UNIVERSITY OF GHANA COLLEGE OF HUMANITIES GENERIC MOVES IN SELECTED M.PHIL RESEARCH PROPOSALS FROM A PUBLIC UNIVERSITY IN GHANA BY JOSEPHINE BREW DANIELS (10289759) THIS THESIS IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE STUDIES DEGREE DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH JULY 2017 DECLARATION I hereby do declare that apart from references to works duly cited, this work is the result of an original research I conducted, and that it has not been presented in whole or in part to any other university. ……………………………………… ……………………………………… DANIELS, JOSEPHINE BREW DATE (CANDIDATE) SUPERVISORS ……………………………………… ……………………………………… PROF. JOHN FRANKLIN WIREDU DATE ……………………………………… ……………………………………… PROF. A.B. K. DADZIE DATE ……………………………………… ……………………………………… DR. J. A. ANDERSON DATE i ABSTRACT In the last few decades, genre scholars have shown considerable interest in using Swales’ modified version of the Create-A-Research-Space (CARS) model in analyzing academic genres such as the Research Article (RA) which is regarded as the lifeblood that sustains the academic community. Mono-disciplines and multi-sections of the RA such as the abstract, introduction, method, literature review have been duly studied. Despite the contribution of the Research Proposal (RP) to knowledge production, it has attracted relatively little attention in the existing literature. To bridge this gap, forty MPhil research proposals written by graduate students of a public university in two unrelated disciplines: English Language Studies (ELS) and Agricultural Science (AG) are randomly selected and analyzed based on the modified version of the CARS model and Halliday’s (1985) concept of linguistic choices available to users of a language. The study analyzed both the generic structures of the overall sections of research proposal and linguistic resources in terms of structural types of sentences found in the selected research proposals. Four key findings were made. First, the ELS researchers use six Moves while the AG researchers use five. Secondly, the ordering of the Moves in both sets of data does not follow a linear pattern, also the ELS researchers use more textual space than the AG researchers. Lastly, the analysis reveals other notable divergences and convergences between the two disciplines. The complex and simple sentences are most frequently used by researchers in both disciplines. Sentences selected by both groups of researchers range from one to three dependent clauses based on a number of reasons. The study found that the selected dependent clauses are of different types used in realizing each Move. The study has theoretical and pedagogical implications for future research on genre analysis. ii DEDICATION I dedicate this work to my creator, God Almighty for helping me achieve such an academic status in life. iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS In the execution of this work, there are people whose invaluable contributions I cannot ignore. Indeed, I am highly indebted to Professor John F. Wiredu, my principal supervisor, whose patient guidance and total commitment to this thesis helped to achieve my dream of climbing the highest academic ladder. What I cherish so much about Prof Wiredu is where he provided me with books and other reference materials which helped me to understand basic concepts in the field. He showed total commitment to the work. He also has a unique way of commenting on the draft thesis, that is, he will not tell me how to go but will simply refer me to books which will help look for what I needed. This unique way of supervision, helped me to advance in knowledge. I am also indebted to Prof. A. B. K. Dadzie whose constructive criticisms and inputs shaped the work. I also extend my heartfelt gratitude to Dr. J. A. Anderson. Her contributions to the study are significant. She offered a number of suggestions and indicated areas that I needed to revise and this helped shape the thesis. I am highly indebted to Prof. J. B. A. Afful, the Dean of the Faculty of Arts, University of Cape Coast. Indeed, this thesis would have been very difficult to execute without the support and help of Prof. Afful who devoted much of his precious time reading it and making useful suggestions. Prof. Afful’s interest in this study was inspiring. Bernice Antwi-Boasiako and Anita Berfi were my research assistants who helped me throughout the entire analysis of the work. I would also want to thank my sponsors: Training and Development Section of University of Cape Coast for responding promptly to my financial needs. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Content Page DECLARATION........................................................................................................... i ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................. ii DEDICATION............................................................................................................ iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .......................................................................................... iv TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................ v LISTS OF TABLES ................................................................................................... vii LISTS OF ABBREVIATIONS ................................................................................... x CHAPTER ONE: GENERAL INTRODUCTION ................................................... 1 1.1 Background to the study ....................................................................................... 1 1.2 Statement of the problem ..................................................................................... 4 1.3 Aims/Objectives of the study ............................................................................... 6 1.4 Research questions ............................................................................................... 7 1.5 Significance of the study ...................................................................................... 7 1.6 Delimitations of the study .................................................................................... 8 1.7 Limitations of the study...................................................................................... 10 1.8 Synopsis of the study.......................................................................................... 11 CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF LITERATURE .................................................. 12 2.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 12 2.2 Academic discourse............................................................................................ 12 2.3 Genre as a concept.............................................................................................. 17 2.3.1 Discourse community .................................................................................. 20 2.3.2 The communicative purpose(s) ................................................................... 21 2.4 Genre analysis .................................................................................................... 22 2.5 Register analysis and genre analysis .................................................................. 23 2.6 Genre theory ....................................................................................................... 27 2.7 Genre analysis of multi-sections of research articles (RAS).............................. 32 2.7.1 Review of introduction section of research articles ..................................... 32 2.7.2 Review of abstract section of research articles ............................................ 36 2.7.3 Review of method section of research articles ............................................ 38 2.7.4 Review of literature review section of research articles .............................. 38 2.7.5 Review of discussion section of research articles ....................................... 40 2.7.6 Review of conclusion section of research articles ....................................... 41 2.7.7 Review of the overall sections of research articles ...................................... 41 2.8 Review of literature on grant proposals ............................................................. 42 2.9 Review of literature on research proposals ........................................................ 44 CHAPTER THREE: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ...................................... 50 3.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 50 3.2. The CARS Model .............................................................................................. 52 3.2.1 Move 1-Establishing a territory ................................................................... 54 3.2.2 Move 2- Establishing a niche ...................................................................... 56 3.2.3 Move 3 - Occupying the niche .................................................................... 58 3.2.4 Move 4- Establishing theoretical basis ........................................................ 63 3.2.5 Move 5- Spelling out a methodology .......................................................... 63 3.2.6 Move 6 – Indicating closure ........................................................................ 66 3.3 Chapter summary ............................................................................................... 68 v CHAPTER FOUR: METHODOLOGY .................................................................. 69 4.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 69 4.2 Research design .................................................................................................. 69 4.3 Research sites ..................................................................................................... 70 4.4 Sampling techniques .......................................................................................... 72 4.5 Method of analysis ............................................................................................. 74 4.6 Chapter summary ............................................................................................... 77 CHAPTER FIVE: ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION 1 ........................................... 78 5.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 78 5.2 Frequency of occurrence of Moves and Steps in ELS data ................................ 78 5.3 Frequency of occurrence of Moves and Steps in AG data ................................. 93 5.4 Sequence of Moves in both sets of data ........................................................... 102 5.5 Textual space of Moves in both sets of data .................................................... 107 5.6 Chapter summary ............................................................................................. 110 CHAPTER SIX: ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION 2 ............................................ 111 6.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 111 6.2 Distribution of structural types of sentences .................................................... 112 6. 3. Distribution of dependent clauses in the Moves ............................................ 117 6.4 Distribution of number of dependent clauses per sentence .............................. 125 6.5 Types of dependent clauses .............................................................................. 134 6.6 Similarities and differences in the two sets of data .......................................... 147 6.6.1 Similarities and differences at the schematic structure level ..................... 147 6.6.1a Frequency of occurrence of the Moves in ELS and AG data .............. 147 6.6.1b Similarities and differences at the sequencing of the Moves ............... 149 6.6.1c Similarities and differences at the textual space level ......................... 151 6.6.2 Similarities and differences at the linguistic level ..................................... 154 6.7 Chapter summary ............................................................................................. 157 CHAPTER SEVEN: CONCLUSION .................................................................... 159 7.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 159 7.2 Key findings ..................................................................................................... 159 BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................................................................................... 169 APPENDICES .......................................................................................................... 183 Appendix A: Sample analysis of an ELS data ....................................................... 183 Appendix B: Sample analysis of an AG data ......................................................... 187 vi LISTS OF TABLES Table 1: Swales’ Modified Version of the CARS Model .......................................... 533 Table 2: Examples of Move 3, Step 1 (outlining purposes) ........................................ 59 Table 3: Swales’ Modified Version of the CARS Model ............................................ 61 Table 4: Analytical Framework based on Swales’ Modified Version of the CARS Model ................................................................................................ 622 Table 5: Frequency of Moves and Steps in ELS data ................................................ 798 Table 6: Frequency of Moves and Steps in AG data ................................................ 944 Table 7: Sequencing of Moves in ELS data ............................................................... 103 Table 8: Sequencing of Moves in AG data ................................................................ 106 Table 9: Textual space allocated to the Moves in ELS data ...................................... 108 Table 10: Textual space allocated to the Moves in AG data ..................................... 109 Table 11: Structural types of sentences in all the Moves ........................................... 112 Table 12: Structural types of sentences – Move 1 ..................................................... 113 Table 13: Structural types of sentences – Move 2 ..................................................... 113 Table 14: Structural types of sentences – Move 3 ..................................................... 114 Table 15: Structural types of sentences - Move 4 ...................................................... 114 Table 16: Structural types of sentences – Move 5 ..................................................... 115 Table 17: Structural types of sentences – Move 6 ..................................................... 116 Table 18: Distribution of dependent clauses in all the Moves ................................... 117 Table 19: Distribution of dependent clauses in Move 1 ............................................ 118 vii Table 20: Distribution of dependent clauses in Move 2 ............................................ 120 Table 21: Distribution of dependent clauses in Move 3 ............................................ 121 Table 22: Distribution of dependent clauses in Move 4 ............................................ 122 Table 23: Distribution of dependent clauses in Move 5 ............................................ 123 Table 24: Distribution of dependent clauses in Move 6 ............................................ 124 Table 25: Number of dependent clauses per sentence in all the Moves .................... 126 Table 26: Number of dependent clauses per sentence in Move 1.............................. 127 Table 27: Number of dependent clauses per sentence in Move 2.............................. 129 Table 28: Number of dependent clauses per sentence in Move 3.............................. 130 Table 29: Number of dependent clause per sentence in Move 4 ............................... 131 Table 30: Number of dependent clauses per sentence in Move 5.............................. 132 Table 31: Number of dependent clauses per sentence in Move 6.............................. 133 Table 32: Types of dependent clauses in all the Moves - ELS .................................. 134 Table 33: Types of dependent clauses in all the Moves - AG ................................... 136 Table 34: Types of dependent clauses in Move 1- ELS ............................................ 137 Table 35: Types of dependent clauses in Move 1 - AG ............................................. 137 Table 36: Types of dependent clauses in Move 2- ELS ............................................ 139 Table 37: Types of dependent clauses in Move 2- AG .............................................. 139 Table 38: Types of dependent clauses in Move 3- ELS ............................................ 140 Table 39: Types of dependent clauses in Move 3- AG .............................................. 140 viii Table 40: Types of dependent clauses in Move 4- ELS ............................................ 142 Table 41: Types of dependent clauses in Move 5 – ELS ........................................... 143 Table 42: Types of dependent clauses in Move 5 – AG ............................................ 144 Table 43: Types of dependent clauses in Move 6 - ELS ........................................... 145 Table 44: Types of dependent clauses in Move 6 – AG ............................................ 145 Table 45: Frequency of occurrence of Moves in ELS and AG data .......................... 147 Table 46: Frequency of occurrence of Steps in ELS and AG data ............................ 148 Table 47: Textual Space allocated to the Moves in ELS and AG data ...................... 151 Table 48: Distribution of structural types of sentences found in the Moves ............. 154 ix LISTS OF ABBREVIATIONS AG RPs: Agricultural Science Research Proposals AG: Agricultural Science CARS: Create-a-Research-Space EAP: English for Academic Purposes ELS RPs: English Language Studies Research Proposals ELS: English Language Studies ESP: English for Specific Purposes LR: Literature Review RA: Research Article RAIs: Research Article Introductions RP: Research Proposal SFL: Systemic Functional Linguistic x CHAPTER ONE: GENERAL INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background to the study In recent times, language scholars have shown significant interest in academic genres like the research articles (Kwan et al, 2012; Adika, 2014) theses (Hewings, 1993; Samraj, 2002; Al-Ali & Sahawneh, 2011; Taherah & Sayyed, 2014), dissertations (Bunton, 1998; Ridley, 2000; Shaw, 2000; Paltridge, 2002), research grant proposals (Feng and Shi, 2004; Feng, 2006). One reason for such a deep interest was noted by Abbary (1996: 6). According to her, academic genres are “the lifeblood of the academic community.” Hyland (2000:1) also comments on the significance of the research article (hereafter, RA) as “the lifeblood of the academy as it is through the public discourse of their members that disciplines authenticate knowledge, establish their hierarchies and reward systems ….” These genres provide sustenance to the academic community by contributing immensely to the presentation of knowledge acquisition, instruction, sharing and evaluation. Considering the contributions of these genres to knowledge, applied linguists, text linguists, English for Specific Purposes (ESP) and English for Academic Purposes (EAP) specialists such as Hyland (2002) and Bruce (2010) have undertaken a number of studies using a variety of linguistic approaches such as discourse analysis, Systemic Functional Linguistics, Cognitive Linguistics, Pragmatics and other approaches to analyze written and spoken discourse. Text linguists investigate linguistic elements in texts but genre theorists according to Bhatia (1993:11), provide comprehensive descriptions of academic and professional texts. According to Yang and Allison (2003: 365), an academic genre, which has been given extensive attention by scholars in genre analysis, is the RA. Its subdivisions such as introduction (Jogthong, 2001; Renu et al, 2013) methodology (Lim, 2006) result and 1 discussion sections (Bruce, 2009; Dujsik, 2013; Loi et al, 2015) have received overwhelming attention from genre scholars. Yang and Allison give two reasons in support of that. First, the RAs are published texts and are easily accessible to genre researchers. Secondly, the RAs are regarded as the vehicle of production and transmission of knowledge. Hence, following the work of Swales (1981) on the introduction in the RAs, for example, a number of studies on the rhetorical aspects of the RAs, such as the abstracts, have caught the attention of scholars. A number of scholars have studied the research abstracts in different disciplines (Santos, 1996; Hyland, 2000; Stotesbury, 2003; Martin-Martin and Burgess, 2004, Samraj, 2005). The undergraduate dissertation which is also an academic genre in tertiary education has received attention from scholars. Swales and Feak (2000) in Hyland (2004: 306) assert that “the dissertation is often a high stakes genre; at the top of the academic genre ladder and perhaps the most important piece of writing that most students will ever do.” Sections of the undergraduate dissertation such as the acknowledgment (Kudjordjie, 2010; Hyland, 2004), introduction (Cmejrkova, 1996; Ahmad, 1997; Anthony, 1999; Lewin et al, 2001; Bunton, 2002) discussion (Dudley- Evans, 1986; Swales & Luebs, 2002), literature review (Kwan, 2006; Akindele, 2009) and conclusion (Hewings, 1993; Bunton, 2005) have also attracted scholarly interest. Despite the uniqueness and importance of the research proposal (hereafter, RP) in higher education, relatively few studies have investigated its rhetorical structures. This has been noted by Swales (1990), Bin (2006) and Jalilifar et al (2011) and through the researcher’s own investigations. Main libraries in three public universities in Ghana were consulted but no study was found on the RPs. The internet was also surfed yet relatively few studies could be retrieved. 2 According to Al-Riyami (2008: 1), a RP is ‘a detailed description of a proposed study designed to investigate a given problem.’ It is an important document written for a review committee in a university or for a research-funding agency. It describes what a proposed research is about, and defines its boundaries, what it hopes to achieve, and how it will go about it, what will be learnt from it, and why it is worth learning (Punch, 2003: 268). Indeed, the take-off point in the writing of the thesis is the RP which serves as the fundamental part of the process (Jalilifar et al, 2011). The RP, an ‘occluded’ genre (Swales, 2004), enables the thesis committee, whose concern is to assess whether the topic is suited to the level of study, to decide whether the research scope is acceptable, given the time available for completion (Hofstee, 2006). Swales (1996: 46) describes the RP (also known as the research prospectus) as an example of process genre and, as such, it operates to support and validate the production of knowledge directly in the aspect of the publishing process itself. Bin (2006: 7) confirms the significance of the RP by asserting that the RP serves as an important gate-keeping role in higher research degree admission. The RP, as an academic genre, is significant. This is because a graduate student, who hopes to join the academic community, is required to produce a RP. It is the RP which indicates the aspect of the discipline he wants to contribute to knowledge in order to sustain the community. By writing a RP, the student is indirectly declaring his intention of contributing his quota to the development of knowledge in the academic community. Again, before a study is undertaken, there should be some agreed parameters that must guide both the researcher and his supervisor(s). It is the RP that provides the impetus for the research to commence. Indeed, there is no doubt that the RP plays such a significant role in contributing to knowledge production in higher institutions. 3 1.2 Statement of the problem In the last three decades, applied linguists, ESP and EAP scholars have undertaken a number of studies in academic genres using Swales’ (1981, 1990, 2004) Create-a-Research-Space (hereafter, CARS) model to explore the organizational/schematic structure of the introduction of RAs (Afful, 2005). Some of the multidimensional aspects that have received overwhelming attention are the abstract in English (Salager-Meyer, 1991; Anderson and Maclean, 1997; Stotesbury, 2003; Lores, 2004; Cross and Oppenheim, 2006; Duncan, 2008), introduction (Nwogu, 1997; Samraj, 2002, 2005), literature review (Akindele, 2009) methodology (Lim, 2006) and discussion (Yang and Allison, 2003); their contributions will be addressed in the next chapter. Genre-theory has been applied to different disciplines such as Humanities and Social Sciences (McClosky, 1986; Peck McDonald, 1987, 1990, 1992; Dillon, 1991; Hunston, 1993; Brett, 1994) and Natural Sciences. Scholars such as Taylor and Chen (1991) and Jogthong (2001) have also shown interest in genre analysis of cross-cultural studies to identify cultural variations in discourse structures. Unfortunately, very little attention has been directed toward the RP, which also contributes immensely to research. This is because most studies on genres prevalent in the literature have not shown interest in the RPs. A probable reason for such might be due to non-availability of the RPs as data. The RP, according to Swales (2004), is a confidential material and is not made public, hence, the difficulty in getting access to it. Also, the researcher observed that most of the tertiary institutions do not keep records of students RPs, thus, the difficulty in getting access to them. Apart from Swales’ (1981, 1990, 2004) CARS model, which has been used extensively to identify the schematic structure of multi-sections of the RAs, multi- 4 sections of undergraduate dissertations such as acknowledgements, abstracts, introductions, methods, results and discussions have also attracted scholarly attention. An observation that the researcher made is that the interest of scholars seems to be tilted more towards analyzing these individual sub-sections than studying the overall organizational structure of the RAs. Interestingly, scholars who study the RPs also follow a similar pattern. Another observation made by the researcher of the existing literature confirms that apart from Bin (2006), who examined the overall organizational structure of the RPs, other studies conducted in the subject concentrated on the individual sections, such as the statement of the problem Jalilifar et al (2011). Cadman (2002) who worked on the RPs focused exclusively on context of situation and not on textual analysis although she acknowledges the importance of textual analysis. There is, however, the need to explore the overall structures of the RPs to identify the Moves and Steps that constitute the RP. The researcher also observed that the RAs are written by experts who are most familiar with the conventions and practices of the academic community they belong to. Swales’ CARS model was formulated to discover the rhetorical structures of the RAs written by experts. The model has, however, been modified by several scholars in analyzing sections of experts and non-experts’ texts. Bunton (1998), for instance, maintained Swales’ (1990) three basic Moves in the CARS model and proposed different Steps for the Moves in his analysis of the overall thesis structure of 13 PhD and 8 MPhil theses. Hyland (2000), also influenced by Swales’ CARS model invented a five-move model for analyzing the RA abstracts. Hyland’s model has also been utilized in a number of studies involving abstracts of both single disciplines and different disciplines. Li (2011) for instance, employed Hyland’s (2000) model to examine the rhetorical structures of the RA abstracts written 5 in two languages, English and Chinese and from two disciplines: Chemistry and Linguistics. In 2004, Hyland proposed a generic structure model to identify the generic structure of the acknowledgements sections of 240 master’s and doctoral theses of non- native speakers of English. Indeed, it can be found that the CARS model, as noted by Swales (2004:226), has become prototypical in genre studies. Despite the overwhelming interest in identifying the generic structure of various sections of published texts written by experts and the theses and dissertation sections by non-experts, other academic genres such as the RP and its multi-sections remain under researched. Swales (2004) refers to graduate students who are learning the norms and conventions of an academic community they hope to join as non-experts. Since expert writers know the conventions and practices of the academic discourse community in which they find themselves, there is the need for scholars to express a similar interest in the writings of non-experts. This is however, not the case; hence, a gap has been created in the existing literature which needs to be filled. Conducting generic studies on the writings of these students will create the opportunity for their instructors to be aware of how non-experts express and organize ideas in their research. Students’ instructors can, therefore, mount courses that will help non-experts familiarize themselves with the norms of academic writing. 1.3 Aims/Objectives of the study The study specifically sets out to do the following: 1. To analyze the organizational structures of the RPs in two disciplines: Agricultural Science (hereafter, AG) and English Language Studies (hereafter, ELS). 6 2. To identify major and minor sentence structures in each of the Moves identified in the disciplines. 3. To compare and contrast the generic structures and sentence structures identified in the two disciplines. 1.4 Research questions The following research questions are formulated to guide the study. 1. What rhetorical structures (Moves and Steps) characterize the research proposals in English Language Studies (ELS) and Agricultural Science (AG)? 2. What linguistic resources in relation to structural types of sentences are employed in the RPs of ELS and AG to help the researchers realize their communicative purposes? 3. What similarities and differences are noticeable in the generic structures and linguistic resources employed by AG and ELS researchers? 1.5 Significance of the study The study is significant in diverse ways. First, it will contribute to scholarship on academic writing at the graduate level in a setting where genre study is largely under- researched. Hence, it will add to existing studies on academic writing because genre analysis is an aspect of academic writing (Hyland, 2000). Another significance of the study will be realized from its findings. The findings will be useful to applied linguists, ESP and EAP instructors and graduate students who find themselves in the two disciplines used for the study. Language instructors will be able to use the knowledge in generic conventions of both the RPs of ELS and AG to design training materials and give appropriate guidance to students. The study will 7 provide graduate students with an awareness of the conventions of academic writing and enable them to develop good RPs. Further, the findings of the study will serve as a springboard for genre analysts and researchers who may be interested in investigating other sections of the RP. Swales’ (2004) pioneering work on the introduction of the RAs influenced other researchers to find out more about the various divisions of the RAs and other academic genres. The current study on the other hand, may motivate researchers to find out more about the individual sections of the RP in both discipline-specific, inter-disciplines, multi- discipline, cross cultural analysis and Critical Genre analysis which highlights the importance of contextual analysis in general (Bhatia, 2008). 