii Ie: oke: noko abu no. 
Nyefen. nakai oi nyeanQ. hewale fa tJutJu IE. 
(It) Conditiol1al11lood, 115. Some Ga. proverbs, 
lit onaa 10' IE, oyeo komi. 
liE dg:e no. IE., gbomei fe dio. 
K€: ona Ie, no obio rnliwo' , 
KE mei enyo I€: to' IE, elndg:eo. 
Xi: niyenii 1)0 Ie, IilEi nQ.'. 
Ki:d3i tJo kome kpe' ko'YO IE, ekuo. 
KEd3i oda..· 61)00 Ie, oJii mli nu . 
KE oye Ide mll IE, odsieo mll DU. 
Ga into English 143 
Ke: homo ye mo IE, eke: enidgi any" yea nu. 
Ke: okpoI,)o edgim 1£ moni to. eno Ie: hu edgimko. 
Ke: moni te fa.'l) bako IE, abii 9gb€: fi. 
Ke: ko·tJe: be: fla. Ie, k&1Jk&IJl %JOD jla IE reo smellO. 
(i) Perfect Conditio"al. 116. 
Oba kule, ehi. 
Mik.€:-to killE, eladgee. 
EtJwa 0 killE, ogbo. 
Ehaa. 0 tJora kule, anal) hewale:. 
Owe. mi kule:, etolJ mi. 
Nyol)mo snet kul e: ekwli~. 
Ed30 foi kule: eyi mi. wals.. 
Edgi amEtao mi kule:, miwa. arne:. 
Rule: ma.ws. arne: Ji ametaoo mi. 
Mins' ni kule: miye: hewale: ni mafe naka.i. 
(20) 
Vel'bal }JOWlS. 126 and 126. 
AmEsumoo dgo' Eya.' Ie: yE. kplakpla. 
Eramo wa. Dge:mo' do' mi fa yi:. 
Kemo mi Ie:' Ie:. Miyo lakamo Ie: SE. 
Ebo.' Ie: fa truka'. Ehile: mOl] wotaoo. 
Dgu' dgee no-kpakpa. Ra.· ni mli wa nE. 
KWEmo noni nye:' tJu. Bo IE, SUBurno ko ka.a. aD o. 
Milee ene: yeH. Ebuu dg'),IDO ake: noko 
E-mo-bu' ratl. ni dsra wa.. 
Nil De: aladgemo ado mi. No-fitem.o dgraa.. 
E gbe:i kaimo to mi. Esumoo nikasemo. 
Se:tJEle: bahA ame:susu Milee da.-numo. 
nokroko. Wopleo kunim-yeli he. 
144 Exercises 
D3ee fe: ' miSe, Ji mako D~ee bem abu lE, f imoIJ 
kE-ha mi. f6 abu Ie:. 
D3ee dO"· ed3u, Ji egbe Dsee hienDkpamo mOl) 
moke. Ii toigbele ni. 
(21) 
KE and its uses. 130- 137. 
Koft ke: enyeroi Ie: te fiJeramo. 
Beni arney-a' Ie: arne-ke: nu' ko ke: egugo kakadaIJlJ 
kpe ni etere omo-ke:-kotoku . 
Ehie fai ko k€ ahe tJEre: diIJ. 
Beui ena arne: Ie: ewn. ni 6lJa arne: ke: mi'fe:. 
AmE-ke:-Ie: wie, Ji efe arne: Da.-kpe: beni ame:kpa Ii 
ake: gbo nt Ie:. 
Am€-ke:-Ie: moo nanyo, ni fa se: Ie: ame:tjo ame:be 
k€-mi 'ku a,rne:se;. 
Truka' Ie: nu' Ie: ke: fai Ie: tfwa Roft se: ni eke:' 
' Damo Ii mabi 0 sane ko. Mi-ke: omo-ke:-
kotoku m:baba 0 kant bo hu ofe noko oha roi', 
Raft bi Ie: ake: ( Meni nl' ? 
Nu' IE ke: befitJwn; ke:' ake: ' Mi'tao nl onyie ko' 
DE mli. ke-yafi oke: nu ' bibio' ko ke: eyitJo agbo 
ko aakpe. Mi-ke: fai ne: bahe. 0 ni okE-tIC; Ie:. 
Eke: noko bawo mli aha 0 ni ~ke:-baha mi ye: 
bie:', 
R oft he fai Ie ni ekwe:. 
Ni eke-na'kpe: bi Ie: ake: 'Mehewo ni dga mike 
fai Ie: te ke? Aso k€ mihiee fai Ie: nakai nli Ie 
ehilJ ke-ba', 10 '? 
Gbo le ke:' Ie: a,ke 'Dabi, dga oke: fai Ie: te; kedgi 
oke-yaa Ie: nu' Ie: ke: noni mitaoo Ie: hitIJ bo '. 
Roft Swia eyiIJ flo' ni eke nomimit· ke:' ake: 'Dabi, 
mitalJ fal ne: he '. 
Grt into' EI/g/ish 145 
Nu' 1£ bio ke: milia ake: 'Dg;& ohie nEke: fai ne: 
ke-te nu' Ie: 1]0'. 
Roft ke: enyemi Ie: IJmo ni amEtJO amehe kon i 
aroeya. 
Nu' 1£ ka ake: etfwia a.me: tIei, Ji enine fEe amena; 
Iii abo ni abo' m;)deIJ ill etJwia arnE: nti Ie: fti 
abo oi ebe feo arnE: Ijm15 dgi no. 
No se: I e: aromas. Ie: dOlJIJ ; Ii nODi feo arne: na'kpe 
d5i, meni kwra' po DU' Ie: ke-bahn. arne: kE:-
b adge: ko' le: roli ke-ba Ie. 
(22) 
The use o/ma, to place. 189. 
Ew6 adek. IE emii Jikpo~. 
lie kpulu Ie: ama. dg€i. 
MikE sai IE rna tJo IE JiJi. 
Solemotju ko rna. gbe Ie: n€ke: gbe: . 
AboIJo ko rna. dgo Ie: mU. 
Mo' ko rna gOl] Ie no. 
(23) 
Direct ana indirect wjects. 140. 
MiIJma ,volo mimad56 It:. 
WokE: adekai Ie: ma.dge arne. 
Mike DU' Ie: m eo. 
Eke wo wuoi any::> ke wuowodgi ekpa. 
Mike: \Volo IE hi IE. 
Ehii. miny emiyo' IE: gao 
Mibi ns'd3ie1o Ie: noko. 
Ame:bi mi sane ko. 
Fa mi Jilm ko. 
WOIDi a.rne wokoi Ie:. 
TJOmo gbeka IE J1a 1<. 
]46 Exe"cises 
Mitjo arne: heni ey~ Ie . 
Gba roi ote'ffitHJ sane Ie:. 
Eke:' mi nomno. 
E tJO gbeki!hii I e: nii. 
Minye tJOo roi nikpe: ·. 
(24) 
Verbs used either lrans. or intrans. 141. 
Adeka Ie: eyi abo to ke: atadei. 
Atadei eyi adeka Ie: abo. 
Kpulu ne: eyi to ke: nu. 
Nu eyi ekpulu Ie:. 
Dunde boo d30gbalJ ye IJfona·-gbE . 
.3ikpolJ ni yO) bie: Ie: hI)' dua.de d3ogbaJ]' 
(25) 
The use o/tao and sumo. 14.6. 
Nu' ne: lJsumo ni eye okwa' , 
E,tao JikpolJ kpakpa ni ahu. 
Etnoa pi- I Si lJIDO bibio ke:ke etaoo. 
E 'sumo ni ete:o tIei fio', 
ASRl) a-tao ni edu able ke: dua.de ke: nibil smtai. 
Esumoo ni adu yele: aft ne:. 
Wnse: aft dnni ebatao eka edu. 
Eaumoo ameosebE, ni ebadu pi', 
Ebatao ni eho 8lJmo Ie: mli nibii Ie:. 
~i etaoo ni ena. BE pi' , 
(26) 
The use olkpl~ and hoi. 146 and 147. 
MilJtao mama tJu. 
Miba mitf< fika, fi ekpl~~. 
Ga into English 147 
Mikpa. Ie: fai a. 'hu, ke:ke: ni ekpl'El nt' efa. mi eka. 
Mibaiko nitJum::> Ie:, 
MitJe: tJumilo ko kE-ba ni wowie he. 
Ekpl~ tfu ), rna'. 
Ebi mi ake: mibakplEi nf etfwR su gbogboi 10 ? 
Mike;' ake: mibakpijl, 
Eke:' eke: tJensi awo tJu Ie: 10? 
Mike;' dabi, mikplEiIJ nakai.. 
Ebi mi nohewo ni mikplee l€r 
Mitjo Ie: JiJi, ni eboi IJmlo', Ji ekple. 
Ke:ke: ni ebi mi ns.' . 
MitJO Ie: na', ni ekplilo nakai us.' I€:. 
AgbEne: wobab5i tIu IE: ma.'. 
(27) 
lJi.Dereul e$pressio'll$ fo r ' continue', 148. 
Mite no mikE-Ie: wie . 
Eke;' w6ya. no ni wt)la. . 
Xa: ka. he oie gbekebii anti. 
Mibie minikasemo IE: mIL 
Kite! mi'bEl.. (kite only us?d in this expression.) 
(28) 
Tlw 1~ oj fo, kpitiokpitio, aml so... 149 and 150. 
Minyekwe Ie: fo' d5& Ie: no ya:. 
Efoko oketeke roli yo:. 
E ya' salerno kpitiokpitio. 
Ero", sEkpe ' , 
Elee woloka.nemo ni esa.· elee l]ma· . 
Kt ele Ie:, ebafo kanemo . 
Ii kale: eyeo dsra ni eso.' enaa BE hu. 
EkpEO nil ni Elsa ' eloo mama a.kE nu', 
Ehoo nii dsogbal] ni esa.' ale hUm::>. 
Ebe eso., 
L 2 
148 Exercises 
(29) 
The use of ny~ amZ le. 151- 53. 
MinyeG mafe tIOla. 
Milee heJatSamo. 
1:i manye mawQ. tJOlatfE IE ke. 
Manye maha belatJEmei IE afe klalo . 
Manye malJrna amEgbrii. 
Manye mafa tIora-toi amli. 
Asa'l) mile fadgi nyama. 
MinyiJ:) mife'O nll DE rn. 
Mile rn femo. 
TSofiitSE IE nye~ eba D3U' 
Dgufo dani eenye aba. 
No SE IE mibanye maba da'uE. 
(30) 
TIle use 0/ d3a, hia, and sa ake: . 154. 
Dga ofe nakai. 
Dg& wote ke. 
Dgo, mommo ye nii. ) 
Niiyeli ehin. momma. 
Dsa okpa mi fai . ) 
Esa akE okpa mi fai. 
D3a adgie l)moto DE. ) 
Esa ake: adgie lJmoto DE. 
Esa akE aya solemo. 
So, akE okai noni mikE:) IE. 
Sa akE amEba mndel) ni amEmO dgulo IE. 
Esan. ake OlJillO amnle. 
Ebahia akE awe tJu IE ahe', 
Ani ahe bahia akE mina oda.seyeli wolD, 10 ? 
Gu into English 149 
Ehia. akE malE dge:i dani dg6 ana. 
Moni safe nakai IE, ehia. akE ayi Ie. } 
Nu' 01 aauye ene: afe Ie: esa yi' , 
(31) 
The usc a/na uml w6. 155 . 
MiwoIJ hemo. 
Miwoo bo WOl~lJma" 
Ani obawo ba ' yE nakai be Ie: mli '? 
Wonako wobi arne: . 
Mino. migble adeka IE ne. . . 
Egbele gbi I, nako ef" 
(32) 
The expression o/ pu"rpose. 166. 
Dgrayelo Ie: dg9 gbe: 910 dgra Ie: no . 
Eyeo 10' yE noko hewD. 
Midg6lJ gbe: migbalJ ona.' . 
Edge gbe: etJwa "WUO IE tEo } 
Ehie k'8. he ni etfwa. wuo IE tEo 
Ani nyedgeo gbe: nyedg60 abo. ? l 
Ani nyahia ki he ni n yedgeo a.ba ? 
(33) 
17lc use 0/ hi to e31"-ess mrious ideas. 157- 58. 
Ehiii mawia tete. 
No hia mitJui yeo. 
NOIli oIJma Ie: no bahi eJwa ahe. 
Ra tfulo I, aba bi" 
Hi ni maye anokwQ.. 
MiIJkPB 0 fai ni ahe eko ohi mi. 
150 Exe,.cises 
Ehoa nii ehaa mi. 
N ani oCen ohaa Ie: IE, mi n01]1) ofe::> ohaale:. 
(34) 
To eJ..'Prcss the end a/an act. 159. 
Omole: ~eta . 
Yo' Ie: eho nti Ie: f6 eta.. 1 
Yo' Ie: abo nii Ie: ffl egbe na', 
1)8010 h: ekpe: s~"i Ie: egbe na"l 
1)al0 Ie: egbe sei Ie: kpe:' na', 
Wogbe sane Ie: yaH on', I 
Woye sane Ie: wogbe na'. 
}.;ika nl oha. roi Ie: eta. 
Esikli Ie: etA. 
WotJu uti Ie: f~ eta. 
(35) 
Comp(mmd verbs; those with gram-matical completion as 
object. 162. 
(a) Impersonal or general coruple~ion. 
NEke: DU' ne: yeO) 080io, nl ekod3oa hu. 
Eyeo anokwa yE enitfumo Ie: mli. 
Ebaye sane ko wase:. 
AkEO ake: DU' ko egbe yo' ko. 
Eye awulJa j nohewo oi egbe Ie:. 
Moferno IJgba he sane. 
Mei pi' kEO ake: DU' Ie: eye sEke:. 
l:i mei pi' IJd36 l)wane ye: he . 
. Eye: mli d310J ebe: mll d3io, DU' Ie eye fo. 
Bo model) ni obaba sane-yali Ie: tai. 
Mommo yeo IJkomo yE yo' IE hewo. 
Milee akE abafe yaraJ 10. 
Ga unto English 151 
(0) Personal or pnl'ticular completion . 
I Bafata. mihe. 
Ghlemo wolo ue: ne: eha. mi. 
Minaa noni yo roli Ie: Jifi kwra:. 
Dge JiJi ye: bie: ni okane.' 
'Mikana fa migbe na' ,' 
«AgbEue: tJom" f~ JiJi aha mi.' 
, Sane Ie: ne:; Ko:fl IJtao nl ekpe yo' . 
Ebi AkuaJi. 
Moferna IJdgie Akua yi. 
Eb., ed3e~ d3ogb.~ , 
A •• ~ efo' nii ahe d30gba~, 
Ebafata Kofl he ni ahi. 
Egbelj ehie gbikogbiko, 
Sane Ie: SQ,' Kod hie b abao. 
Ebabua enanemei Ie: fEi ana' koni eha aroda. ' 
(e & (t); (e) with indirect object also ; «t) with 
both obj . and g ram. compo 
MilJkp8. 0 faj ni abo mi toi 110' . 
MiIJtao magba. 0 sane ko ni owo mi !Ja. 
No dgi a.ke: miny eminu' Ie: abo mi ahera. 
Miye Ie: onukpa , Ji minaS. ehe tJui. 
Gbiko Ie: miha Ie: gb£ ni etJu midi Ie: he nii . 
Eke: tu Ie: \vo gbekebU kornei ahe gbeyei. 
Ame:Je tu Ie: gbeyei naakpa, ni amEboi ya'fo ke: 
blomo. 
Nu' ko ye: dge:i Di baye he adase. 
Ebo minyemi Ie: koko) Ji Ie: Ie:, eye ahe fe:o. 
Te so. Ilke: m afe teIJ P 
Mife he noko 10 P 
Mi~mi! mitJui Ji a 'hu, 
Agbe:ne: esa ake: maha. eba ehe Ii. 
KEdg;i oowo mi lJa. Ie:, made. 0 Ii. 
152 Exercises 
(36) 
Compound verbs; those willi grammatical subject. 163. 
Hii edgwe: ue ahe ye: feo. 
Zi nokroko hu be ebia fala be. 
Ebia ake: amemli hu ahi. 
Mone: no.' tJe mOlJ, Ji emli woo 10. oya. 
Moue he wa, Ji ena' hu wa. 
Meui d3i et~ Ie: bie t.~ ni eyitJolJ wa. 
Moni dg:i ed3we: Ie: he dgo kwra' ni ehie ka Ii. 
Mei f~ ahie 80' 1£; 
Nohewole: Ie: dgi moni he yo nii. 
(37) 
Douhle verbs. 164. 
Mako ewie nako efi 0, ni efta onll:. 
Atu sane Ie: awo onukpai Ie: ndsY]. 
Ene: h6WO Ie: ake:' ake mibad3ad36 mitJa 0 ake 
abo. onukpai Ie: ahie woo 
Esaa ake: atJi sane ne: yeH ato dOlJlJ. 
Onukpai Ie: baka ok"ntabu'wolo Ie: amekwe:. 
MilJwie milJtJO 0 ake: eye obua ame: bornbo nf 
oony~. 
Mibeo miyeo ake: kit aka na.'flomo ne akwe Ie, 
ababu 0 bern. 
(38) 
Verbs 10ilh ke:. 165 . 
(a) Am.k, f~ fa I •. 
Eke:' eke:~aafa m i. 
Ke oJwa ahe Ie, eeIJo-fa o. 
Mike onotomoi Ie fa: 0 da:. 
English into Ga 153 
Oke: ohie akafO eno. 
Woke w;)hie 100 amEn;) da. .. 
Omlihile: Ie: ha. mike: mihie fo ana , 
(b) MikE-Ie: yee egb:> ye: wOlakanemo roll. 
Na.ma bakpe Ie: P 
Nama ebakpe P 
N~ yo' ebakpe IE ? 
Eke:' ebakpe minyemiyo' Ie:. 