1.6 Delimitations of the study The study is restricted to the RPs produced by some graduate students of the English Language Department and those of the Soil, Crop and Animal Science Departments in the University of Cape Coast. Again, the study focuses specifically on textual analysis and is not ethnographic since combining textual analysis with interview and questionnaire data as done in some studies (Connor and Wagner, 1999; Connor, 2000; Afful, 2005; Bin, 2006) will not help complete the study within the stipulated time. Data from interviews will need to be transcribed and analyzed, which will take a lot of time and will not help a comprehensive analysis. Indeed, the significance of context of situation is acknowledged but in this study, interest is directed to textual analysis to find out what Moves and Steps typify the entire structure of the RPs of the two disciplines to help the researchers achieve their communicative purposes. Moreover, other sources of data would not have permitted to work on as many as 40 RPs. Studies which combine textual analysis with other sources of data are not able to 8 work on large numbers of the RPs as done in the present study. Thus, to embark on an in-depth analysis of the RPs, other sources of data are excluded. The two different disciplines, English Language Studies and Agricultural Science are selected because the researcher is more familiar with how the RPs are written in English Language Studies, but less so in Agricultural Science. It is hoped that such a study will provide additional knowledge in a different discipline. At the same time, the study will help encourage the researcher to embark on the RPs written in different disciplines. This is because after finding what happens in a single discipline, Agricultural Science, the researcher has been motivated to look out for how the RPs in other disciplines, such as Physics, Chemistry, Biology, Education and others are structured. Three different types of the RPs were identified in the two sets of data: first, those written by third-year undergraduate students who wrote essays as part of their assignment on Research Methods which is a core course for third-year university students. Next, is the RPs written by graduate students who have completed first-degree programmes for more than a year. Some of them are gainfully employed in both the private and public sectors but have shown interest in pursuing further studies, and lastly, those written by graduate MPhil students who have formally presented and defended their RPs. This group is selected for the study because such students have taken a course in Genre Study and it is assumed that their way of creating and reporting information may be quite different from their colleagues who never had the opportunity to offer such a course. 9 1.7 Limitations of the study A number of difficulties were encountered at the onset of the study and in the course of analysis and discussion. The first problem had to do with identification and labelling of the Moves and Steps. Based on the researcher’s understanding of what constituted a Move and a Step, it was thought that identification and labelling of the Moves and Steps were not going to be difficult but it was not as easy as anticipated. This is because some of the sentences constructed by the RP researchers specifically, those of the ELS data, have no relationship with the idea they wanted to express. There was a problem with either considering such sentences as belonging to Step 1 or any of the Steps in each of the Moves. Hence, to ensure that the result of the study is not compromised, two research assistants were employed whose main work was to help in analyzing both the schematic structure of the Moves and Steps and the linguistic analysis in terms of structural types of sentences found in the two disciplines under study. It was then decided that such sentences which have no bearing with any of the Moves be marked as no move (NM) in order to carry on with the analysis. This paved a way for the analysis to go on smoothly. Further, some of the subtitles provided by the ELS researchers were misleading. This is because there were subtitles such as Theoretical Framework or Review of Literature, yet none of the sentences under such titles provided information related to such subtitles. Thus, this could have affected the labelling if care was not taken. There were also cases where some of the ELS researchers omitted some pages in the RPs. For instance, in some of the RPs, the ELS researchers omitted as many as four pages. The RPs which were found with such pagination problems were discarded and replaced. 10 1.8 Synopsis of the study The thesis is organized into seven chapters. Chapter One, the introductory chapter, comprises background of the study, statement of the problem, aims of the study, research questions, significance of the study, delimitations, limitations, the synopsis and summary of the chapter. Chapter Two reviews concepts and traces the literature from the RA and its various divisions to studies on the RPs while Chapter Three discusses the theoretical framework and the adapted framework used in the study. Chapter Four describes the methods employed in finding answers to the research questions. It includes items such as the research design, setting, data source and sampling technique and method of analysis. Chapters Five and Six account for the analyses and discussions by way of providing answers to the research questions the study sets out to find. Chapter Seven, the concluding chapter, highlights the main findings and considers pedagogical and theoretical implications of the study. The Chapter equally makes recommendations for future research. 1.9 Chapter summary This first chapter has discussed the background to the study, statement of the problem, aims/objectives, research questions, delimitations, limitations and the structural organization of the study. All these have set the stage for understanding the study. The next chapter will explain concepts and review the literature of the study. 11 CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF LITERATURE 2.1 Introduction This chapter is divided into two main sections. First, key concepts used in the study, such as academic discourse, genre, discourse community, communicative purpose, genre analysis, register analysis and genre theory are discussed. The second is a summary of the related literature on multi-sections of the RA and the overall organizational structure. Literature on grant proposals and the research proposals are also reviewed. The review of relevant literature is necessary to bring clarity and focus to the research problem, inform the research methodology and help in contextualizing the findings in the existing literature (Kumar, 2011). Reviewing relevant literature also helps in providing a theoretical background for the current study and in establishing a link between what has already been studied and what the current study hopes to find. 2.2 Academic discourse In recent times, the term academic discourse, also known in the literature as academic writing or academic literacy (Harwood and Hadley, 2004; Franken, 2013), has attracted considerable attention from scholars in the field. Hyland (2006: 171) defines academic discourse as “the ways of thinking and using language that exists in the academy.” This means, language plays an essential role in the academic community. Language is used in the academic community to accomplish complex social activities like educating students, demonstrating learning, sharing ideas, constructing and evaluating knowledge. According to Backman et al (1996) and Backman (2003), “academic discourse is treated as language used in schools as applied in English for Academic Purpose (EAP).” This definition also considers the importance of language in the academic community. Academic discourse involves using academic sources to 12 create knowledge by making a contribution to the understanding of a topic, for example, by offering a new conception about the topic (Spatt, 1999; Spivay, 1984; Sternberg, 1998 and Veit, 1998). Indeed, two main things are recognized in academic discourse: the recognition of language used and the provision of knowledge to sustain the academic community. Language, as used in the academic community, could be spoken or written. Written or spoken language is controlled by rules that need to be observed by the members of the academic community. The members of the academic community also contribute to the stock of knowledge in order to sustain the community. The researcher observed that scholars such as Backman et al (1996), Backman (2003), Harwood and Hadley (2004), and Navratilova (2013) use the term academic discourse and academic writing interchangeably. It is difficult to tell why these scholars have been using the two terms interchangeably despite the difference. It is therefore, necessary to point out that academic discourse is different from academic writing. Academic discourse according to Hyland (2009) is as an umbrella term which constitutes both spoken and written academic discourse. This is in line with Duff’s (2010) observation that academic discourse is made up of spoken and written discourse. The distinction between spoken and written discourse is important because each of them has its own features and types. For instance, a plenary or keynote lecture at a conference, seminar presentation, lecture presentation and all forms of oral presentations done in the academic community cannot be regarded as academic written discourse, but spoken discourse. In the same way, students’ essays, term papers, research proposals (or research prospectus), theses and dissertations cannot be referred to as spoken discourse but written discourse. By drawing a line between the two, it becomes easier for readers to know which type of discourse is contributing to knowledge in the academic community. 13 Academic speech involves verbal utterances made by academics and students in higher institutions. Examples of such utterances are lecture deliveries, conference presentations, seminar presentations, keynote addresses, inaugural speeches and other forms of oral presentations. Swales (2004: 27-29) lists some of the differences between academic speech and academic writing. Academic speech, according to Swales, tends to be heavily hedged not only for traditional reasons of modesty and uncertainty but academic instructors may hedge their descriptors as a way of socializing students into their particular disciplines. The use of hedging in academic speech shows respect and produces a healthy environment free from verbal abuse, insults and insinuations which may be found in other communities outside the academic community. Again, academic speech has a much higher incidence of questions than academic writing. One of the purposes of asking questions is to focus and retain listener attention. By asking a number of questions in verbal presentations, listeners are forced to pay attention to what the speaker is saying in order to provide answers to the questions asked. It also indicates that the speaker does not want to be assertive but to give the listeners the opportunity to contribute to the discussions. Spoken academic speech is heavily signposted and signaled often with strings of discourse markers such as “okay, so now.” Swales also mentions that academic speech tends to be informal gonna, wonna in the US, with high incidences of filled pauses and other kinds of dysfluency and tends to have a propensity for vague words. In Ghana however, spoken academic speech is often characterized by interpolations which may be equated to the informality of speech found in the US. According to Oshima and Hogue (1998: 2) academic writing is “the kind of writing that you are required to do in college or university.” Thompson (2001:14) also asserts that “academic writing is used to describe a wide range of different types of text, 14 ranging from undergraduate essays produced under timed examination conditions, to laboratory reports, and further to dissertations and theses.” Sharndama and Yakubu (2013:15) also define academic writing as one of the writing skills that students are to acquire before completing their program of studies in higher institutions of learning. The definitions above give the impression that academic writing is done by only university students as they seek to contribute to the stock of knowledge in their various disciplines. The definitions equally indicate that everything about academic writing has nothing to do with speech, but everything to do with writing. Additionally, the definitions do not mention writing done by academics. Some examples of academic writing are students’ essays, dissertations, theses, term papers, laboratory reports and the research proposals which are used as data for this study. Edu-Buandoh (2015: 2) indicates that academic writing refers to expository and argumentative writing done not only by university students but also by academics as members of a community of practice, to convey information in a particular discipline or about a particular subject. This definition also adds that academic writing is not only done by novice writers as claimed by Thompson (2001) but also academics (expert writers). Indeed, this is one definition which has shown that writings of academics also belong to the academic writing genre as other scholars hold the view that academic writing is basically done by students and not academics. A problem with the above definition is where Edu Buandoh limits the types of writing to only two types when other types of writing, such as the narrative and the descriptive, are also done in academic communities. Even though all these types of writing take 15 place outside the academic communities, the types of writing done in the academic communities are distinguished by exposition and argument, which are highly structured. She also highlights the community in which academics and scholars find themselves. This community is similar to academic discourse community where members of the community exist to achieve some set objectives. The academic community is a community of scholars who contribute to knowledge through the normative use of language. This community is a heterogeneous group because diverse disciplines are found in there. In this study, academic writing is defined as different forms of writing done by university students and academics with the aim of conveying information in their various disciplines or contributing to knowledge creation to help sustain the academic community. This is because in the academic community, students and academics contribute to the production of knowledge. Neither the students nor academics work independently but they both work as a team in contributing to knowledge production. Also, different forms of writing are found in the academic communities. Academic writing, like other types of writing, has its own features and guidelines that enable one to make intelligent argument for or against a position or simply to express one’s opinion about a phenomenon. Rummel (2005) observes that explicitness, intertextuality, objectivity, emotional neutrality, appropriate genre requirement, use of metadiscourse, hedging and display of disciplinary variation are some important features of academic writing. Swales and Feak (2013) outline six important characteristics of academic writing: audience, purpose, organization, style, flow and presentation. These are indicators to strengthen the point that academic writing 16 is rule bound, and the rules must be critically observed by users who may be academics or students. 2.3 Genre as a concept For over two decades, the importance of genre knowledge in helping language learners to understand and master academic, professional and educational discourse has been widely acknowledged (Swales, 2004). The word genre has been a difficult concept to define. Hence scholars belonging to the three genre traditions share different views of it. Genre can be traced to Greco-Roman tradition, where it was used “as a category, text type or branch of literature” (Swales, 1990). Genre was also used in relation to the three forms of literature: poetry, prose and drama - specifically, Aristotle’s poetics, where rhetorical inquiry and criticism have been aimed at the classification of discourse. According to Chandler (1997:1), the word genre comes from a French and originally Latin word for kind or class. Genre is widely used in rhetoric, literary theory, folklore, media theory and more recently, in linguistics to refer to “a distinctive type of text.” Genre as a concept is used in the present study as a linguistic term. According to Bhatia (1993:11) the concept of genre which has been so prevalent in literature, sociology and rhetoric for a long time has assumed some importance in linguistics. Afful (2005) asserts that the term has been popularized, especially, in the field of linguistics, due to the works of linguists such as Swales (1990), Miller (1994) and Bhatia (2004). Swales (1990) defines the term genre as “a class of communicative events the members of which share some set of communicative purposes.” 17 Allison (1999:144) points out that the word genre indicates various kinds of literary and artistic works; however, its use was extended by linguists to cover “classes of language and communication in all areas of life.” According to Trosborg (2000: ix) “genres are intimately linked to the discipline’s methodology, packing information in ways that conform to a discipline’s norms, values and ideology.” In this definition, it can be found that genres can be created by each discipline since members of a discipline see themselves as having common goals and aspirations. It can also be found that members in a discipline are aware of their conventions, norms and practices and rigidly observe such norms. According to Bhatia (1993:14) members in a discipline through their long experience and/or training within the specialist community become conversant with the norms and practices and see to it that such rules and practices are observed by all members in that discipline. Hyland (2003) defines genre as “socially recognized ways of using language. It is a term we all use for grouping texts together and representing how writers typically use language to respond to and construct texts for recurring situations.” He further explains that genre is based on the idea that members of a community usually have little difficulty in recognizing similarities in the texts they frequently use and are able to draw on their repeated experiences of particular contexts to read, understand and write the text that occurs in them relatively easily. It is through this recurrent use of conventionalized forms and communicative practices that individuals develop relationships, establish communities, and get things done. The definitions above indicate that though genre means different things to different people, it has peculiar features that can be identified in all the definitions. Genres are created using language. Language is used in recurrent situations in order to 18 learn the norms and practices of the group that uses the language. Again, the continuous use of the genre by members of a community makes them conversant with the genre. Hence, it is identifiable by all members who now play the rules of engagement. Inasmuch as genres mean different things to different people, there are different ways of categorizing genres. Trosborg (2000) classifies genres into literary and non-literary. Examples of literary genres are poems, novels, short stories and non- literary such as academic genres (or research genres) such as the research proposals, research articles, dissertations and theses. Swales (2004: 20) also groups genres into spoken and written genres. Class participation, lecture deliveries, seminar presentations and conference presentations, inaugural addresses, plenary or keynote addresses are some examples of spoken genres while course assignments, term papers (or preliminary papers), posters in an increasing number of fields, texts of conference presentations, research articles, dissertations and theses are some examples of written genres. He also mentions research genres: dissertations, theses, research articles are examples. Hewings and Hewings (2002: 72) on the other hand, group genres into professional and non- professional. Professional genres are genres produced by scholars when communicating with their peers such as monographs, conference papers, research articles, working papers, reviewers’ comments and grant proposals. Non-professional genres are those produced by students for assessment such as dissertations, theses, essays, laboratory reports and literature reviews. The non-professional ones are referred to as classroom genres or curriculum or school genres. Swales (1990) and Bhatia (1993) indicate that some factors influence the nature and construction of a genre. These are the communicative purpose, content, form, intended audience who are either members of a professional or academic community and medium: spoken or written. Two of these features are of prime 19 importance to genre construction; these are the discourse community and communicative purpose(s) that the genre is intended to fulfill. 2.3.1 Discourse community The term discourse community, according to Swales (1990:21), has been appropriated by instructors and researchers adopting a social view of the writing process. Discourse community, according to Swales, is a particular community that has its common goals and employs one or more genres in furtherance of its communicative aims. Hyland (2006) also explains discourse community as a group of people who have text and practices in common, whether it is a group of academics or readers of teenage magazines. In fact, discourse community can refer to the people the text is aimed at; it can be the people who read a text; or it can refer to the people who participate in a set of discourse practices both by reading and writing. Discourse community according to Swales, has six defining characteristics: 1. A discourse community has a broadly agreed set of common public goals. 2. A discourse community has mechanisms of inter-communication among its members. 3. A discourse community uses its participatory mechanisms primarily to provide information and feedback. 4. A discourse community utilizes and hence possesses one or more genres in the communicative furtherance of its aims. 5. In addition to having their own genres, a discourse community has acquired some specific lexis. 20 6. A discourse community has a threshold level of members with a suitable degree of relevant content and discoursal expertise (Swales, 1990:24-27). The above characteristics of a discourse community point to a number of implications. In the first place, the community has a way of recruiting and maintaining membership. Secondly, the members have ways of communicating among themselves by using communicative modes such as telecommunications, newsletters, correspondence and sometimes spoken discourse. Also, members are knowledgeable about the beliefs, norms, practices and conventions and expectations of the communities. In addition to that, members have their own genres and can also assimilate borrowed terms. Well-established members of a discourse community also communicate among themselves on topics relevant to the goals of the community and not using lexical items puzzling to outsiders. Though the term discourse community has definitional problems, it in a way, contributes significantly to the meaning of a genre. This is because genres take place in a discourse community and it is this community that uses the genres. 2.3.2 The communicative purpose(s) The communicative purpose, according to Swales (1990:46), is one of the important criteria of genre as it determines the nature of the genre and drives the activities of the discourse community. Communicative purpose involves a speaker/writer’s intention(s) disclosed through the use of language as a vehicle of communication. There are some texts whose communicative purposes can easily be identified but there are others whose communicative purposes are difficult to identify. Communicative purposes in recipes, business letters, professional writings - research 21 articles, research proposals, and conference papers are naturally comprehensible, unlike poetic genres which have multiple communicative purposes. It is based on such varieties of texts that Askehave and Swales (2001) suggest that communicative purpose should not be taken as a privileged criterion. They propose a two-tier paradigm or continuum. That is, to identify the communicative purpose of a text, a reader who gets the meaning of the text at the early stage of his reading must not end there but should probe further by reading extensively to confirm what was previously identified. Thus, the individual words that constitute the Step(s) and virtually the Move are what together constitute the communicative purpose. It can be found that while a discourse community uses language in achieving set objectives, the communicative purpose is embedded in the language that the discourse community uses. This makes the two concepts indispensable in determining the meaning of a genre. 2.4 Genre analysis There are several approaches to genre analysis, which is a branch of discourse analysis. In this study, genre analysis is done from the ESP tradition. Here, Bhatia (2002:2), a member of the ESP tradition proposes that genre analysis is the analysis of language use in a broader sense in order to account for not only the way text is constructed but also for the way it is likely to be interpreted, used and exploited in specific contexts to achieve specific goals. To put it simply, he proposes that identifying the Moves and Strategies of a genre as well as the allowable order of the Moves and the key linguistic features are the general aims of a genre analyst. The Moves and Strategies (or Steps) help the writer to declare his/her communicative purposes. 22 Swales (1981, 1990) a leading member of the ESP tradition, also indicates that in order to embark on a genre analysis of a text, the analyst must identify the rhetorical/schematic structure of a genre and relate it to its communicative purpose while recognizing the social context to which it belongs. This means that the analyst must first identify and label the Moves and Steps that realize the communicative purposes, consider how the Moves and Steps are arranged and determine the grammatical units that are used in realizing the Moves. Guided by these principles, the analyst must also guard against the fact that some of the Moves and Steps must be obligatory. The obligatory Moves according to Bruce (2010), are functional defining stages which are necessary for a text to be identified as a genre text. Having identified the schematic structure of the genre text, the analyst can then carry on with the analysis by studying the specific features of language that are predominantly used or by studying the frequency of syntactic properties in the genre. The essence of undertaking linguistic analyses of the frequency of syntactic properties in different genres is to provide empirical evidence to confirm or disprove some of the intuitive and impressionistic statements we all tend to make about high or low incidence of certain lexico- grammatical features of various genres (Bhatia, 1993). 2.5 Register analysis and genre analysis Register and genre are two technical terms in linguistics that have helped to generate the theories: register and genre analysis respectively. Although defining the two terms has not been easy, Eggins (2004) and Biber and Conrad (2009) have elaborated on these concepts. The former explains register analysis by considering the impact of the immediate context of situation of a language event on the way language is used. Here, interest is shown in the register variables of field (it refers to what is 23 happening, the social action that is taking place: what is it that the participants are engaged in), tenor (refers to who is taking part, to the nature of participants, their statuses, roles: what kinds of role relationship obtain among participants, including permanent and temporary relationships of one kind or another and mode (which refers to what part language is playing, what is it that participants are expecting the language to do for them in the situation: the symbolic organization of the text). According to the latter, register analysis has three major components: the situational/communicative description, the description of pervasive linguistic features and the analysis of the functional associations between linguistic forms and situational contexts. Linguistic features in register analysis are always functional. This means that register analysis always includes description of the situational context and interpretation of why particular linguistic patterns commonly occur in that context. It can, however, be deduced that in register analysis, Biber and Conrad and Eggins hold different views as to how a text is analyzed. Biber and Conrad show interest in considering the situational context of the text, the dominant linguistic features and the functional correlations between the two. This means that meaning making of a text depends on both linguistic features and non-linguistic features such as gestures, facial expressions or the physical surroundings of the text. Words that are selected for the text are interconnected with the context of situation. Eggins, on the contrary, holds the view that in doing register analysis, interest is shown in the constituents of register variables of field, tenor and mode. Each of these variables has a related theory: field for ideational, tenor for interpersonal and mode for textual analysis and each theory can be used in register analysis. Indeed, register analysis from Eggins’ point of view can be done in relation to just an aspect of the context of situation that is, it can be done at each of the various theories produced by the register variables. Biber and Conrad on the other 24 hand, do not divide the context of situation into register variables but they generally look for linguistic features that are prominent in a text and relate those features to the context. Biber and Conrad, therefore, consider the register variables as a whole, there are no divisions when it comes to register analysis. In furtherance to the differences between the two theories, Biber and Conrad (2009:15) draw four major distinctions between genre analysis and register analysis. These areas of distinction are based on 1) the “texts” considered for the analysis 2) the linguistic characteristics considered for the analysis 3) the distribution of those linguistic characteristics and 4) the interpretation of linguistic differences. In terms of the textual focus, genre perspective will consider a complete text to identify the schematic structure of the text while register analysis may not necessarily need a complete text. Register analysis can be done for instance, on any aspects or subdivisions of a RA or RP. It can also be described based on an analysis of either complete texts or a collection of text excerpts. For instance, the data used for this study can as well be used for register analysis. At the same time, register analysis can be done on just a section of the data used for this study. The introduction section of the RPs can be used for register analysis. Genre analysis on the other hand, will show interest in expected textual conventions. That is to say that texts have conventions that they follow. In letter writing, for instance, the address of the writer, the salutation, introduction, body, conclusion and subscription can be identified. Also in the RA, it has a beginning, technically called the abstract, which is followed by the introduction, the method, result, discussion and conclusion section. The above are some of the conventions a genre analyst will consider in a text. 25 Additionally, register analysis shows interest in typical linguistic features of text varieties and connects those features functionally to the situational context of the variety. In other words, the register analyst will select either a complete text or excerpt of a text. He will then identify the key linguistic features and provide interpretation alongside the context of situation. Context of situation, according to Biber and Conrad (2009), involves the characteristics of the people who produced the texts, characteristics of the situations and the communicative purposes. In doing genre analysis, on the other hand, the interest of the analyst is directed to language characteristics that occur only once in a text. By implication, there are conventional linguistic features that can be found in genre text and these are culturally acceptable, hence, it may be unacceptable to assign additional linguistic items that are not conventionally accepted to a genre text. Genre analysis as noted in section 2.4 above can be considered from different perspectives. In the ESP tradition for instance, Swales (2004) shows interest in using move analysis approach to identify communicative purpose of a text and the linguistic features that characterize the Moves. The New Rhetoricians also focus more on the socio-cultural context of different message types and the work that genres do, rather than describing linguistic features of a text (Hyland, 2002). The Systemic Functional tradition also holds the view that in doing genre analysis, one must first of all identify the schematic structure of a genre text and the linguistic realizations of each element of schematic structure (Eggins, 2004). The two linguistic theories share quite a number of differences, at a point in time, there can be a similarity between them. Both register analysis and genre analysis show interest in linguistic features that are used in a text and interpret the use of the linguistic features as part of analyzing a text. Hence, this study shows interest in genre analysis, but there is the tendency to find aspects of linguistic analysis closely related 26 to register analysis. In other words, the linguistic realization of the Moves and Steps in this study may share some similarities with register analysis but in actual sense, this study is not a register analysis. 