Oke: nu' kpitio ko bakpe y e: gOIJ Ie: no. 
Woke: Ie: kpe ye: gb e:teI] . 
Woke: arne: kpeo y e: d3Ei d a.·gbi. 
Mi'ma. no mi ake: eye: mli nakai. 
Ani oonyil OIDa. no mi ak e: ebaba. we, 10 ? 
SecolUl Pa,t : EN GLlSH INTO GA. 
(1) The use 0/ I a I and' the', 
(a) A person spenks. A dog does not speak. An 
willa.! does not speak. It is an animal It is a dog. 
It is n fowl. It is a person. It is a European. 
There is n rond lliera. A table is in the room. An 
orange is on the table. 
A sent has legs. A tab le has legs. A person bas 
two legs. A rowl hus two legs. A dog bas four legs. 
I am a person (morttll). He is a bad man (person). 
(b) Give me a fowl. Give me n. box. Give me n 
I want 0. hat. I want an orange. Do you want n 
banana '? 
I h:).\'e an orange. I have a banana. H e has 9. 
large fowl. I have n box. He has a hat. 
15-l 
I gave him a fowl. He gave me an ornnge. He 
g~wo me n banana. He gave me a hat. I gave him 
a large fowl. 
(c) A mnn 1S here. An animal is on lhe road. 
A woman is in the nUlrket. A dog is in the room. 
A fowl came into the l'oom. 
A EUl'opean came here. A European bought this. 
A European bought a small Jog. A woman came to 
visit me. A WOUHl.n go.ve me this fowl. A certain 
mnn said so. 
(tl) I have n big hat. I hnve n small dog. He has 
n large hox. JIe hns fl ltl.l·ge animal. 
I bought a small dog. lio bought a large box. He 
gave me n small animal. 
This woman sold a certain animal. I want n 
cei'l;ain European. He wants a certain man. 
I said so to a (cel'tll.in) man. I have come to visit 
a (certain) woman. 
(e) 'l'he fowl is on the road. The dog is in the 
market. The moal is on lhe tuble. 1'he salt is hero. 
The European is in lhe room. 
My fowl is on the road. His dog is ill the market. 
YOU!' Illeal is on the table. My MIt is hore. 
'''bere is the small dog? 'V"hnt did the man buy? 
V"hal is the womfln selling? 
'V"here is my hat? I wnnl my hat. Where is my 
box? I wflnt my box. 
1'hank the man. I thanked the woman. I gave 
the wOlllan something. I gave lhe man 3el. 
GiYe bim his hill. Give me my fowl. He gave 
me his dog. 
English into Ga 155 
(2) Plurals of nouns and ad,jecUves. 
(NOTE : The fo llowing are in different order from 
those in the cor responding Ga exercise but are other-
wise identical. ) 
(a) A new coat, a different road, a good workman, 
a hild story, a large ship, a white bird, a black man, 
il. good II'iend, and a tall man. 
(b) New clothes, bad stories, black men, different 
roads, large s hips, good friends, good workmen, white 
birds, and tall men. 
(c) Many b"lll men , big black men, different good 
fTien ds, good Gn workmen, different new l'onds, dif-
rerent new clothes, bad old stories, large wooden 
ships, and beautiful whits birds. 
(d) There are many different new clothes in the box. 
There are two good Gn workmen on tbe road. 
There are three dift'erent new roads there. 
There are many t:\U men on the road. 
I have many different good friends. 
I have five beautiful white birds. 
I heard many bad old stories. 
There are two large wooden ships there. 
Sis: big blaok people were at the market. 
(3) A<!jectit·, ",rbs. 
(a) A black man is in the raoUl. 
His hnt is black. His coat is black. His bag also 
is blaok. His dog is not black. 
Three beautiful flowers are in the jug. 
The red one is bea.utiful. The white one is beauti-
ful. This one also is beautiful. The jug is not 
pretty. 
156 E xercises 
There are three white things on tbe table. 
The cloth is white. The salt is white. The sugar 
is white. The table is not white. 
(b) Three hig people are on the road. 
The woroan is big. Her hat is big. Her dog also is 
big. Her child is not big. 
These three good people are my friends. 
The man is good. His wife also is good. Their 
child also is good i but theil' dog is not good. 
There are three tall trees in lbis garden. 
This lree is tall. This also is tall. This one is 
very taU. This one is not tall. 
(e) It is pleasj\.n t. It is a pleasant story. It is 
pleasant here. It is pleasant in the mnrket. It is 
not pleasnnL there. 
It 1.'1 sad. The story is sad. The child is to be 
pitied. (The child's things are sad.) The sickness is 
sad. It is not sad. 
He is stupid. I am stupid. The woman is stupid. 
Her husband is stupid; but her child is not stupid. 
He is lazy. I am lazy. The mne is lazy. His 
wife is lazy. His son is not lazy. 
(4) Degrees of comparison. 
(NOTE: These are arranged in difi'el'eotol'der from the 
corresponding Ga exercise but are otherwise identical.) 
(a) This place is as pleasant as Aburi. 
This pillow is as long as that. 
This bird is as big as a fowl. 
This flower is as red as blood. 
His coat is ns bbck as cbarcoal. 
The bread is as bard as a stone. 
SnIt' is as heavy as sugar. 
Eng/ish 'into Ga 157 
(b) Anum is plensnnter than h ere. 
Th is pillow is longer than that. 
A dog is bigger than a cat. 
My brother is bigger than I. 
'rbis hat is prettier than that. 
The rond here is broader than the ODe there. 
The broad is bardel' than stone. 
(c) Akp.fu is the pleasantest of 1\11. 
27tis pillow is longest of all. 
A horse is much bigger than them all. 
This friend of mine is the biggest of us aU. 
This b at is much the prettiest of all. 
My load is beaviest of all . 
This bread is much the best. 
«(l) Nsnwam is Dot so pleasant as here. 
This pillow is not so long as that. 
A fowl is not so big as a cat. 
Sugar is not so hard as stone. 
This man is not so good as you. 
My dress is not so pretty as tbat one. 
A lime is not :lS sweet as au orange. 
(e) Death is preferable to shame. 
Hunger is better than stealing. 
n is better that you should die than that you 
should do this. 
It is better that you should be hungry thn that 
you should stenl. 
(5) N",,,erical adjectit'es. 
(a) Eyery one has one head, ODe nose, and one 
tongue. 
I haye two e.'us, two eyes, two hands, and two 
r.et. 
158 Exercises 
An animal has foul' feet. 
A hand bas five fingers; the fingers ill all are ten. 
r11hel'e are twelve months in one year. 
There nre four weeks in one month. 
Tha1"e are seven days in a week. 
There 31'e twenty-four bours in one day. 
(b) Tbe fi['st day is Monday. The second, Tuesday. 
The third, \'Vednesday. 
The fourth, Thursday. The fifth, Friday. 
rrhe sixth, Saturday. 'rhe seventh, Sunday. 
All these days make ODe 
week. 
Where is the 'brother' 
of VVed nesclay? 
(c) The sun rises about 5 01' 6 o'clock. 
Many people rise at half-past five. 
Many others rise at 7 01' 8 o'clock. 
The children go to school in tbe morning at half-
past seve~. 
They go to school again in the afternoon at two 
o'clock. 
What time is it? en has struck how much?) It 
is 3 o'clock. 
What o'clock is it? It is half.past ten. 
((l) He came only once. I went to him twice. 
called him three times. 
He insulted me six times. r reproved him seyen 
times. He begged my pllrdon ten times. I for-
gave him ten times. We spoke of it mnny 
times. 
(e) Twice 2 are 4. 3 times 3 are ninG, 6 times 5 are 
30. 
English into Ga 159 
(j) ' Va read one by one. We walk two by two. We 
sing fou r by fou r. 
Give them 3 ora.nges each. Give them 5 each, 
(6) Ym'ious promnms. 
(a) These bats are ours. One is mine; one is yours i 
and ODe is your brother's. 
'Va ourselves ordered them. I myself ordered mine j 
you yourself ordered you rs; your brother himself 
ordered h is. 
YOU I' brother ordered, but be has not paid for it; 
you ordered, and you bave paid for it a1ready j I ordered, 
and I also will pay. I myself say so. You have paid 
already j I myself will bear witness. 
(b) I saw some one on the vVha was it? 
verandah. 
I do not know who it " 1hat did he want? 
was. 
I do not know what he When did you see some 
wa{lted. one on the verandah? 
I saw someone on the No one is there now. 
veranda.h this morn· 
iug. 
This child saw some- What did he see on the 
thing on the floor . floor? 
H e saw a spider on tile Thete is nothing there 
11001'. now. 
Some one sent me "What is it? 
something to· day. 
I do no~ know what it Who sent it to you? 
is. It is in n. box. 
I do not know who Do you wish to know what 
sent it. it is? 
160 Exercises 
Yes, I wan~ to know Open the box and see. 
what is in the box. 
The man who was on the verandah has gone away. 
The spider that was on the floor has run away. 
I bave Laken out Lha handkerchief which was in 
the box. 
(7j Adverbs. 
(aj Be quiet. Do i t at once. Do i.t g14dly. Do it 
exactly. Do not be disorderly. Do not do it at all. 
(bj n. called me suddenly. He called me loudly. 
He called me thrice. He called me in vain. 
(e) He likesme very much. He really likes me. He 
likes me a little. He does not like me at all. 
(dj Why did you go that way? I wanted to (I liked 
Lhus). Why do you walk far behind? Ilike to. I walk 
slowly. I do not walk fast. 
(e) When willl1e do it? He will never do it. He 
has done it already. He will do it to-morrow. 
(/) Have you ever been there? No, I have never 
been there. Yes, I have been there already. No, I do 
not know that place. 
(8) Prepositions. 
(a) COIDe to me. You are going somewhere with me. 
Walk in front of me. Look into tbis room. Thore is 
a mali on the floor. Seats are near the table. Thel'e 
is a box on the table. There are many books in 
the box. 
Go and lift the box and put a behind the door, on 
the floor, or under the bed. Take out the books and 
put them on the table. Gi ve me that book. Lift 
English into Ga 161 
a chair and put it in fronl of the window. I sh all sit 
on the chair, and I wiJl read a litLie to you. Sit beside 
me and listen to me well. 
(b) Something of mine is lost. What (of yours) is 
lost ? My smnll key is lost. Let me look for it for 
you. It is not in your pockets. It is not in the lock. 
It is not beside it. It is not in the door. It is not on 
the floor. It is not under the bed. It is not behind 
the mirror. It is not a.mong these articles. It is not 
on the 5 t O" 8. It is not beside your handkerchief. It 
is not here a t an. P erhaps (it is with your servant) 
your servant has it. Where is he? H e is not in the 
kitcben. H e is not in the hack room. H e is not in 
the house. H e is n ot among the sen'ants. H e has 
gone with the key into town without permission. 
(9) Conjunctions. 
Some one asked me something and I gave him an 
answer. 
Some one else asked me something but I did not 
answer. 
' Vill you give him an answer yourself, or shall 
I gi ve him nn answer? 
'}'he story lllay not be true, but perhnps it may 
be so. 
n seems to me tha.t this man hus told absol ute lies 
(lied .!together). 
You must do so because you are of age. 
You a.re of age, therefore you ought to do so. 
li you dd so it will be good. 
It will not be good a.t all unless you do so. 
You are my friend and I like you. 
I like you, but I do not know your llame. 
ill 
162 EXlfrcises 
Do you know me or do you no~ know me? 
Perhaps I will visit you to-mon-ow. 
n S66lllS to me that I have visited yo u already. 
I will come to-morrow because I will bave leisure. 
I will ha\'6 tim.e to-morrow so I shnll come. 
If I come I shall not stay long. 
I shnll not come unless you wish (it so) me to. 
(10) IIlICl:jcclions. 
Listen! You! 
If some one hurts himself, one says to him, 'Kpo' 
(Sony I) 
If you are successful they will say I Aeko!' to you 
(Well done I). 
You must nnswel', nnd say' Ya'ei '. 
If you go to visit some one and you want to enter 
the room My I Ago' (1lfay I come in ?). 
l 
The one who is in the r oom will say' Ame) before 
you en LeI'. (vVaH ti ll the one in the l'oom says 
'Come in' before you enter.) 
If some one tempts you to do somethillg that is not 
good) say to h im' K pao ' (Goel forbid I). 
I Tfia ' is said to one 'who is not respected (Poof !). 
If you fire going to say someth ing not quite pleasing, 
say ' 1'af1ntJ€! ' (Excuse me I). 
If n fowl comes into the room, drive it out and say 
'Sua!' (Shoo I). 
If some one says fAa', yon know that something 
has gdeved him. 
If some one' abuses' you for not,hing, you will cry 
'Sua!' 
If YOll do noL heal' what I say, say to me I Meni?' 
0'· 'rr.?' (What? P ardon ?). 
Engli8h into Ga 163 
(11) Verb tenses. 
(a) Look! There is a black man coming! H e is 
knocking at the gate, and he is smiling. H e is l ook-
ing this way, but he does not see me. 
(b) Birds fly in the sky. Some bU'ds are killed and 
eaten. Some are caught and put in cages. It is not 
good. 
(c) The townspeople there quarrelled amollg them-
sel,res. A number of them were killed. The chief was 
vel)' concerned, bul they did not care. 
(d) You have spoken insuUing words agninst this 
mnn. You have wronged him. You have sinned, but 
the man has not said anything. 
(c) The minister will prench the Word of God in 
the church . Some one wiH play the organ. AJl the 
people will sing, but the service will not be long. 
(J) One cuts (things) with n knife. One eats (things) 
with a spoon. One chews (things) with teeth. One 
does not eat with the nose. 
(g) Do not pass this way. Do not go there. Do not 
trouble me. Ch:mge your clothes. Learn your Ilssons. 
Do it quickly. 
(II) (Pi. pron.) Listen to me. Be quiet. Come nway 
from there. Do not plny in the street. Do not shout 
there. Do not (give me abuse!' 
(12) Remembering and forgetting. 
(a) I forgot soap. You forgot your sponge. 'Ve 
have forgotten a towel. We have forgotten our things. 
'Ve did not remember the things. 
" 2 
164 Exercises 
(b) I have not forgotten you. He bas not forgotten 
my name. They have not forgotten the lock. They 
have not forgotten the keys. They have remembered 
the things. 
(c) You must write his name that you may not 
forget it. Do Dot forget my advice. Do not forget 
your promises. Remember your promises. 
(d) I forgot the matter. Some one reminded me of 
the matter. Then I recollected it oguin. Now I 1'8 , 
member it always. 
(e) No one has reminded ill'} of the mattei'; hut 
I have not forgotten it. It is in my mind always. 
(I) I forgot that the firewood was aU finished . They 
forgot that strangers were coming. He will forgel 
that he owes me money. I will not forget that you 
wnnt some of this. Do not forget that you will be 
wanted to-morrow. 
(g) I hope that you are content. The interpreter 
hoped that everyone had hearJ. We bope that you 
will agree. The fishermen hoped that they would 
catch (kill) many fish . 
(It) The fisherman did not expect that he would 
reach Jand. I do not expect that be will do it. I have 
no hope that he willlenl'D quickly. The farmer does 
not expect that these trees will grow. 
(i) My master is expecting a stranger. The judge 
will expect the witnesses. Do not expect me at all. 
Do not expect the strangers to.day. 
EngNsh into Ga 165 
(13) Int'l'rogative jOo,·ds. 
I am going for a walk. 
'iVho will go with me ? 
You, what al'e YOli doing? Vvould you like to go 
with me? 
All right. Let us go. 
Where shall we go? Are we to go on the plain? 
I suppose you know that part already? 
You do not like it? Wby? 
You say because of the storm which overtook you 
there? 
Really? Then you are afraid of lightning? 
Why'? Because it kills people, is it not? 
When the s torm overtook you, wbat did you do? 
vVbich do you fear Illost, ligh tning or thunder? 
I think both frighten you? 
Then which way shall we go? Right or left? 
\Va will go for a walk on the seashore. 
(14) Pussi ve 'voice.  
• I am wanted. 
You ute being watched. 
He is being dressed. 
I am well liked. 
You have h~n chosen. 
' Va have been told already. 
The buildings are fin ished. 
H e is much respected. 
You will be expec~ed . 
I will be ghren an answer, 
He will be well looked after, 
Your uame is known' far nnd wide '. 
166 Exercises 
(15) Plurals ojv"rus. 
Sing. Plw'. 
This orange is large. The oranges are large. 
The woman is old. The women are old. 
The road is (placed) there. Roads are there. 
The cock crowed . The children shouted, 
The an imal is dead. The animals are dead. 
The mao fired the gUll. The soldiers fired guns. 
The book lies on the table. The children lie in the 
sand. 
The mnn cut the tree. The man cut the branches 
and threw them away. 
Kon. sat on the horse. I saw many people si tting 
on horses. 
My father wrote me a 'l'hey wrote their names. 
letter. 
Bring lhe tab le (lift, take, The school chi ldren took 
como) :l.way the tables (lifted, 
took, went). 
A ta hasdl'opped thecoppel' The chi ldren threw away 
(thrown away- lost). the broken bottle, 
(16) D3i to be (something or somebocZy). 
(a) Affirm. Neg, 
This is the first thing. It is not you I want. 
That is their purpose, H is not he who is the 
It is n sign of reconcilia· thief. 
tion. This is not a place which 
They are all worthless is lived in. 
mattei'S. This cloth is not yours, 
'¥e aro those whom he It is not difficult to do. 
chose. (Its doing is not It hard 
thing). 
Engl'ish imto GCt 167 
Affi,.,,,. Neg. 
'fell me (show me) who If it is not you, who is it? 
he is. '¥as it not you who cnme 
They are all his children. here? 
Who is yout' helper? Her mother is not a On 
The price of the box is woman. 
lOs. He carne, but not will· 
The number of hl.mps is ingly. 
eight. If you do not go, it is not 
Where it chiefly grows is my business. 
on a river bnuk. All that glitters is not 
The reason he said so is gold. 
that he did not believe n is not only he who 
it. frowns who is angry. 
(b) Substitutes/or dSi. 
Be brave! 
Be !\ good child to me. 
Be n comforter to me. 
Re will be a senior in office. 
Who will be your bridesmaid? 
H e will be a wise man among them. 
Will this lamb be a good sheep? 
(0) Wile/II",'. 
I do not know whelher it n is no concel'n of his 
is he. whether it is nice or 
Every OilS is received, DOt. 
whether child 0(' adult. He does Dot mind whether 
It is nice either raw or h'e is respected or Dot, 
cooked. Whether you tell it or 
Neither he nor you C;\ll not, the matter will 
carry it. come out. 
168 Exenises 
You. ought to go whether Be it sickness or hunger, 
he goes or oot. both aI'S painful. 
will give him advice; Whet.her you give me it 
whether he listens 01' or not, I will take it. 
not concel'OS himself. Whether you agree or not, 
I will go. 
(17) Ye to be (somewhere) j to bave. 
(a) Allin". Neg. 
He is in the town. He is not among the 
My mother is at Aburi. people. 
'fhere is water in tbe well. She is not in Dodown. 
1'h81'6 is medicine in the There is no salt in the 
bottle. soup. 
There are many people on There is no milk in the 
the road. tin. 
\Vhen they were speuking l'here are not many people 
I was there. in the room. 
Thel's is it tree in fl'ont vVh en he came I was not 
of the house. there. 
The Ulao has a lot of Thel'e is none behind the 
money. house. 
I have foul' spoons. I have not many clothes. 
'This man has shaGI' and He has not many cocks. 
cows. He has no cows here. 
I have five pal'rots. He bas no iioul' in his 
'fhe young man has many shop, 
books. One who hns no fnther or 
This woman has st.x chil- motber is called an 
dren. orphan. 
Have you 1\ home? If one bas not a good 
foot, one does not run. 
(Prov.) 
E"gNsh into art 169 
(b) TlIe/onn yo. 
' ¥ bo is there? 
' iVhat is that in your hand? 
It is Ak use he is at~ 
It is in my house all the people are. 
One who is in a glass house does not throw stoues. 
The people in the room and the people at the gate 
are all making a noise. 
'Vho has a right to do so? 
'¥hat have you got in the house? 
You, they Sl\Y, have a beautiful dog. 
Yes, it is I who have that dog. 
People who are well do not need a doctor. 
' ¥hat I have is mine. 
(0) SubsWlttes for ye. 
He will be here to-morrow. 
vVe will be in Kumase a year. 
I will be in Abokobi this coming Saturday. 
Sball you also b. at tb. play? 
To-morroW' I shall be in Accra all day. 
Two people will be in the fields; one will be t3.ken 
und one wi ll be left. 
' Vill you bays enough water? 
I shall have rice to-morrow morning from Accra. 
It is he who works wh.o shall have a reward. 
I shall have an answer to my letter from No·te. 
I shall not ha.ve enough money to take me there. 
The Ball8alllen say they will ha.ve a lot of sandals 
in a week. 
(el) Used to /01'''' adjeelives. 
It is sad that be is dead. 
It is nice t~at you did so. 
170 EXe1'cises 
It is nstonishing that I did not bear of it. 
L It is nice tha.t he has got well. It is dl'eadful to think of it. 
'j, It is amusing tl1Ut he J'an away. 
It wns cheap Lo sell this for 3d. 
'rhis clolh is ugly. 
His death is sad, 
1'h is sLoI'Y is amusing. 
This flower is pretty. 
It is tl'ue that he is gen lIe. 
n is true that civil war spoils a people. 
It is true lhat diligence triumphs. 
It is not true thai 1\ fetish kUls people. 
H is not true that he is bold. 
It is not true lhnt he has been conquered. 
({.) Used to sl/(m) position. 
I saw him there. 
It was finished in my presence. 
He WltS born in tbis chiera time. 
H e got a name in the wal'. 
lIe is playing at the gate. 
''Va put down QlII' ,Ionds on the rondo 
He farmed neal' lhe riveI'. 
We l(>ft him on the oLher side of the rive I'. 
We rested nt the fooL of the hill. 
(I) Idimnatic use o/lhe same. 
I will go according to yOltl' word. 
It was done on account of the festival. 
They came about the matter. 
As far u.s I am concel'ned it is not imp0l'tant. 
I wou ld like this instead of t1w.t. 
lIe spoke no more aCtel' that. 
English into GI' 171 
In spite of all that, be was homesick. 
He did it of his own accord (willingly). 
Because! of this he sulked. 
(18) Ya to go. 
He has gone to DodoWfi j and wil l be back to-morrow. 
' iVe went there yesterday. and we will go again to-
morrow or the Dext day. 
I go to all these places every week. 
I am going there now. 
H e says I nUl to go at once. 
Let him go himself. I am not going! 
Go, all of you ! 
Have you not gone to town? 
' Va will not go there again. 
He said we were not to go there again. 
The other man will go. 
r told him that I would not go. 
Do not let the man go there. 
If he gOflS1 he must cOllle back quickly, 
If he bad gone he would have come back already. 
(19) VClV lenses. 
(a) A picture. Continuative tense. 
1 am looking nt n picture, it is hanging on the wall. 
The picture is big i it is both broad and long. 
I see many different people and things in it. 
I see a WOOllU) cooking near a house. 
he is silting on a beautiful stool. 
Two children are benting furu by ber side. 
l.rhere is a high tree there, and a man is w'orking 
under it. 
He is making sometlling like an axe-handle. 
172 Exercises 
Two men are standing behind him looking at bis 
work. 
I seC) i'1 hen and hel' chickens among the gl'uss. They 
ar., looking for something to ea.t. 
'rhel'e is a dog too lying on the pnth. H e is trying 
to ~leep, but lhe flies are troubling him too much. 
l 'he sun is shining bdgbtly. 
1 like this picLuI'6 very much. 
(b) In continued narrative the differenees between 
the two I:l.nguag€'s are much more clearly seen than in 
isola.led sentences. In the following example, which 
is given to show the use of the Habitual Tense, two 
translntions are given, one a literal tro.nslntion of the 
Gn, B,nd the other a translation in natural English. 
Fishermen aLoot slory. 
People aJl who kill fish, 01' they go fishing the, 
we call them lhnt fisbermen. Principall y fisher-
men's children samo become fishermen, Their na.me 
ren! which one takes-calls them is '",olei', Fisher· 
men are some people who al'e very happy, They 
begin' their wOl'k the begin 7 morning early, but 
one gors fishing morning, noon, ftnd evening all. 
One goes fishing day·all·day except 'ruesday just, 
because Tuesday concerning, it is sea.'s day. Fishing 
different which one often goes is 'ali' fishing, j toga.' 
fishing, 'kill)fla' Jish ing 'tfile' fishing, and 'adm'a'd l'ag' 
ging. '1'fn 'ni' or 'ndara' dl'fl.wingconcerning, that-as·for, 
the ground one stands an,d one dl'aws to come sand 
on j then women lhe come to buy fish tbe, then one 
sells gives them. Fisherm.en ;.lI'O people whose work 
is hard; cold whose mouth is strong affects them j 
hunger also affeds them considerably very, because 
English into G« 173 
unless they turn their bad;: they come house before 
they eat th ings good. Money geUing is their work 
the in really, but whnt is not good really is that it is 
not t i01e·all-time one gets fish. Nevertheless times 
that Que does not get fish the, they repair their boats 
t he, and tbey weave their net.s the. 
\ Va call all those who fish or who go fishing, fisher-
men. It is generalJy the children of fishermen who 
tl1emselves become fishermen. The real name by 
which they 31'e called is 'wolsi', Fishermen are a. 
very bappy people. They begin their work in the 
early morning, but they go fishing morning, nOOD, and 
evening. 'f hey fish every day except Tuesdny, because 
T uesday is the sea's day. The commonest kinds of 
fishiug are; -fisbing with I ali' or I toga J nets, fishing 
for 'ka~fla . (. kind of fiat fish full of bones), or ' tJile' 
(n larger fish), and fishing with the' adar'ii ' net. When 
drawing the' tin 'ni' or 'adru.fi. ' net the fisherman st-nnds 
on the ground and drags the net to the sand j then 
t he women c.ome to buy the fish and it is sold to 
them. Fishermen are men whose work is hard j they 
suffer from great c.old j they suffer considerably from 
htUlger, because they must return to their h omes 
before they can eat proper food. Their work is a pay· 
ing one, but the drawback is tha.t it is not always that 
they get fish. Howeyer, in the intervals when they 
do not get fish, they repair their boa.ts, and they weave 
Uleir nets. 
(e) A Ga fable. Past tense. 
How thoughts came. 
Once there was a man who was c..'llled Father Spider. 
As he did DOt wish any ODe to haye (the power of) 
174 Exercises 
thought like him, he went and gathered all thoughts 
together, and he called his SOil Kwakute to come th:lt 
they might go and throw them away. 
As they were on the way (when they were going) 
they came to (they came sn.w) a tree lying across the 
road. Fallu'r Spider could not cross over the tree, 
neither could he cross under, so they slept there for 
three days. 
At the end of three days, Kwakute said to him 
(0 Fathel'! How silly you have been! Could you not 
have laid the bottle of thoughls down and crossed the 
tree, and then have lifted it up again? And Father 
Spider said (0 my child! I thought I bad taken nil 
thoughts away, but it seems tbat I have left some 
behind! ' 
(d) A SJ.JrillU sOllg. Perfect tense. 
1'he hot season has passed. 
The rains have begun. 
The ground is damp. 
The trees have begun to blossom. 
Leaves have swelled. 
Ground orchids have appeared on tho plain. 
The farmers havo nnisbed their tilling. 
They have sown abundant corn. 
They have planted many trees. 
The sky is dea l'. 
The earth is cool and fresh. 
The' oil., • season has come. 
(1') Some Gapl"Qvcrbs. Negatives. 
A crab does not gi vo birth to a bird. 
A blind man does not show n blind man the way. 
One head does not go to council. 
English into Ga 175 
No one goes to baUJe wi th spirits. 
A ben'g fool does not kill her chicken. 
No olle is twice a fool. 
No sleep, no dream. 
That which is not eaten is not cooked . 
A stream 1 does not climb a hill. 
Two ears but they do not hear t wo slories. 
No one hales without cause. 
Gunpowder nnd fil'e do not tl.g ree. 
Bread ru oDe is not good to eat. 
What has not come here yet is on the other side of 
the sea. 
(J) Prall! the Bible. Future tense. 
I will thank Thee with my whole heart. 
Thou sbal t eat tbelabour of thine hands and it shall 
be good for thee. 
Thou shnlt see thy children's child ren. 
H e shaII not let tby foot a1ide. 
The SUD shall not smite thee by day, nor the moon 
by night. 
The Lord shall preserve thee froUl all evil. 
They shnll become His people. 
They shall need neither lamp nor light of the sun. 
His servauts shall serve Him. 
No liar shall enter in. 
' Vho will witness these things? 
I shaH bre:l.k down my barns. 
I .shall let you go. 
lf ye see a oloud fl.rise in the west ye say , It will 
rain '. 
1 nudao is ronlly {ditch' or 'dmln', but for the meaning of 
tho pl'Qverb ' stream I i~ batter. 
1 76 Exercises 
({J) Good advief'. IOlperntive mood. 
Do not. anger anyone unnecessarily. 
Do not worr)' noy one without cause. 
But if you wish to give people advice, that they 
Inay be healthy, Slty La them the following: 
Do not len.ve empty t ins lying about. 
Do not leave dirty wute l' about. 
Do not feed a baby every time it cries. 
1)0 not feed a child in the night. 
Do not give n smnll child me:l.t often. 
Keep eV(;:l'yLhjng clen.n. 
Sweep YOtll' yard e\'el'Y day. 
Kill flies because they bring sickness. 
Qet rid of mosquitoes. 
Keep yOllt' latrines clean. 
Keep all your food covel'ed. 
Keep !til the rubbish covered. 
Do these l nnd you will be healthier than you have 
(lver been. 
(11) Gaprouerbs. Conditional mood. 
Ir you cannot get m<>at, th('n you eat corn bread. 
If it. is night flll men tU'(l black. 
If you get, then you ask for more. 
n two people al'O in chi'lrge of a sheep, it gets 
lost. 
If the food is nice, the tongue finds it out. 
If a tree stands nlone :\gainst the wind it breaks. 
If Y0ul' wine is not sweet, you do not put water 
in it. 
If you t\l'e in n boat, you take out the water in it. 
A hungry mnn. does not eat with both hands. 
If the horse is wild, the rider is not o.l so wild. 
English into Gu 1 77 
If she who went to the r iver has not ret"urned, you 
do not ask for her waterpol. 
If the Jeopard is not in the house, the civet cats 
take the house and make i t theil' own. 
(0 Perfect conditional. 
If you had come, i t would have been go~d. 
If I had put it away, it would not have beaD lost. 
If he had struck you, you would have died. 
If he had not given you medicine y~ould not 
have got well . 
Had you helped me I should not have got tired. 
If i t had not rained it would not have grown. 
n he had run he would have been saved. 
H ad they wanted me, I would have helped them. 
I would have helped them , but they did not waut rue. 
r wish that r had had strength to do so. 
(20) Yerbal ,",,,tiS. 
They like dancing. His departure was hur-
It is difficult to leave off. ried. 
Tell me the me~ae. Scolding ma.kes me sorrier 
His coming was sudden. than flogging. 
Stealing is not a good I S3.W through the decep· 
thing. tion. 
Look what hatred has It is h is well-being that 
done. we seek. 
r can nol eut lhis. Th is is a severe trial. 
H e is not respectful 1-\.$ for you, you have no 
enough. responsibility. 
I ~m sorry f(\l' the loss of H e does not value a bless-
these thiugs. ing. 
I W!\S tired of trying to It is easy to spoil a. thing. 
remember his name. H e is fond of studying. 
178 Exercises 
Dela.y will make them I have never learned to 
think otherwise. drink spirits. 
I did not order it, but We struggle for victory. 
some one gave me it H was not innocent they 
He did Dot steal, but he found him} but guilty. 
killed some one. H is not really forge tful-
ness, but disobedience. 
(21) Th. " •• ojkE, 
Kofi and his brother went for a walk. 
As they were going along they met a man with 
~ long 110SB, carrying a bag of l'ice. 
He was holding a hat with a black feather. 
\iVhen he saw them he stopped and greeted them 
with joy. 
They spoke to him, but it astonished them to find 
that be was a stranger. 
They did not make friends with him, and after 
n.littJe they turned to go. 
Suddenly the man hit Kofi on the back with the 
hat, and said, I Stop, and I will ask you something. 
I will give you this bag of rice if you will do 
something for me '. 
Kofi asked him, I What is it?' 
The man said eagerly, (I want YOli to wa lk through 
Lhis forest until you meet a small man with n 
JIll'gO head. I shall give you this bat and you 
must show it to him. He will put, something 
into it for you and you must bring it to me hei'e. 
Kofi took the hnt nDd looked nt it, 
Then he asked him with wondel', 'Why must I take 
the hat? Can I not bring tho thi ng without the 
hat? ' 
Ga into English 179 
The stranger said to him, I No, you must ta.ke the 
hat. Unless you tnke it the man will not give 
you what I want', 
Kofi thought for n moment, and then he said 
deoidedly, I No, I will not touch this hat ', 
The man shouted angrily, 'You will t.ake this hat 
to the mlln!' 
Kofi and his brothel' laughed and turned to go. 
The man tried to hit them with sticks but could not 
reach them . 
The more he tried to hit them the more it made 
them laugh. 
After that they nevel' saw him again, but they often 
wondered what it was that the man in the forest 
wn.s to have g,iven them to bring back. 
(22) Tlte lise oj rna. 
He placed the box on the ground. 
Place the jng there. 
I plnced the seat under the tree. 
A church stands on the other side of the road. 
Tbere is a barD in the valley. 
A castle is ou the hill. 
(28) Direct alii! illdirect objecl<i. 
I sent him a letter. 
"Va sent them the boxes. 
I gave tho man sixpence. 
He glwe us two fowls and six eggs. 
I gllve him the book. 
lie gave my sister a ring. 
I asked the jnterpl'stsl' something. 
N 2 
180 Exercises 
They asked me a question. 
Lend me some money. 
''lve lent them ollr hoe. 
Show the boy the house. 
r showed them where it was. 
'1'ell me youI' secret. 
She told me everythi1lg. 
He taught the children lessons. 
My mother taught me sewing. 
(24) Tmnsitivc and i1liransitive verbs. 
The box is quite full of clothes. 
Clotbes fill the box up. 
This jug is full of water. 
\Vater fills the jug. 
Cassava grows well neM the coast. 
The grollnd here grows cassava well. 
(25) To express desi,'c. 
This man wants to be a farmer. 
He is looking for good bnd to cultivate. 
He does not want much, for he wants only a smAil 
farm. 
He wishes to plant a few trees . 
He also wishes Lo plant corn and casS:lVa and various 
things. 
lIe does not want to plant yam this year. 
Only next year he will want to pl::mt some, 
Ra likes tomatoes, aud he wil1 plant a lot. 
He will want to sell the produce of his farm. 
But he does not wish to make large profits. 
GCt ,into English 181 
(26) To express agreement / ("ltd the beginning oj an 
action. 
I want to build a. house. 
I asked my father for money, but he would not 
agree. 
r begged him eru'nesUy, then he agreed and he lellt 
me some. 
r have not begun tbe work. 
I cn.lled a builder and we spoke about it. 
H e figl'sed to build the house. 
He asked me whether I would agree to having mud 
walls. 
I said that I would agree. 
He said shou ld he roof the house with iron sheets? 
I said no, I would not oonsent to that. 
He asked me why I did not agree? 
I exphl,ined to him, and he began laughing, but he 
ngl'sed. 
Then he asked me the price. 
r told him the price, and he agreed to that price. 