2.6 Genre theory Hyon (1996) identifies three main traditions in contemporary genre studies. These traditions, according to Swales (2004), are complementary, rather than competing approaches. They are the North American School of New Rhetoric (sometimes referred to as the New Rhetoric or Rhetoricians), Australian/Sydney School which is strongly influenced by Hallidayan Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) and the English for Specific Purpose (ESP) School. According to Lunsford (2007) in Sayfouri (2010: 52), the New Rhetoric School emerged in the 1960’s with deep commitment to provide a robust theoretical and historical foundation for the teaching of writing to all graduate students through the revival of the ancient art of Aristotelian rhetoric. Bazerman (1988), in Flowerdew (2005) who is one of the prominent members of the New Rhetoricians, argues that knowledge of social context surrounding texts is essential for helping writers select rhetoric that is appropriate for a particular writing situation; and that it is not sufficient just to give students the formal trappings of the genres they need to work in. The New Rhetoric shares the belief that genres are created by social groups to carry out particular purposes; therefore, the conventionalized forms that genres take on, over time, are inherently tied to socio-rhetorical contexts (Berkenkotter and Huckin, 1995). Bazerman (1988) and Miller (1994), also members of the school, hold the view that genre emerges from repeated social action in recurring situations which give rise to regularities in form and content. This view is also shared by Hyland (2003). In terms 27 of theoretical perspective, the New Rhetoric School relies on a multidisciplinary approach. The school employs anthropological, social, literary and rhetorical theories (Afful, 2005). The New Rhetoricians also research into L1 (first language) rhetoric and composition. They place importance on academic writing, workplace writing and ESP (Freedman and Medway, 1994). They particularly show interest in how students must dialogue as they (the students) move from one discipline to the other. Some New Rhetoricians have recently focused on the difficulty graduates have, making a transition from writing academically to writing professionally (Flowerdew, 2005). New Rhetoric scholars “have focused more on the situational contexts in which genres occur than on their forms and have placed special emphases on the special purposes, or actions, that these genres fulfill within these situations” (Hyon, 1996: 696). The Australian School applies Hallidayan analytical framework to texts, and focuses attention on linguistic features of texts. The Australian School grew out of Halliday’s Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL). SFL views language as a system of lexical and grammatical choices by which writers can communicate certain functions (Eggins, 1994). SFL uses functional categories and regards meaning making as the primary purpose of language. Building on Halliday’s theory of language, Martin et al (1987) developed a notion of genre. According to Martin et al, “genre is the level of context above register that is the concrete realization of register in particular cultures, and below the level of ideology, the highest and most abstract context in various language uses.” The SFL’s focus grew out of an interest in language and literacy education in primary and secondary schools in Australia for disadvantaged students (Hyon, 1996). 28 In the Australian School, genres are defined as staged, goal-oriented, and purposeful social processes in getting things done through language (Martin et al, 1987:46). The Australian School believes that genres are purposeful social processes because members of a culture purposefully interact to achieve them. Genres are goal- oriented because they get things done. Consequently, they are staged because multiple steps are taken to achieve particular goals. Among the prominent members of the Australian school are Martin and Frow (Swales, 2004). Some theories that have been used by the Australian School are the register theory differentiated from genre analysis. To the Australian School, in order to analyze genre text, Eggins (2004:60) notes that the analyst needs to first, describe the schematic structure of the genre through two fundamental concepts: constituency (that is the structure by which the whole, complete interaction is made up of parts, that is to identify the beginning, middle and an end of a text) and labelling (by identifying formal and functional criteria). The analyst then proceeds to look for the linguistic elements that make up the functional defining stages. That is the words and structures speakers use in making the functional defining stages. Through these processes of analyzing genres, Hasan (1989), also a member of the Australian School, for instance has proposed a theory of Generic Structure Potential (GSP) used for analyzing genre text. According to Hyon (1996: 695) ESP scholars have paid particular attention to detailing formal characteristics of genres while focusing less on the specialized functions of texts and their surrounding social context. This notion of focusing less on the specialized functions of texts and surrounding social context, according to Flowerdew (2005:323), has been eroded because ESP genre-based work in recent times, addresses the socio-cultural context of genre. Bhatia (1999, 2002) in Flowerdew (2005) for example, emphasizes the importance of intertextuality, the relationship of the text 29 under investigation to other related written and spoken texts of the socio-cultural context. Such a study is conducted to demonstrate the significance of the socio-cultural context of genre text. Hyon details some similarities and differences among the three traditions although Swales (2004) has however, confirmed that the differences among them have coalesced with the result that the divisions among the three traditions have become less sharp - even if not entirely non-existent. One of the similarities among the three traditions is that they acknowledge the social view of the genre. The New Rhetoric School is of the view that genres are created by social groups; the Sydney School equally shares the same view and the ESP School also confirms that genres do not belong to individuals but the discourse community. Two of the differences noted by Hyon among the three traditions are discussed. The first difference is the specific educational or professional context in which they embark on their activities. The ESP School, for instance, has shown interest in academic writing of non-native university students. In other words, they show interest in all forms of writing done by non-native university students across the world. Hence, if Ghana for example is selected for a study, the ESP School will focus on all forms of writing done by Ghanaian university students who are non-native speakers of English. The New Rhetoric School also directs its interest to post-secondary school teachers and researchers in composition, rhetoric and English as a second language (ESL). The Sydney School, on the other hand, focuses on mother tongue education in primary and secondary schools and immigrant education (Afful, 2005). Another difference among the three traditions can be found in terms of their theoretical orientations. The ESP tradition draws on eclectic (or combination of methods): ethnographic (for example, participant observation, interview or document 30 extracts) and lexico-grammatical features showing concern for structure, style, content and intended audience (Swales, 1990: 58). The Sydney School is based on the work of Systemic Functional Linguists such as Halliday (1994), Halliday and Matthiessen (2004), Halliday and Hasan (1976, 1985) and Martin (1984, 1992). Here, the Sydney School draws a line between register analysis and genre analysis associating the former with Malinowski’s (1923) context of situation and the latter, context of culture. The New Rhetoricians also employ multidisciplinary approaches such as anthropology, social, literary and rhetorical theories. Genre Conception has been postulated by Berkenkotter and Huckin (1995), Speech Genres by Bakhtin (1986) and Activity theory by Leont′ev and Luria who are all members of the New Rhetoric School. Hence, it can be found that the school has no single theory in analyzing genre text. The discussions done on these traditions/schools have brought to light some of the origins, theoretical underpinnings and areas of interests demonstrated by them. This study aligns itself with the ESP tradition based on the following reasons. First, the New Rhetoric School for instance, shows interest in diverse areas and does not have a single theory for analyzing genre texts. Additionally, the data they show interest in are mother tongue, rhetoric and composition, professional genres and workplace genres but this study shows interest in academic genre, the RPs produced by non-native university students. It may not be entirely accurate to align with a school which does not show interest in the data used for this study. In terms of the Sydney School, it is found that though they use a model nearly similar to the ESP School, the data used are provided in mother tongue languages in primary and secondary schools. The ESP School however, has continuously and consistently shown interest in academic genres produced by academics and non-native university students. Hence, it is more convincing to align the study with a school that 31 shows interest in the data used in this study. Again, it is found that even though the study can conveniently use the model produced by the Sydney School, the move analysis model produced by Swales has the ability of explicitly teaching different academic genres and has been used in analyzing academic genres, hence, the model is found most useful and suitable to use in analyzing academic genres not only in one discipline, but in different disciplines. 2.7 Genre analysis of multi-sections of research articles (RAS) In this review, attention is drawn to some of the major studies conducted on multi-sections of the RAs such as introductions, abstracts, methods, literature reviews, discussions and conclusions. The overall sections of the RA are also reviewed. Disciplines reviewed include both mono and multi-disciplines. A further review is done on grant proposals and research proposals. It should be pointed out that the review done here focuses on the ESP approach and not any of the other traditions. 2.7.1 Review of introduction section of research articles One of the first studies of the RAs was conducted by Swales (1981). Swales investigated 48 research articles selected from three disciplines: ‘hard’ sciences, social sciences and health and life sciences. 16 RAs were selected from each of the three disciplines. The results indicated a consistent pattern in the introduction sections. He identified four Moves: Move 1: Establishing the field by: claiming centrality, stating current knowledge and ascribing key characteristics, Move 2: Summarizing previous research, Move 3: Preparing for present research by: indicating a gap, raising or extending findings, Move 4: Introducing present research by: stating purpose and describing present research. 32 Initial criticisms levelled against the four-move structure made Swales (1990) to revise it into a three-move structure known as the revised or modified version of create- a-research-space (CARS) model. Indeed, a careful look at the revised version of the model (see section 3.2. for details of the CARS model) shows that Move 2 is entirely dissolved and regarded as part of Move 1. This was done on the grounds that some genre scholars encountered difficulties in trying to separate Move 1 from 2 in various studies conducted on RAs (Lopez, 1982; Crookes, 1986). Move 4 then replaces Move 3 but then, an additional Step, announcing principal finding is added to the existing three Steps. Currently, Swales (2004) is of the view that further modifications can still be considered since he has observed that some Steps under Move 2 that is continuing a tradition and raising questions seem not to be applicable in some RAs (Swales, 2004: 229-230). This view is a welcome addition in that in this study, for instance, none of the two Steps of Move 2 is found in the data. According to Swales (2004: 226), the CARS model has been successful in both descriptive and pedagogical terms and has become prototypical. This is because the Model has been used in analyzing a growing number of academic and professional genres. After Swales pioneering work, a number of studies have been conducted on the introduction sections of the research article. Anthony (1999) conducted a study of the RAs of Software Engineering employing the CARS model. His aim was to evaluate the CARS model. 12 RAs which have received ‘Best Paper’ awards in the field of Software Engineering were analyzed. His findings indicated that although the CARS model adequately described the main framework of the introductions, a number of important features such as extensive review of background literature, the inclusion of many definitions and examples and evaluation of research in terms of application and novelty were unaccounted for. He therefore, recommended a revision of the Model. 33 The study showed that Anthony was interested solely in evaluating Swales’ CARS model. The lexico-grammatical features were not considered. Identifying Moves and Steps and their ordering were the main focus of the study. The study also identified the flexible nature of the CARS model as Anthony was able to revise it to cover items that were not found in the CARS model. Indeed, there are a number of scholars who have modified the Swalesian’s CARS model to suit their studies Hyland (2004), Bunton, (2002), Samraj (2002), Afful (2005) and many others. Another study of the RAs was conducted by Samraj (2002). Her interest was to find the applicability of the CARS model by comparing the RAs from two fields across different disciplines: Wildlife Behavior and Conservation Biology. She selected a total of 24 RAs, 12 each from the two disciplines. All the RAs were published in 1995 and were randomly selected. Samraj concentrated on only textual analysis of the data. In her analysis, she also showed interest in identification of Moves and Steps and ordering or sequencing of the Moves without considering the lexico-grammatical features and textual space allocated to each of the Moves. Her findings showed that disciplines vary in their ways of presenting their RAs. She also found that the constituent structure of the Moves in the CARS model may not adequately account for the structure of all RA introductions. She therefore, suggested that the CARS model be modified by adding some steps that were not catered for to account for the RA introductions. The basis of her argument was that the literature review was not only present in the first Move but can also be embedded within other Steps such as indicating a gap. She also commented on the difficulty in separating Steps 2 and 3 of Move 1. Jogthong (2001) also conducted a generic study of research article introductions written by Thai academic writers. He analyzed 40 Thai RAs taken from Thai journals in educational and medical fields. The rhetorical characteristics and 34 linguistic features of the RAs were analyzed using Swales’ CARS model. Jogthong’s results indicated that the pattern of studied RAs supported the general framework of the CARS model but the specific Steps in the introductions were less consistent with the Model. Thai academic writers according to Jogthong, avoid criticizing and evaluating the works of others, hence different strategies are adopted to establish a niche. Thai writers use ‘identifying potential problem strategy’ among others to establish the niche. Jogthong also found that Thai writers did not reveal the findings of their research and the research structure in the introduction section. The writers end their research by indicating implications of their research and also, announcing present research and outlining purposes of their studies. Renu et al (2013) also conducted a genre-based study on the RA introductions in a single discipline. They showed interest in analyzing rhetorical Moves in the RA introductions of Forestry, an established applied discipline. Swales’ CARS model was adapted to identify the schematic structure of Forestry research article introductions focusing on the constituent Steps and linguistic mechanisms used to accomplish each rhetorical Move. 20 Forestry RA introductions were selected from three high impact Forestry journals. Their results showed that the Move structure of Forestry RA introductions largely followed the CARS model. All the introduction sections in the corpora contained the three Moves in the CARS model but some changes were effected in the Steps that realized the Moves. Move cyclicity was found common in their data and also some Steps that realized the CARS model were not found in their data. The above reviews on the RA introductions have shed light on genre analysis from the ESP tradition’s point of view. First, the studies have thrown light on the fact that the CARS model may be used to analyze RAs from all disciplines and at the same time, modified to suit any discipline. Additionally, it is possible to analyze a genre text 35 from either textual analysis point of view or to combine a textual analysis with ethnographic study. It is also possible to conduct a genre study without employing all the three approaches involved in identifying the schematic structure of a text. Thus, a genre analyst can show interest in analyzing a text specifically to i) identify and label the Moves/ Steps only or ii) combine labelling of Moves/Steps with the sequencing of the Moves/ Steps and (or) iii) add textual space of each of the Moves and the linguistic realization of the Moves. It is however, unacceptable to ignore the first step, which is the identification and labelling of the Moves/ Steps and look for their sequence which is the second Step. This confirms what Renu et al (2013:55) observe. According to them, “the starting point of genre analysis is the identification and labelling of the Moves.” 2.7.2 Review of abstract section of research articles The RA abstract in mono and multi-disciplines has received considerable scholarly attention. An observation that this study has made is that because Swales’ CARS model was not invented for RA abstract, scholars such as Bhatia (1993), Santos (1996) and Hyland (2000) have adapted it for their own models used for analyzing the RA abstracts. Interestingly, a number of scholars who express interest in the RA abstract normally inform readers about their intentions to either use Bhatia, Santos or Hyland’s model. Some scholars who have shown interest in RA abstracts are (Lores, 2004; Jie, 2010; Li, 2011; Marefat and Mohammadzadeh, 2013; Behnam and Golpour, 2014; Abarghooeinezhad and Simin, 2015). In the RA abstracts, the writers showed interest in different disciplines. While Lores showed interest in a mono-discipline, Applied Linguistics, Jie’s interest was in Financial Economics. Li’s interest was found in two disciplines: Linguistics and 36 Chemistry written in two different languages, English and Chinese. Behnam and Golpour studied Linguistics and Mathematics, also in two languages: English and Persian. Abarghooeinezhad and Simin also expressed interest in electronic engineering. Lores used an adapted version of the CARS model to confirm or disprove that there are two types of abstracts; one marches the CARS model but the other does not. She also used Halliday’s (1989) Thematic Progression model to look for distinctive patterns and thematic distribution. This is one of the genre studies which has demonstrated interest in using two models. Jie used Bhatia’s four-move model invented to identify the schematic structure of Financial Economics. 20% of his data conformed to Bhatia’s four-move model while 80% demonstrated different categories of Move patterns. In terms of linguistic realization of the Moves, Jie found the predominant use of modal verbs in some of the Moves. Li, on the other hand, used Hyland’s five-move model to examine the rhetorical structures and linguistic features in two different disciplines. As a cross- discipline and cross-linguistic study, Li found variations in rhetorical structures based on the culture of the writers and in terms of linguistic features. He also found different grammatical structures used in realizing each of the Moves. Behnam and Golpour also compared the schematic structures of Linguistic and Mathematics. Using Hyland’s five-move model in their cross-discipline study, they identified variations in writing found across the disciplines. In Abarghooeinezhad and Simin study, they also used Santos’ five-move pattern to analyze the RA abstracts in Electronic Engineering in two different languages: Iranian and Native English to compare the schematic structure of the Iranian RA abstract in Electronic Engineering to native speakers of English Electronic Engineering. They found that the abstracts identified in their data do not completely correspond to Santos’ five-move model. 37 An observation this study makes about the analysis of the RA abstracts shows that the researchers show interest in schematic structure/rhetorical pattern and the linguistic features that realize the Moves. The models invented by any of the scholars for analyzing the RA abstracts are not limited to a particular discipline since different disciplines are found used in the studies. 2.7.3 Review of method section of research articles The method section of the RA has also received relatively little attention from scholars. Lim (2006) is one out of the few genre scholars who have shown interest in a genre-based study of the method section of RA in a mono-discipline, Management. Lim’s study was guided by two purposes: first, to identify the communicative functions as reflected in rhetorical Moves and constituent Steps and second, to discover how individual Moves and constituent Steps are realized in lexical and syntactic choices. Apart from the textual data, Lim interviewed four specialist informants to provide their views on the generic Moves identified in the method section of the RAs. She identified three Moves in her data: describing data collection procedure(s), delineating procedure(s) for measuring variables and elucidating data analysis procedure(s). Each of the Moves has a number of constituent Steps. The study also indicated varieties of linguistic features in each of the Moves. 2.7.4 Review of literature review section of research articles Although the overall organization of the RA has been established to be comprised of the Introduction, Method, Result and Discussion (IMRD) structure, the literature Review (LR) section has also been found to be part of the RA. Relatively few studies have therefore, been conducted on the LR section of the RAs. Jian (2010), 38 Rafik- Galea, De- Mello and Arumugam (2013) and Bruce (2014) have conducted studies on the LR sections of the RA. Apart from Jian and Bruce, who employed two models in their studies, the rest of the LR researchers showed interest in modifying Swales’ revised version of the CARS model. Disciplines selected by each of the LR researchers are also different. In Jian’s study, he selected two languages: English and Chinese, Rafik- Galea, De- Mello and Arumugam selected Hospitality and Management and Bruce chose Applied Linguistics and Psychology. The purpose of Jian’s study was to identify the schematic structure of the two disciplines and he used the modified version of the CARS model and Kwan’s (2006) model. His findings suggested that both English and Chinese LR sections are characterized by a four-move pattern. He identified obligatory Moves in the two disciplines. The Chinese LR section is found to follow a linear sequence whereas move cyclicity is present in the English data. In Rafik- Galea, De- Mello and Arumugam’s study, their purpose was to determine the move structure by identifying the main Moves and Steps found in LR section of Hospitality and Management RA, using the revised version of the CARS model. They found among other things that the LR section displays cyclical move patterns that show the presence of three Moves and Steps as found in the revised version of the CARS model. In Bruce’s study, he used the revised version of the CARS model in addition to Hyland’s (2005) model of metadiscourse to identify the organizational structure and linguistic devices used by the writers to express criticality in the two data sets. He found that the writers consistently express criticality by means of their use of three elements of genre knowledge: recursion in the content schema organization, use of metadiscourse device that Hyland terms attitude markers and use of recurrent concessive and contrast relations between prepositions. In Bruce’s study, he used two 39 disciplines but he seemed not to inform readers about areas the two disciplines compare. He also alleged that novice writers do not critique the LR sections and wanted to substantiate with empirical evidence but he selected data from only expert writers instead of adding data from novice writers. He was not able to report in his findings the truth of the allegation. Hence, he reported that expert writers critique the LR sections of their studies but as to the novice writers, there was no evidence in his study and he remained silent on that. The study would have been more convincing if data had been selected from novice writers and expert writers. 2.7.5 Review of discussion section of research articles The Discussion sections of the RA have also been extensively researched by scholars. While some specifically analyzed the discussion section or result sections of the RA, Brett (1994), Williams (1999), Bruce (2009), Lim (2010), others combined the discussion with the results section. Dujsik (2013) and Loi et al (2015) showed interest in using Peacock’s (2002) model to identify the rhetorical pattern of the discussion sections of RA in different disciplines. In Dujsik’s study, he analyzed 50 RAs which were randomly selected from Applied Linguistics. The results indicated some obligatory Moves and cycles of Moves. In Loi et al’s study, they showed interest in interviewing specialist informants to find out if the rhetorical structure of the discussion section of the discipline, education, has the structure they have identified in their data. Their results also indicated obligatory Moves and Move cycles. It can be found that in both studies, the researchers did not show interest in analyzing the linguistic realization of the Moves. 40 2.7.6 Review of conclusion section of research articles Yang and Allison (2003) conducted a study on the conclusion section of the RA. The aim of their study was to systematically analyze 40 RAs with functional headings results, results and discussion, discussion, conclusion and pedagogic implications to identify specific organizational choices within each section. As can be noted, their interest lay in aspects of organizational patterns of the selected RA captions. The selected RAs are from one discipline, Applied Linguistics. Each of the sections, as mentioned in the study, such as the discussion section was first selected for analysis. Swales’ (1990) proposed model for analyzing discussion sections was used to identify the various Moves and Steps used to disclose the communicative purposes of the RAs. The study found that results sections generally have a highly cyclic structure and not only report results but also briefly comment on results. The discussion sections also showed distinctive Moves different from the results sections. However, the Moves identified in the four sections, the results, results and discussions and implication sections overlapped. Indeed, the researchers call for further investigations to verify their findings since relatively few studies have been conducted on the conclusion section. 2.7.7 Review of the overall sections of research articles The overall organization of the RA has also been studied by Nwogu (1997). Nwogu was interested in finding out the structure of information in all sections of the medical research paper. The model he used for investigating the structure of medical research paper is the modified version of Swales’ (1990, 2004) CARS model. He selected 30 texts from five refereed medical journals. Indeed, the CARS model was modified to analyze the medical research paper. Hence, 11 Moves were found with 41 varying Steps in the medical RAs. Nwogu also showed interest in the linguistic features that realized the Moves. The findings of the study showed that out of the 11 Moves in the medical research paper, nine were found to be normally required and two, optional. Each of the Moves is characterized by Steps. It was also found that each of the Moves has distinctive linguistic features. Indeed, this study is different from others. The study was conducted on the overall organizational structure of the RAs in the discipline of Medicine. Nwogu considered the macro (or organizational structure) and micro structure (or linguistic features) that realized the Moves. All aspects of the genre-based approach, thus, the schematic structure which is comprised of frequency of occurrence of Moves /Steps, ordering of the Moves and textual spaces allocated to each of the Moves were considered. Additionally, the linguistic features that realized each of the Moves were also dealt with. 2.8 Review of literature on grant proposals Grant proposal according to Swales (2004: 18), is part of occluded genres. That is a genre that is out of sight to outsiders and apprentices. Grant proposals are proposals written by expert researchers applying for government or private funding. Tseng (2011) claims that comparatively, more studies have been conducted on the RAs than the grant research proposals. Despite this observation by Tseng, a number of studies have been conducted on the research grant proposals. A few of such reviews are considered in the present study. Myers (1990), Connor and Mauranen (1990), and Connor and Wagner (1999) showed interest in analyzing grant proposals to identify the schematic structure and 42 linguistic resources used in realizing the various Moves found in grant proposals. An observation this study makes about the grant proposal researchers is that they normally show interest in adding interview data in order to get clarifications from the writers on their reasons for using particular Moves. A total of 10 rhetorical Moves were found in the overall structure of grant research proposal. Move 1- establishing a research territory, Move 2- indicating a gap in the territory, Move 3 - stating the goal of the project, Move 4 - specifying the means (methodology and procedures), Move 5 - reporting previous research, Move 6 - stating anticipated results and findings, Move 7 - predicting the usefulness and value of the proposed project, Move 8 - making a competence claim regarding the researcher or research team, Move 9 - making an importance claim and, Move 10 - claiming the relevance of the proposal to the objectives of the funding agency. The above Moves were found in grant proposals but according to Tseng (2011) these Moves were not accorded any particular order. There are however, variations in the choice of Moves selected by the writers depending on the discipline concerned. There are other observations this study makes about grant proposal research. First, the grant proposal researchers seem to be silent on the Steps that make the available Moves. Also, they do not show interest in analyzing individual sections of the grant research proposal unlike the RAs where scholars tend to show interest in individual sections. Almost all the researchers who work on the grant research proposal 43 show interest in the overall structure of the grant research proposal. Move cyclicity seems to be uncommon in grant research proposal regardless of the discipline used as data. This attests that expert writers are very much conversant with the norms of academic writing and thus, apply them in their writing but in the case of research proposals written by non-experts, the results of the current study indicate that some of them seem not to be aware of the conventions of the community they hope to join and so, they select Moves which are in cycles. 2.9 Review of literature on research proposals Apart from analyzing grant proposals from both textual and contextual points of view, relatively few studies have been conducted on the research proposal. The research proposal has been extremely under-researched. Atkinson (1997) in Paltridge, (2002:2) suggests some reasons. One of his reasons has to do with accessibility of the text. Swales (2004) confirms this problem by pointing out that “exemplars of these genres are typically hidden, ‘out of sight’ or ‘occluded’ from public gaze by a veil of confidentiality.” Cadman (2002) showed a considerable interest in studying the RPs. In her study, she focused exclusively on the context of situation of the RPs. She did not investigate the linguistic and rhetorical aspects of the RP genre although she acknowledged other studies on textual analysis. Cadman surveyed faculty research supervisors across various disciplines in an Australian university where she was the coordinator of an Integrated Bridging Program for international research students. The main aim of Cadman’s study was to ask faculty supervisors to prioritize particular features which they expect to see in a research proposal in their fields. A second aim was to conduct interviews with seven experienced supervisors representing all faculties across the 44 University to gain their views on what they see as criteria for successful research proposals. One of her findings revealed that some supervisors look primarily for specific projects or text characteristics in the RP. Another finding indicated that the criteria used by the seven supervisors are overwhelmingly concurrent for success in the RP across the University. The following points were regarded crucial to the content of the RP by the seven interviewees and are presented in a survey question used for the interviews.  the research questions/ objectives (“concise, focused research questions, the most important feature…”)  locating the project in current literature (“clear relationship of research question to rest of the literature”)  logic (“clarity and logic of thought in the development of an argument”)  critical approach (“key texts… should be dealt with thoughtfully and critically in relation to the student’s own research questions”)  English language expression (“proficiency in English is an on-going part of the whole”)  method/methodology (“depth in the detailed methodology to be used”) practical items (“the key things are: will it work, can it be done (on time), will it be of use, what will it cost, who will pay”) (Cadman, 2002:93). Apart from the above finding, it was also found that supervisors assess the RP in terms of not only document features but also the students who wrote it. She indicated that the supervisors reported that “ability, understanding or aptitude as in students can demonstrate sufficient aptitude for topic and methods or must have a clear and coherent understanding of the outstanding issues in the research field” (Cadman, 2002:94). Cadman’s study is significant in that it points out that context of situation is another method of analyzing genre texts. The study sheds light on the importance of adding contextual meaning to textual analysis. It brings to light the criteria that supervisors consider as success in writing a research proposal. 45 The current study observes that in genre-based research, it is the research problems which call for the kind of data and method of analysis. Cadman, for instance, showed interest in finding what pertains in the academic discourse community. She therefore, identified the nature of data and kind of analysis that will help in providing answers for the research questions. In a similar vein, most of the studies have shown differences in terms of approach to genre analysis and what the researchers set out to do. It always happens that the research problems direct the researchers to select their method and data. Bin (2006) in a further study of the RP, investigated the rhetorical structure of higher degree RPs in English Language and English Literature. Swales’ (1990) modified version of the CARS model was used in the study to identify the rhetorical Moves in six RPs written by successful applicants to higher degree programs in language studies and literary studies at a Singapore-based university. Bin’s textual analysis was supplemented by contextual analysis. Interviews were conducted with both RP writers and two faculty members, one from each department to elicit contextual factors such as intended readership, authorial positioning, and institutional expectations of the RPs. One of the findings of his study indicated that no overall Move sequence is observed across the proposals. Move 3, for instance, tended to occur after Move 2 in both language and literature to form a slot-and-filler relationship. He explained the absence of a rigid Move sequence to factors such as communicative purpose and disciplinary predisposition. The study above applied both textual and contextual analysis. It is one of the studies which combined both interviews with proposal writers and faculty members to elicit the criteria for a successful RP as done in Cadman’s study. 46 The current study and Bin’s study share some similarities and differences. In terms of similarities, the two studies have the RPs as data. In Bin’s study, the RPs were selected from two different disciplines just like the current study. Bin’s RPs were taken from English Language and English Literature while the current study focuses on Agricultural science and English Language Studies. In terms of difference, while Bin conducted an ethnographic study by combining interview and textual data, the current study’s interest was directed at only textual data. Additionally, the RPs used as data for Bin’s study are written by post graduate students who were successful to be admitted to doctoral programs while those RPs used as data for the current study are written by graduate students who have been enrolled in MPhil disciplines and are yet to defend their research proposals in their various departments. Also, while Bin conducted his study in Singapore, the current study was conducted in Ghana. Just like the RA which has multi-sections such as the abstract, introduction, methods, results and discussion; the RPs also have. One of the sections which have attracted relatively little scholarly attention is the statement of the problem (SP) section. Jalilifar et al (2011) investigated the generic organizations of statement of the problem in theses and proposals in the discipline of applied linguistics. Their study investigated two main things: SP of theses and SP of the RPs. In their study, they examined the overall structure of 100 SP of English Masters’ proposals to identify the macro and microstructures which help in determining the communicative purposes of the writers. Using the modified version of Swales’ (1990) CARS model, they found that except for three Steps, the other constitutive elements are taken to be obligatory; claiming centrality and outlining purposes are regarded as optional Steps appearing in less than half of the proposals, while question raising is not taken as a potential Step for Move 3 because of its egregiously low number. 47 The previous study and the current study share some commonalities and differences. The current study is similar to the previous in that both conduct a generic analysis of the same textual data, the RPs. Another area of similarity is that both studies employ Swales’ (1990) modified version of CARS model to determine the rhetorical Moves and Steps in the RPs. Some of the differences that have been observed by the current study are discussed. First, the RPs used in the current study are written by graduate students who are just about to defend their Master of Philosophy proposals in two disciplines: Agricultural Science and English language Studies but in Jalilifar et al’s study, the RPs are produced by Master of Arts students who are about to be admitted to pursue doctoral degree. Also, while the current study was interested in the overall sections of the RPs, Jalilifar et al examined just a section of the RP that is, the statement of the problem (SP). A close look at the above review indicates that normally, where the researchers combine both textual and ethnographic data, they are not able to work on large quantities of data which will make them generalize the results of their findings to the selected disciplines. Thus, to work with more data to allow findings to be generalized to the related discipline, there is the need to either focus exclusively on other sources of data such as interview, participant observation and questionnaire data or to use only textual data as found in the current study. 2.9.1 Chapter summary This chapter has discussed two main issues: basic concepts used in the study and related literature. Literature on existing work on the RA, its multi-sections, such as introduction, abstracts, literature review, and other sections have been reviewed in addition to research on grant proposals and the RPs. Additionally, areas in the existing 48 literature of the RPs have been compared to identify similarities and differences in order to identify where the current study fits into existing literature. 49 CHAPTER THREE: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 3.1 Introduction In chapter two, various concepts and related studies were discussed. This chapter presents an overview of genre-based theories that pertain in genre analysis. It further considers reasons for selecting the CARS model and explains the Model. Finally, the analytical framework used in this study is also presented. In Genre studies, different theories have been proposed for analyzing genre texts. Each of the three genre schools already discussed has a different approach to genre text analysis. The New Rhetoric School employs a multidisciplinary approach involving anthropological, social and rhetoric theories. Some of the theories used for analyzing genre texts are Genre Conception, Speech Genres and Ontogenesis. The Genre Conception theory was formulated by Berkenkotter and Huckin (1995:4). According to Sayfouri (2010:70) Genre Conception is composed of five principles: dynamism, situatedness, form and content, duality of structure and community ownership which are sought for in genre text. The Australian/Sydney School on the other hand, championed by Firth’s followers and influenced by Systemic Functional School of Linguistics, shows interest in differentiating register theory from genre theory. Thus, the Sydney school believes that register and genre are interconnected to facilitate meaning. Based on this belief, the school has provided different theories: one for register and the other for genre to analyze texts. The English for Specific Purpose (ESP) School also draws on an eclectic model, ethnographic and lexico-grammatical features showing concern for various patterns of structure, style, content and intended audience. Swales (1981, 1990, 2004), posits a move structure analysis theory known as Create-a-research-space (CARS) model. The 50 current study aligns itself with the CARS model since it is the one that applies the concept of move structure analysis in identifying the schematic structure and the linguistic realizations of the moves. The revised version of the Model however, systematically spells out what constitute a Move and a sub-move (or a step). After spelling out the constituents of Moves and Steps, the Model further explains Steps that constitute Moves 1, 2 and 3. Apart from analyzing text to look for Moves that are found in a particular text, it also guides the analyst to look for the sequence of Moves identifiable in a text-genre and at the same time, textual space allocated to each of them. All these steps are systematically spelt out and they make it easy for an analyst to work on a text-genre. The Model has drawn attention from scholars. Hence, various scholars have used the revised version and its prototypes for analyzing both experts’ and neophytes’ writings. The research article introductions in different disciplines have for instance, caught the attention of many scholars. See sections 2.7.1- 2.9 for several studies that have been conducted using the revised version of the CARS model. Also, some other scholars have used the model to analyze neophytes’ writings. Kusel (1992) focused on the structure of the introductions and conclusions of undergraduate essays. Hewings (1993) investigated conclusions of Master of Business Administration (MBA) dissertations, Bunton (2002) studied PhD thesis introductions, Hyland also worked on acknowledgements in PhD and Masters’ dissertations, Afful (2005) paid attention to introductions and conclusions of undergraduate writing and Kwan (2006) concentrated on literature review sections of doctoral theses written by native speakers of English. The flexible nature of the Model therefore, helped in the decision to modify it to suit the current study. 51 Another reason for the choice of the Model is that it is used for teaching ESP or ESL students. It also has the advantage of helping to teach non-native university students how to organize ideas in academic writing which is crucial in academia. It helps ESP instructors and EAP specialists to guide students on how to organize ideas and select linguistic features that can be used in both professional and academic writing. 3.2. The CARS Model The main concern of Swales’ genre-based rhetorical approach to the description of a text is to identify the rhetorical structure of a genre and relate it to its communicative purpose while recognizing the social context in which it occurs. The essential concept that underlies Swales’ rhetorical analysis is the concept of Moves and Steps. A Move has been defined by Swales (2004: 229) as “a discoursal or rhetorical unit that performs a coherent communicative function in written or spoken discourse.” According to Crookes (1986) in Swales (2004), a Move has sometimes been aligned with a grammatical unit such as a sentence, utterance, or paragraph. But Swales (2004: 229) points out that a Move is better seen as flexible in terms of its linguistic realization. Thus, a Move can, at one extreme, be realized by a clause and at other times, by several sentences. It is a functional, not a formal, unit. Connor (2000) also notes that a Move can vary in size but must contain at least, one proposition that is, a statement. Steps, on the other hand, are the constituents of a Move which, together, or in some combinations, contribute to the function of the Move. For a text to be accepted as an instantiation of a genre, these Moves ought to be obligatory (Swales, 1990). An obligatory Move is a functional defining stage which is necessary for a text to be identified as an example of a genre (Bruce, 2010). According to Afful (2005), Moves 52 often have rhetorical and lexico-grammatical features which permit both the speaker/writer and listener/reader to negotiate the meaning of a text. In his pioneering work, Swales (1981) identified a four-move structure in the RA introductions: 1. Establishing the research field 2. Reporting previous research 3. Preparing for present research and 4. Introducing present research. Swales (1990) modified the four-move structure and proposed a three-move pattern as a result of criticisms leveled against the Model. The table below illustrates the Moves with Steps identified in the modified (or revised) version of the CARS model. Table 1: Swales’ Modified Version of the CARS Model MOVE 1 ESTABLISHING A TERRITORY Step 1 Claiming centrality and/or Step 2 Making topic generalization(s) and/or Step 3 Reviewing items of previous research MOVE 2 ESTABLISHING A NICHE Step 1A Counter-claiming or Step 1B Indicating a gap or Step 1C Question-raising or Step 1D Continuing a tradition MOVE 3 OCCUPYING THE NICHE Step 1A Outlining purposes or Step 1B Announcing present research Step 2 Announcing principal findings Step 3 Indicating RA structure Source: (Swales, 1990: 141) 53 Just as each genre has a communicative purpose, each Move also serves a specific communicative intention which is always subservient to the overall communicative purpose of the genre (Bhatia, 1993:30). Each of the Moves as found in the Table has a number of steps which are either optional or obligatory. 3.2.1 Move 1-Establishing a territory Move 1 is realized by any or a combination of the three steps: claiming centrality, making topic generalization(s) and reviewing items of previous research depending upon constraints like the nature of the topic (or field), the background knowledge of the intended readership, reader-writer relationship etc. According to Swales (1981,1990, 2004), RA writers establish a research territory by describing the general “terrain” or “layout” through one or more of the three steps. RA writers make a centrality claim by allowing their audience/readers to recognize the relevance, importance or worth of the topic they are working on. According to Swales (1990:144), centrality claims “are appeals to the discourse community whereby members are asked to accept the research as part of a lively, significant or well-established research area.” Centrality claims frequently serve as topic sentences and are therefore, usually followed by evidence to support their statement. The following are examples of how writers make centrality claims.  Knowledge of… has great importance for….  Of the many… have been the most extensively studied.  In recent years, researchers have become increasingly interested in…. The above sentences are a few examples of how RA writers help their readers to identify the relevance of their areas of studies. 54 Step 2, making topic generalization(s), expresses the current state of-the-art of knowledge, of technique, practice or description of phenomena. According to Swales (1990: 146), Step 2 represents a more neutral statement than Step 1 and can take a variety of forms. Usually, however, Step 2 is made of two categories: statements about knowledge or practice and/or statements about phenomena. The examples below indicate how writers inform their readers about the current state of knowledge:  The general features of … are well known.  Plumage coloration is known to influence mate selection in mallards.  There is now much evidence to support the hypothesis that… The information above gives readers the impression that writers are aware of what is currently going on in their areas of studies. Also, writers make statements about phenomena by making statements such as:  ... is a common finding in patients with …  An elaborative system of … is found in the….  English is rich in related words exhibiting ‘stress shifts.’ In Step 3-reviewing items of previous research, the RA author needs to relate what has been found (or claimed) with who has found it (or claimed it). More precisely, Swales (1990: 148) notes that, in Step 3, the author needs to provide a specification (in varying degrees of detail) of previous findings, an attribution to the research workers who published those results, and a stance towards the findings themselves. Stance is where the research author indicates his position on the findings or claims made. Below are a few examples of how RA writers review their literature on existing studies in their study areas.  Brie (1988) showed that the moon is made of cheese.  The moon’s cheesy composition was established by Brie (1988). 55  Brie’s theory (1988) claims that the moon is made of cheese.  Previous research has shown that the moon is made of cheese (Brie, 1988).  It has been shown that the moon is made of cheese (Brie, 1988). Source: (Swales, 1990:149) Swales distinguishes between integral and non-integral forms of citation in the examples above. In the integral citation, the name of the author occurs in the actual citing sentence as part of the elements in the sentence. In non-integral citation, the author’s name does not form part of the sentence elements but occurs in parenthesis at sentence-final position. Step 3 is most frequently utilized in this study regardless of the discipline. This Step explains the importance of the literature in research writing. Kwan (2006) offers five reasons for reviewing literature:  identifying work already done… that is relevant to the [student’s] own work;  preventing …duplicating what has been done already;  helping the [student] to avoid [flaws] in previous studies;  informing the student’s own [research design];  enabling [the student] to locate a gap in existing research and thereby giving [the student] a unique topic. 3.2.2 Move 2- Establishing a niche Move 2 is realized by any of the following four steps: counter claiming, indicating a gap, question-raising, and continuing a tradition. After describing important features of their research territory (Move 1), academic writers typically try to claim a “niche” for their research. They can do this by showing that the previous 56 research (or solutions) is not complete, indicating that there are aspects of the research field that still needs further investigation. In Step 1A-Counter claiming, the writer presents an opposing viewpoint or pinpoints weaknesses in previous research. The following are a few examples of how academic writers oppose claims that they had established in Move 1, Step 1. Examples:  However, this view is challenged by recent data showing…  …but the experiments were performed on… and are therefore suspect.  …however, these studies have failed to recognize the…. Step 1B -indicating a gap in previous research frequently follows Move1.The examples below explain how academic writers indicate a gap in previous research.  A considerable amount of research has been…but little research….  … has been extensively studied. However, less attention has been paid to….  Despite the importance of …few researchers have studied….  The only reported study to date… covered a limited range of…. Step 1C – question – raising on the other hand, is where research writers raise questions in line with previous study. Examples:  However, it is not clear whether the use of… can be modified to….  In spite of these early observations, the mechanism has remained unclear.  The question remains …? 57 Step 1 D - continuing a tradition is where academic writers normally do not pinpoint holes in previous studies but decide to follow the same method in either replicating or modifying their studies to confirm or disprove findings in previous studies. Examples:  Hence, additional studies of… are needed.  Consequently, these differences need to be analyzed  It is desirable to carry out surveys of….  It is of interest to compare…. Recently, Swales (2004) has reduced the four Steps under Move 2 to two. According to him, most of the disciplines hardly raise questions about previous research and continue a tradition. What pertains in most of the disciplines is to either counter claim or indicate a gap in research. 3.2.3 Move 3 - Occupying the niche Move 3 is the last Move which consists of four Steps: outlining purposes, announcing present research, announcing principal findings and indicating RA structure. Here, writers reveal their solutions to the problem described in Move 2 by stating the main purpose or aim of their study. The following are examples used to outline their purposes of studies.  The aim of this paper is to…. (present tense)  The purpose here is to document…. (present tense)  The objective of this research was to quantify…. (past tense)  the aim of the present study was to quantify (past tense) 58 Step1B - announcing present research is where the writer describes the aims in terms of what the research sets out to do or accomplish. The same information can be expressed using either human or inanimate agents as the subject. Table 2: Examples of Move 3, step 1 (outlining purposes) Human Agent Inanimate Agent In this paper, we suggest a 3-step process …. This paper evaluates the effect on …. In this paper, we attempt to develop a …. This research presents data on …. In this study we propose a … algorithm. This thesis proposes a formal procedure for …. In this paper, we present a system for …. This study focuses on a strategy for …. In Step 2 - announcing principal findings, writers consider the results to be the most important aspect of the research and therefore, report these as part of the introduction. However, it is not all the disciplines that allow such in introduction section. There are a few examples stated below.  In this paper, we argue that ….  Our results indicate that this method is effective ….  This approach provides effective …. According to Swales (2004:232) Step 3 - Indicating RA structure is a further step that is nearly always a final element in Move 3. Its purpose is to outline a roadmap of the structure of the paper. Some examples are: Examples:  This paper is structured as follows ….  We have organized the rest of the paper in the following way ….  The remainder of the paper is divided into five sections …. 59 Although the revised version of the CARS model has been used in a number of studies, some genre analysts object to some of the Steps that constitute the Moves. As a result, these analysts have modified the CARS model. Swales (2004: 226) has hinted that such modifications have been noted as prototypes of the CARS model. Despite the various charges leveled against the CARS model, one important thing that should be recognized is that, according to Hart (1986) in Bhatia (1993: 40) “genre analysis is pattern-seeking rather than pattern-imposing.” Bhatia confirms this assertion by also reiterating that generic conventions need not always be used prescriptively. Consequently, if other genre analysts have criticized some of the Steps that realize the Moves as ambiguous or repetitive and have provided what, according to them, are realistic (Anthony, 1999; Samraj, 2002) it is for the sake of being innovative and explorative. Swales (2004) willingly acknowledges such criticism and does not argue that the CARS model is the best. The model, since its inception, has undergone a series of metamorphoses. Again, it should be pointed out that oftentimes, it is the data that determine the kind of Moves. Thus, what Swales identified in his data might be different from what another person’s data might reveal. More importantly, when the data under study are derived from different disciplines, differences in terms of Moves and Steps identification are inevitable. Bruce (2010:156) notes that such differences might have risen based on epistemology of discipline and its influence on writing. Unarguably, the modified version of the CARS model is posited to analyze just a section, thus, the introduction section of RAs. Other sections of RAs such as the abstract, method, discussion and analysis are not considered by Swales in his CARS model, yet due to the flexibility of the Model, other scholars have modified it to analyze the abstract, method and discussion and analysis sections of RAs (Swales, 2004: 234- 60 240). The RP on the other hand, which is the data for the present study, has multi- sections. Punch (2003: 269) for instance notes that the research proposal has possible sections such as abstract, introduction, conceptual framework, theory, hypotheses, literature, methods significance, limitations and delimitations, consent, references and appendices. It is, therefore, necessary to devise a model which will help cater for the overall organizational structure of the RP. Hence, the CARS model has been adapted to help account for the overall structure of the research proposal. Tables 3 and 4 present respectively Swales’ modified CARS model and an analytical framework designed to analyze the data. Table 3: Swales’ Modified Version of the CARS Model MOVE 1 ESTABLISHING A TERRITORY Step 1 Claiming centrality and/or Step 2 Making topic generalization(s) and/or Step 3 Reviewing items of previous research MOVE 2 ESTABLISHING A NICHE Step 1A Counter-claiming or Step 1B Indicating a gap or Step 1C Question-raising or Step 1D Continuing a tradition MOVE 3 OCCUPYING THE NICHE Step 1A Outlining purposes or Step 1B Announcing present research Step 2 Announcing principal findings Step 3 Indicating RA structure Source: Swales (1990:141) 61 Table 4: Analytical Framework based on Swales’ Modified Version of the CARS Model MOVE 1 ESTABLISHING A TERRITORY Step 1 Claiming centrality and/or Step 2 Making topic generalization(s) and/or Step 3 Reviewing items of previous research MOVE 2 ESTABLISHING A NICHE Step 1A Counter-claiming or Step 1B Indicating a gap or Step 1C Question-raising Or Step 1D Continuing a tradition MOVE 3 OCCUPYING THE NICHE Step 1A Outlining objectives/research questions Step 2 Announcing expected outcome Step 3 Indicating significance/contributions MOVE 4 ESTABLISHING THEORETICAL BASIS Step 1 Defining concepts in theory Step 2 Explaining theory MOVE 5 SPELLING OUT A METHODOLOGY Step 1 Stating and explaining research design Step 2 Describing research site(s) Step 3 Describing data sources/instruments Step 4 Describing sample size and sampling technique Step 5 Describing data collection procedure/experiment/analysis Deli Step 6 L Delimiting scope of the study Step 7 Stating limitations of the study MOVE 6 ACHIEVING CLOSURE Step 1 Reiterating purpose/ significance of the study Step 2 Stating structure of proposed M.Phil. Thesis Step 3 Indicating appendices (timeline, budget, references) 62 From the two tables above, it can be noticed that Moves 1 & 2 of Table 3 are transferred to Table 4 without alterations. The Steps that realize Move 3 in the CARS model have been replaced by the following Steps: step 1 - Outlining objectives and research question, Step 2 - announcing expected outcome and Step 3 - indicating significance of the study/ contributions of the study. Additionally, new Moves and Steps have been added to the Swalesian CARS model. These are Moves 4, 5 and 6 with their various Steps that realize the Moves. 