Now we shal l begin building the bouse. 
(27) To c;;cpress continuation of an action. 
I continued speaking to him. 
He :\Sked us to continue singing. 
Do not go on acti ng childishly. 
I 3m continuing my studies. 
Go on! I am coming. 
(28) To e.rpress frequency in action i and a verbal 
I also ' . 
My aunt often goes to market. 
She has not often been in a train. 
182 ExeTCi~es 
Sbe goes often to Cblll'ch. 
She is not often Inta. 
She cannot read, neither cnn she write. 
rr she could, sbe would often read. 
In spite of it, she trades and makes a profit too. 
She sews and she also weaves cloth like a man. 
She cooks well J nnd she also knows fal'ming. 
She is clever. 
(29) 1'0 exp"ess kno-wlRdge and ability. 
I know nothing about medicine. 
1 c.mnot cure sick ness. 
But I enn help the doctol' all the same. 
r can ma,ke the pa.tients get l·eady. 
I can w"ile their names. 
I call wash medicine bolUGa. 
I cnn :\lso dress sores. 
I am l~ble to do aU these things. 
r know how tn do them alL 
The doccol' oann oL como on Monday. 
Ile cannot come unW Tuesday. 
Afta., t lmt I slJi1.U be able to COIDe always. 
(30) '1'0 e:t1)reSS necessit!J. 
You must do so. 
We must go nIl the snme. 
Everyone must ei\.t~ 
You must beg my pardon. 
-1'hie lllud must be removed. 
1'be s.ervjce must be attended. 
You must remember what I say. 
They ought to make an effort to catcb the thief. 
You should not laugh at a lie. 
GCt into English 183 
It will be necessm'y to put a new roof on. 
Will it be necessary for me to have a testimonial? 
I have to reach th.ere before nightfall. 
A mao who could do that ought to be flogged. 
(3 1) To express achievement. 
I will not be able to buy it. 
I did not manage to write you. 
Will you manage to come at that time? 
We have Dot yet asked them. 
I bad got the box opened. 
The day of his death had not yet come. 
(32) To ea;press pwpose in an actiO'n. 
The trador purposely put the pI'ice up. 
He eats fish purposely. 
I will not annoy you purposely. 
He hit the hen with the stone purposely. 
Do you purposely dress alike? 
(33) Various tlses 0/ ha. 
He did Dot even let me speak. 
That makes me anxious. 
,"Vbat you wrote will make him repent. 
Let the messenger come here. 
May I be raithrul ! 
Please buy some fN' me. 
She does not cook for me. 
'Vhat you do for him you do for me. 
(34) To "r1'''''''' th_ enei 0/ an aclion 01' thing. 
All the rice is fin ished. 
The woman has finished selling aU the things. 
184 Exercises 
The carpenter has finished making the stool. 
" II 11 
'¥e have finished seW in g the case. 
II 11 1J 
The money you gave me is fi nished. 
His sugar is finished. 
We have £nished all the work. 
(35) Compouncl 'Verbs with grammatical completion. 
(a) General completion. 
This lUall bere is a minister, and he also judges. 
He is very faithful in his work. 
H e is going to try a case the day after to·morl'ow. 
They say that a man has killed a woman. 
He was jealous; that is why he killed her. 
Everyone is talking about it. 
Many people say that the lllao waS mad. 
But many are doubtfu l abouL it. 
vVhether it is tl'ua or not, the maD is guilty. 
Try to come and heal' the case. 
Every oue is mourning for the womall. 
I do not know wbether they will have the I yarn I 
custom or not. 
(0) Pal'ticuiul' completion. 
Come and help me. 
Open this letter for me. 
I do Dot understand what is in it at nIl. 
Begin here nnd read. 
I have finished reading it all. 
Now translate it all for me. 
r his is the maLter :-Kofi is wnnting to marl'y. 
He has asked for Akua. 
Gl< into English 185 
Everyone praises Akua. 
She behaves well. 
Sbe also wnsbes things well. 
She will help Kofi properly. 
She will never make him ashamed. 
KoB. is very pleased about the maHer. 
H e is going to gatllel' all his friends together to let 
them know. 
(0) and (d) With direct or indirect object in addition. 
Please listen to me for a little. 
r want to tell you a certain matter so that you may 
g ive me advice. 
It is this; my brother has disgraced me. 
I am older than he, but I am not happy about him. 
One day I gave him permission to use my gun. 
He frightened some children with the gun. 
They were much afraid of the gun, and began 
crying and screaming. 
There W3S a man there who will bear witness to it. 
He warned my brotherl but he only mocked him. 
Wh,t should I do? 
Should I do something about it? 
I h lwe been very long-suffering. 
Now I will have to make him humble himself. 
If you will advise me I shall be grateful. 
(36) Compound vCI'bs Iritlt grammatical subject. 
Th ese four men al'e handsome. 
But something else is necessary in addition. 
It is necess..'\ry that they should be good also. 
This one is eloquent, but he gets angry quickly. 
This one is strong, but be is also hard. 
18G Exerc~es 
The third one is cunning and cl'uel. 
The fourt.h one is gentle and prudent. 
Everyone respects him. 
So he is th e most fortuuate. 
(37) Double verbs. 
Some one has said something against you, nod made 
an :tccus.'ltion. 
The mutter hus been put into the hands of t.hose in 
author it.y. 
On account of this I h3\'e been lold to come and 
inform you to come before the authorities to· 
monow. 
The inquiry into this ntTair s hould not be postponed 
longsl'. 
The seniol's will examine you r account book. 
I advise you to heJp them in every way you can. 
I believe that when Lhis accusation is looked ioto, 
you will be fou nd innocent. 
(38) lTC/'b, u:ilh k€. 
They forgave him nIl. 
H e said he would forgive me. 
n you repent, he will forg ive YOli . 
I forgive you your wrongdoings continually. 
Do not t "ust him. 
We always tl"llst them. 
Your kindness made me trllst YO LI. 
r nm not his equal in reading . 
. 'Who will lUany her? 
'Vhom will he man'y ? 
vVhut woman is he going to mnrry'? 
H e said he was going to marry my sister. 
Gel into E'Ilg7Jish 187 
You will meet a short man on the bill. 
We met him on the road. 
We meet them theTa dlLily. 
I confirm the trut,h of it. 
(Can you confirm that he will come to-morrow?) = 
Can you nssure me that he is coming to-morrow? 
r-
APPENDIX I 
GA·ENGLISH VOCABULARY 
OF 
''VORDS USED IN T HE EXERCISES ONLY. 
agb6 on', gnleway 
A a'hu, very much, long 
abE, · i, proverb l -8 time 
abe:ku, left ahum, storm 
abifao, abifabii, baby, akE, that (conj.) 
-ieg ake:, as, than, like 
ablana' , verandah akeni, since (conj . deno-
able, corn ting cause) 
ablogwa, -i, chair) -s ako', panDt 
abolo, -i , bread akontabu', accounts 
abOD UIl, -i, lime, -8 A.kua, pi'. name, girl'S' 
o.boljo, -i , barn, -8 akutu} -i, orange, -8 
abo, a numher of akwadu, -i, banana} -8 
abo', garden alD, 10, 01' 
Abude, Aburi a lol]te, -i, cat, -8 
abui, needle amnIa, lie 
adeka, -i, box, -es ameose:bE, tomato 
adodol], adododgi, fly, arnE, they, their, them 
-ies amralo, governor 
adgiDa, council amro, immediately, now 
aft) -i, yen1', -8 anai, west 
afial]a, flag ananu, spidel' 
n.fua, mist ani ? in trod. word of in-
agbami, fig ten. 
o.gbe:ne, now animol1l]? it seems? 
agbo, -i, large anDkwa, truth 
agb6, -i, gate, -8 asafo, company 
GCt-Enghsh VOmbldw-y 189 
aso? intl'od. in terr. word bi, -i, child, or en (by 
asrafonyo, soldier birth); binu'/ son i hi-
aSwiSwe:, mirror YO' , daughter 
Ata, name of twin hi , to ask 
ata,', father! Mr. bi gbE, to ask permission 
atade, ~ i , d l'ess, coat, &c'/ hi Ii, to ask for 
clothes bibio', bibii, smalJ, little 
statu, cloud b i E, here 
awa.ls, -i , spoon, -5 bie:gbe, this way 
BWUl)syeli , jealousy ble, to lie across 
8WUB8., orphan hlE, so then (conj.) 
ble::o', softly, slowly 
blohu, ~i, st rp.et, ·s 
B 
blofonyo, blofomei, Eu· 
bal to come ropea.n, -s 
ba, lo ask for bo, t hou, thee 
ba, -i, le:lf, lenves bo, pI. bID, to cry out j 
be. dseIJ , to behaye blomo, sCl'earning 
ba he Ii , to h umble self bo tOi, to l isten 
b e. yi, to spare boi, to begin 
babao, many, much (ndj. bote, to enter 
and ad,,_) bo, to produce, or grow 
basabaso., in disorder bo ahora, to disgrace 
be, time j be-mba, always bo koko, to warn 
be, to quarreJ bo mod el), to be diligent" 
bei, stri fe hy 
b enE, perhaps bo musu, to blaspheme 
beni, when (conj.) used bo nanyo, to be friends 
ill pa.st only bo nsrs., to drill 
bE ? is it not '? bof6bo, in every way 
be:. not to be boni, how, as (cooj.) 
be: mli, to be un t rue bu, hole, well 
bE' , to sweep bu, to consider, respect 
190 Appendix I 
bu abE, to use a proverb D3 
bu bem, acquit dsa, to be right, necessary 
bu f5, Lo co ndem n dga, (conj.) unless 
bu no, lo cove" up dge. mli, to divide 
btl Ii , to bend down dgodge, to straighlen j 
bua ua.', lognthertogethol' dgadg6 tJo, Lo infol'm 
btllu, fool dg;auo, dg:rano, market i 
D pI. d3adsi anD 
do , pI. dl'R, to be big dgatfu, -i , load, -9 
do,', da'uE, always dge, to COUlO forth, pro· 
da:gbi, da ily duce 
dn, eV61' dge aba, to dress alike 
do." , palm wine dge gbE, n verbal I pUt· 
do. P, to thank poselr' 
dabi, n o dge kpo, to go ont, come 
dado, iron forth 
dade1fu, eago dgo I)ma, to smell swee~ 
damo, to stand dgo lJwnne, to discl1ss, 
dnnij he fore (conj.) doubt 
deka, leisure. dge fiJi, to begin 
dil, dOl) . hand (palm of) dge tJin e, to disgust 01' 
di, to be black tire one 
di l], didgi, blllel.:: dgo, dgelJ, world 
di SE, Lo desil'e dge na, to become night 
diontJ€, self, own dgee, neg, of dgi 
dilJ1J, quiet dgelJbn, behnvioul' 
dOlJlJ, (with neg.) never, dgE:, to scold, revile, insult 
never agai n dgEi , dgEmei, thete 
do, to pain, gl'ieve dgEigbE, that way 
dU Lo plant dgEkE, to be long (dis-J 
duo.de, cnssnva tance) 
duku, ·i, \umdkel'obief,-$ dgi, to be (some one 01' 
dUl) , darkness something) 
Ga-Ellgl ish Vocabu./(!}"y 191 
d~e, to take out ekah), bra va man 
dgie gb£l to accompany eko, one, some of; eko-
dgie yi, to pmisc me, ekomei, one, some 
d5im, to be wild ekolE, perhaps 
dgio, whether ekoI), again 
dgio . . . dgio, either ... 01', ekpa, SL'i: 
neither . .. nor ent, -mei, this one, these 
dgo', darlcing, dance eno, his 
dgo foi , to run enumo, five 
d3ogb.~, well (adv.) enyie, how much? how 
dgo, to be cool many? 
d3~)'mo, blessing enyo, two 
dgra, to be hard, difficult eIjmoIj, raw, unprepared 
dgra., pl'ice, value eia., sin 
dgra W&, to be deal' eta, is finished 
dgrayelo l ~i, trader, ·s et~, three 
dgu, to steal 
dgu·, thert F 
dgulo, thief fa, to suffice, be plentiful 
Dgu, Monday fa, to lend (money) 
Dgufo, Tuesday fa. (with kE), to forgive 
dguro, right, good fa.", rhTer 
dgw&, to break, spoil fa ' SE, other side of river 
di)We~mo, thought fa.' toi, river·bank 
di)Wero fl, to lie nbout fii., half 
d3wEi, gra....~, sweepi ngs fa, to command 
Io. gbe:, to travel 
E 
Ia ns,', to open (bottles, 
6-, Jlis, her. its &c.) 
edgakE, bec:.\\lSe fndgi, sor65 
edgwE, fOllr fai, -i, hat, -s 
efol), 6\'il fa1;), prefer.o.bla 
aka:, courage. brayery f8.1)1) , claady 
192 A1Jpendia; 1 
fata he, to heJp, join wi~h fo he, ,\-"ush 
fe, to surpass fDfoi, -i, flower, -5 
fe, to do, make fuse (Swiefi), to pour (out) 
fa diIJIJ, to be quiet tU j to s\vell 
fa eka, to be bl'ave fufo, milk 
fa ftono' , to be damp fufui , fufu 
fa hedgo, to be lazy 
fe klalo, to get ready G 
fe kolo, to be stupid ga, ring 
fe yara., to moum (in Ga., Accra 
native eustorn) gba, to relate, prophesy i 
re, all gba sane, to converse, 
fai , cold (noun) tell a story 
fED , beauty gba arofro, to blossom 
fErEO, f£fEdgi, beautiful gba na', to trouble 
ft , bind, tie gba ta, to go to war 
fta ', all gbe, to kill 
fio', it little gbe hie, to make ashamed 
flte, to spoi l gbe na', to finish . 
fla, fadgi, sore, -5 gbe fi to fall 
ftiki , to fiy gbe', ~i ) dog, -s 
fto, empty, mere gbek@', ~bii, child, oren 
flo U8.', to aCCllse gbele, dea.th 
flono'! damp gbeyei, fear 
fo, pI. flo, to cut gbeyelo, coward 
fa mli , to cross gbi, pot 
f6 , to cry (,veep) gb€, ~i , road, -5, way 
ro, to cease gbEJal,) , duty, pa~'t 
f5 dgra no) to j l1crease gbe:i, llame 
the price gb€k€, evening 
fOlJ, fodgi, bad gb€teIJ, on the way 
f6, give birth (to) gbt, to be dry 
fo, n verbal' often' gbi, ~i, day, -s 
Ga-Eliglish Vocabulw·y 193 
gbid5uro, festi val he y£ fEO, to be beautiful 
gbikogbiko. Dover (with he', -i, new 
neg.) he', yes 
gbla, to draw, pull hefatalo, -i, helper, -5 
gbla toi, to puuish hegbE, liberty, right 
gble, to open hako, anywhere, some-
gbo, gboi, to die where 
gbogbo, -i, wnll, ·s hela, -i, sickness, ·as 
gbomo, gbomei, person,-s helatJamo, healing of 
gbo, pI. g blo, to be old siclmess 
gbo, to plane helatJe:, .mei, sick per· 
gbo, -i, stmnger, -s son, -5 
gidigidi, disol'derly heni, where (conj.) 
gl asa, glass bere DO, to answer 
gOIJ, godgi, hill, -s heJitJwa:, eagerness 
gugo, nose heto', answer 
howalt, strength, power 
H bewD, for sake of, on 3e-
ha., to give count of 
hi gbe:, to permit hi, to be good 
ha no, to covel' lip hi (Ji), to dwe1J, remain 
hala, to choose hia, to be necessary, to 
haa, to tl'oubJe need 
he, to buy. n~cept. take j hio, to hold (in hand) 
he yo) to believe (take) hie nyomo, to owe 
eat) money 
he. place hie, to look after 
be, self, outside, exterior hie, face 
he, ditto used for' about 'Ih ie ba no, to recoiled 
he dgo, to be genUe Ih ie dge no) to forget he esft., to be clever hie kii. he, to be aware 
he hi.s, to be necess..'lrY h]e ks no, to hope, expect 
he wo., to be strong hie ki Ii, to be prudent 
194 AppendAx I 
hie kpa DO, to forget k ai, to l'emem her 
hie me, to feel at home kakada1)l)J long, tall 
bie so, to respect kakla., -i, knife, kn ilO'es 
hie te, to be cunning kane, -i , lamp, -s 
hie wa, to be bold kane, to read, count 
hie yE no, to remember kal)kal], ciyet cat 
hiegbele, shame kaplE, copper coin 
hienoka.mo, hope/ex pecta- kase, to learn 
tion ke, to give as gi ft 
bilE, well-being ke, kEHe:, yet, still (conj.) 
hilJIDd, -1 , eye, '8 \I ke, and, with 
hO, Lo pass kE, to be long (shape) 
bo ', to cook kE', to say, tell 
ho', tJPl'Otl.l', noise ke:, kEd 3i, if 
ho, to se ll ke:~ba, bring 
bole, to lift kE~ fa, forgive 
homo, hunger ke:-kpe, to meet with 
homo ys, to be hungry kEdgE, from 
hOl] , shadow ke:kE, only 
Ro', Saturday ke:ke:. ni 01' IE) then (conj.) 
Hogba', Sunday ke:yaJi, llntil 
bu, also kite, go on! 
hu, Lo cultivale land kle~kle~ , first 
hulu, sun ko, n 
ke', bush, wood 
K kedgo) to judge 
ka, try kodgol.:>, judge 
ka', ernb keko', cocoa 
ka ', trial, test kolo, -i, animal, ·s 
ka, p1. karo~, to lie (down) kome, ekome, one, alqne 
ka he, to continue komei, SOlUe 
kG. h ie, to reprove komi, corn bread 
ka kw€, to examine, test koni, so that 
Ga·El1glish Vocabul(]jry 195 
kotoku, -i, bag, pocket, -s kpotoi, dirty, muddy 
kotJa, sponge kpulu, kpudgi, jug, -s 
ko't!E:, -i, leopard, -5 (used kil. pI. kiimo, to break 
for tiger) ku SE, to return 
k6, to pick up kuku, .dgi, (1) short; • 
kOi, hoe (2) verse; (3) piece of 
knka -k::>, nt all oloth 
ko 'Yo, wind kuIE:, expression showing 
kpa, thread subjunctive mood 
kpa, to remoye, cease kunim, victory 
kpa fai , to beg (remove kw~, to grow 
bot) kWE, to look at 
kpakpa., -i, good kWE gbE, to expect (some 
kpa 'nyo, sigh t one) 
kpata. hie, destroy kwo, to climb 
kpata Ji, ki tchell, open kwra', altogether, at all 
shed 
kpata mo, reconciliation L 
kpawo, seven la, to dream 
kpe SE, to be bote la, fire, light 
kpo ', Sbllld llgainst l a, to hook, fasten 
kpe YO', to marry (wife) la, blood 
kpe: , to sew, carve out, I hi, to sing 
make l ad3e, to lose 
kpintllJ~, healthy lai, firewood 
kpitio', short (stature) laks., to deceive, persuade 
kpitiokpitio, often l atE, sto\'-e, hearth 
kplakpla, hastily latJa, heat, perspirntion 
kple. -i. g reat Ie, to know 
kple, to agree l ebi. morning 
kplE: pI. of kpe:. to shine lema, a.'X:e 
kPOllO, innel' yard lematJo, (L'X:e-bandle 
kp6, knot IE, be, she, it, him, her 
02 
196 .A P1Jenclix I 
IE, the meni, what? 
Ie, to rear, bring up menihewo, what for? 
IE' , to he brand meo,6d. 
IElE, lEd&i, ship, -s mfon iri, picture 
IdEI) . really mi, I , me, my 
leI) . IE mli, in the mino, mine 
lilEi, -i, tonguo, -s miJe:, joy 
10, a lo , 01' miJe:d5e1o, comforter 
10, to weave mIa, law 
10', -i, flesh of aIt kinds, mli, lJ, inside 
Illeat mli fll , to get angry 
10', to gather up mli hi, to be kind, good 
lofto, lofod3i, bit'u, -8 mli wo la , to get angry 
mo, mo mli, to catch 
M mo nanyo, to make 
lna, to lend friends 
ma, pI ma.mo, to builJ mo·) castle 
rna, pI. mamo, to place, mo, mei , person, -s, people 
01' be placed modilJ, negro 
mi, maI) , town j m8l), mof~mo, everyone, each 
naLion; m8IJbii, towns- one 
people i mnlJtfE, chief moko, some one, anyone 
madse, to send (some- mokome, one persoll 
thing) mokroko, anoLber person 
male, to lie momo) already 
mama, -i, cloth, -s momo, memedgi, old 
manso, civil wal' moni, (one) who (reI: 
mQI)kpa , early morning I pron.) 
mase:i, side, beside mOl], rather 
m§. which? m;>del]bo·, diligence 
meba, why? mu·, entire, 'whole 
mebe. when ? musub;>·, blasphemy, in· 
mehewo, why? suIt 
an-English Vocabulary 197 
n1, tbnt (intro, subj, mood) 
N ni , which, who (relative 
on, to see proD.) 
o s. flJt, to unders tnntl nibil, articles 
Da, to get nikaselo, -i, student, pupil 
ns. deka., to have a chance nikasemo, studies 
n s. be tj'm , to have plea- nikpe:', sewing 
sure in nile', wisdom 
oti SE, to gain nilelo, wise man 
un,', price nina, to overt~ke 
00.', mouth, opening nine, nidgi , hund, -s 
no. 'dgielo, in terpreter nitj'ulo, -i, workmau,-men 
no.'gbe, end nitj'umo, work 
na. . kpE, wonder niyenu, food 
na'to, to mllke a slip of no, t,hll.t (dem, pron,) 
the tongue nohewole:, therefore 
no. . tIe, to be eloquent no, nii, th ing, -s 
na' wo., to be hard nohewo, l'enson (thing's 
naakpn, very (much) sake) 
nads'alJ . (in)stead of noko, anything) some-
nakai, thus, so Lhing 
namo, who? nob'oko, something else 
nn·ne, nadsi , foot, feet I noni, that which 
nan yo, uanemei, friend, nOIJlJ , even, the same 
-s no, on 
n~, which? I nomima', confirmation, 
n eg bE, whel'e '? certainty 
DE , thb, these I nu, to hell.l', smell j nu 
ne:ke: . , . nE, ditto, Gm- he, to heal' about 
pbatic form nu, water 
DE'bu, nine I nubu) well 
ni, tlnd D ud~o , ditch 
ni, it is nu', wi, man, mell 
198 AppencUx I 
nuntJo, ·mei, lllaster, -s IJai , charcoal 
nyanyoIJ , uyanyodgi, lJa'10, artisan 
tooth, teeLh lJawo', udvice 
nye, molher l]ma, to 'HUe 
nye, you, your l)me gbE, to allow 
nyekwG, :tunt lJIUG tfUl Ji, to be patient 
nyemi, -mei, bro. 01' sis. lJmE, palm kernel 
nyeminu', brothel' l]lnEne:, to-day 
nyemiyo', sisler IJmlE, IJme:dg:i, bell, -s 
nye, yesterday (o'clock) 
nyesE, the day before 1JIDIEtJwa', -i, hour, -s 
yesterday IJmo, lJmo ii, farID 
ny~, to be nble lJIDO, pl. lJm1o, to laugh 
nyemo, to dress (sores, lJmo, to tie 
&c.) lJmoto, mud 
nyE, to hale 1]0', saiL 
nyE', haLred ~5, to (prep.) 
nyie, to walk IJo, to be nice, sweet 
nyomowo" payment lJo, to take 
nyo'IJ, night, at night 1Jfo, sea 
UYCl), nyodg:i, month, -s lJfono..', seashol'o 
nyoIJlo, at once IJwei, above, up, ovel' 
nyolJllla, ten 
NyoIJmo, God o 
nyolJroo nE, to min -0, thee 
nyo1Jmo JiIh;), thunder 0-, thOll, thy 
nyol)tfere, moon oblanyo, oblahu, young 
mao, mell 
IJ odasefo, -1, witness, ·es 
l]a, wife odaseyeli wolo, testimo· 
lJa, greet ninl 
~a (1<) no, (~h.) plain Ofta, the llAme of A senson 
l)i yi, to sL01'm ftt oh a, hund red 
Ga-English Vocabulm-y 199 
Odol]kofOi, Hnu&,\mau, sa', mat; sa-tIo, bedstead 
&c. sa', to repnir 
ohiafo, -i, poorman, !lieo sa', a verbal ' again ' 
okadi, -i , sign, -8 sa hie, to please 
oketeke, train samfe ', -i, key, -8 
oko 'kpe, bicycle sam..flE, samfEdgi, win-
okplo, -i , table, -5 dow, -8 
okpol]O, - i, horse, -5 sa.mlii, soap 
okwafonyo, fal'm al' sane, sadgi, s tory, s tories 
omo, ri ce sa.negba ·J conversat ion 
ana, yOUl'S saneyeli, hearing of a case 
oDukpa, -i, adult, one in s8.lJku, organ j tfW8. S8.lJ-
authority ku, to play organ 
080rO, -i, pries t, ministers SRlJlJ, considerably 
-s s~i, -i, seat, stool, ·s 
otj'i, -i, week, ·s se, behind, back 
oya, qu.ickly segbE, behind 
sekpe ·, lateness 
p 
setIde, delay 
pam, much, very much setSu, bedroom, back room 
paparu, towel sikli, sugar 
p e I] , ever Sisa, spil'it, ghost 
PE, j ust) e:xacUy skul, school 
PEPE'pE, exactly So', 'l' hu rsday 
pi 'J much, many Soha', Friday 
pilll. to hurt, or be hurt solerno, sel'vice, prayer 
pte. to press 0 0 , s truggle I solemotfu, church 
po, even sra, visit 
po oi shu, properl y srawa, ligh tning 
pue, to t\PPM l' sroto, -i, different 
sroto' , lock 
S su., earth, olay 
sa, to be right sumf>, to like 
200 Appenc/;x I 
sum6, to serve JtkpoIJ , fl oor, eadh 
suomo, lovo (noun) f iua:, door 
snne, -i, pillow, -s JiJel'amo, walk (noun) 
susu, to think, mensure fIJi.tJoia, in lerprotcl' 
SllSU he, Lo th ink of 01' £nvo', pl'omise 
about Jo~~, fa .. ofT 
l:o,\Vednosdny 
fwa he, La repent 
sa, burn Jwane, :.tf~el'noonJ middllY 
Ifloe, to &lip Jwapo, shop 
fata, to drag nlong JWE, to pIny 
So gbeyei, Lo fenl' JWE, Lo wnnt, lack 
fero. fi, to walk JWEmo, play, concert 
fe:, to arJar Swie, to (ll'iva :\wny 
flO, Lo reach Jwie Si, to Lh row down 
fe:', meSS1\gc, order Swie yil), to poodp,r 
IEd36 mi', to eomfol,t f\Vilaro, bl ind man 
Ie: [0, pI. JEre Swie Ji, La 
throwawny 
Ji, but T 
Ii, fiJi, undel' part, down ta, to chew 
Ji, to knocl, (al) ta, wnr 
Ji, u verbal' against' la,pl. td,(Ji), tosit(down) 
Ji t'ufui, La beat fufui ta, pI. tra. be, to touch 
Ji mIi, La add to, p ut into tam::>, like 
J1, to leavo tao, to wish, want, seek 
fio., sand to went 
jia., house te Si, to t' ise up 
fiE, Lo preach te'mol)sane, secret 
JiJ, times (occasions) tel], among, middle 
Jikome, once tere, to cn.l'I'Y (on head) 
j'ikCL, monoy tete, even 
JtkifalJ, flour tE, -i, stone, ·s 
G{t-English Vocabulary 201 
tEO, to plant (cutlings, tIensi, tin 
Slickers) tIE, -mei, faLber, -s 
ti Ii , to surprise tfi:, to call 
tiafl, latrine tf<, to be long (time) 
titri, principally, really tJETE j feather 
to', -i, sheep t.fi:, to be heavy 
to ' bi , lamb tji n a. ·, to s top, binder 
to he, to :mswel' tJl Jwie, to throwaway 
to Ii, to put down lond tfi to, to put off 
to fiJi, to found tfma, -i , cow, ·s 
toi, oil ear, -s tJo, to burn (glow, flame) 
toigbele, disobedience tJo, tJei, tree, -s 
t6i, times (multiples) tIofa, medicine 
tokotai, sanLials tforatf<, doctor 
toyitIo, bridesmaid tJol]a'lo, carpenter 
to, to err, make mistake tfotfro lft), hang (down) 
to no, to do wrong to tfo, a verbal . through " 
to, - i, boHlf', -s j tokoi , pass through 
broken bottles tjo, to become 
to, to tire tIo, to show, teach 
tro, 3d. tSS ns.· , to name n. price 
truka.·, suddenly tfo fifi. to explain 
tu , gun ; tJwu til. fi re tjolo, teacher 
n gun; tutJofii. gun- tJu, to be red 
powder tIu, -i, room, Os, house, -s 
tu hie. to frown tiu nii, to work 
tu \vo del] , to put in tIu he nUl to use 
clJr\l'ge of tJUt, -i, heart, ·s 
tIulo, tIudgi, servant, ·s 
tIumiilo. buil der 
tI.lke, to change I tfuru, red 
tJe, to be de:H, clean tfutJu. first 
tJe hie, to be friendly tfwa, pl. tfwia. to strike 
202 AppenrIix I 
W6SE, day nfter to-morrow 
w w6lj, fetish 
wa, to be h a.l'd I wil, -mei, husband, -$ 
wa, to help, strengthen wula, to adorn, dress up 
\Va) to stop wulu , wudgi, large 
wa he, to hurt (pain) WUO, fishing 
wa', loudly, strongly WUO, -i, fowl, -s 
wao, wubii, fingel', -s 
wale, difficulty ::~~~{o~OCk wuowodgi, 
wie, to 8peak egg, -s 
wie he, to speak about I wuludu', cool, fluently 
wie un:, to speak with 
wie Ii, Lo speak against 
wie tJo, y to reason with 
wiemo, word, speech ya, to go 
w6, pI. h61e, lift ya', -i t net, -s 
w6, to I manage lo' yaa, 'here and there I 
wo, to pl'oduce, be pro- ya'fo, weeping 
duced Yl1kn, yakatSwl1, useless-
WO, \VO Ulli, to put in (Iy), (ill) vain 
we bG gbeyei, to frighten ye, to ngree with, suit 
wa mli la, to make angl'Y ye, to eat 
we nyomo, to pay debt ye anokwa, to be faith-
wo 1Ja 'J to advise ful 
wo tIu, to roof honse ye awulJu, to be jealous 
wo fi , to promise ye bua, to help 
wole:nyo, wole:i, fisher- ye d3ra, to trade 
mall, -men ye f6, to be guilty 
wolo, wodgi, book, -s ye he, to be free 
wonu, soup ye he fEO, to mock 
we, to sleep ye he odase, to bear wit-
WO, we, us, our ness 
w6, to-morrow ye kunim, to be victoriou.s 
Ga-English Vocabulwry 203 
ye no, to fu lfil , obey ye: na'kpEJ to be wonder-
ye (moko) u:») to conquer, ful 
rule over ye: Ijmlo, to be amusing 
ye lJkomoJ to mourn yE oro', to be cheap 
ye odase) to witness ye: taIJ, to be nasty 
ye okwn, to he a fm'mer ye:o .• nn'J according to 
ye onukpa, to be of age, ydE, ye:dgi, yam, -s 
be older than ytb::h y£dgi, white 
ye sane, to judge case y i , to beat, flog 
ye sEkE, to be lUad yi, shilling 
ye tJui, to be anxious yi cbo, or yi ta, to be fllll 
yali, eating or to fill 
yE, to be (somewhere) yibo, number 
YEt to be white yidgiemo, praise 
ye, to haye j yo (another yino, period , generation 
form) YiIJto, purpose 
ye: fEO, to be beautiful yisE, back, behind 
ye: gbeyei, to be dread- yitJo, yitJei, hend, -s 
ful yitSoIJ, mind, inside of 
ye: mi JE, to be pleasant head 
ye: mli or YE:IJI to be YitJoIJ \Va, to be cruel 
tl'll8 y o', yei, woman. -men 
ye: mobo) to be sad yo SE, to perceive 
ENGLISH·GA 
nbusi ve lunguage, to use, 
A dB" 
a. an. ko nccording to ... , ye: ... na· 
a certaiu, ko Accl'a, Ga 
to be t\ble, ny~ account of, Oll, yE . 
"bout (prep.), he , yEo .. he hewo 
abuud:l.ut, pi' accounts, o.kontabu· 
204 Appendix I 
accuse, to, flo no.' amusing, to be, ye: lJmH5 
accusation, no.' fi:>mo and, kE, ni 
add, to, fata he nnger, mlifu; angrily, ke: 
adult, onukpa, -i mlifu 
advice, lJitWO' angry, to he, mli fu, mli 
advise, to, wo l)a', wie woln. 
tJc nnimal, kolo, -i 
nlfected by.,., to be, answer, heto·; answer, 
... yo to, to he, hero no 
nfl'nid, to be, Jo gbeyei nnxious, to mnkE', ha tJui 
after, SE; nfter n little, ye 
fa se: Ie: j aHel' that, no fill)' one, moko 
se: Ie: anylhing, ooko 
nJtel'Il0011, Jwune, gbeke: appeul', to, pue 
ngain, ekol] ; ngain, with ure, dgi 
neg., dOlJTJ fil·ticles, nibii 
ttgilinst) Ji (verhnl) as, tarno, ak€: 
ngt', to be of, yo oDukpa j :\.Shamed, to mnke, gbe 
be older tb,\n, yo ... hie 
onukpa ask, to, bi 
ngree, to, kple R~k for I to, bi Ji, ba 
ngl'ee with = suit, kE ... assure, to, ma DO mi 
ye astonish, to, fa Da:kp€: 
all, n astonished, to he, os: kp€: 
all the same, k~, kalE: be 
alo116, kome astonishing, to be, ye 
already, momo na'kpe 
nlso, hu nl, he, ye, &c, 
also (conj.), asul) at once, amro ne: 
nltogethel', kwra' at nIl, koko 'ko, kwra' 
always, bernbo, de. 'ne: auut, nyekw~ 
am, dgi authority, those ill, onu-
among, tOIJ kpai 
English- Ga Vocabulan-y 205 
axe, l ema beside, masEi 
axe·handle, lematfo bicycle, ok:J'kpe 
big, agbo, -i 
B big, to be, da, pI. dra 
bird , loflo) lofodgi 
baby, abifao, abifa bii black, di~, didSi 
back, SE black man, mediI] 
back rooUl, sEtfu black, to be, di 
bad, fo~, lod3i blessing, dgo'mo 
bag, kotoku, -i blind mau, fwilnfo 
banana, ak wo.du, -i blood, hi 
bare, flo bl ossom, to, gba afofre 
ba,l"D, aboIjo , -i boat, IdE, lEdgi 
battle, to go to, gba ta. bold, to be, hie wa 
be, to, dgi book, '\Volo, wOdgi 
b. (at), to, y. bom, to be, pass. of f6, to 
beat fufu, to, ji fufui bear 
bear witness, to, ye oduse both. anyo Ie: rn 
beautiful} f£fEO, fEfEdgi botUe, to j broken bottles, 
because, edgakE tokoi 
because of . . 'J ••• hewo box, adeka, -i 
become, to, tfo brauch, (tfo) nine, nidgi 
bed, sa-tJo hrave, to be, fe eka 
before (prep_ of place) hie bread, abolo 
befOl'e (conj.), dani break, to. kil. pI. kUma 
beg fol', to, ba bridesmaid, toyitfo 
beg (implote), to, kpa bring. to, ke· ba., w6 kE-
fat ba, &c. 
beg p:\.rdon , to, kpa fai broad} to be, Ie:' 
begin, to} dse fiji . boi brother, nyeminu' 
b6h:we, to, ba dgel] build, to, mal pI. mamo 
behind , SE, sEgbe:. yise: buildings, tJui 
believe. to, he y6 builder, tfumilo 
206 Appendix I 
business (concern)) sane clean, to be) he tJe 
but, Ji cleal') to bo, he tJe 
buy) to, he clearly, faIJIJ 
clevsl', to he, be esa 
C climb, to, lewo 
cage, dadetIu cloth) maroa. 
ca ll ) to, tJt clothes, atadei 
enn, see' able I cloud, atatu 
care, to, bu cloud urise, atatu wo 
carpentel" tfol]a'lo coast, lJ fona' 
car ry (on hend), tera coat, atade 
cassava, duade cock, WUOllU' 
castle) mo' cold, rei 
cat, alol]te come, to, ba 
catch, to, mo, lUO mU come f]'om, t o, dge: 
cause, wi thout, yaka come ou~ of, to, dge 
chair, o..blogwa, ~i comforter, mi'Je:dgelo 
change, to, tSake confi rm, to, ma no mi 
charcoal, IJai consent, to, kpl~ 
cheap, to be, ye: ofo' concern (trouble), to, do 
chew, to, ta concel'l1 (affect), to, sa 
chicken, wuobi, ~i concern (noun), (he) sane 
chief) malJtJe:) -moi concerning ... , , .. gbe:faIJ 
chiefly, titri conquel', to, ye (moko) no 
child) bi, -i cont.inue, to, ka he, hie, 
child (general), gbeke, yano 
-bU continually, da' 
ch ildishly, to act, fa gbe- content, to be, hio lDi3 
k~bii nuE considel'nbly, salJIJ 
ohooso, to, haht cook, to, ho' nii 
ohurch, solemotJu cool, to be, dga 
civet Ci\t, kn.l]ko,I], -i COl'll, able 
civi l Wfll', manso corn brend, komi. 