3.2.4 Move 4- Establishing theoretical basis Move 4 is realized by two Steps: Step 1 - defining concepts in theory and Step 2 - explaining theory. Yang (2001) explains that the main purpose of establishing a theoretical basis is ‘to explicate the theory on which the proposed research is based.’ A theory equally frames a study and serves as a lens through which a researcher follows in a study, thereby, giving the work a solid backing. Writers of research proposals first state and define some concepts in the theory they hope to use in Step 1, and in Step 2, they explain concepts as used in the theory. 3.2.5 Move 5- Spelling out a methodology Move 5 has more detailed Steps in realizing the Move than the other Moves. The Move (that is Move 5) consists of 7 Steps: stating and explaining research design, describing research site(s), describing data sources/instruments, describing sample size and sampling technique, describing data collection procedure/experiment/ analysis, delimiting scope of study and stating limitations of study. These Steps typify Move 5 and are integral in this section of the research because they help writers to 63 systematically describe and justify specific methods they hope to employ for data analysis. Most of the seven Steps are frequently realized in Move 5. It can be described as an important Move because it plays an essential role of allowing readers to know how a researcher intends to go about finding solutions to research problems identified in a study. The methodology section of a RP is significant. According to Lim (2006: 283), the methods section is important because, “without a sound method section, writers will not be able to convince the readership of the validity of the means employed to obtain findings.” Hence, as an essential rhetorical unit, the method section is employed in both English Language Studies and Agricultural Science RPs. In Step 1-stating and explaining research design, RP researchers state the type of design they hope to use in their studies. Research design, according to Punch (2003:66), means all the issues involved in planning and executing a research project – from identifying the problem through reporting and publishing the results. It is the basic plan for a piece of research and includes four main areas: the strategy, conceptual framework, the question of who or what to be studied and the tools and procedures to be used for collecting and analyzing empirical data. Here, the RP researchers specifically state whether their study is going to follow a qualitative, quantitative or an eclectic method. Step 2 - describing research site(s) is where the RP researchers indicate proposed site(s) they hope to collect data from. Locating research site(s) in research is important since a RP writer’s supervisor(s) might want to find how suitable the site is for the proposed study. Step 3 – describing data sources/instruments involves discussing the kind of data and the device used in collecting them. A significant component of every research 64 is an indication of the type of research design: quantitative, qualitative and/or mixed. Whichever the type of design chosen, corresponding instruments are used in gathering the data. For instance, a qualitative study may employ instruments such as interview, observation, focus group discussion, case study or documentation while a quantitative research design may use questionnaires as one of its instruments (Punch 2003: 175). Thus, the RP researchers describe the source of their data and state the kind of instruments they hope to use in gathering them. Step 4 - describing sampling size and sampling technique concerns how RP researchers select the number of people or data to obtain the required information from and the type(s) of sampling technique they hope to use for their studies. In research, it is impracticable for an entire population to be selected as data. The process that researchers use is to select a sample based on defined criteria for observation and analysis. Here, interest is directed at the source of the data and how they are selected. There are different types of sampling techniques such as random/probability sampling, non-random/non-probability sampling and mixed sampling design depending on the type of research (Kumar 2011: 192). If a researcher selects a qualitative method for instance, he may choose a non-probability sampling method which may be purposive sampling, cluster sampling, snowball, etc. On the other hand, if a researcher selects a quantitative research design method, he is likely to choose probability sampling technique which also has different manifestations such as simple random sampling, stratified random sampling, etc. Writers of research proposals therefore, state the type of sampling technique they intend to apply and sometimes explain the merits of the chosen technique. Step 5 - describing data collection procedure and analysis is where RP researchers describe procedures they hope to follow to find answers for research 65 questions asked in the proposal or explain experiments they hope to conduct to help them obtain answers to research questions or objectives set for their studies. Step 6 - delimiting scope of study is a Step used by the RP researchers to indicate the scope or coverage of their studies. The RP researchers state, in this Step, areas they hope to cover in their research and areas they hope to ignore. They also give reasons in support of delimiting their scope. Step 7- stating the limitations of study is the last Step that realizes Move 5. It is this Step that the RP researchers use to inform their audiences or readers about unforeseeable problems and how such problems may be resolved. The problems may range from those they encountered before, and during data collection. Other problems that might be encountered during results and discussions are sometimes also hinted at. 3.2.6 Move 6 – Indicating closure Move 6 is the last Move in the RPs. Three Steps are used to realize this Move. They are Step 1 - reiterating purpose/significance of the study, Step 2 - stating structure of proposed MPhil thesis and Step 3 - indicating appendices (timeline, budget, references). The communicative function of this Move is to provide a summary of methods and structure of the proposed thesis. In Step 1 – reiterating purpose/significance of study, the RP researchers choose to either re-state the purpose of their studies or indicate their significance. Reiterating purpose means that the RP researchers state their purpose of studies in the introduction, therefore, when they restate their purpose(s) in the conclusion, it means they reiterate or repeat the same point, hence, the phrase, reiterating purpose. The RP researchers who choose to include the significance of their study also follow a similar pattern. That is, they state the significance of the research they hope to 66 embark on in Move 1 and restate it in the conclusion. It should be pointed out that stating significance of study in the conclusion does not serve the same function as the one stated in the introduction. This is because in Move 1, the RP researchers use the significance of their studies as a persuasive tool, so that their supervisors and audience will be convinced of the viability of their studies; but in the conclusion, restating significance is to remind readers of the significance of the studies stated earlier. Hence, the RP researchers normally paraphrase what they state in Move 1. Step 2- stating structure of proposed MPhil thesis is a Step used by the RP researchers to inform their readers of how they hope to organize their theses into chapters. The RP researchers state the number of chapters they hope to produce and indicate the content of each of the chapter. Step 3 – indicating appendices (timeline, budget and references) is the last Step to realize Move 6. It comprises three main items: timeline, budget and references. The timeline is in the form of block language and it describes the number of times the RP researchers might want to submit segments of their theses to their supervisors. It is in the timeline that the RP researchers also indicate the number of times they hope to see their supervisors for discussions. The budget is the estimated cost of the entire proposed thesis. Expenses such as, stipends for research assistant(s), cost of stationery and other miscellaneous expenses they hope to incur on the entire study are stated with reasons. The references are a compilation of titles and details of books, music, poems, etc. for each article, or chapter (Sekyi-Baidoo, 2000: 367). Lists of cited authors used by the RP researchers to support their claims or provide the basis for reactions can be found in the references. Works cited range from journal articles, published books, conference presentations, daily graphic, unpublished theses and dissertations, internet downloads, and other related works. 67 3.3 Chapter summary This chapter has explained in detail the CARS model propounded by Swales in analyzing the RA. The chapter has also explained the analytical framework used in the study. 68 CHAPTER FOUR: METHODOLOGY 4.1 Introduction The previous chapter examined the theoretical framework on which the study rests and further discussed an analytical framework that is expected to help determine the schematic structure of the two sets of data. This chapter reports on the methodological procedures utilized in the study. It explains the research design of the study: research sites, source of data, sampling procedure and method of analysis. 4.2 Research design The study is solely descriptive. It adopts a qualitative research paradigm and supports it with quantitative parameters to explore the generic Moves used in the RPs of the two disciplines: English Language Studies and Agricultural Science. The qualitative research paradigm is used because the data, a secondary source, are purely linguistic and not subjected to numerical analysis at the onset of the analysis. The qualitative approach is suitable because it helps to describe and interpret the schematic arrangements and structural types of sentences selected by the RP researchers in the two disciplines to realize their communicative purposes. This confirms Dey’s (1993) and Creswell’s (1994) explanations of qualitative research. According to Dey, qualitative research involves breaking down data into themes, patterns and relationship for the purpose of understanding human behavior. Creswell also notes that the goal of qualitative research is to discover patterns which emerge after close observation, careful documentation and thoughtful analysis of the research topic. As noted earlier, working alone with qualitative research paradigm is not enough because some of the research questions demand numerical values of some of the variables. In order to know the exact numerical values of some of the variables 69 such as textual space and dominant linguistic features, basic statistical analysis is resorted to. The quantitative analysis helps to identify the number of times a particular Move occurs in a data, textual spaces allocated to each of the Moves in both ELS and AG data. In the same way, the major and minor structural types of sentences used in each of the Moves are revealed through the use of the quantitative paradigm. Analyzing the data from the qualitative angle alone would have been very difficult to account accurately for questions that needed statistical evidence. Also, analyzing the data from the quantitative angle alone would not have helped to account for patterns that emerged from the data so as to describe and provide the rationale for certain linguistic choices made by the RP researchers. This is to confirm what Swales (2004) notes when he says that the work of a genre analyst is to explore discourse features in the broad context of communicative events and to attempt to provide the rationale for discourse features in terms of author’s intentions and institutional conventions. It can be observed that analyzing the data from the two paradigms of research design helps not only in providing answers for the research questions but also shows that both of the paradigms, qualitative and quantitative research design, are indispensable in the current study. The two paradigms in a way make the entire analysis systematic, reliable and rigorous. 4.3 Research sites The site for the study is the University of Cape Coast which is one of the nine public universities in Ghana. The specific sites for the current study are two colleges in the University: College of Humanities and Legal Studies and College of Natural and Agricultural Sciences. The College of Humanities and Legal Studies comprises the Faculty of Arts 70 and Law. The Faculty of Arts is made up of eleven Departments, one of which, is the Department of English. It is the Department of English that was selected as one of the research sites for the current study. It offers programmes for undergraduate, graduate and postgraduate students and for students in the Faculty of Education. The Department of English also offers studies in various aspects of English Language and Literature in English and it mounts proficiency courses for students from Francophone countries. The School of Agriculture, in the College of Natural and Agricultural Sciences on the other hand, is the second site for the present study. It has five Departments: i. The Department of Animal Science, ii. The Department of Soil Science, iii. The Department of Crop Science, iv. The Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension v. The Department of Agricultural Engineering and vi Meat Processing Unit Source: (Kwarteng, K. O. et al., 2012) Three Departments: The Department of Soil Science, Crop Science and Animal Science, were selected. This was done because it was found that data from the Department of Soil Science were insufficient, hence, the decision to identify data from the other two Departments. The Departments of Agricultural Economics & Extension and the Agricultural Engineering were excluded because the other three Departments, Soil Science, Crop Science and Animal Science had provided enough data for the study. Two main reasons informed the choice of the research sites. First, proximity to the source of data was considered important because it reduced cost and saved time in gathering the data. Travelling over longer distance to collect data would not have been without problems: the risk factor might be high and other constraints, such as financial, and difficulty in getting access to data could have adversely affected the study. Secondly, the researcher’s affiliation to the University helped in getting easy access to 71 the data and prevented other bureaucratic procedures which could have been encountered elsewhere. 4.4 Sampling techniques The main sampling techniques used for selecting the RPs from the two disciplines under study are the random and purposive sampling. The choice of the random sampling technique helped in selecting representations from each of the disciplines. Purposive sampling technique as against other sampling techniques, helped to identify specific data that led to the achievement of the set objectives of the study. Hence, two copies of introductory letters were given to the various Heads of Departments concerned, to seek permission to use the RPs written by their MPhil students for the study. The Head of the English Language Department who willingly instructed his office clerk to offer the needed help was served first. Files containing the RPs submitted within specific years were provided. Some of the RPs written between 2010 and 2015 were randomly selected. It was found useful to select the RPs written within a time frame when the course outline in the Department had not been revised. This is based on the practice that every department in the University revises their courses after a period of five years. Thus, it was necessary to make enquiries in the Department in order to be sure that the course outline had not been revised within the years selected. This helped to ensure uniformity in the data selected. 20 of the RPs written by English Language students were therefore, randomly selected, photocopied and returned to the office clerk. Indeed, the RPs written by English Literature graduate students were excluded because the study targeted how graduate students in the English Language Studies schematized their RPs. These 72 graduate students had then offered a course in Genre analysis which is supposed to help them report knowledge in their discipline. Thus, using their RPs was a way of measuring their understanding of concepts in the course. The data collection occurred over a period of two weeks. The other introductory letter was sent to the Head of Department of the Soil Science who also willingly offered the needed help. The method of gathering data in the Agricultural Science Department was different from that of the English Language Department. This is because the RPs written between 2010 and 2015 were not up to the expected number and so RPs from the Crop and Science Department were randomly selected for analysis. The office clerk in the Soil Science Department informed the secretaries in both Departments to allow him select the RPs written by their MPhil students. 16 of the RPs were then randomly selected from the Department of Soil Science and 2 each from Departments of Crop and Animal Science respectively. Two weeks were spent in gathering data from the Agricultural Science Department. The RPs are the main source of data because the study is interested in finding out how language is convincingly used by the researchers to realize their communicative purposes in such an important academic genre, the RPs. Although some other studies show interest in ethnographic study by adding interview, questionnaire and observation as parts of research instruments (Cadman, 2002; Afful, 2005; Bin, 2006), this was not found applicable in this study since the study specifically shows interest in embarking on an in-depth textual analysis. The choice of data from the School of Natural and Agriculture Science was motivated by the desire to find out how students in a different discipline realize their communicative intentions through the use of English. In doing so, the study will be able 73 to identify areas of convergence and divergence between the two disciplines under study. 4.5 Method of analysis The study specifically adapted Swales’ (1990, 2004) revised version of the CARS model for reasons already identified. Thus, the two sets of data for the study were analyzed based on Swales’ perspective of move analysis, considering the frequency of Moves, sequence of the Moves, textual space of the Moves and the linguistic features in terms of structural types of sentences and the internal clause types that typify the various Moves. New Moves have been added to the modified version of the CARS model so as to help analyze the overall structure of the RPs. See Table 4 for details of analytical framework utilized in the study. After collecting all the data, the following procedures were used to help find answers to the research questions. First, the two sets of data gathered from the Departments of English and Agricultural Science were coded. Coding is the process of putting tags, names or labels against pieces of data (Punch, 2003:204). Coding served a dual purpose in this study. First, it ensured anonymity because the names of the RP researchers were not disclosed as the codes served as pseudonyms or nicknames. This, in a way, resolved ethical hurdles that could have been raised in the study. Second, the use of codes helped in distinguishing one data set from the other and this made the analysis easier. Data from the Departments of Soil, Crop and Animal Sciences were coded and sequenced as AG1, AG2, and AG3 up to AG20. Those from the Department of English were also labelled, ELS1, ELS2, and ELS3 up to ELS20. The two data sets were not edited since attempting to do so might compromise the result of the study. 74 After coding the two sets of data, three photocopies of each of the RPs were made and two were given to two graduate students who were employed as research assistants. They were first asked to do a thorough reading of each of the data in order to identify and label the Moves and Steps in them. Secondly, they were to indicate the sequence of the Moves. This was to help find out how the Moves were ordered in each of the data. The purpose of indicating the order of the Moves was to find out if the researchers used Move 1- 6 sequentially or not. After indicating the order of the Moves in each data, the study considered textual space allocated to each of the Moves. This is where the sentence as a grammatical unit was used to determine the Move. Hence, the number of sentences that constitute each Move per data in the two disciplines was counted. Finally, the research assistants were to identify, count and record the number of sentence structures identified in each of the Moves. The research assistants were taken through a refresher course in order to ensure a uniform process in the analysis. These research assistants had offered and written their dissertations on Genre Studies and so the main purpose of the refresher course was to remind them of the various steps to follow in analyzing the data. A series of meetings were held with the research assistants to streamline the processes chosen. Identification and labelling of Moves and Steps that were found in the two disciplines were discussed during the first meeting. Sequencing of the Moves in the two disciplines were discussed at the second meeting. This did not take much time as it was not difficult to consider how the researchers sequence the Moves in their RPs. What took much time during the third meeting was the work on textual space allocation of the Moves. Some of the problems encountered have been discussed under Limitations in Section 1.7. Work on this aspect was not completed as planned, hence, 75 another meeting was scheduled. This meeting provided ample time to work on the textual space in order to obtain accurate figures of textual space for each of the Moves. After working on the schematic structure of the data, the researcher and the researcher assistants considered the linguistic realization of the Moves. Interest was directed at identifying structural types of sentences based on Quirk et al’s (1985) classification. According to them, the structural type of sentences consists of the simple and the non-simple (complex, compound and compound complex). The dominant and least structures used in realizing each Move were identified in each of the data. In other words, the number of sentences that realize each Move is counted. Then, all the number of sentences that were found to be simple, complex, compound, compound complex in each Move were counted and converted into percentages. An approach that was adopted is Wiredu’s (2012) linguistic method of analysis. The researcher and the research assistants met as scheduled to ensure that the linguistic analysis of the entire data was done. The analyzed data were then collected to cross check both the schematic structure and the linguistic realization of the Moves. The schematic structure of the Moves, which comprises the frequency of occurrence of the Moves and Steps, sequencing of the Moves and textual space allocated to each of the Moves in both disciplines, have been accounted for in Chapter Five. The linguistic realization of the Moves, in terms of structural types of sentences and their various constituents with reasons for the choices made by both ELS and AG researchers have been discussed in Chapter Six. In order to be sure that the analysis was reliable, the data were analyzed three times within an interval of three weeks. Also, the use of research assistants ensured reliability of the analysis in that challenges encountered were resolved through 76 discussions made at the meetings. Again, some principles that were followed in the course of identification and labelling of the Moves also contributed to the reliability of the analysis. For instance, captions such as abstracts, hypotheses and definition of terms found in the data were regarded as optional Moves and were not considered as core components of the RPs. Also, sentences that were found not to contribute to a Move were marked, no move (NM) in the data. 4.6 Chapter summary In this chapter, the methodological procedures used in conducting the research have been discussed. Related issues discussed are the research design which comprises research sites, source of data, sample technique and method of analysis used in providing answers to the research questions. The analyses and discussions are presented in Chapters Five and Six. 77 CHAPTER FIVE: ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION 1 5.1 Introduction In the last chapter, the methodological procedure of the study was discussed. In this chapter, the first part of the analysis and discussion is presented. The analysis is meant to provide answers for Research Question One (1) which involves the examination of the schematic structure of the texts made up of a) frequency of occurrence of the Moves/Steps in the two sets of data. b) the sequencing of the Moves/Steps and c) textual space allocated to each of the Moves. 5.2 Frequency of occurrence of Moves and Steps in ELS data The table below illustrates the frequency of Moves according to their occurrence in the ELS data, and it is followed by discussions of the results. 78 Table 5: Frequency of Moves and Steps in ELS data Moves Steps realizing the Moves No of ELS Total= 20 RPs with Freq.% Moves/Steps 1. Establishing a 1. claiming centrality 0 0% territory 2. making topic generalization(s) 0 0% 3. reviewing previous research 0 0% 2 & 3 6 30% 1, 2 & 3 14 70% 2. Establishing a 1a. counter claiming 0 0% niche 1b. indicating a gap in previous research 11 55% 1c. raising questions 0 0% 1d. continuing a tradition 0 0% 1a &1b 5 25% 1a, 1b &1c 1 5% 1b &1c 1 5% 3. Occupying the 1a. outlining purposes/research niche questions 1 5% 1b announcing present research 0 0% 2. announcing principal 0 0% findings/expected outcome 0 0% 3. indicating significance/contributions 17 85% 1a & 3 2 10% 1a, 1b & 3 1 5 % 4. Establishing 1. explaining concepts in theory 0 0% theoretical basis 2. explaining theory 15 75% 1 & 2 4 20% 79 Continuation of Table 5 5. Spelling out a 1. stating and explaining research Methodology design 0 0% 2. describing research site(s) 0 0% 3.describingdatasource/instruments 0 0% 4. describing sample size and sampling procedure 0 0% 5. describing data collection procedure/experiments/analysis 0 0% 6. delimiting scope of study 0 0% 7. stating limitation(s) 0 0% 1& 6 1 5% 1 & 7 1 5% 1, 3 & 5 1 5% 1, 4 & 5 1 5% 1, 2, 3 & 4 1 5% 1, 2, 3 & 5 1 5% 1, 2, 5 & 6 1 5% 1, 3, 4 & 5 1 5% 1, 3, 5 & 7 1 5% 1, 2, 4 & 5 1 5% 1, 2, 4 & 7 1 5% 2, 3, 4 & 5 1 5% 2, 4, 5 & 6 1 5% 1, 2, 3, 4 & 7 1 5% 1, 2, 4, 5 & 7 1 5% 1, 2, 3, 4 & 6 2 10% 1, 2, 5, 6 & 7 1 5% 1, 2, 4, 6, 5 & 7 1 5% 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 & 7 1 5% 6. Achieving 1. reiterating purpose 0 0% closure 2. stating structure of proposed M.Phil. thesis 0 0% 3. indicating appendices (timeline, budget, references) 12 60% 2 & 3 8 40% 80 A total of six Moves are identified in the ELS RPs. Move 1- establishing a territory is the first one used by ELS researchers and it can be realized by any of the individual Steps or a combination of Steps as noted in the second row of Table 5. The various Steps that realize Move 1 are three: Step 1 – claiming centrality, Step 2 – making topic generalization(s) and Step 3 – reviewing previous studies. As can be found in Table 5, none of the ELS researchers uses Step 1 or 2 or 3 to realize Move 1, hence, each of the Steps recorded 0%. However, there are two different combinations used to realize Move 1. These are Steps 2 & 3 and Steps 1, 2 & 3. A total number of 6 (30%) of the ELS researchers use a combination of Steps 2 & 3 in realizing Move 1 while 14 (70%) of the ELS RPs use a combination of Steps 1, 2 & 3 to realize Move 1. Hence, 20 (100%) of the ELS researchers use two different combinations of the Steps under Move 1 to achieve their communicative purposes. The following are some examples of Steps 1, 2 & 3 used to realize Move 1. 1. The use of language is unquestionably an important element of politics and it can misrepresent as well as represent realities, it can weave visions and imaginaries which can be implemented to change realities and in some cases improve human well- being…ELS1 2. Over the last two decades, the media has become one of the most predominant social institutions in every human setting. There is no known human setting that does not make effective use of the media…The dominant role that the media play in society has made it become an indispensable institution in the 21st century human societies. ELS20 The examples above are made of Step 1 used by the researchers in Move 1. Here, it can be observed that the researchers indicate the relevance of the area of study in order to convince their readers of the viable nature of their research topic. Steps 2 as found in the following examples are also used by the researchers. 3. Speech is used in different ways among different groups of people. Each group has its own norms of linguistic behavior. Thus non-native speakers of English speak differently from the way native speakers do. ELS14 81 4. The idea of texting short messages (or SMS) began as part of the development of the Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) network in the mid-1980s. However, it was not until the early 1990s that mobile phone companies started to develop the commercial possibilities (Crystal, 2008; Campbell, 2008). Soon after its introduction in Finland (Crystal, 2008) as an economically sensitive, faster and convenient alternative medium of communication, SMS has spread to virtually every part of the world. ELS12 In the above examples, the researchers indicate the current state-of-the-art knowledge they have in their related fields of studies. The researchers also use the following Step 3 in addition to the Step 2 in realizing the Move. 5. Fishman (1983), also a dominance theorist, tested the claims by Lakoff in her study of conversations by three heterosexual couples and observed that women use more tag questions, hedges such as you know and have as many statements as men. She maintained contrary to Lakoff’s view, that linguistic forms under study served interactional and facilitative purposes, rather than a mark of women’s insecurity and hesitancy. They are used by women to invite their interlocutor into the conversation and in order to sustain the conversation by getting the attention of the unresponsive male (Fishman, 1990). ELS16 6. In this regard, mention can be made of Mwinlaru (2012), who conducted a stylistic study of characterization and point of view in Chinua Achebe’s Anthills of the Savannah. The work of Mwinlaru (2012) was from the perspective of systemic functional linguistic and one of his findings concerning transitivity and characterization demonstrated that the use of grammatical metaphor and circumstantial elements in clauses can construct various kinds of identities for characters such as powerfulness, authoritativeness, political leadership, terrorist and so on. ELS2 From the examples above, the ELS researchers are informing their readers of some related studies that have been conducted in their disciplines and indicating names of scholars who found or made such claims. This, in a way, will help the researchers to identify areas in their disciplines that studies have not been done and to rebut or confirm such findings in their research. The researchers, in a way, make claims to what other researchers have done in their related area of study. Indeed, the use of Steps 1, 2 & 3 in Move 1 is in tandem with the CARS model but what is found in the data for this study 82 is that it is not in all the RPs that the researchers combine the three steps as found in the CARS model. Move 2 – establishing a niche is the second Move that is used in the ELS RPs and it can be realized by individual Steps or a combination of Steps as found in the third row of Table 5. The Steps that realize the Move are: Step 1a - counter claiming, Step 1b - indicating a gap in previous research, Step 1c - raising questions and Step 1d - continuing a tradition. None of the ELS RPs utilizes Step 1a to realize Move 2, thus, Step 1a records 0%. A total of 11 (55%) of the ELS RPs use Step 1b in realizing Move 2, while Steps 1c and 1d are not used in the ELS RPs. 5 (25%) of the ELS RPs combine Steps 1a and 1b to realize Move 2. Steps 1a, 1b & 1c are combined in 1 (5%) of the ELS RPs and Steps 1b & 1c are also combined in 1 (5%) of the ELS RPs. In all, a total of 18 (90%) of the ELS RPs use various Steps under Move 2 to realize the Move. 2 (10%) of the ELS RPs do not use Move 2. Steps 1a & 1b can be found in the following examples. 