English-Gc, Vocabula,-y 207 
copper, kapl£ disorderly, basabasa., gi_ 
could, see I able' digidi 
council, adgina disorderly, to be, fe gidi-
covel', lo, ba no gidi 
cow, tJina, -i ditch, nudgo 
crab, ka.' do, to, fe 
cross, to, tJa doctor, tJoratJ€ 
crow, to, bo dog, gbs', -i 
cruel, to be, yitfoIJ wa door, [me:, -i 
cry (weep)) to, fo doubt, to, dge lJwane 
cry (shout), to, bo pI. drag, to, gbla) fata 
bIn drawing along, gblamo 
cuUiva te, to, h1i dreadful, to be, ye gbeyei 
cunning, to be, hie t~ dl'eam, to, Is. 
oure, to, tIa dress, atade 
cut, to, fo, pI. flo dress alike, to, dse aba 
dress (sores), to, nyemo 
D 
dress up, to, wula. 
daily, da'gbi drink, to, nu 
damp, to be, fa fiona' drive out, to, Jme 
dnncing, dgo' drop, to, Je fo, pI. JerE 
day, gbi, -i I Jwie Ji 
dead, is = hus died dry, to be, gbi 
death, gbele dust, mlu 
deception. la.kawo E 
decidedly, kE nomima: each (person), mofemo 
delny I BEtIdE engeriy, k< heJitJwao 
die, to, gbo ear, toi, -i 
different, sroto, -i earJ)' morning, lebi mal]-
difficult, to he. wa kpa 
diligence. mOdelJbo' earnestly = a long time 
disgr:\ce, to, bo ahora. earth (world), dse, d3e~ 
disobedience, toigbele easy, to be, neg. of be ha.rd 
208 Appendix I 
eat, to, ye nii 
effort, to make, bo 000- F 
de~ fnithfui, to be, ye anok wa 
egg, wuowolo , wuowod31 raJ" fo~~ 
eight, kpa'uyOJ far and wide, ke:-te JOlJIJ 
either ... or, ... dgio .. . farm , l]mo, 1)000 Il 
dglo farm, to, ye okwa 
eloquent, to be, un.' tJe farming, humo 
else, htl farmer, okwafonyo 
end, na 'gbe rust, oya 
enough, 01 fa, boni sa father, tJe: 
enter, to, bote father! ata:! 
equal, to he. ye egbo fear, too, fe gbeyei 
European, blnfonyo, bio- feather, tJEr€: 
fomeli feed, to, ha fufo, hil ni-
even, po, tete yenii 
eveni ng, gbeke: feed (rear), to, lE 
ever, da . p el) fetish, w6lJ 
every daY', gbif~gbi festival, gbidsuro 
every one, mof~mo field , lJmo 
everything, nomno finger, wao, wabii 
every time, betebe finish, to, gbe ca" 
every wny, borebo finished, to be, eta 
evil, efo1,1 fire, la 
exactly, pE, pEpe: 'pe: fire, to, tJwa tu 
except, dga first, kle~kl.~, tfutfu 
expect, to (look for) , kwe: fi rewood, lai 
gbE fish, 10', ~fOlo' 
expect, to {hope), hie ka fishing, wuo 
no fishermun, wolEnyo, wo-
explain, to, tfc fiJi lEi 
extra (noun), mliwo' five, enumo 
eye, hiIJme:i, -i fl ag, aftalJa 
English-a" Vocabu.l",-y 209 
.Bog, to, y i gate, agb6, -i 
flogg ing, yi" gather, together, to, bu n. 
floor, jlkpoI] ne' 
ilollr, j1kiJa.I] gentle, to be, he dgo 
flowel'. fofoi, .j, get, to, ns. 
By, adodol). adodod3i get rid of (drive away), 
fly, to, fliki JWi. 
fond of, to he, sumo get well, to, na hewale: 
food, m yenii g ive, to, h ll, ke 
fool, b\llu give birth to, to, f6 
foot, nane, nadgi gladly, kE mifE 
foot of, at, fiji glass, glase 
for (prep.), hli (verb) glitter, to, kp€, pI. kpl€ 
forest, ko' go, to, ya 
forget, to, hie kpa no, go through, to, tJc3 
hie d5e no go on! kite ! 
forgetfulness, h ieno- God, NyolJmo 
k pamo good, kpakpa, -i 
forgive, to, ke:·fa good, to be, hi 
fortunate, to be, he ye: nii gold, j'ike 
four. ed3we: govel'not', amralo 
four by foul', edg;we:dgwE gnlss, dgwei 
fowl, WUO, -i grateful, to be = to thank 
friend, nanyo, nanamoi great, kple, -i 
frighten, to, wo he gbeyei greet, to, 1Ja. 
front of, hie, na.' grieve, to, do 
frown, to, tu hie ground, j1kpoI] 
full, to be, 01' to fi ll , yi ground orchids, oft;) fo-
abo. yi to foii 
grow, to, kwiJ (trees, 
G 
shrubs), ba, b;), see 
Ga, Go. par. 141 
gardeu, abo ', ·i guilty, to be, ye [6 
p 
210 Appendix I 
guilty, to pronou nce, bu help, to, fata he, wi, ye 
fo bua 
gun, tu helper, hefatalo 
gunpowder, tutJofa hen, wuo, -i 
her, IE; poss. e · 
here, h ie: 
H here and there, yaa 
hand, nine, nid;si high, kakadaIJIJ 
hund , palm of, del) hil l, go~, god3i 
handsome, to be, he y e: hint, IE: 
fEO himself, lEdientJe: 
handkerchief, duku, -1. his, c-
ha lf-pas t, ke: fa, (nn d half) hi t, to, tIwa, pI. tIwia 
hang (down), to. tJotSI'o hoe, koi 
(II) hold (in hand), to, hie 
lw.ppy, to be, n n roi 'fE, he home, Ita 
YEmi'fe: home, to feel at, hie m! 
happy, to be, about, us. he hope, to, bie kii. no 
tJui horse, okpol)o} -i 
hard , to be, wa, nn: wa bot season, latJabe 
hns, ye: hour, IJmlttJwa.·, -i 
ha.t , fai, -i house, Jia, tJu 
hate, lo, nye: how much, how many? 
hatred , nye' enyie? 
have, to, ye: humble (one's) sel f, to, 
he, e· ba heJi 
head, yi, yitJo, yiLJolJ hunger, homo 
bealthy, kpintil)lJ hungry, to be, homo ya 
hear, to, nu hurried, to bp, fa kpla-
hear (listen to), bo toi kpla 
heM'l, tIui., -i hUl't (pain), to, wa he 
heat, IntIa hurt (wowl d) , to, p ila 
hen.vy, to be, tIi ' husband. wit, ·mei 
English· Gn Vocctbnlm·y 211 
knife, kakla., -i 
I, mi knock, to, Ji. 
if, ke, ke:dg:i knot, kpo 
IJ know, to, le in, mli , 
inform, to, dg:adg:6 tIC; L 
innocent, to be, ye bem 
labour, nitfnmo 
innocent, to pronounce, 
bu bem lamb , to'bi, -i 
lamp, ka.ne, -i 
inquiry into a ense, san e 
yell large, agbo, -i 
large, to be, da, pI. drs. 
instead of, ye: ... na.dsial] 
insult, to, diS€: late, to be, kpe se:: 
latrine, 1jafi 
insult, blasphemy, IDU-
subo' laugh, to, lJmo, pI. lJm10 
]1- laughing, laughter, Ijmlo' interpreter, na:dsielo, 
fitfcHo lay dowll, to , ke::-ma Ji 
lazy, to be, fa hedg:5 
iron sheets, tfensi 
is, dSi , 'it is> lesf, ba, -i nl 
it, its , e· learD, to, kase 
leave, to,ji 
J leave off (stop), to, fo 
jealolls, t o be, ye aWUlJ8. left (hand), abEku 
joy, mijE leg, Dane, nadsi 
judge, to, kodso leisure, deki 
judge, kodsolo lend money, to, fa. jlka. 
jug, kpulu, kpudSi lend (except money), to, 
just (only), pE rna 
leopard, ko· tJe::, -i 
K lessons, nikasemo 
_ key, samfo' , -i let, to, ha 
kjlJ, to, gbe liar, amalelo 
Idndn ess, mlihile lie, amale 
kikheo , kpo.to. fi lie, to, male 
p 2 
212 Appendix I 
l ie Ot' be lying (down), to, make (with the hands), 
kil. , pI. kamo (Ji) kpE 
] ie m'ound, to, dgore fi make friends, rno nanyo 
Ji s ncross, to, ble man , DU', hii 
lift up, to, w6 pl. h61e manage (achieve), to, w6 
lightning, srawn. many, pi', babao 
like, lo, sumo mal'kat, dgano , dg:rano 
lilee, tamo, ake master, n unLIo, -mei 
lime (fl'uit), a bonua , -i ma.t, sa' 
listen, to, bo Loi matter, sane 
little, Do little, b ib io' , flo' me,mi 
live, lO, hi (Ji) meat,lo' 
load, dgatfu, -i medicine, tJora 
lock, srot.o' meet (with), to, (ke:) kpe 
lock, to, IJa rol i message, fe:' 
long (mensure), to be, ke messenger, tJruo, bofo 
long (lime), to be, t.fe, SE milk, flUO 
dg:€ke mind (be sorry abollt), to, 
longsufi'erillg, to be, IJDliJ do 
tJui Ji mine (pro.), mino 
look after, to, h ie minister, osofo, -i 
look al, to, k w € mioister, to be a, ye 080fo 
look for, to , tao mirror, aJwjfw€ 
look into (examine), to, mist, afua 
ka kw€ mock, to, ye he feo 
lose, to, 111dgo Monday, Dgu 
loss, Indgemo month, nY0l), n yodgl 
lot of, pi ' moon, nyol)tJere 
loud, loudly, wa: more than, fa 
lhe more.,. the m01'6 •• " 
J\l babao ni , , . babao ni 
mad, La be, yo seke ., . dgi no 
milke, to, fa morning, lebi 
English-Gel Vocabulcury 213 
mosquito, tOlJtolJ, -i night falls, dge na 
mother, n ye nine, nE'hu 
mourn, to, ye lJkomo 1~0, dabi 
lllOUl'U (nati" e custom), fe no one, moko, moko-
yara moko (with neg. verb) 
much, very much, naa- noon, Jwane 
kpa, pam, pi' , a'hu,&c. noise, ho' , hO'femo 
mud, IJmoto nose, gugo 
mud (swish), sa nothing, n ok o, nokonoko 
must, dga (not verbal), (with neg. verb) 
see 154 not.hing, for, yakatSwa' 
my, mi- now, agbEnE 
myself, midientJE numbe)" yibo 
N o 
name , gbEi obey, ye no, bo toi 
neal' (prep.), he 'o'clock', 1Jmle:, IJmEdgi 
necess;u)" to be, or to often, fo (verb.l) 
need, he hia, hia, see often, kpitiokpitio 
154 old, to be, gbo, pI. gbl0 
needle, abui open, to, gble (na') 
neit.her , .. nor, ... dgio 011, nO) 
," dyo (with neg. verb) one (impel'S. pro.), a-
net, ys:,-i one, eke, ekeme, keme 
nevel', gbikogbiko (with one, person, mo 
nog. verb) oue who, moni 
never again, d01)l) (with one by one, ekomekeme 
neg, verb) oncs, ft.kome 
nevertheless, kalE only, PE, kEke: 
new, he', -i 01',10, al0 
next, see 17-1 oru.nge, akutu, -i 
nice, to be, IJo, yE fEO order , to, Je: 
night , nyo'1J organ, sQ.l)ku, -1 
21'1 Appendix I 
ol'pl,nll, n.W1.l.Sn., -i plnea, thi s, bie: 
othOl', kroko phlCG, be placed I to, rna, 
oLhers, moi kl'okomei. pI. mn.mo 
olh(, l'\viso (adv.), nokl'oko plnin (noun), 1)0. no 
(noun) plant (i"ees nnd shrubs), 
onght, sec 154 to, LEO 
OU I', wo- play, io, JWE 
OUI"S, wono play (noun), JWEmo 
olll'twivPR, wodiootJe piny ol'gnn (&c.), to , LJwa 
ovol'lnlw, t. o, niu(\, sI1l)k:u 
OWO lllonO)" Lo, hie oyomo plense ! ofai De:! mi1Jkpu. 
o fal 
plense, to, SI1 bie 
p 
pIMs:\nt, Lo he, ye. miJe. 
pnlnfllJ (hlu'd), Lo ho, dgra. plens ing , to be, ye fEO 
panol, ako', -i pockoL, kotoku, -i 
pltd, gbEftllJ posLpone, Lo, tfi to 
pass, lo, ho pmise, Lo, dg;ie yi 
I1n.th , gbe: pl'efl.ch, to, fi E, so le 
pnlimli (noun), helt:Lt,fE , ))t'ofornble, see 28 
-mei pt'osonce, hio 
poo)1I\I, mei 1)l'GSOi'VG (protect), Lo, bu 
pooplo (nll,tion), mo.l) 110 
p(ldlll]l~, okol£, bene: p t'£My, to be, ye feo , he 
pOI mis~ion, hagbe: y£ feo 
pGl'lllissioll, io gi\'c, hii. prico, no .. , dgl'o. 
gbE principally, titri 
PO I'SOH, mo, gboLUo, -IDoi pl'oduce (noun), nibo:nll, 
picl lll'O, lllfonil'i 1)000 mli uibii 
pillow, SUllO, -i pl'eflt., se.namo,j1kaud.mo 
piLy, mobo profiL, to, un. se 
pi~Yl to, un. mobo promise, to, wo fi 
pIllet', he IH'omise (noun) , fiwo' 
English-Ga VoCCtbu/Ct1'Y 215 
propel-Iy, ni ahi , po ni recollect, to, hie be. no 
ehii reconciliation, kpatamo 
prudent, to be, hie k a. .fi red, tJu.ru 
purpose, yiIJto red, to be, tJu 
purposely, see 156 remember, to, kai , hie y E 
put away, to, kEota 
put down, kE-ma., kE-lo, remind, to, kai 
&c. remove, to, d~e 
put into, ke:-wo mli , ke:- repair, to, sa: 
Jl mli repent, to J Jwa. he 
put down load, to fl reprove, to, ka hie 
put up price, fo d gra DO respect, to I bu 
respectful , to be, bu me 
Q responsibility, to have, 
quarrel , to, be susumo kfi no 
question, to :'Isk, bi sane rest, to, dgo he 
quickly, oya, mra return, to, ku SE 
quiet, -Iy, blEo' reward, to, wo nyomo 
quiet, to be, fa diIJIJ rice,ome 
rider, moni ta. no 
R right (cla.im), hegbE 
rain, nyoIJmo DEmo right (hand), ninedguro 
rain, to, nYOlJIDO DE right, all , odgogbal) 
raw,oIJmoIJ ring, ga.,-i 
rench, to, IE rise, to, te Ji. 
1"6fld, to, kane river, fa' 
reading, wolokanemo river-bank, fa'toi 
I'endy, to get, fa k l alo road, gbE, -i 
renJ, dientJt roof, to, \VO tIu 
re:lll y, IdEl) , titri 1£ • room, tIu, -i 
reason, nohewo room (space), gbE 
receive, lo, be, here, nine rubbish, d gwd 
Jt no run away, to, dgo foi 
216 Appenclix I 
sewing, nikpE' 
S shame, biegbeio 
Hnd, Lo be, yr. mob;) sh<>c p, lo' , -i 
BnlL, 1)o' I shine (g low), LOt tIo (glit-
HlLlH(?, n01)I) ("1') kp< 
sn.nd, .fio. ship, Ide, l€dgi 
sn.ndnl , tokotJ., -i shop, Swn.po 
sa ved , La ho , yi rui waln short (stature), kpitio' 
~'llurclny ) no ' shout, la, bo, pI. bio 
sny, lo, ke' show, La, tIo 
Re huol , skul sickness, halll, -i 
fic hooJ eb ildren , f;kulbii sign,oko.di 
scolding, d3€Il10 silly , to be, fa buln 
Rc rcnlll illB', blomo si n, lo, fe eJa 
SHI\, IJJO si n, eJa 
8(\lH:d lOl'(~. IJJonu.' si ng, to, In 
13(IIU:,{) II, bo sisler, uyomiyo' 
I:IcmL, SiJi, -i ~it (down), lo, ta, pI. tro. 
8('(;0 0 (1) uoni d31 cayo rJi) 
S(>Cl'ot, to'molJsnno six,okpa 
800, lo, no. sky, l)wei 
M'O ill I'oug ll I yo SE slc<"p, to, wo 
sook, lo, (.0.0 s lide, lo, Jano 
SI'Cnl, lo, fa slow, .Jy, blEO' 
seli , lo, bo speak, io , wio 
twnd . tu, mndsc spidel', ananu 
tlc nior, onukpo. spi l'it (ghost), sisa, -i 
801'\'I\ ])l , t.fu lc, t.Judgi spil'ils (Illcohol), du: 
801'\'0, lo, sum6 spiLo of, in, .rn IE , k151E 
sl1)'vicc, solcmo spoi l, to, ftte 
sovon, kpo.wo sponge , kotJu. 
sevOl'o, uf Wtl,. spoon, 0,\'10.10 
SO W, la, kPE uii I 51111111 , bibio, bibii, flo' 
English-Ga Vocabula·ry 217 
smile, to, IJmo strike, to, tfwa, pI. tSwia 
smite (wit.h heat), to, Sa strong, to be, he wa 
so, nakai struggle for, to, ple he 
so (conj.), nohewole: studies, studying, ni-
soa.p, samlii. kasemo 
soldier, asratonyo, asra- stul)id, to be, fa kolo 
foi successful, to be, ye ku-
some, eko, ekomei nim 
some one, moko sudden, -Iy, truka' 
something, noko sugar, sik1i 
somewhere, hako sulk, to, til hie 
son, binu', bihii SUD, hulu 
sore (noun), :fi.a, fadSi Sunday, Hogba" 
sorry, to make, do ' I suppose', nto? 
soup, wonu swear nt, to, dg£ 
sow, to, du sweet, to be, IJo 
stand, to, da.mo (Ji) sweep, to, be" 
sland (be placed), to, ma. swell, to, fii 
stand against, to, kpe' 
stay, to, tf< T 
steal , to, d3U ta.ble, okplo, -i 
stealing, dgu' take, to, k6, IJo 
stick, tIo, tIei tu.ke away, k6 or 1)0 ke-ya 
stone, tE, -i take out, dg:ie 
stop (stand still), to, wa talk (.bout), to, wie (he) 
d.mo Ii talk (conyerse), gba sane 
s~op (cease), to, fo, kpa. tall, kaka.da1)lJ, kaka.-
stoIDl, ahum dad3i 
story, sane, sadgi leach, to, tIo nil 
stove, late: tell, to, ke" 
strn.uger, gbo, -i tempt, to, Inka, ka 
street, blohu , -i teu. nyolJma 
strength I hewale: test J to, ka kwe 
218 
testimonial, odaseyeli- tilling, hUrna 
wola time, be,-i 
than, fa times (occasions},.rti 
thank) to , de. Ji timeS (multiples), t6i 
that, De, no tin, tJensl 
that one, no ti os, em pty, tJensikoi 
that (conj.), ake, nt tire, to, to 
the, Ie: to, IJo 
their, amE- to-day, l)mEnE 
then (conj. denoting re- to-morrow, wb 
sult), ble tongue, lUd 
there, d3€i tomato, ameosebe 
therefore, nohewole: too (also), hu 
these, De too mucb, tID 
these ones, ene:mei tooth, nyanyoIJ, nya4 
thief, dguIo nyodgi 
thing, no, nil, nibil touch, to , ta he, pI. tra 
think, to, SUSU , d3w6lJ towel, papam 
think (pooder), Jwie yi~ town, ma, mal] 
thirty, nyo1Jmai ete townspeople, maIJbii 
this, DE, (eUlph.) ne:ke: ... t.l'ads, to, ye dgre.. 
ne tl'ain, oketeke 
this one, ene: translate, to, tJe JiJi 
thought, dgwelJDlo tmvel, to, Ia gbe 
three , etili tree, tJo, tJei 
threepence, tro triumph , to, ye kunim 
th rice, Jii etiJ trouble, to, hao, gba. na' 
thl'ow, to , tJwa, fo trust, to, kE hie 10 ... DO 
throwaway, to, Ie: 10, pI. true, to be, ye mli 
Jere JWie jl try, to, ka, bD model] 
thunder, nyolJDlo Jima try a. case, to, ye sane 
Thursday, So' Tuesday, DgufD 
thus, nakai turn back, to, ku BE: 
English-Ga Vocabula,'Y 219 
Lnrn round, to, tJ5 he walk (noun), JiJeramo j go 
twelve, nyoljma.kE.enyo for a walk, fera Ji 
twenty, nyoIJmai-enyo wall, g bogbo, -i 
twice, Sii anya want, to, tao 
two, enya want (lack), fWE, hia. 
two by two, enyonyo war, t a 
warD, to, bo k;>ko 
U wash , .to, fO, fo he 
ugly, to be, y E t a.l] watch (look at), to, kw£ 
undsl', underside, Ii, JiJi water, ou 
understand, to, ou SlIi , water, dirty, ou kpotoi 
na J'Ji waterpot , gbi: 
unless, dga, akE: dga way, gbe: 
unnecessarily, ya.ka tSwa: way, th is, bie:gbe: 
until, k<yaJi way, t hat , dge:igbe: 
us, \VD weave. to , 10 
use, to, tIu he nii W ednesda.y, l:o 
v week , otJi. -i 
" !lin, in vain, yaka, yo.- well (noun), nubu, bu 
k atJwa' weU (ad".), dgogba~ 
valley, dgo' well, to be, y e: hewal£, ye: 
Yt\lu8, t o, bu dgogblU) 
value, d gro. wellbeing, hile: 
various, srotoi 
ver:lndab, o.blauo: west, an aigb£ 
very, very much, pam, what? meni ? 
ono.k p a, p i ' , d gogbal] , what (reI. pro.), n oni 
a. ' hu when ? mebe? 
visit. to, sr a. when (re1. pro.), beni 
whelher I see 83 
where? negb£ P 
wait, to, mtJ where (rel. ), h eni 
walk, to, nyie which ? m4J? ni!P 
220 Appendix 1 
which (I'el.), ni wooel, pieces of, tID, tIei 
while, Y€:l), yedg:i wooden, tIo (uoko) 
whiLe, to he, ye word, wiemo 
who? nama? narilei P wo 1"i<, to, tJu nii 
who (I'el.), moni work I nitfumo 
whole, ron' workman, nitJuJo 
whole aI', mu' l e rn worry, to, baa, gba na' 
why? meba? menihewo? worth less, yaka 
mehewo? write, to, lJrna 
why (rel.), nohewo nl wrong, to do, t5 
wife, l]a, -mei wrong, to, t5 no 
wild, to be, dg:im wl'ongdoing, notomoi 
willingly, ye suamo ua' 
wind, ko'yo y 
win<?, da: 
wise mnn, n ilalo yam, y€.le:, ye:dsi 
wish, to, tao ynl'd, kpono 
wiLh, ke: yenr, aft, -i 
without, see 61 yes, hI!' 
witness, odasefo, -i you, bo) 0-
witness, to be it, ye adase you (obj.), 0, bo 
W0I11I\11, yO', yei YOIIl',O-
wonder) ua:kpe: YOllrs,ono 
wonder, to make to, fa YOllrself, bodientJe 
na:kpe: young man, oblanyo 
wooel (fol'esl), ko' young woman, oblayo· 
APPENDIX II 
GENERAL SUGGESTIONS FOR BEGINNERS 
A BEGINNE R should take evel'Y chance of listening to 
s~oken Gil. and letting the sound of tbe language ( sink 
in', Many learners, however, ha.ve not much oppor-
tunity of hearing Gn spoken, and must make the most 
of what hlley heal' said by the teaoher. The following 
method might be found useful: 
Have a simple pidure of ordinary people and things. 
Let the teacher poin t out the main objects in it, naming 
each object in Gn as he points at it, speakulg very 
plainly and olearly, saying, f01' instance, nu' j yO'; 
gbek~ i tio j fa ' j sa.' j he should repeat each over 
and OYer until the lis tener has had time to become 
fumiliar wHh the sound. Then the ten.cher should 
describe the objects in Ga, in shorb and simple sen· 
tences, pointing to each object as he refers to it, and 
if possible showing by a gesture any action described. 
H e might say, for instance: This is n woman. This is 
t\ man.. This too is a man. This is a. child. rrhere are 
four people. One, two, three, four-four people. The 
woman is silting. One man is standing. One man is 
sitting. The oh ild is lying down. H e is lying on a 
mat. The woman holds a spoon. Her dress is white. 
There is a tree. The tree hns lUany leuyes. The leaves 
:l.re green. And so on. 
'frhis should be l'epeated o\'er and o,'er again each 
dny, in the same words if possible, until the pupil 
begins to .identify a sound with an objeot or action. 
Each sound, word, 01' expression is picked out and its 
222 Append;x II 
meaning grasped, unt il whole sentences are under-
stood. (In the case of a pupil who has more difficulty 
than the average listener, it is permissible to help the 
pupil out by giving the English, to avoid unprofitable 
deJay.) 
The pupil may now endeavour to produce these 
sounds, or groups of sounds, while the teacher listens. 
It is here that the teacher must be very cn.reful to 
correct eyery wrong attempt, and get the learner to 
persevere with the sound or combination of sounds 
until the teacher is satisfied. 
The same method can be followed with a story. 
'l'he teacher should tell a simple story in Ga. The 
story and sentences must be short and the language 
clear. Before beginning, the teacher could give a few 
of Lhe words which are most important to the story, 
sa.ying their names in both English and Gn. Then be 
should repea.t the story over and over, in the same 
words, until the listener can pick out 'words twd ask 
what they are. 
'V'hen the pu pi! C!l.lr attern pt to say a rew words in 
Ga, he should use every opportunity of prfictising 
those he knows, find when he h",s reached this stage, 
a beginning could be made with the lessons foUowing. 
These six are intended to give enough greetings and 
introductory sentences to make possible a contnct with 
people lUet on the road, or in the market, &c. The 
market has been specially chosen as the foundation of 
one lesson, owing to the difficulty ronny people have 
in finding an opportunity to practise speaking Ga. 
There is nlways a. market of SOUlS sort, and the worrien 
are always ready to be friendly. 
Learners should nil along tl'Y to use any new words 
Geneml Suggestions for Beginners 223 
and phrases learnt nt a lesson, when t,alking with 
people outside, and the Jistening process must never 
be given up. 
The picture and s tory practice should be carried on 
t\]ong with the lessons. As progress is made, the 
descriptions should be more detniled, and questions 
nnd answers in Ga follow the teacher's preliminary 
pnrt. Picture and story could be changed when one 
already used often gets stale. 
From the yery beginning the teacher should say 
everything in Ga, even wben not understood, especially 
such remarks as will be used in most lessons: Shall 
[ sit here? Are you ready? May I have the pidure, 
plansa '? That is enough. Say it again, please, &0. 
These might be said in both Ga and English at first, 
bu t time should not be taken up at the beginning with 
too much explanation nbout these. 
r.I.'he pronouns are: 
miI mi my mi me 
bo, 0 tlwu, o thy 0 , bo thee 
IE, e he, she it e /tis, hers, its Ie him, her, it 
\vo tre wo our wo us 
nye you n yc YOllr nye you 
o.mE they amE their arne them 
1. As sbown, the 1st pel'S. sing. and the three 
pluml prolloulls at'e the same in nll cases. 
2. In the 2nd pers. sing. bo is only used as subject 
if the "arb is dSi, bu t wben the pronoun stands alone, 
bo is the f 0 1'l11 used. 
In the object ive C3se, bo is sometimes used for 
euph ony. 
221 Appendix II 
3. In lhe Bl'd pers. sing. Ie is the form used when 
the pronoun stands alone, or wben the verb is d3i, 
Lu t in the ohjective case 1e is Lh a only form used . 
4. Nom inalive pl'onouns [we always joined to t.heir 
verbs. 
Begin with lhe verbs: 
ba Come 
yo, go 
ye am, is, (we (except. when two nouns nre in 
apposit ion) 
wo siC'l) 
Bra visit 
Other words: 
h~' yes 
d abi no 
yo' a sou nd of ncknowieJgm(;nt of having heard 
w hat, wns said. 
10 ? a word which, coming at the end of a state-
men l, tUl'ns iL into a question. 
dgogbaq well (ad v.) 
"\Vilh these you can form some of the commonest 
greetings. 
1. Fot' use fit Il.n)' time: 
OyE dg:ogbalJ. 10? (n'C you well? (you nre well or 
? (not)). 
Ans. b G', miye d3ogbal) YC$, I am 1f)('1l. 
nyeye: d50gbal} 10 '? plural form of same. 
Ans. h~'" woye: dsogbll1) yes, tce arc u;rU. 
2. On leaving a plnce. 
miynbn goodbye (lit I go, come (agnin)). 
AilS. yo', ya:bn d?)ogba1) yes, go come well. 
General Suggesl'wns /01' Beginnl7rs 225 
3. After paying a visit. 
mihasra. nye good·bye (lit. I came visited you). 
w»basra. nye we 
4. Saying good·night : 
miyow~ good·night (lit. I go sleep) . 
..dllS. yo', ya.'w:) dsogbal) yes, go sleep !oell. 
From the answers it will be seen that the simple root 
of these verbs is used for the imperative ~g., but 
some verbs take another form. 
Translate : 
1. MiYE dgogbol]. OYE dgogbOlJ. W~YE dgogbol]. 
EYE dgogbsl). ArnEY£. dgogbal), 10? H~'" amtyE 
dgogbal]. NyeYE dgogbol], lo? H~', w~yE dgogbaI]. 
2. Is she well ? Yes, she is well. Are you well ? 
Yes, I am weU. Are they well? Yes, they nre well. 
If the name of a person is used in asking the above, 
it just takes the place of the pronoun. Kotl yE 
dgogbolJ , 10? Is Ko/i well! Mory yE dgogbalJ Mary 
is /Cell. 
Y£ is aD irregular verb, the negative being be:. 
Prnctise lurning the above answers into negatives. 
MibE dgogbalj 1 am not 10ell. Dabi, ebE dgogbaIJ 
lro, he is nol lcell, &c. 
Use nIl these greetings whenever possible, for 
practice. 
2 
nu hear, understand flo' (a) little 
wi_ speak kwra' at all, or entirely 
ke;' say, say to blEo' softly, slowly 
Ga. 1. Ga, 2. ACC1°a tOtOI nakai thus, so 
blofo EIIglislJ ekoIJ again (not used with 
neg. verb) 
226 Appendix II 
1. The negative of past nnd present tenses of verbs 
is fOl'med by prolonging the vowel sound and giving 
a. high tone. 
2. The two verbs in the following sentences look 
the salUe, but there is n diffel'ence in the tones, and 
they must be learnt carefully. 
3. The 1st pel's. pron. has always a high tone in 
the .,egativo. 
minuu Ga I do not wule-rsland Ga. 
minuu Ga kwra' I do not wlderstancl Ga at all. 
minull Ga dgogbsl) I do 'lIot understanil Gu well. 
miwiee G a I do not speak Go. 
miwiee Ga. kwra' I do not speak Ga at all. 
miwiee Ga dsogbal) I do not speak Ga well. 
4. In the verbs below, <> is a sign of the habitual 
te nse, which is equivalent to the EngliRh pl'esent in 
most cases. 
minu:) blafo I umlerstand English. 
minuD blofo flo' I understand English a little. 
minua bID fa d3ogbal] I understal1(Z English well. 
minuo blofo kwra' I 'Ilndcl'slamZ EnglishperJetfly. 
miwieo blofo I speak english. 
miwieo blofo fto' I speak English a little. 
miwieo blofo dgogbaI) I speak English well. 
miwieo blofo kwra' I speak English pe,fectly. 
Practise the abo\'e with the other pronouns, :wd then 
in question form. 
S. One form of the impel'aLive sing. was used in 
the fi rst lesson. Nu is not used in the imperative, 
but wie and k£:o both tuke the other form, mo with 
I\. high tone, being added to tho verb. 
Geneml SI'ggestions for Beginners 227 
6. When ' it > is the object, it is omitted in Ga. 
wiemo fio' ! speak a littlC! memo blEO'! speak slowly ! 
wiemo Ga! speak Ga l wiemo ekol) I speak again! 
ke:'mo IE: ua.ksi tell him so kE'ma ek0l) !say(it)again! 
kE'mo blto ' say (it) soflly ke: 'mO m il tell me! 
Translate: 
1. Onuo Ga., 10 'I H~'" minuo flo', Ewieo Ga., 10? 
Dabi, ewie;) blofo. AmEnuo bloCo pi' . Wiemo bloro. 
Wiemo bIEo·. Ke:'mo ame: nakai. KE'mo ame: ekolJ. 
Miy e: d5ogbal) fto' . Wo fio'! Wiemo flo' ! Minuu 
kwra. . 
2. Do you speak Gn? Yes, I speak a litUe. Speak 
0. little! Say it again! Say it slowly! I understand 
1\ little. Say jt slowly again ! I understand perfectly. 
Do you understand English'? No, I do not understand 
at all. I do not speak well. I do not sleep well . H e 
does not sleep much. 
NOTE: Nu is really to hear, and nu fiJi (lit. to hear 
under) to understand, but for ordinary purposes nu is 
used, and JiJi is understood. 