7. Ferris et al (1997) indicated that some of the most often-cited and maintained L1 and L2 articles on the subject of teacher response to student writing have serious limitations and/or methodological flaws. ELS7 8. There is little doubt that radio is a significant player in the media landscape and a vital ingredient in the daily menu of many Ghanaians. ELS12 9. However, Philips and Reynolds (1995) and Shibamoto (1995) touched on complexity but not at the phrasal level. ELS11. 10. The studies reviewed above have not fully delved into the analysis of discoursal features used in news as this present study seeks to do hence the gap to be filled. ELS15 11. Although code-mixing has been investigated by many linguists such as Forson, Ho, Amuzu in various social contexts like communities, schools and universities, little seems to have been done in radio discourse of which the present study concerns itself with. ELS17 83 Sentences 7, 8 and 9 are examples of Step 1a while sentences 10 and 11 are examples of Steps 1b used by the researchers in realizing Move 2. Step 1a usually provides counter claims to what the researchers have observed in claims made by other researchers but in Step 1b, the researchers identify a relevant area in their studies that has not been researched. Step 1b is the most preferred choice used by the researchers in Move 2 of their RPs. Steps 1c & 1d are not used in the data. A probable reason may be what Swales (2004) has noted that, in most disciplines, the issues of continuing a tradition and raising questions about previous research are hardly used, when discussing previous reports in the literature reviews. Another reason may be related to cultural practices of the researchers as noted by Jogthong (2001) that Thai researchers for instance, do not raise questions related to previous research because they are of the view that such an act does not show respect. The Thai researchers see such an act as criticizing the work of their professors and academics. This idea of Thai researchers is however, questionable; as raising questions about a study does not necessarily show signs of disrespect. Some audience or readers might want to ask questions for clarification or confirmation but this practice of not asking questions seems to be transferrable in this study too although it is conducted in Ghana. Move 3 – occupying the niche is the third Move found in the ELS RPs. It can also be realized by either a combination of any of the four Steps or an individual Step. These Steps are: Step 1a - outlining purposes, Step 1b - announcing present research, Step 2 - announcing principal findings/expected outcome and Step 3 - indicating significance/contributions of the study. Step 1a is found in 1 (5%) of the ELS RPs, while Steps 1b, 2 & 3 are absent in the ELS RPs. A total of 17 (85%) of the ELS RPs combine Steps 1a & 3 to realize Move 3. Additionally, 2 (10%) of the ELS RPs combine Steps 1a, 1b & 3 to realize Move 3. Thus, a total of 19 (95%) combine the various Steps 84 under Move 3 while 1 (5%) uses only Step 1a. The ELS researchers do not make use of Steps 1a and 2 but Steps 1a and 3 are used in the ELS data as found in the examples below. 12. Thus, the current study will investigate the effect of age and gender on the employment of politeness markers in SMS messages sent and received by trainee teachers of Ada College of Education. ELS8 13. This study therefore seeks to examine the various forms and functions of elicitations and responses in doctor-patient interaction in University of Cape Coast teaching hospital. ELS10 14. This current scholarship will address the following research questions: what is the schematic structure that typifies both the introduction and conclusion sections of sport presentation programmes in Ghana? ELS20 15. This current research will seek to answer the following research questions: what kind of modal verbs are used to express modality in the selected private and public universities’ students’ handbook? ELS18 The above are examples of Step 1a used by the researchers to outline purposes/ objectives of their study. In this data for instance, most of the researchers re-emphasize their objectives by stating research questions as found in sentences 14 and 15. Step 3 on the other hand, indicates the significance/contributions of the study. A few of such can be found below. 16. The study has theoretical and communication implication. First the study will add to the growing literature on modality. Second, the study will serve as a good starting point for initiating large-scale investigation into the use of modality in university students’ handbooks. ELS18 17. Thus, the significance of the study lies in its merits to help come out with insightful revelations that will enable people to understand each other, as one quality shared by people who are able to ascend both professional and the personal ladders of success is superior communication skills. ELS16 Move 4 – establishing theoretical basis is the fourth Move found in the ELS RPs. The Move is realized by two steps: Step 1 – explaining concepts in theory and 85 Step 2 – explaining theory. As can be seen in Table 5, none of the ELS RPs employs Step 1 in realizing Move 4, thus, Step 1 records 0%. 15 (75%) of the ELS RPs, use only Step 2 to realize Move 4, while 4 (20%) combine both Steps 1 and 2 to realize the Move. Only 1 (5%) of the ELS RPs does not use Move 4. Steps 1 and 2 of Move 4 can also be found in the following. 18. Giddens et al (2007) underscore the importance of the study of power in sociology and view power as “the ability of the individuals or groups to make their own interests or concerns count even when others resist” (pg. 393). Lukes (1974) defined power as the ability to implant in people’s mind the interests that run counter to their own good. In dealing with power Lukes takes cognizance of three dimensional models, which are overt model, covert model and latent model. The overt dimension of power deals with declared political preferences and this show themselves in open political play. ELS11 19. In the Appraisal System, there are three main interactive spheres that help in analyzing and interpreting a discourse. These strands are attitude, engagement and graduation. Within the framework of the Appraisal Theory, Attitude encompasses the feelings, emotional reactions (affect); opinion on a behavior together with the evaluation of things and events (judgment) and Appreciation, which involves resources employed by speakers for expressing positive and negative evaluations of entities, processes, and natural phenomena (de Souza, A. A., 2006: p. 532). ELS5 In the examples above the ELS researchers define various concepts used in their selected theories. This helps their audience and other readers to understand the concepts found in the theories. Indeed, the ELS researchers do not only define the concepts but also move further to explain their proposed theories as found in the sentences below. 20. Two major linguistic theories form the basis of this study. These are Politeness Theory and the Speech Act Theory. … the theory of politeness originated from Brown and Levinson (1987). This theory indicates that every person has a face. A speaker’s face is the public image that the speaker presents to the rest of the world. The face results from the speech coming from the speaker’s mouth (Hudson 1998: 230-231) and other parts of our observable behavior. …ELS14 21. To accomplish the feat set out by the research questions, I draw on a three-tiered theoretical approach viz Crystal’s (2008) taxonomy of the linguistic features of SMS, Katz et al (1974) uses and gratifications theory and Herring’s (2001; 2004) computer- 86 mediated discourse analysis. …. According to Crystal (2008), there are six main distinctive features of the way texts are written which combine …. These distinctive features are pictograms and logograms, initialism and omitted letters. …. Pictograms and logograms according to Crystal are the most noticeable feature of text orthography. Text orthography refers to the use of single letters, numerals, and typographic symbols to represent words or part of words. …. ELS12 In sentences 20 and 21, the ELS researchers first, state the theory/theories they hope to use, indicate the proponent(s) and finally explain the theory/theories. Move 5 – spelling out a methodology is the fifth Move that is found in the ELS RPs. It is made up of seven different Steps. Indeed, all the 20 ELS RPS use the various Steps under Move 5. Apart from 2 (10%) of the ELS RPs which combine Steps 1, 2, 3, 4, and 6 in realizing Move 5, the other 18 (90%) use different combinations as seen in Table 5. The following are examples of the various Steps that constitute the Move. In Step1, the ELS researchers state and explain the research design they hope to use in their RPs. This Step is most frequently used by the ELS researchers. 22. This current research will make use of the qualitative research approach for the analysis of the data. This is mainly because of the fact that the entire research will purely be descriptive. Thus, the qualitative research design will be employed for the analysis and interpretation of those rhetorical units that will be identified in both the introduction and conclusion sections of the sports news presentation in the selected television stations in Ghana. ELS20 23. The current research will be purely based on qualitative research design which allows for an in-depth analysis, description and interpretation of verbal behavior (Afful and Tekpetey, 2011). The rationale for selecting the qualitative research design for this scholarship stems from the fact that the current research has its main objective to describe and interpret the use of modality in university students’ handbooks. ELS18 The ELS researchers state and explain their research design as found in the above examples and proceed to describe their research site(s) in Step 2 which is also most frequently used by the ELS researchers. Examples of Step 2 of Move 5 can be found below. 87 24. The study will be conducted at Peace FM and Joy FM, two privately owned radio stations situated in Accra, the capital city of Ghana. ELS12 25. The data site considered for this study is a small town around the western borders of the Western Region of Ghana. ELS2 The ELS researchers do not only describe their research site(s) but also, the data sources/instruments they hope to use in collecting the data. This is the Step 3 and examples of such are also stated below. 26. The target groups for the study are the second year students of Bosco’s College and the English Language teachers…. The instruments will involve the use of questionnaire and observation. ELS7 27. Since the data have to do with collection of SMS text messages, three techniques will be used. The first one will be a direct interaction with the respondents in a form of appeal to collect real text messages on their cell phones. The second one is the user diaries which will be used to collect natural data pertaining to the study. Also, a five- minute semi-structured face-to-face interview will be the third technique to elicit demographic information as well as real text messages directly from purposive selected participants made up of males and females in level 100 and 200. In all, 600 text messages (300 messages written by males and 300 messages by females) will be collected and analyzed. ELS8 After describing the sources of data or instruments that will be used for data collection, the ELS researchers describe the size of their sample and the sampling techniques in Step 4 of Move 5. The following are some examples of how the ELS researchers describe their sample size and state the technique to be used. 28. The present study will use stratified sampling technique. Here, the identified sub- groups that are samples of radio presenters and listeners in the target population will be presented in the study. The researcher will select 50 listeners from each FM radio station. ELS17 29. In the collection of data, the purposive sampling technique will be used to select data that will be most useful for the study. According to Creswell (1994: p. 148), the aim of purposive sampling is to purposefully select … documents that will best answer the research questions. ELS19 88 In describing the sample size and techniques, the ELS researchers help their audience to have an idea about the kind of results the researchers hope to achieve. In other words, the choice of a particular sampling technique is going to help their audience to identify the type of research method to be used. That is whether the research method will be qualitative or quantitative. The ELS researchers further describe how they are going to gather and analyze their data. Describing data collection procedures and analysis is Step 5 of Move 5. Some examples of how the ELS researchers describe data collection procedures and analysis are presented below. 30. The data will be digital audio recording and involves human subjects. Thus, clearance will be sought from Human Subject Clearance Committee (of UCC) and an introductory letter to the hospital be requested from the department. The introductory letter will be taken to the hospital administrator to seek entry into consulting rooms. Pre-recording meeting with selected doctors will be arranged to discuss how recordings will be done. There will be notices on the doors of the consulting rooms where recording is taking place as well as brief talk on the study to inform patients of the recordings. …. The data analysis will take into consideration the theoretical framework and conversational analysis as the analytical model for analyzing the data. …. The data will be transcribed using dragon speaking naturally software. …. ELS10 31. Questionnaires will be administered to the sample size, followed by interviews. The questionnaire will be administered to 120 heads of JHS and their assistants. However, the interview will be limited to the heads. …. The data will be obtained within nine weeks. …. The study will be analyzed using statistical package for social scientists (SPSS). The first part of data analysis will be based on the questionnaire. Using SPSS to generate statistical tables, I will analyze the questionnaire based on the sociolinguistic variables set for the study. …. ELS4 In the examples above, the ELS researchers systematically state the procedures they hope to go through in gathering and analyzing data in order to provide answers for their research questions. In trying to describe the process of gathering and analyzing the data systematically, the ELS researchers indirectly guide future researchers who 89 may want to embark on similar studies to either confirm or rebut findings of previous research. The ELS researchers also delimit their scope by indicating areas they hope to cover in their research. This is the Step 6 of Move 5. In this Step, the ELS researchers delimit their studies to related areas in their field. This is because it is practically impossible to cover every detail in a related area of study. The following are examples of how the ELS researchers delimit their scope. 32. There are various speeches available in the domain of the senior high schools: open day speeches, founder’s day speeches of the heads and speeches delivered by senior prefect etc. But this study will focus on the anniversary speeches of headmasters and headmistresses only. The anniversary speeches to be considered are the written data. These are likely to be easily accessible to the researcher. ELS9 33. A study of this nature requires the researcher properly delimits its boundaries. First, the limited to mobile phone text messages sent to Joy FM and Peace FM, two private local radio stations located in Accra, Ghana’s capital. The study is also limited to two specific radio panel discussions. …. Secondly, this study is limited to a descriptive, textual based research that seeks to describe the discourse features and possible structure(s) of SMS texted by Ghanaians and what purposes the messages serve in Ghanaian society. ELS12 The last Step of Move 5 is where the ELS researchers indicate problems they anticipate in the course of collecting and analyzing data. Some of the researchers are able to anticipate problems during data collection and analysis others are not able to envisage such problems. Step 6 of Move 5 can be identified in the following. 34. The problems which will be encountered by the researcher in association with the research instruments will be solved after the pilot study. The researcher may encounter other problems in the area of data collection. Some of these foreseen problems are discussed: difficulty in retrieving questionnaire, hostile attitude and reliability and validity. ELS17 35. Despite the preparations that have been made so far to undertake this study, there are anticipated limitations that are likely to be encountered. The proposed researcher is likely to encounter limitations in such areas as identification and classification of what constitutes rhetorical elements, time and financial constraints. ELS19 90 36. A major difficulty in this study will be how to ensure that multiple text messages from serial texters are not included in the sample. It will also be difficult to obtain accurate demographic information on the texters. ELS12 Move 6 – achieving closure is the sixth and last Move found in the ELS data. It is also realized by any of the following three Steps or a combination of the Steps. The Steps are: Step 1 – reiterating purpose, Step 2 – stating structure of proposed M.Phil thesis and Step 3 – indicating appendices (timeline, budget, references). None of the ELS RPs uses Steps 1 or 2 to realize Move 6. A total of 12 (60%) use only Step 3 in realizing the Move while 8 (40%) combine Steps 1 and 2 to realize the Move. Step 1 of Move 6, is not used by the ELS researchers but Steps 2 and 3 are found in the ELS data. The ELS researchers state the structure of their proposed MPhil thesis. Examples of Step 2 of Move 6 can be found as follows. 37. The dissertation is made up of 5chapters, chapter one will be the introduction which would include the background of the study, status of the problem, aim of study, research questions and/or hypothesis. Chapter two would be the literature review…. ELS2 38. The study will be presented in five chapters. The chapter covers the background to the study, statement of the problem, the purpose of the study, research questions, delimitations and limitations and significance of the study. The second chapter covers related literature while chapter three deals with the methodology of the study. Chapter four covers data analysis and finally, chapter five presents the findings, conclusion and implications of the study. ELS7 39. The study will be organized into five chapters. Chapter one will be an introductory chapter that will create a general context for the study. Specifically, it will include a background to the study, statement of the problem, research questions and research hypotheses, scope of the study, significance of the study, the theoretical framework of the study and the organization of the study. Chapter two will be on review of related literature. Chapter three will outline and explain the methods and approaches to be employed in the study. It will comprise the research setting, the research design, population, sample and sampling procedure, data collection procedure and data analysis procedure. …. ELS20 91 Step 3 of Move 6 deals with how the ELS researchers indicate appendices. In this Step, the ELS researchers indicate their work plan and budget in a form of block language. This is finally followed by either references or bibliography. These can be found in the examples below. 40. Work Schedule and Estimated Budget Chapter Activity/Item Purpose Number Time Cost of Pages Span In (GH Weeks Cedis) One Introduction To create a general context for the study 20 2 50.00 Two Review of To create a conceptual 25 5 50.00 Related context for the Literature discussion of the data Three Methodology To design the tools and 25 12 200.00 Including Data explain the methods Collection and approaches employed in the study Four Data Analysis To relate the data in 33 5 100.00 And testing hypotheses and Discussion answering research questions Five Conclusion To summarize the 15 2 50.00 methods and findings of the study, draw conclusions and implications and make recommendations Five Conclusion To summarize the 15 2 50.00 methods and findings of the study, draw conclusions and implications and make recommendations Appendix Provide the To provide evidence 10 4 20.00 origin of all for data collection and the thirty data make tools available sets used in for replication the analysis References To acknowledge works 10 2 11.00 consulted and cited in the study Total 178 39 500.00 Source: ELS20 92 41. Fairclough, N. (1995). Media Discourse. London: Edward Arnold.ELS2 42. Van Dijk, T. A. (1993). Principles of critical discourse analysis. Discourse & Society, 4 (2), 249-283. ELS18 So far, the analysis here has shown that six Moves are used by ELS researchers to explain their communicative purposes in the RPs. The researchers either use only one Step or combine some of the Steps under each Move to realize their communicative purposes. These six Moves are found to be obligatory since they occur in more than 50% of the overall RPs. Only 2 (10%) of the ELS researchers ignore Move 2 but 18 (90%) use the six Moves to express their communicative purposes. Some examples of the various Steps that constitute each of the Moves have also been stated. 5.3 Frequency of occurrence of Moves and Steps in AG data In this section the analysis of Moves and Steps as they occurred in the AG data are presented. 93 Table 6: Frequency of Moves and Steps in AG data Moves Steps realizing the Moves No of AG RPs Total= 20 with Freq.% Moves/Steps 1. Establishing a 1. claiming centrality 1 5% territory 2. making topic generalization(s) 5 25% 3. reviewing previous research 6 30% 1,2 &3 8 40% 2. Establishing a 1a. counter claiming 1 5% niche 1b. indicating a gap in previous research 11 55% 1c. raising questions 0 0% 1d. continuing a tradition 0 0% 3. Occupying the 1a. outlining purposes/research questions 6 30% niche 1b. announcing present research 0 0% 2. announcing principal findings/expected outcome 0 0% 3. indicating significance/contributions of study 0 0% 1a & 3 10 50% 1a & 2 3 15% 5. Spelling out a 1. stating and explaining research design 0 0% methodology 2. describing research site(s) 1 5% 3.describingdatasource/instruments 0 0% 4. describing sample size and sampling 0% procedure 0 0% 5. describing data collection procedure/experiments/analysis 5 25% 6. delimiting scope of study 7. stating limitation(s) 0 0% 1 & 5 4 20% 2 & 5 2 10% 4 & 5 1 5% 1, 3 & 4 1 5% 1, 4 & 5 1 5% 5, 1 & 5 1 5% 3, 2, 4 & 5 1 5% 3, 4, 3 & 5 1 5% 2, 4, 3 & 5 1 5% 6. Achieving 1. reiterating purpose 0 0% closure 2. stating structure of proposed M.Phil. thesis 1 5% 3. indicating appendices (timeline, budget, references) 14 70% 1& 3 2 10% A total of five Moves are identified in the AG data. Move 1 is the first Move that is found in the AG RPs where, out of the 20 AG RPs, only 1 (5%) uses Step 1 in realizing the Move. 5 (25%) use only Step 2 in realizing the Move. 6 (30%) of the RPs 94 also employ only Step 3 in realizing Move 1, while 8 (40%) of the RPs combine all the three Steps. In the AG RPs, Step 1 of Move 1 can be found below. 43. The poultry industry in Ghana plays a vital role in the development of the economy through provision of food products (meat and eggs) to meet the protein needs of the citizenry, provision of employment in both private and public sectors as well as the provision of manure for soil fertility management, among others.AG2 44. Understanding climate variability is important for agricultural decision making at the farm, marketing or policy level (F.A.O, 2008). AG3 In the examples above the AG researchers just like the ELS use such a Step to convince their readers about the viable nature of the research they hope to embark on. Step 2 of Move 1 is the next choice of the AG researchers as found in the following examples. 45. Envisaging much greater performance of the industry stakeholders especially researchers have made concerted efforts over recent years to develop new poultry breeds and alternative feed ingredients for formulating poultry rations that would result in much economic returns. AG2 46. In the past, farmers planted only local varieties (land races) of cassava. But in recent years (since 1989), 18 improved varieties have been developed and released for farmers to grow. Though the improved varieties possess certain characteristics that the local varieties do not have, most of the farmers still prefer the local varieties to the improved ones because of their preference for local dishes. They rather grow the improved varieties for industrial purposes when there is ready market. AG12 In sentences 45 and 46, the AG researchers inform their readers of the current state-of-the-art knowledge they have in their area of studies. The AG researchers also use Step 3 of Move 1 in their data. 47. Lichtenzveig et al. (2006) reported that root/soil-borne fungal pathogens are causal agents of legume diseases of increasing economic importance, such as root rots, seedling damping-off, and vascular wilts.AG18 48. Collins and Bridgeman (1991) used mixed age culture bioassay and concluded that under dosing is the cause for survival of Rhyzoperthadominica after fumigation. In 95 1997/98 failure in fumigation exercises were experienced by same authors using higher doses of Phosphine. AG10 The AG researchers prefer to combine all the three Steps in the Move as compared to selecting only one Step of a Move. There are however, a few of the AG researchers who either select Step 1 or 2 to realize the Move but not Step 3. This means that Step 3 is always used in combination with the first two Steps. Move 2 is realized by Step 1a or 1b. 1 (5%) of the AG researchers uses Step 1a while 11 (55%) use Step 1b in realizing the Move. None of the AG researchers uses Steps 1c or 1d to realize Move 2. In all, a total number of 12 (60%) AG RPs combine Steps 1a and 1b to realize Move 2 but 8 (40%) of the AG RPs do not use Move 2. Both Steps can be found in the following examples. 49. Strategies which have been developed for the management of CTV are not effective against all strains of the virus because of great diversity among the strains, thereby making the design for control strategies for CTV. AG8 50. Furthermore there is no effective seed legislation and quarantine policies to ensure that the improved varieties remain pure and true to type. The above coupled with the lack of trained personnel to monitor the sector leads to substandard seed production and its attendant negative impacts on the crop sector and the economy at large. It is evident that there is little knowledge about improved methods of storing seeds to avoid contamination. AG14 51. In Ghana, very little is known about the usage of antimicrobial drugs in animal husbandry and the public health effects on food safety.AG4 In the examples above, sentence 49 counter claims an ineffectiveness of an approach used in previous research while sentences 50 and 51 indicate a gap in previous research by considering related areas in their field where much research has not been conducted. The AG RPs use 6 (30%) of Step 1a in realizing Move 3, while 10 (50%) combine Steps 1a, and 3 to realize the Move, and 3 (15%) combine Steps 1a and 2. 1 96 (5%) of the AG researchers does not use Move 3. In this Move, Step 1a can be found in the following examples. 52. The research objectives are to assess the prevalence of antimicrobial residues in animal food sample…AG4 53. The main objective of this study is to assess the performance of ‘Aribro’ stain on PKOR based diets, and the specific objectives are to determine the growth rate of ‘Aribro’ strain on PKOR based diet…AG2 The above sentences show that the AG researchers just like the ELS researchers use this Step to help readers to identify the objectives of their studies. Indeed, it has been found in the two sets of data that the ELS researchers state their research questions and research objectives of the study but in the AG data, the researchers do not state research questions. The AG researchers in addition to Step 1a use Step 2 as found in the examples below. 54. It is expected that there will be residues in the meat products that will be analyzed and this will set for the basis for further study on the risk of human exposure to theses residues.AG4 55. The results of the work would give an idea of a possible development of resistance of any of the insects to Phosphine gas and hence resistance management strategies developed. AG 10 56. It is expected that at the end of the research well defined strategies will be devised to manage itchgrass in groundnut. AG17 The above sentences are examples of Step 2 of Move 3. This Step is not found in the ELS data. Also, the AG researchers do not use only Step 2 to achieve Move 3 but they combine it with Step1a. Step 3 is also found in the AG data. A few of them are presented below. 57. The research work would be made available to research institutions; Ministry of Food and Agriculture Organization (MOFA), NGO’s and other stakeholders who have 97 interest in maize production. Also, the new breed would be made available to MOFA and other institutions for multiplication and onward distribution to farmers both in Ghana and elsewhere. AG9 58. The research which aims at ensuring a boost or realization of the full potentials of the improved breeds or varieties of cowpea produced through scientific researches carried out is therefore laudable as this will make relevant findings available to serve as blue print to direct investment into infrastructure such as storage facilities, processing plants, warehouses, etc. in congruence with the nation’s socio-economic agenda. AG14 The AG researchers indicate the significance of their study as found in the above sentences. This Step is not used in isolation in the data but is combined with Step 1a. The AG researchers do not use Move 4 in their RPs. This might be a major difference between the two disciplines used as data in this study. Move 5 is the next found after Move 3 and it has more detailed Steps to realize the Move than any of them. None of the AG researchers uses either Steps 1, 3, 4, 6 or 7 to realize the Move. Hence, each of the Steps scores 0%. Only 1 (5%) of the AG researchers utilizes Step 2 in realizing Move 5. Varieties of Steps ranging from two to five are found in the AG RPs. 4 (20%) of AG RPs combine Steps 1 & 5, while 2 (10%) combine Steps 2 & 5 to realize the Move. Another 1 (5%) of the AG RP combines Steps 4 & 5 to realize Move 5. Additionally, each of the AG RPs combines more than two Steps in realizing Move 5. Such combinations as can be seen in Table 6 are Steps 1, 3 & 4, Steps 1, 4 & 5, Steps 5, 1 & 5, Steps 3, 2, 4 & 5, Steps 3, 4, 3 & 5 and Steps 2, 4, 3 & 5. As can be noted, a total of 19 (95%) utilize different combinations of the seven Steps to realize the Move. It is also found that only 1 (5%) AG RPs does not employ Move 5 in the entire study. Each of the seven Steps can be found in the examples below. 