3 
mOl)CI'SO', ko a 
m e i people komei some 
nama "? who! blofonyo European 
namei ? who? pI. blofo-mei Europealls 
biE here pi' many, much 
dgti "It:ie 
1. Mei is used in formiug the plural of many 
personal nouns. 
2. Blofonyo and blofomei are used for any Euro-
peans, but bloro is used for English only. 
Q 2 
228 Appendix II 
3. Ko = B., is only used when a. pal·tieular thing or 
person is meant; oLhenvise it is omitted. It comes 
after the noun. 
4. Bie and d3ei are used like ordinary adverbs of 
place, but are a JiW e different, in that they are also 
treated as if they were nouns. 
6. In On a pronoun is made emphatic by repeating 
jt. In tile cnse of the 2nd aod Brd pers. sing. the 
form is bo 0 nod ie e. 
6. ni or IJ is a (ol'm of the irt'eguIa.r verb dgi. It is 
equivalent to I it is ', and comes at lhe end of the 
sentence, e. g.: 
it is I roi ni or mil] (1 it is). 
it is he Ie 01 or leI} 
1Oho is it? na.mo n1 ? 
U is a European blofonyo ko ni. 
7. ye:, yo (118 in last lesson) has an irregular nega· 
tive be. 1'he verb ye: tukes the form yo (short for 
yeo, the hnbituru tense) after interrogntive words, and 
after em phn.tic pronouns, 
moko yE bi€ some one ,is here. 
namo yo bh:? who is here? 
namei yo d5ei? wll() are lhere? 
mel pi' yE d5e:i many l)eOlJle are there. 
roi miyo bie: I am here. 
moko bE biE 110 one is here. 
8. When mo nnd ko al'e joined to form moko some 
one, the vowel sound of the ° changes. Moko, with 
the negalive verb, is Lhe only way of snying I no one'. 
Translate: 
1. Mei pi' yE d5Ei. Arneye dgEi. Woye dgei. Mei 
General Suggest-ions for Beginne,'s 229 
komei YE hie. .Blofomei pi' Y£ biE. Namo yo biE ? 
NameiIJ ? Woni. LEI). Meipi ' ni. Blofonyokoni. 
Moko bE dg:£i AmEbE dgEi 
2. 'Vho is here? Who is there? Who is it? It is I . 
It is they. It is Borne one. Some one is there. Some 
one is here. Some people are here. Some people afe 
there. A European is there. Some Europeans are 
there. Noone is there. It is not there. They are 
not there. 
4 
meni ? 10hat ~ eko, kome one 
n egbe ? 10here ~ enya t100 
enyie '? hOlD much ~ etiJ three 
., II many7 edg:wE !au1' 
tIu, -i house, -$ or room,-$ enum" five 
lina,', -i door, -$ ekpa six 
okplo, -i table, -$ kpawo seve-n 
s§i, -i seat, -s kpa'nyo eight 
adeka., . i box, 'cs nEhu nine 
mama, -i cloth, -s nyoIJma fen 
Ie: the m ll in, ins-ide 
De this 
1. Tl18 ni in meni will be recognized as the verb 
already learnt. The word is renlly ' what is?' or f what 
is (it)? ' 
2. Enyie comes after the nOUD it refers to. So do 
the numbers. 
8. The t\bove nouns all take the commonest form of 
plurn.l, adding i . 
4. Eko is only used in counting, not as:\.O adjective. 
6, LE and DE come nfter the DOUO. LE raises the 
230 Appendix II 
syllable that is before it Judf fl. tODe higher than it 
wou ld naturally be. 
6. Mli (\\ hieb men ns the interior part of anything), 
though itself a noun, is used for the preposition ' in 'J 
nnd fvllows {he noun or pronoun to which it refers. 
'l'he noun a i ' pronoun is actually in the possessive 
case. If th e pronoun is f it ', it is omitted, e. g.: 
mama yE adekn Ie: roll cloth 1$ ill the box (the box's 
inside). 
mama yE roli cloUt is in il (is its inside). 
Practi&e questions and answerS with as many words 
as you know, in tho following forms: 
meni nE ? what is lhis? 
Ildekll ni it is a box. 
meni yo adeka. Ie. mIt ? what is in the box? 
mamo.l ye. adekalE: rnli cloths are in the box. 
n egbe: okplo Ie. yo? 1vltere is {he table ~ 
eye: b it, eye. t.Ju IE mli it is here, it is -in the /'oom. 
s~ii enyie yo dsei? how many seals lIrc there ~ 
sGii ett; y e bie tllere (tre three seals It ere. 
m amai eoyie yo adeka Ie: mli "? how many cloths 
are in the box? 
rna.mai auumo five clolhs. 
Translate: 
1. Meui De '? Adeka ni. Okplo ni. StU ni. Meni 
yo adeka. IE mli? Meni yo tIu Ie: mli? Meni yo 
dSe:i? Melli yo biE ? Mnmai pi' yE adeka IE mIL 
Okploi enyo ye tIu Ie: m Il. TI n ye: dSe:i. Zina.· Ie y e: 
biE:. TIui enyie yo dSE:i ? Mei enyie yo biE: ? Adekai 
enyie yo tIu Ie: mli ? Meni okeo ? 
2. 1''''0 boxes are in lhe room. Whnt is in them? 
A lot of (m\leh) cloth is in them. " ' hat is this ? It is 
General Suggestions /01' Beginners 231 
i\ seat. It is a door. vVhere are the tables? vVhere 
Ilre the seats? Where are the people? They are in 
the house. SOIDe one is in the bouse. H ow many 
people nte in the house? H ow mauy Europeans are 
in the house? Two people. Four people. Ten people. 
Three Europeans. 
d5l'B. value, price he sell 
dgano 'market he buy 
fika1/Joney we. be hard 
10' meat hi g·ive 
1)0· salt fe do 
n5, nil 0\' n ibii thing,·s hu also 
akwadu, -i banana, -$ ~a!l 
akutu, -i orange, ·s enE thi.s (pron.) 
abolo, -i bread tro 3d. 
YO', yei 'tooman, !Oon~n yi, -i shming, -$ 
k£, ni and kpafarlhing 
miba.he I toill buy kp~·dgw€ ld. 
mlliee I toon'l buy kpe1)kp.·nyo 2d. 
1. D3ano, or dsrano, is market j dS& h: no is the 
market (idiom), 
2. Dsra. wa (value is hard) means ' is dear' j dgra 
waS. is not dear. 
3. No, like mo, when joined to ko to mnke noko, 
somelhing or a)~ythillg, changes its vowel sound. Its 
pluml is irregulM. 
4. Yo' also has an irregular plural , yei, and a.ll 
compound nO UBS ending ill yo' take yei also in the 
plural. 
232 Appendix I1 
5. There are two words for' nod' ; ke joi ns words, 
ni joi ns sentences; k e is llsed for' with ' also 
mi·kE-o baya I ·will go with you. 
6. F~ comes after both noun nnd art icle j yei La fi'l 
all the women. 
7. The prefix (ba) to the verb in mibahe is the sign 
of the futu re. 
8. Many ve l'bs which can be used in English with-
out an objecL must have one in Ga, nnd u ti is used 
for th is. 
mil) ho nii I am seUing. 
9. Tro is 0. con-uption of I t.hreepence'. 
10 K pa. means (string', from the string of cowries 
used originall y as cllneney. 1 st l'ing = farthing, 
4 strings = l(l., &0. 
1 1. J tl t.his lesson two tenses are necesSAry, one 
(hnhit\lnl) for asking quest ionsl and one (continuative) 
fOI" the answers, though in English the snme tense 1S 
used for both. 
12. The ,'arb to be, when used with two nou ns or 
subjec::ts in apposition! is tl'nnsla.ted by dg:i : 
yo· dgi. Ie: she is a. woman. 
GreeUngs to give in the nun-kat: 
Mn.mi-mei, nye bie:: fa? Mammies, hOIf) are you- ~ 
(lit. you horo all). 
Marui-met, nye dg:d f~? Mam'IJdes, hOlO are they 
at home? (lit. you thoro nil ?) . 
Praotise the fo llowing wi th vn riations: 
menl yo dgfl. le:: no? what 1·S in. the madcet ? 
nibii p i· ye: dga Ie:: no many tMngs are £11 the 
'lJlO.rket. 
Gene-ral Suggestions for Beginners 233 
m eni of eo ? what are you doing ? 
mil)bo nii I am selling. 
meni ohoo? what a're Y(JU selling 1 
miJ) ho a bolo ' I am selling bread. 
k £ roeni hu ? and 'what else ~ 
ke: akut u i k e: k wadui oranges and bananas. 
10' De: enyie? how milch is th is -meat 1 
enE trD, ene: yi this 3d., this Is. 
akutui 1E: enyienyie? how much are the oranges 1 
edgwE tr0l edsra we. 4: for 3d., they are dear. 
enyie dgi IJO' DE? how much is this salt? 
edsra was, fiJ tro it is not dear, all (for) 3d. 
meni De:? 10hat is thi.s 1 
10' ni ilis meat. 
Translate: 
1. Mibn.b.e akutui. Mibabe akwadui. M ibahe 
nibii pi ', Mibee noko. Mihee 10 ' kwra', Ha mi 10' 
fio', Hi mi jlkll. Hi mi ene:. MiIJh5 abolo' ke: IJo' 
kE niL Edgra we.. Edgra was.. EnE dgra wa. E nE 
dgra wall. Lo' De: dgra was. Akutui 1£ dgr a we.. 
En. d5"" dSi kpe~kp. -nyo_ E n. dsra dSi yii 
kpawo. 
2. What is in the market? Who are in the market ? 
Whe~ is the market '? How many women are in the 
market? They sell (tbings)_ They buy (things)_ 
Bananas and bread aDd oranges are in the market. 
Give me ill'ead, Give h im omnges. Give us bananas, 
What are you doing? What are you selling ? What 
are you buying? I am buyiug salt I :un selling 
this. How much is this? 
234 Appendix II 
Tao to want. 
(a) milJtao noko (b) mil)tao mabo. 
o·tao o 'tao oba. 
e·tao e·tao eba 
wOlJtao " wOIJtao woha 
nyetjtao 'j nyelJ tao nye be. 
amElJtao " amEIJtao amEba 
1. These are t.he two ways in which the present 
tense of the verb to want can be used in Ga, 
2. The first (a) is when the verb is followed by 
a noun, represented here by noko something. In Gn 
tao is in the contin ualive tense of which IJ is a s ign-
I am 'Wanting something. 
S. The second (b) is when the verb is followed in 
English by an infinitive. I n Ga, jnstead of the lutter, 
it takes the consecutive tense-I 'wish that I may-. 
Be. Come is used here to represent any verb wanted. 
4. Whate\'er tense tao is in, the second verb and 
its pronoun do not vary, e. g.: 
I wanted to come mitao rna-ba. 
I did not lOam to come m itaoo maba. 
Da Ji to thank. 
(a) miIJda 0 fi thank yOIl. 
(b) oyiwala dOlJlJ thank you (idiom!ltic). 
1. These are two ways of sayiug (thank you " 
2. In using da Ji l the person thanked is put betwee,n 
the two words. In this case it is f you J. Note that 
the continuative tense is used with this verb a.150-
I am thanking you. 
General Suggestions j01- Begin.ners 235 
8. (b) is the contraction of the original: oyi ana. 
wa.la ni okagbo dOlJ1J! may you U'/Jc and never die! 
Practise the following with variations: 
meni otaoo ? 'what do you want? 
miIJtao noko, milJtao moko, milJtao mama, &c. 
milJta.o mawo, miIJtao make:' 0 Doko, miIJtao 
mafe noko, &c. 
meni ame:taoo ? 
amElJtao lJo', ame:1Jtao ame:wie, amEIJtao ame:nu, 
&0_ 
milJd& 0 Ji, miIJda Ie: Ii, nlllJda amE Ji, &c. 
s'da 0 Ii, amEIJda 0 fi, wOIJda arne: Ii, &0. 
Transla.te: 
1. eye: dgogbaIj, 10 '? h§', miye dgogbaIJ 
negbe: oya' ? mi'ya dgano 
mi ke: 0 bays. YO', mlIJda 0 Ji 
meni otaoo che? m..ixJtao mahe stJi 
eye: Jika, 10 ? he-", miye Jika fto' 
mihu miye fio' obahe noko, 10 ? 
h~', mil)tao ma.he noke meni otaoo ohe ? 
miIJtao mahe IJo' 
2. Mei pi ' ye: bie:. :Meni a.rodao ? Ame:lJho nii. 
Na.mo hoo sne:? Mi:gtao mahe. O'tao noko, 10? 
MiIJt9.o akutui. Blofomei ye: dgs. Ie: no. Blofomei 
enyie ? Blofomai anyo. Negbe: ame:yo? Meni ame:-
taoo? AlDEIJtao nibil pi ', Miyaba, W.:>yaba., 
3, Mummies, how are you? (are you well?) Are 
you selling ? I want to buy. I do not speak much 
Gn. Speak Ga. Say something to me. ,Yhal:. do you 
say? I do not hear well. Say it again. Say it slowly. 
'Thank you. I understand all. Good-bye. 
236 A ppend-ix II 
SIMPLE EXAMPLES OF TENSES FOR BEGINNERS. 
Past (simple root of verb) 
mite fi. lebi oe: I gI)l up lltis mo,'ning. 
midgu milie I bathed myself 
miwo mitadei I put on 'Illy clothes. 
(mibu miruama) (I Pitt on my cloth.) 
miJwa miyi I combed my hair. 
mibu mifai I put on my hat. 
mite nitJumo I10ent to /Dork. 
Limited present. Root tense (for express ing a quality 
or state) 
m ita. hiE: I am sitting here. 
yo' dSi roi I am a tooman. 
mihe bE fEO I am not beau.lijul. 
mikE kakadaIJIJ I am 'Veri} taU. 
mite. 10' I a 'ln thin (1 lack fl esh). 
mibie tIo I am holding a slick. 
miJika IE fa I have plenty 'money (my money is 
plentiful). 
ani ole migbe:i, 10 ? do you Ammo my name 1 
Perfect (high tone to pronoun) 
gbo ko aba a stranger ha,$ come. 
mins. Ie: I have seen him. 
mifta. Ie: I have lOclco'med him. 
ebi 0 Ii he has asked for YOlt. 
edSie efai IE: he has rcmovcll his hat. 
eta Ji he has sat d-oIO-Il. 
Continuative (simplest for~ , 1) before verb) 
homo lJ ye ni I am hungry. 
mi1)ye nii I am eating. 
Geneml Suggestions for Beginne-rs 237 
kumai IJye mi I am thirsty. 
milJIlu nu I am drinking 1ooter. 
fili IJye mi I am cold. 
miqfe:re 18. I am kindli"9 a fire. 
wo IJye mi I an~ sleepy (sleep affects me). 
milJyawo I am going to sleep. 
Habitual (a or 0 nfter verb) 
way s.' dg:ano da."gbi we go to market daily. 
woho;) nil we sell. 
wohe;) nii we buy. 
wo ba.· fio. ekol] foe come home again. 
wohoo n il we cook. 
wo y eo nii we eat. 
wodgo' wohe toe rest (ourselves). 
Ftdure (ba before verb) 
mib8.lJma wolo I am going to write (I will 'write 
book). 
obakane wolo you are going to read. 
ebatJu nil he is going to foork. 
wobala. toe tOill 51'ng. 
nye baw ie you. 'will speak. 
ame:badg6 kpo they lOill go out. 
2nd form Future (prefix to verb, as shown) 
m ake: ' 0 noko I loill tell }1m' something. 
a obo tOl you shaillistcil. 
eeb l 0 noko he shall ask you some1hing. 
w oot T&' h iE toe shall sit here. 
nyeanu y()U shall hear. 
s afe rEO it ,oill be 'lice. 
238 Appendix II 
Ccmsecutive (change in 1st pers. sing. only, but note 
Lones) 
esa ake maya l111u.st go (it is right that I go). 
" " oba YOH m.ust come. 
" " efe he must do it. 
J! " wob i I t we must ask hi1l1. 
" " nye to be you 'must answer. 
" " arntwie anokwa they must speak (the) t1'Uth 
Imperative (sing.) high tone, or ma added to verb i 
pl., a added to verb) 
te Ii 1'ise up pI. nyetea fi. 
bs. bit come l1e-re nyeba' bit. 
femo oya be quick (do quickly) nyefea oya. 
k\vtmo ene look at this nyekwEa ent, 
hemo take it nyehea. 
ke-ya take it away nyeke:-ya', 
Imperative negative (sing., ka' prefixed to verb; 
pl., ka prefixed :lnd a as suffix) 
ka'wie do 1Wt speak pl. nyekawiea, 
ka;kwe mt do not look at me nyek akwta mi. 
ka.'ta he do not touch (it) . nyekata.· he. 
ka'fe nakai do not do so nyekafea nakai . 
kad6 do not cry nyekaf6a. 
kt-ka'ya do not take it away nyeke-kaya' , 
(with (it) do not go) 
Negativepasl and present (vowel doubled) 
mitaa dgEi I was not sifting there. 
miJika IE faa. I havcfnol much money. 
mi bu u fai I do not 'wear a hat. 
minuuft-fi I do 'not understand. 
Gene/·al Suggestions jor Beginners 23 9 
homo yea mi .I am not hungry. 
woyaa d3&no 106 (10 not go to mar l..:et. 
amEbas. they did not come. 
Negative pClject (suffix ko added) 
mi1Jmako wolo I have not 'written a letter. 
okaneko wolo IE you have not read ll~ leUer. 
enuko.fiJi he lias not understood. 
nu' IE b ak o the man has 1l0t come. 
n yEflako mi !lOll, lIa vc not welcamed me. 
amEnako IE they have -not seen him. 
Negaliv'lut"r, (suffix ~ added) 
mibsIJ bi E I shall not come here. 
onlUJ m i you, 10m not see me. 
etJUIJ nU he lOill not work. 
wolalJ we will 1Wt sing. 
n yen WJ you will tlOt hear. 
amEdgol) kpo they will not go out.