59. A descriptive research design in the form of interview schedules and validated questionnaires will be administered to collect data from the farmers and seed traders. The data will be organized, edited, coded and subjected to statistical analysis. AG7 98 60. The research would be carried out in the School of Agriculture Teaching and Research Farm of the University of Cape Coast over a period of (8) week (four weeks brooding period and four weeks finishing phase).AG2 61. The use of interviews, focus group discussion and questionnaire will be used. Besides, the primary sources as stated, other secondary documents will be reviewed for the proper analysis of the problem.AG16 62. A total of sixty (60) respondents will be used for the study. Convenience sampling method will be used to select the sample; this sampling generally assumes a homogenous population, and that one person is pretty much like another. …. In selecting the study area, purposive sampling was used because goods are transported in large quantities through shipment and inland (across borders) into the country.AG11 63. To achieve the above objectives, the following materials and procedures would be employed. Five insects’ species; Rhizoperthadominica, Araecerusfasciculatus Lasiodermaserricorne and Ephestiacautella would be reared on rice, wheat bran, maize, cassava chips, maize flour and glycerol mixture …. The cultures would be maintained as described by Strong et al (1968). All cultures would be maintained at 27-30 °C temperature and relative humidity range of 60-73%. …. Data on number of insects, percent mortalities etc. shall be appropriately transformed to meet conditions of normality and homogeneity of variance before Analysis of variance (ANOVA) shall be performed. AG10 Each of the examples above constitutes a Step in Move 5. These Steps are: Steps 1 to 5. Sentence 59 is an example of Step 1, sentence 60 is also an example of Step 2, 61 is for Step 3, 62 is for Step 4 and 63 is for Step 5. Indeed, all these Steps could have been used in a RP but it is found that the AG researchers do not select their Steps sequentially; they combine any of them. It has also been observed that the AG researchers ignore Steps 6 and 7 which are most preferred by the ELS researchers. Move 6 – achieving closure is the fifth and last Move that is used in the AG RPs. It is realized by either a Step or combination of the following three Steps: Step 1 -reiterating purpose, Step 2 -stating structure of proposed MPhil thesis and Step 3 - indicating appendices (timeline, budget, references). In Table 6, Step 1 is not used to realize Move 6, hence, records 0%. 1 (5%) of the AG RPs uses Step 2 in realizing Move 99 6 while 14 (70%) of the AG RPs also utilize Step 3 in realizing Move 6. 2 (10%) of the AG RPs combine Steps 1 & 3 in realizing Move 6. In all, a total of 17 (85%) of the AG RPs use various Steps of Move 6 to achieve their communicative purposes. 3 (15%) of the AG RPs on the other hand, do not use Move 6. The Steps that make Move 6 are presented in the following examples. 64. The ‘Aribro’ strain could perform well on ready available and cheaper PKOR based diets in the central region to help increase the profit margin of farmers and also increase patronage of the breed by poultry farmers in the region since it is anticipated to adapt well to similar local environmental conditions including local feeds.AG2 The sentence above is an example of Step 1. This step is used by the AG researchers but not the ELS researchers. Step 2, on the other hand, is used by both groups of researchers. An example of such is presented below. 65. The work will be organized into five chapters. Chapter one will give the introduction covering background to the study, justification of the study as well as general and specific objectives of the study …. AG6 The use of this Step offers the researchers an opportunity to outline the proposed structure of their study. Step 3 is the last of Move 6 and an example can be found below. The AG researchers present their timeline and budget on tables as found in the example below. 100 66. Work Plan and Budget After the main course work, the ensuing year shall be used for the research. Below is the detail. Chapter Topic Percent Words Months Amounts (GHC) 1 Introduction 5 2,500 1 300 2 Literature 25 15,000 1.5 600 Review 3 Methodology 20 2,000 1 400 4 Data collection 30 18,000 3.5 2,000 & analysis 5 Conclusions and 20 14,000 2 900 Implications Total 100 51500 8 4,200 Source: AG 3 67. Godfred, Sam Aggrey and Abutiate, WS (1973). Description of some mango cultivars in Ghana. Ghana Jnl Agric. AG16 68. Cavero, D. P., Schmutz, M. and Preisinger, R. (2010). Genetic evaluation of pure- line and cross-line performance in layers. Lohmann Information vol. 45 (2), 18- 21.AG2 Sentences 67 and 68 are examples of references indicated by the AG researchers. The style of referencing used by the AG researchers is similar to the one used by the ELS researchers. This part of the analysis has also indicated that a total of five Moves are found used by the AG researchers to realize their communicative purposes unlike the ELS researchers who use six. Move 4 is not found in AG RPs. Additionally, these five Moves are obligatory. In Move 1, the AG researchers use individual Steps and combine all the three Steps to realize the Move. In Move 2, the majority of the researchers use Step 1b to realize the Move. The AG researchers, just like the ELS researchers, do not use Steps 1c and 1d of the Move. In Moves 3 to 6, the AG researchers find interest in 101 combining various Steps under each of the Moves to realize their communicative purposes. The analysis at the level of frequency of occurrence points to a number of observations. In the first place, it has pointed out that there are variations in the way the two disciplines organize ideas in their RPs. Some of the AG researchers do not make use of obligatory Moves such as Moves 2, 3 and 5. This is difficult to explain because these Moves help readers to follow the procedures of how the research is going to be conducted. The ELS researchers also make use of Steps 6 and 7 of Move 5 which the AG researchers ignore. 5.4 Sequence of Moves in both sets of data Sequencing of Moves involves the order of Moves as they appear in a text. The following tables show the order or arrangement of the Moves as they occur in the two data sets: RPs of ELS and AG. 102 Table 7: Sequencing of Moves in ELS data Move Patterns Count T- Percentage units 10 Move Sequence (Total = 1) 1>3>5>1>3>1>3>4>5>6 1 5% 12 Move Sequence (Total = 2) 1>2>3>1>2>3>1>4>3>4>5>6 1 5% 1>2>1>2>3>1>3>1>5>1>5>6 1 5% 13 Move Sequence (Total = 1) 3>1>2>3>5>3>1>4>3>1>3>5>6 1 5% 14 Move Sequence (Total = 2) 1>2>3>5>3>4>3>4>1>5>3>6>1>6 1 5% 1>2>1>3>1>3>1>2>3>5>4>3>5>6 1 5% 15 Move Sequence (Total = 1) 1>5>1>2>3>1>3>1>2>3>4>3>4>5>6 1 5% 16 Move Sequence (Total = 2) 1>3>1>3>1>3>1>2>3>5>1>4>3>4>5>6 1 5% 1>2>3>5>1>4>1>2>1>2>1>3>5>3>5>6 1 5% 17 Move Sequence (Total = 4) 1 5% 1>3>5>1>3>1>4>3>1>5>1>3>5>1>3>5>6 1 5% 1>2>1>2>1>2>1>2>3>1>2>1>2>5>4>3>6 1 5% 1>2>1>2>3>5>1>2>1>2>1>2>3>4>3>5>6 1 5% 1>3>1>3>1>2>1>2>1>3>4>3>1>2>3>5>6 18 Move Sequence (Total = 1) 1>3>1>2>1>3>1>3>1>3>1>3>4>1>4>3>5>6 1 5% 19 Move Sequence (Total = 1) 1 5% 1>2>1>3>5>4>3>4>3>4>3>1>3>5>1>3>1>5>6 26 Move Sequence (Total = 1) 1>2>3>1>3>1>2>3>1>3>1>2>3>1>3>1>5>1>3>4>1>4>1 1 5% >4>5>6 27 Move Sequence Co n t i(nTuoatatli o=n 1 )o f Table 7 1>3>1>2>3>1>3>5>3>4>3>4>1>3>1>3>1>3>1>3>1>5>3 >3>5>4>5>4>3>6 1 5% 29 Move Sequence (Total = 1) 1>2>3>1>3>1>3>5>4>3>4>2>3>4>1>2>1>2>1>2>1>2>1 >2>1>4>1>2>1>5>6 1 5% 40 Move Sequence (Total = 1) 1>2>1>2>1>3>5>3>4>3>4>1>3>1>3>1>3>1>3>1 >3>1>3>1>2>3>1>3>1>3>1>3>1>3>5>1>3>6>3>6 1 5% 103 From the table above, it can be observed that the sequence of the Moves as they occur in the ELS data is lengthier than the AG in Table 8. The ordering of the Moves ranges from a 10-move sequence to a 40-move sequence. A noticeable finding is that each of 20 ELS RPs has a different style of arrangement. For instance, in the 10-move sequence, it can be observed that such a pattern is found in 1 (5%) of the RPs. In the 12-move sequence, it is found that even though 2 (10%) of the ELS researchers select the same number of sequence, the ordering of the Moves is different in each case. It can equally be observed that because the number of Moves in each data is numerous their repetitive patterning is high. The 13-move pattern is found in 1 (5%) ELS RP. It is the only pattern which begins with Move 3. Indeed, 19 (95%) of the ELS RPs begin with Move 1. Moves 1, 3 and 5 are repetitive in the 13-move pattern. A close observation shows that 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 are repetitive in each of the patterns but Move 6 has always maintained its position in all the data. Indeed, such a wide variation in the selection of Moves attracts attention. Moves 1, 2 & 3 tend to be more cyclical than any of the Moves although Moves 4 & 5 are also found recurring in 9 (45%) of the ELS data. Another observation that is made is that the recurring pattern of Moves is common to both ELS and AG data. Crookes (1986) and Renu et al (2013) make such an observation in research article introductions (RAIs). RAIs are written by expert writers yet the cyclical pattern of the Moves and Steps are found regardless of the discipline under study. Bin (2006) also identifies the cyclical nature of some of the Moves and Steps in his data. He finds that Moves 1, 2 & 3 are more cyclical than 4, 5 & 6. The present study has also made such an observation. The difference between the current study and Bin’s study is that the degree of recurrence is higher in this study than in Bin’s study. 104 In Swales’ (2004) modified version of the CARS model, it was found that the Moves are chronologically presented, thus, Move 1 is followed by Move 2 and Move 3 comes after Move 2. Again, studies on generic structure of grant proposals although show slight variations in the sequencing of the Moves Connor and Mauranen (1990), Connor (2000) and Feng and Shi (2004), the wide variations in the case of the current study, calls for a critical attention. A plausible interpretation of such variations in the sequencing of the Moves might be due to anxiety on the part of the ELS researchers. This is because in their attempt to convince their examiners, the ELS researchers are carried away by that desire to restate Steps that have already been stated. The RA authors on the other hand, are members of the academic community and are most familiar with the norms and practices of the community they belong to (Swales, 2004) and thus, this knowledge the RA researchers have, might have accounted for the low occurrence of Move cycles in their RPs. Again, move cycles may be due to discipline proclivity. Every discipline has its norms and conventions. It might be due to a practice that pertains in the discipline and for which matter, such a practice keeps recurring. A typical example is found in two of the AG RPs, written in different years, yet, they have the same information under the section, significance of study. This may confirm that the AG researchers are maintaining a status quo in their discipline. 105 Table 8: Sequencing of Moves in AG data Move Patterns Count T-units Percentage 3 Move Sequence (Total = 2) 5 > 1 > 3 1 5% 1 >5 > 6 1 5% 4 Move Sequence (Total = 6) 1 > 3 > 5 > 6 6 30% 5 Move Sequence (Total = 2) 1 > 2 > 1 > 3 > 6 1 5% 1 > 2 > 1 > 3 > 5 1 5% 6 Move Sequence (Total = 3) 1 > 2 > 1 > 3 > 5 > 6 2 10% 1 > 2 >1 > 3 > 5 > 3 1 5% 7 Move Sequence (Total = 3) 1 > 2 > 1 > 3 > 5 > 3 > 6 1 5% 1 > 2 > 3 > 1 > 3 > 5 > 6 1 5% 1 > 2 >1 > 3 > 5 > 3 > 6 1 5% 8 Move Sequence (Total = 2) 1 > 3 > 1 > 3 > 5 > 3 > 5 > 6 1 5% 1 > 3 > 1 > 2 > 1 > 3 > 5 > 6 1 5% 9 Move Sequence (Total = 1) 1 > 2 > 1 > 3 > 5 > 1 > 3 > 5 > 6 1 5% 12 Move Sequence (Total = 1) 1 > 2 > 1 > 2 > 3 > 1 > 5 > 3 > 5 > 1 > 5 > 6 1 5% The above table indicates that the ordering of the Moves as they appear in the data ranges from a 3-move sequence to a 12-move sequence. The range of variation is wide as can be found in the table above. It can also be found that out of a total of 20 AG RPs, the preferred move pattern is the 4-move sequence. This is because 6 (30%) of the RPs have the same pattern. 3 (15%) of the RPs have a 6-move sequence but as 106 indicated in the Table, only 2 out of the 3 use the same pattern. 12 (60%) of the RPs demonstrate a different move sequence from the other. This indicates that AG researchers have varied ways of developing their RPs. It can be observed that five RPs used by the AG researchers are not chronologically arranged. Hence, the sequence, 1, 2, 3, 5 and 6 is absent in the AG data. Another observation that is made is that, the higher the number of Moves, the more repetitive the sequencing. For instance, in the 3-move and 4-move sequences, there are no move cycles, since the number of Moves in each sequence is low. In the rest of the move patterns however, from 5-move sequence to 12-move sequence, Moves 1, 2, 3 and 5 are repetitive because the number of Moves in each sequence is high. Move 4 is not found in the AG data; hence, it is impossible to talk about how it would have been sequenced in this data. 5.5 Textual space of Moves in both sets of data Textual space is the amount of space given or occupied by a Move or the length of a Move in a text. The frequency of occurrence and the textual space allocated to a Move determine their relative importance (Afful, 2005). The textual space allocated to each Move is assigned interpretive value. The unit chosen for calculating the textual space is the T-unit. The T-unit, according to Hunt (1965: 189), is the “shortest grammatically allowable sentences into which (writing can be split) or minimally terminable unit.” The grammatical units could be words, phrases, clauses, sentences or paragraphs. In the current study, the preferred T-unit is the sentence. Indeed, the choice of the grammatical unit in terms of textual space depends on the genre analyst and what s/he hopes to achieve. Hence, in this study, the sentence is selected as a unit of 107 measurement since the sentence is the highest grammatical unit and therefore, expresses most of the forms of meaning that other grammatical units will perform. Additionally, a Move can be identified at the level of a sentence, hence, the choice of it as a variable for analyzing the data. Table 9 presents a summary of the textual space assigned to each Move in the ELS data. Table 9: Textual space allocated to the Moves in ELS data Moves No. of Percentage T-units Move 1 (establishing a territory) 1,699 39.78% Move 2 (establishing a niche) 126 2.95% Move 3 (occupying the niche) 435 10.18% Move 4 (establishing theoretical basis) 927 21.70% Move 5 (spelling out a methodology) 1,003 23.48% Move 6 (indicating closure) 80 1.87% Total 4,270 100 In the table above, six Moves are identified in the ELS data. Textual space allocated to Move 1 is 39.78% which is higher than any of the spaces occupied by each of the Moves. Move 5 occupies the second highest position with 23.48% textual space. Move 4, is placed third with a percentage score of 21. 70. Move 6 occupies the least textual space with 1.87%. A look at the spaces occupied by the AG data will be helpful in our interpretation. 108 Table 10: Textual space allocated to the Moves in AG data Moves No. of T- Percentage units Move 1 (establishing a territory) 336 50.60% Move 2 (establishing a niche) 20 3.01% Move 3 (occupying the niche) 107 16.11% Move 5 (spelling out a methodology) 190 28.61% Move 6 (indicating closure) 11 1.65% Total 664 100% The above table indicates that AG researchers assign more textual space to Move1 which occupies 50.60% of the textual space. Move 5 with 28.61% occupies the second largest textual space in the AG data. Move 3 occupies a third higher allocation with 16.11% textual space. Move 4 is not assigned any space since it is absent in the AG data. Move 6 is assigned the least textual space in AG data. It can be observed that Move 1 occupies more textual space than any of the Moves in the two sets of data. This is so because the researchers, hope to provide detailed explanation in order to convince their audiences and supervisors beyond reasonable doubts that they (the researchers) have a deeper knowledge in their areas of studies and are familiar with the current state-of-the-art knowledge that pertains in their fields of studies, hence, it will not be surprising if they allocate more textual space to Move 1. Move 5 in each data is assigned the second largest textual space in that the researchers need to systematically spell out how they are going to undertake their 109 studies to help future researchers who may be interested in replicating such studies. Thus, the choice of more textual space is in order. It is equally not too surprising that Move 6 occupies the least textual space in both sets of data since the researchers do not necessarily need too much textual space, hence, it is found normal that the two disciplines allocate least textual space to the Move. It is also observed that despite the cyclical nature of Moves 2 and 3, none of them occupies the highest textual space. 5.6 Chapter summary The chapter has analyzed and discussed an aspect of the data collected. The chapter sought to identify the schematic structure of the RPs in two disciplines: English Language Studies and Agricultural Science. The schematic structure of the RPs is analyzed from three perspectives. These are the frequency of Moves/Steps that typify the overall structure of the RP, the sequence of Moves/Steps as found in the two sets of data and textual space allocated to each of the Moves. Each of them is analyzed with excerpts cited from the data as evidence to support findings made in the study. The next chapter considers the second part of the analysis which is interested in linguistic realization of the Moves and the similarities and differences found in the two sets of data. 110 CHAPTER SIX: ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION 2 6.1 Introduction This analysis focuses on the linguistic realization of the Moves. In other words, the analysis done here is to help provide answers to Research Questions Two (2) and Three (3). In terms of linguistic realization of the Moves, the structural types of sentences and their related internal clause types are examined. According to Quirk et al (1985), sentences are classified based on two factors: the formal properties of a sentence and the structural properties of their internal constituents. In terms of the formal properties, they group sentences into four types: the declarative, interrogative, imperative and exclamative. In terms of structural types, they mention the simple and non-simple. The non-simple is made of three types: compound, complex and compound–complex sentence. This study specifically considers the structural properties and not the formal of a sentence. The choice to analyze the clause and its various internal structures is based on one of the concepts in Halliday’s (1985) Systemic Functional Grammar (SFG). This concept states that language is a social semiotic that is, we can learn about how language works only if we consider the way it is used in particular contexts. Hence, in this study, it is believed that using language involves making choices from linguistic possibilities in line with the specific task at hand. Every text unfolds in some context of use; furthermore, it is the uses of language that … have shaped the system. Language has evolved: and the way it is organized is functional with respect to these needs (Halliday, 1985: xiii). This statement means that language choices are made deliberately to reflect the purposes for which communication is taking place. Thus, the grammatical patterns identified in this study have been purposive. It is this concept that is applied in the current study. 111 6.2 Distribution of structural types of sentences Table 11: Structural types of sentences in all the Moves Types No of Sentences % No of Sentences % in ELS in AG Simple 1,399 32.76 236 35.54 Complex 2,498 58.50 345 51.95 Compound 156 3.65 49 7.37 Compound 217 5.08 34 5.12 complex TOTAL 4,270 100 664 100 From the above table, it is evident that both researchers most frequently use the complex sentence in realizing the Moves. In the case of ELS researchers, a total of 4,270 sentences are used in the overall data. 2, 498 (58.50%) out of the 4,270 are complex sentences. The simple 1,399 (32.76%) is considered next after the complex sentence. In the case of the AG researchers, a total of 664 sentences are used in all the Moves but the complex sentence 345 (51.95%) is the most preferred choice. This is also followed by the simple sentence 236 (35.54%). By implication, both groups of researchers significantly use the two structural types of sentences: the complex and the simple. The other types receive relatively little attention even though the compound complex receives far more attention than the compound sentence. The following tables consider the various structural types used in instantiating each of the Moves. 112 Table 12: Structural types of sentences – Move 1 Types No of Sentences % No of Sentences % in ELS in AG Simple 527 39.02 109 32.44 Complex 993 58.45 178 52.97 Compound 65 3.83 26 7.73 Compound 114 6.71 23 6.84 complex TOTAL 1,699 100 336 100 It can be observed from the table above that out of 1, 699 sentences used by the ELS researchers in realizing the Move, 993 (58.45%) are complex sentences. The ELS researchers select the complex sentence as the dominant linguistic structure. In the case of the AG researchers, it can be found that out of 336 sentences used in Move 1, the complex sentence 178 (52. 97%) is the most preferred choice. It can be said that both ELS and AG researchers prefer to use the complex sentence in realizing Move 1. The simple sentence is the next choice they make after the complex sentence. In other words, the two most preferred structural types in Move 1 are the complex and the simple type in both the ELS and AG data. Table 13: Structural types of sentences – Move 2 Types No of Sentences % No of Sentences % in ELS in AG Simple 19 15.08 6 30 Complex 99 78.57 13 65 Compound 5 3.97 0 0 Compound 3 2.38 1 5 complex TOTAL 126 100 20 100 113 The table above also shows that the complex sentence is used as the dominant structure by the ELS researchers as 99 (78.57%) of the sentences are complex. In the case of the AG data, the complex sentence 13 (65%) is the most preferred choice made by the researchers. Table 14: Structural types of sentences – Move 3 Types No of Sentences % No of Sentences % in ELS in AG Simple 139 31.95 17 15.88 Complex 267 61.38 82 76.63 Compound 16 3.68 6 5.60 Compound 13 2.99 2 1.86 complex TOTAL 435 100 107 100 The above table also indicates that the complex sentence is predominantly used by both researchers in realizing Move 3. In the ELS data, out of 435 sentences used in the Move, a total of 267 (61.38%) of the sentences are complex. In the case of the AG data, out of the 107 sentences used in realizing Move 3, 82 (76.63%) are complex. As noted in the previous Moves, the structure that is next preferred is the simple sentence. Table 15: Structural types of sentences - Move 4 Types No of Sentences % No of Sentences % in ELS in AG Simple 299 32.25 - - Complex 533 57.50 - - Compound 44 4.75 - - Compound 51 5.50 - - complex TOTAL 927 100 - - 114 The above table also indicates that the complex sentence with a total of 533 (57.50%) is most frequently used in achieving the communicative purpose of this Move. The next choice after the complex sentence is the simple. The AG researchers do not make use of Move 4, so this information is restricted to ELS researchers. Table 16: Structural types of sentences – Move 5 Types No of Sentences % No of Sentences % in ELS in AG Simple 371 36.99 100 52.63 Complex 574 57.23 69 36.31 Compound 23 2.29 15 7.89 Compound 35 3.49 6 3.15 complex TOTAL 1,003 100 190 100 From the table above, the complex sentence is still the most preferred choice by the ELS researchers to realize their communicative purposes. A total of 574 (57.23%) is made of complex sentence and the simple sentence 371 (36.99%) is the next preferred choice. In the case of the AG researchers, the most preferred choice to realize Move 5 is the simple because out of 190 sentences used, 100 (52.63%) are simple sentences. The next choice the AG researchers make is the complex sentence 69 (36.31%). This trend indicates that the researchers have alternative choices in achieving their communicative purposes. This is because if the ELS researchers use the complex and the simple sentences to realize Move 5 and the AG researchers on the contrarily, use the simple and the complex sentences to realize the same Move; it therefore, implies that both researchers have alternative choices. 115 Table 17: Structural types of sentences – Move 6 Types No of Sentences % No of Sentences % in ELS in AG Simple 44 55 4 36.36 Complex 32 40 3 27.27 Compound 3 3.75 2 18.18 Compound 1 1.25 2 18.18 complex TOTAL 80 100 11 100 The table above shows that both researchers use the simple sentence as the most preferred choice and follow it with the complex sentence. The turn from the complex to the simple sentence confirms that both the ELS and AG researchers as noted above, have alternative choices. The dominant use of the complex sentence is significant in the study. By implication, the choice of the complex sentence according to Wiredu (2012), allows for the pile of information. This means that the complex sentence enables the RP researchers in both disciplines to add more information than the simple sentence will allow. The complex sentence also allows for information ranking. This simply means that ideas in the information are arranged in such a way that while some ideas are found to be most important others support the main idea. Indeed, the analysis has indicated that the communicative purpose has not got influence on the choice of the structural types of sentences. This is because each of the Moves has a different communicative purpose yet the choices the RP researchers in both disciplines make are between the complex and the simple. In Moves 1, 2, 3 and 6 for instance, it can be noticed that both groups of ELS and AG researchers most frequently select the complex sentence and follow it with the simple sentence but in Move 5, whereas the ELS researchers focus on the complex sentence the AGs’ favour 116 the use of the simple sentence. By implication, this confirms Halliday’s (1985) observation that, language users have alternative choices to communicate their intentions. Also, from the table above, the compound complex sentence is barely used in each data but then it has some of the features of the complex sentence. This means that the compound complex also has the feature of dependency. Based on that, it is considered necessary to identify sentences that have dependent clauses and those without the dependent clauses in each of the Moves. 6. 3. Distribution of dependent clauses in the Moves In this second type of analysis, attention is focused on number of sentences that have dependent clauses and those that do not have dependent clauses. The essence of this is to help determine the level of dependency in the structures used. Table 18: Distribution of dependent clauses in all the Moves 1. Sentences without dependent No of sentences % No of sentences % clauses in ELS in AG Simple 1,399 32.76 236 35.54 Compound 156 3. 65 49 7.37 Total 1,555 36.41 285 42.91 2. Sentences with dependent clauses Complex 2,498 58.50 345 51.95 Compound complex 217 5. 08 34 5.12 Total 2,715 63.58 379 57.07 OVERALL TOTAL 4,270 100 664 100 117 The table above shows that both researchers have high preference for sentences with dependent clauses in realizing different communicative purposes in all the Moves. In the ELS data, out of 4,270 sentences used in realizing all the Moves, 2,715 (63.58%) are sentences with dependent clauses. This shows that the ELS researchers most frequently use sentences with dependent clauses in achieving their communicative purposes. In the AG data, out of 664 sentences used, 379 (57.07%) are sentences with dependent clauses. By implication, the AG researchers just like the ELS’ most frequently use sentences with dependent clauses. Table 19: Distribution of dependent clauses in Move 1 1. Sentences without dependent No of % No of % clauses sentences in sentences in ELS AG Simple 527 31.01 109 32.44 Compound 65 3.82 26 7.73 Total 592 34.83 135 40.17 2. Sentences with dependent clauses Complex 993 58.44 178 52.97 Compound complex 114 6.7 23 6.84 Total 1,107 65.14 201 59.81 OVERALL TOTAL 1,699 100 336 100 Sentences with dependent clauses can be found in both the complex and the compound complex. From the table above, the ELS and AG researchers select more of sentences with dependent clauses. In the case of ELS data, the researchers select a total of 1,107 (65.14%) out of 1,699 sentences to realize Move 1. The AG researchers on the other hand, select a total of 201 (59.81%) out of 336 sentences for Move 1. By implication, both RP researchers most frequently select sentences with dependent 118 clauses to realize Move 1. The following sentences have dependent clauses used in realizing Move 1. Examples: 69. One of the earlier works cited in McKenzie (2006) was conducted by Eisenstein (1982), who investigated the attitudes of English language learners in New York, towards three varieties of US English: Standard American English, Black American English and New Yorkers (a non-standard variety of English which is spoken in inner city areas of New York). ELS4 70. Surveys have shown that over 75% of farmers in Ghana do not control the black pod disease at all while about 2-3% sprays between one and two times in a season. AG13 The sentences above have dependent clauses in each. In sentence 69, the dependent clauses are three 1) cited in McKenzie (2006), 2) who investigated the attitudes of English language learners in New York, towards three varieties of US English: Standard American English, Black American English and 3) which is spoken in inner city areas of New York. The first clause specifically modifies the noun that precedes it and the second clause also provides additional information about its antecedent while the third clause also provides additional information about its headword. Hence, it can be said that all the three clauses found in the single sentence allow the researchers to provide detail information which helps readers to get a better understanding of the sentence. In sentence 70, the dependent clause that over 75% of farmers in Ghana do not control the black pod disease at all and while about 2-3% sprays between one and two times in a season point out that all the ideas in the sentence are not of the same status. There is a main idea that is Surveys have shown. This main idea is supported with the dependent ideas. The use of such sentences helps the researchers to expand ideas in sentences. A plausible reason for selecting less of sentences without dependent clause may be that such sentences may not allow the researchers to be expressive enough. Hence, 119 in order to avoid using choppy sentences, the researchers use more of sentences with dependent clauses. Table 20: Distribution of dependent clauses in Move 2 1. Sentences without dependent No of sentences % No of sentences % clauses in ELS in AG Simple 19 15.07 6 30 Compound 5 3.96 0 0 Total 24 19.03 6 30 2. Sentences with dependent clauses Complex 99 78.57 13 65 Compound complex 3 2.38 1 5 Total 102 80.95 14 70 OVERALL TOTAL 126 100 20 100 From the table above it can be found that sentences with dependent clauses are predominantly used in Move 2 by both researchers. In the ELS data, out of 126 sentences used 102 (80.95%) are sentences with dependent clauses while those without dependent clauses are 24 (19.03%). In the AG data, out of 20 sentences, 14 (70%) are sentences with dependent clauses while 6 (30%) are sentences without dependent. It can be noted that in Move 2, both researchers have high preference for sentences with dependent clauses but low preference for sentences without dependent clauses. The following are examples of sentences with dependent clauses used in Move 2. Examples: 71. Although code-mixing has been investigated by many linguists such as Forson, Ho and Amuzu in various social contexts like communities, schools and universities, little seems to have been done in radio discourse of which the present study concerns itself. ELS18 72. There is sufficient evidence that there is not much research on socio-economic aspect of the mango industry in Ghana.AG16 120 In the examples above, the use of sentences with dependent clauses once again, allows the researchers to extend ideas in a single sentence. Table 21: Distribution of dependent clauses in Move 3 1. Sentences without No of sentences % No of sentences % dependent clauses in ELS in AG Simple 139 31.95 17 15.88 Compound 16 3.67 6 5.60 Total 155 35.62 23 21.48 2. Sentences with dependent clauses Complex 267 61.37 82 76.63 Compound complex 13 2.98 2 1.86 Total 280 64.35 84 78.49 OVERALL TOTAL 435 100 107 100 From the table above, sentences with dependent clauses are overwhelmingly used by both researchers. In the ELS data, 280 (64.35%) out of 435 are sentences with dependent clauses and in the AG data, 84 (78.49%) out of 107 sentences used in Move 3 have dependent clauses. This clearly points out that both groups of researchers use sentences with dependent clauses far more than sentences without dependent clauses. Examples: 73. It is against this background that the study focuses on the relationship between conversational style and gender; highlighting the characteristics of both female and male speech patterns in conversation among speakers of English as a second language (ESL). ELS16 74. The research is important because it will focus among other things, the various principles of the control methods of Chromolaenaodorata.AG1 In the above sentences, the dependent clauses in sentence 73 that the study focuses on the relationship between conversational style and gender; and highlighting the characteristics of both female and male speech patterns in conversation among speakers of English as a second language (ESL) allow the RP researcher to provide 121 additional information which will help readers to understand the content of the message. In the same way, the dependent clause in sentence 74 because it will focus among other things, the various principles of the control methods of Chromolaenaodorata provides an elaboration on the information in the main clause, hence, it will help readers to understand the structure. Table 22: Distribution of dependent clauses in Move 4 1. Sentences without dependent No of sentences % No of sentences % clauses in ELS in AG Simple 299 32.25 - - Compound 44 4.74 - - Total 343 36.99 - - 2. Sentences with dependent clauses Complex 533 57.49 - - Compound complex 51 5.50 - - Total 584 62.99 TOTAL 927 100 - - From the table above, sentences with dependent clauses are most frequently used in realizing Move 4. The AG researchers do not make use of Move 4 and so it will be difficult to tell the choices they would have also used. The ELS researchers use 927 sentences in the Move and 584 (62.99%) are sentences with dependent clauses. The following is an example of how an ELS researcher uses a sentence with dependent clauses in Move 4. An example: 75. To investigate elicitations and responses as communication devices in doctor- patient interaction, a theory of communication is of great value as it will inform some explanations and interpretation of the data. ELS10 In the above example two dependent clauses can be found: 1) To investigate elicitations and responses as communication devices in doctor-patient interaction, and 122 2) as it will inform some explanations and interpretation of the data. The dependent clauses help to pack two different ideas after the independent clause a theory of communication is of great value. Readers get to know that apart from the theory being significant in the study; it is going to help in the researcher’s investigation. Also, in the same sentence, the researcher states one of the benefits to be derived from the theory. Table 23: Distribution of dependent clauses in Move 5 1 Sentences without dependent No of sentences in % No of sentences % clauses ELS in AG Simple 371 36.98 100 52.63 Compound 23 2.29 15 7.89 Total 394 39.27 115 60.52 2 Sentences with dependent clauses Complex 574 57.22 69 36.31 Compound complex 35 3.48 6 3.15 Total 609 60.70 75 39.46 OVERALL TOTAL 1,003 100 190 100 From the table above, the ELS researchers have a high preference for sentences with dependent clauses because out of 1,003 used in Move 5, 609 (60.70%) are sentences with dependent clauses. In the case of the AG data, it can be noticed that unlike the ELS researchers who prefer sentences with dependent clauses, the AG researchers use more of sentences without dependent clauses 115 (60.52%). By implication, sentences with either dependent clauses or without dependent clauses can be used in achieving a communicative purpose. The researchers have alternative choices as noted in Hallidayan’s SFG where users of a language have alternative choices. An example each of sentences with dependent clauses used by the ELS researchers and without dependent clauses used by AG researchers to realize Move 5 are provided. 123 Examples: 76. To ensure an in-depth analysis and a successful work, the researcher has narrowed the research field to fifty written job advertisements on managerial positions which require a minimum of a first degree and secretarial positions in the Daily Graphic.ELS3 77. The research will be carried out in the University of Cape Coast teaching and research farm and possibly Asuansi Agriculture Research station. AG12 In example 76, there are two dependent clauses: 1) To ensure an in-depth analysis and a successful work, and 2) which require a minimum of a first degree and secretarial positions in the Daily Graphic but in sentence 77, there is no dependent clause. This is a simple sentence and in the AG data, such types of sentences are used to realize Move 5. Table 24: Distribution of dependent clauses in Move 6 1. Sentences without No of sentences in % No of sentences % dependent clauses ELS in AG Simple 44 55 4 36.36 Compound 3 3.75 2 18.18 Total 47 58.75 6 54.54 2. Sentences with dependent clauses Complex 32 40 3 27.27 Compound complex 1 1.25 2 18.18 Total 33 41.25 5 45.45 OVERALL TOTAL 80 100 11 100 . From the above table, both ELS and AG researchers predominantly use sentences without dependent clauses in Move 6. The use of sentences without dependent clauses in both ELS 47 (58.75%) and AG 6 (54.54%) is higher than those with dependent clauses. Examples: 78. The study will be presented in five chapters. ELS7 79. The work will be organized into five chapters.AG6 124 The analysis done here has shown that the ELS and AG researchers have high preference for the use of sentences with dependent clauses in realizing different communicative purposes expressed in each Move. This confirms that the dependent clause is significant for both groups of researchers because it allows them to rank information in such a way that the most important ones can be found in the independent clause while the supporting ideas are also found in the dependent clauses. Apart from ranking information, the dependent clause allows the RP researchers to pack more information in a single sentence. This, in a way, allows the two groups of researchers to be more expressive than using sentences without dependent clauses. Again, the analysis has shown that even though the communicative purpose of each Move is different, the researchers in the two disciplines mostly use sentences with dependent clauses. It is only in Move 5 that the AG researchers favour sentences without dependent clauses. Also, in the case of Move 6, both researchers prefer sentences without dependent clauses to realize the Move. This means that both types of clauses are capable of helping the two groups of researchers in achieving a communicative purpose of a Move. 6.4 Distribution of number of dependent clauses per sentence The analysis has shown that there are varying numbers of dependent clauses that range from one to six dependent clauses within a single sentence selected by both groups of researchers. This could be an indication of the significance the two groups of researchers attach to the dependent clause. The dependent clauses allow them to provide the necessary information that will help in realizing their communicative purposes. 125 Table 25: Number of dependent clauses per sentence in all the Moves Types No of % Total No. of % Total sentences no. of sentences no. of in ELS clauses in AG clauses Sentences with 1 1,421 52.33 1,421 238 62.30 238 Dependent clause Sentences with 2 922 33.95 1,844 96 25.13 192 Dependent clauses Sentences with 3 287 10.57 861 44 11.51 132 Dependent clauses Sentences with 4 71 2.61 284 3 0.78 12 Dependent clauses Sentences with 5 11 0.40 55 1 0.26 5 Dependent clauses Sentences with 6 3 0.11 18 0 0 0 Dependent clauses TOTAL 2,715 100 4,483 382 100 579 From the table above, it is obvious that the ELS researchers have a high preference for sentences with one dependent clause in realizing different communicative purposes. Out of 2,715 sentences with dependent clauses used in realizing the Moves, 1,421 (52.33%) have one dependent clause and 922 (33.95%) have two dependent clauses. Sentences with six dependent clauses are barely used by the ELS researchers since only 3 (0.11%) are used in the entire ELS data. Sentences with one dependent clause are overwhelmingly used by the AG researchers as well because out of 382 sentences used, 238 (62.30%) have one dependent clause. The AG researchers just like the ELS select sentences with two dependent clauses as their next choice. Sentences with six dependent clauses are not used by the AG researchers. 126 Table 26: Number of dependent clauses per sentence in Move 1 Types No of % Total No. of % Total sentences no. of sentences no. of in ELS clauses in AG clauses Sentences with 1 Dependent clause 532 48.05 532 139 69.15 139 Sentences with 2 Dependent 417 37.66 834 34 16.91 68 clauses Sentences with 3 Dependent 119 10.79 357 24 11.94 72 clauses Sentences with 4 Dependent 33 2.98 132 3 1.49 12 clauses Sentences with 5 Dependent 3 0.27 15 1 0.49 5 clauses Sentences with 6 3 0.27 18 - - - Dependent clauses TOTAL 1,107 100 1,888 201 100 296 From the table above, both ELS and AG researchers most frequently use sentences with one dependent clause in realizing Move 1. This is because out of 1,107 sentences used by the ELS researchers, 532 (48.05%) have sentences with one dependent clause. The AG researchers also use 201 sentences and 139 (69.15%) have one dependent clause. Sentences with two dependent clauses are used next in both sets of data. A careful observation of the choices here indicates that both researchers do not have preference for sentences with more than three dependent clauses. By implication, it can be observed that their choices are in order because if the dependent clauses are more than three, there may be meaning related problems or sentence faults such as faulty parallelism, misplaced and dangling modifiers (Sekyi-Baidoo, 2001). Also, granted that the communicative purpose of Move 1 is for the RP researchers to persuade their assessors to accept their proposals as viable, it will be unsurprising if they (the RP 127 researchers) select sentences with one dependent clause as found in the following examples. Examples: 80. Research across the globe has shown that text messages are used by almost everybody: children, the youth and the aged. ELS12 81. The mango (mangifera species) is a perennial crop that may live about fifty years. AG16 The sentences above have one dependent clause each and such are simple and brief to understand. In sentence 80 for example, the dependent clause that text messages are used by almost everybody: children, the youth and the aged depends on the independent clause Research across the globe has shown. This makes the entire sentence easy to understand. There are no sentence faults in such a sentence. The researchers use a maximum of sentences with two dependent clauses as found in the following examples. Examples: 82. In addition, Harding and Wood (2013) posits that the social groups within which we are located powerfully shape how we understand and communicate with ourselves. ELS16 83. Surveys have shown that over 75% of farmers in Ghana do not control the black pod disease at all while about 2-3% sprays between one and two times in a season. AG13 In the above sentences, it can be noticed that each has two dependent clauses. In sentence 82, the dependent clauses are 1) that the social groups within which we are located and 2) how we understand and communicate with ourselves. The limited number of dependent clauses used by the researchers makes the sentences not to be clumsy thereby, enhancing meaning for both assessors and other readers. 128 Table 27: Number of dependent clauses per sentence in Move 2 Types No of % Total No. of % Total sentences no. of sentences no. of in ELS clauses in AG clauses Sentences with 1 65 63.72 65 8 57.14 8 Dependent clause Sentences with 2 21 20.58 42 6 42.85 12 Dependent clauses Sentences with 3 14 13.72 42 0 0 0 Dependent clauses Sentences with 4 2 1.96 8 0 0 0 Dependent clauses Sentences with 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 Dependent clauses Sentences with 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 Dependent clauses TOTAL 102 100 157 14 100 20 From the table above, it can be noticed that the choice of sentences with one dependent clause is most frequently used by both researchers in realizing their communicative purposes. In the ELS data, out of 102 dependent clauses used in realizing the Move, 65 (63.72%) are sentences with one dependent clause. In the case of AG data, out of the 14 sentences used, 8 (57.14%) are sentences with one dependent clause. This means that both groups of researchers still have a high preference for sentences with one and two dependent clauses. In realizing this Move, the ELS and AG researchers do not use sentences with five and six dependent clauses. 129 Table 28: Number of dependent clauses per sentence in Move 3 Types No of % Total No. of % Total sentences no. of sentences no. of in ELS clauses in AG clauses Sentences with 1 137 48.92 137 30 34.48 30 Dependent clause Sentences with 2 86 30.71 172 38 43.67 76 Dependent clauses Sentences with 3 42 15 126 19 21.83 57 Dependent clauses Sentences with 4 13 4.64 52 0 0 0 Dependent clauses Sentences with 5 2 0.71 10 0 0 0 Dependent clauses Sentences with 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 Dependent clauses TOTAL 280 100 497 87 100 163 From the table above, it can be found that out of 280 dependent clauses used by the ELS researchers in realizing the Move, 137 (48.92%) have one dependent clause only. This means that preference of the researchers for sentences with one dependent clause is still higher than the other sentences with more than three dependent clauses. Sentences with two dependent clauses are the next preferred choice of the researchers. The AG researchers on the other hand, select more of sentences with two dependent clauses 38(43.67%) as their most preferred choice in realizing the Move. By implication, language choices of the researchers may sometimes differ across disciplines. This is evident in that every discipline has a way of organizing information hence, whilst the study is based on two different disciplines, it is obvious that a discipline like Agricultural Science will not organize information in the same way as the English Language Studies discipline will do. There may be differences more 130 especially, when the discipline English Language Studies belongs to Soft Science and Agricultural Science is part of Hard Science Mac-Donald (1994) in Bercher (1989). Table 29: Number of dependent clause per sentence in Move 4 Types No of % Total No. of % Total sentences no. of sentences no. of in ELS clauses in AG clauses Sentences with 1 - - - Dependent clause 327 55.99 327 Sentences with 2 Dependent clauses 172 29.45 344 - - - Sentences with 3 Dependent clauses 64 10.95 192 - - - Sentences with 4 Dependent clauses 16 2.73 64 - - - Sentences with 5 Dependent clauses 5 0.85 25 - - - Sentences with 6 Dependent clauses 0 0 0 - - - TOTAL 584 100 952 - - - From the table above the ELS researchers use more of sentences with one dependent clause regardless of the communicative purpose. In realizing Move 4, the ELS researchers select 327 (55.99%) of sentences with one dependent clauses. Sentences with two dependent clauses are used next to those with one dependent clause. 131 Table 30: Number of dependent clauses per sentence in Move 5 Types No of % Total No. of % Total sentences no. of sentences no. of in ELS clauses in AG clauses Sentences with 1 337 55.33 337 58 77.33 58 Dependent clause Sentences with 2 218 35.79 436 16 21.33 32 Dependent clauses Sentences with 3 47 7.71 141 1 1.33 3 Dependent clauses Sentences with 4 6 0.98 24 0 0 0 Dependent clauses Sentences with 5 1 0.16 5 0 0 0 Dependent clauses Sentences with 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 Dependent clauses TOTAL 609 100 943 75 100 93 The table above also attests that both groups of researchers use sentences with one dependent clause far more frequently than sentences with three or more dependent clauses. It can be found that out of 609 dependent clauses that are used by the ELS researchers in realizing Move 5, 337 (55.33%) are sentences with one dependent clause and these are followed by sentences with two dependent clauses. In the AG data, 58 (77.33%) of the sentences have one dependent clause. Sentences with two dependent clauses 16 (21.33%) are the next used by the AG researchers. 132 Table 31: Number of dependent clauses per sentence in Move 6 Types No of % Total No. of % Total sentences no. of sentences no. of in ELS clauses in AG clauses Sentences with 1 Dependent clause 23 69.69 23 3 60 3 Sentences with 2 Dependent clauses 8 24.24 16 2 40 4 Sentences with 3 Dependent clauses 1 3.03 3 0 0 0 Sentences with 4 Dependent clauses 1 3.03 4 0 0 0 Sentences with 5 Dependent clauses 0 0 0 0 0 0 Sentences with 6 Dependent clauses 0 0 0 0 0 0 TOTAL 33 100 46 5 100 7 Sentences with one dependent clause are also selected by both groups of researchers as their most preferred choice. 23 (69.69%) of the dependent clauses in the ELS data have one dependent clause. In the AG data, 3 (60%) have one dependent clause. The researchers select sentences with two dependent clauses as their next preference. So far the analysis has shown that the researchers select a maximum of three dependent clauses in a sentence. In each of the Moves, the choice is between sentences with one and two dependent clauses even though they sometimes use sentences with three or four dependent clauses. The researchers seem not to rely on sentences with more than three dependent clauses. This approach is in order as sentences with more than four may have meaning related problems. If the language used by the researchers has meaning related problems, their proposals may be rejected. Therefore, it is a welcome addition that the researchers know the rubrics of the language and apply them in their RPs. 133 6.5 Types of dependent clauses In the analysis above, it has been found that the dependent clauses selected by both researchers are not of the same types. There are different types as found in the data. Six types of dependent clauses: relative, subordinative, interrogative, that-nominal and non-finite clauses (infinitival and participial) are found used in varying percentages by the researchers. The various types found in realizing the total Moves and the types selected for each of the Moves are discussed below. Table 32: Types of dependent clauses in all the Moves - ELS Types No. in ELS % Relative 978 21.81 Infinitival 697 15.54 Interrogative 325 7.24 Participial 900 20.07 Subordinative 844 18.82 That-nominal 739 16.48 TOTAL 4,483 100 From the table above, the ELS researchers overwhelmingly use the relative clause in realizing all the six Moves. Out of 4,483 clauses used, 978 (21.81%) are relative. The use of the relative clause allows the ELS researchers to be as precise as possible. The relative clause as found used in the data delimits or specifies which H (headword) in the NG (nominal group) the researchers are referring to. It also helps the researchers to avoid ambiguity because the writers use it to specify a particular item in a sentence that needs elaboration. Hence, it is used to expand on a specific idea in a sentence. The ELS researchers select the participial clause 900 (20.07%) next to the relative. The participial clause also helps the researchers to expand ideas in a single 134 sentence. The third clause type used by the ELS researchers is the subordinative 844 (18.82%), while the fourth is the that-nominal 739 (16.48%). The interrogative clause 325 (7.24%) is the least choice of the ELS researchers. It can be deduced from the table above that five out of the six clauses are significant in the choices made by the ELS researchers. These are the relative, participial, subordinative, that-nominal and infinitival clauses. A total of 4,158 (92.72%) constitute the five types of dependent clauses found in realizing the Moves. These clauses are selected by the researchers based on the significant contributions they make to meaning making of the researchers’ message. The study observed that the interrogative clause does not receive much attention from the two different groups of researchers. The reason may not be far-fetched because in RP writing, a writer focuses more on giving out information to his audience rather than demanding information from the readers. The interrogative clause does not receive much attention from the ELS researchers because its usage does not allow the researchers to provide detailed information as in the case of the other types stated above. The sentences below are a few examples of interrogative clauses found in the data. Examples: 84. The study seeks to ascertain what kinds of attitudes heads of junior high schools show towards language variation in Ghana particularly with regards to British, American and Ghanaian English.ELS4 85. Finally, the study investigates what discourse functions text messages perform on two Ghanaian local radio networks. ELS12 In the examples above, it can be noticed that it is not easy for readers to envision the content of the underlined interrogative clauses as in the case of a relative clause for instance which will state specifically an item in a sentence that it is providing additional information about. 135 Table 33: Types of dependent clauses in all the Moves - AG Types No. in AG % Relative 136 23.48 Infinitival 148 25.56 Interrogative 20 3.45 Participial 143 24.69 Subordinative 90 15.54 That-nominal 42 7.25 TOTAL 579 100 In the case of AG researchers, the type of clause that is most frequently used in realizing all the Moves is the infinitival. This is because out of 579 clauses used in the full data, 148 (25.56%) are infinitival. The next choice is the participial 143 (24.69%) clause. Hence, for the AG researchers, the non-finite clauses (infinitival and participial) are preferred to the other types of clauses while the ELS researchers have preference for the relative 978 (21.81%) and participial clauses 900 (20.07%). A reason that can be assigned to the different choices made might be that, the researchers have alternative choices. It might also be due to the differences in ways that disciplines organize and report information. It can be deduced that while the ELS researchers produce their RPs with relative and participial clauses, the AG s’ use the infinitival and participial. Both groups of researchers barely use the interrogative clause in realizing the Moves. This means that apart from the interrogative clause which does not allow them to be as informative as possible, the other clause types have the tendency of allowing them to be expressive hence, the differences in the choices made. 136 Table 34: Types of dependent clauses in Move 1- ELS Types No. in ELS % Relative 359 19.01 Infinitival 255 13.50 Interrogative 121 6.40 Participial 432 22.88 Subordinative 315 16.68 That-nominal 406 21.50 TOTAL 1,888 100 From the table above, it can be found that the most frequently occurring clause type used by the ELS researchers in realizing this Move is the participial (22.88%) and the that-clause (21.50%). The relative clause 359 (19.01%) and infinitival, 255 (13.50%) are also used at an appreciative level but the interrogative clause is barely used. Table 35: Types of dependent clauses in Move 1 - AG Types No. in AG % Relative 85 28.71 Infinitival 75 25.33 Interrogative 1 0.33 Participial 64 21.62 Subordinative 48 16.21 That-nominal 23 7.77 TOTAL 296 100 In the AG data, the researchers have high preference for the use of relative clause 85 (28.71%). The next choice they make after the relative clause is the infinitival clause 75 (25.33%). This finding shows that both researchers use different types of clauses in realizing a Move which has the same communicative purpose. Whereas the ELS researchers select the pattern: Participial + the that-nominal + Relative + Subordinative + Infinitival + Interrogative, the AG researchers choose the pattern: Relative + Infinitival + Participial+ Subordinative + the that-nominal + Interrogative. 137 This clearly depicts that each of the researchers has different choices in realizing Move 1. The participial clause which is used far more frequently in the ELS data allows the researchers to expand ideas in a single sentence. The choice of the relative clause by the AG researchers in achieving Move 1 is also significant as its usage allows them to provide additional information about the noun head that it modifies. Thus, it may not be surprising to point out that the choice made by both groups of researchers is in order because the participial clause and the relative clause at some point in time, perform similar functions. This means that the participial clause and the relative clause allow the researchers to provide more information in a single sentence. According to Beaman (1984) in Wiredu (2012) the relative clause is usually used for purposes of identification and to provide additional information about the noun it modifies technically known as the antecedent. Also, the communicative purpose of Move 1 is in a way, influencing the choices made by both groups of researchers. Here, the researchers need to convince their supervisors about the viability of their research. This means that the researchers need to provide adequate information to do that. It is through the use of the participial and relative clauses that will allow them achieve their communicative purposes. The differences found in the choices made may be attributed to the disciplines involved. Every discipline has a way of packaging information (Bruce, 2010) hence, it may account for the differences in the choices made. 138 Table 36: Types of dependent clauses in Move 2- ELS Types No. in ELS % Relative 30 19.10 Infinitival 16 10.19 Interrogative 8 5.09 Participial 37 23.56 Subordinative 38 24.20 That-nominal 28 17.83 TOTAL 157 100 The ELS researchers have preference for the subordinative clause 38 (24.20%). This is followed by the participial clause 37 (23.56%). As can be noted above, there is a slight difference between the two clauses selected. It can be deduced that since the communicative purpose is different from Move 1, it will not be too surprising to find different types of clauses used for Move 2. Table 37: Types of dependent clauses in Move 2- AG Types No. in AG % Relative 3 15 Infinitival 3 15 Interrogative 2 10 Participial 4 20 Subordinative 8 40 That-nominal 0 0 TOTAL 20 100 From the table above, the AG researchers just like the ELS researchers prefer the subordinative clause 8 (40%) and the participial clause 4 (20%) in realizing Move 2. This means that both groups of researchers use the same clause types in realizing Move 2. Apart from subordinative and participial clauses that are used far more frequently in Move 2, the that-nominal clause is not used by the AG researchers but it is used by the ELS researchers. The difference in the subsequent choice of the researchers might emanate from alternative choices language users have. 139 Table 38: Types of dependent clauses in Move 3- ELS Types No. in ELS % Relative 122 24.54 Infinitival 131 26.35 Interrogative 60 12.07 Participial 82 16.49 Subordinative 77 15.49 That-nominal 25 5.03 TOTAL 497 100 The ELS researchers have preference for the use of infinitival clause. From the table above, out of the 497 clauses used a total of 131(26.35%) are infinitival and their next preference is the relative clause 122 (24.54%). The clause which does not receive much attention is the that-nominal 25 (5.03%). Table 39: Types of dependent clauses in Move 3- AG Types No. in AG % Relative 25 15.33 Infinitival 43 26.38 Interrogative 17 10.42 Participial 38 23.31 Subordinative 21 12.88 That-nominal 19 11.65 TOTAL 163 100 From the table above, the AG researchers just like the ELS researchers have preference for the use of the infinitival clause 43 (26.38%). The next choice the AG researchers make after the infinitival is the participial 38 (23.31%). The infinitival clause, as used in realizing this Move, also performs a function similar to the relative clause. Although the infinitival clause is the most preferred choice of both groups of researchers their choices differ in subsequent selections. Whereas the ELS researchers prefer the relative clause122 (24.54%), the AG researchers use the participial clause 38 (23.31%). Also, whereas the interrogative clause 17 (10.42%) receives less attention by 140 the AG researchers, the that- nominal clause 25 (5.03%) receives little attention from the ELS researchers. The following are examples of both infinitival and relative clauses used by both groups of researchers in Move 3. Examples: 86. The anniversary speeches to be considered are the written data. ELS9 87. The aim of the current study, therefore, is to address three issues in the SMS texting literature. ELS8 88. Again, the study focuses on ideology and power relations, which are some variables of critical discourse analysis to determine the transitivity patterns in complainant police statements. ELS2 89. Finally, the study will help to know the kind(s) of identity that is/are created for students in both public and private universities. ELS18 The underlined clauses in examples 86 and 87 are participial while sentences 88 and 89 are relative clauses. It can be observed that both types of clauses help the researchers to communicate effectively their intentions hence, the researchers have alternative choices to select from. The participial clause also used by the AG researchers to supplement the infinitival clause allows for idea-unit expansion just like the relative clause. The following examples are participial clauses used by the AG researchers to achieve Move 3. Examples: 90. The research will focus on the following principles involved in combating perennial weeds. AG1 91. The research aiming at ensuring a boost in maize output through sustainable production of good seed maize is therefore laudable…. AG 7 The underlined sentences are participial clauses used by the AG researchers in realizing Move 3. The underlined clauses are providing additional information about their antecedents: principles and research found in sentences 90 and 91 respectively. 141 The use of the participial clause just like the relative clause allows the researchers to specifically expand an idea in a sentence and therefore, allows readers to gain understanding of which part of the sentence is expanded. Table 40: Types of dependent clauses in Move 4- ELS Types No. in ELS % Relative 253 26.57 Infinitival 118 12.39 Interrogative 58 6.09 Participial 197 20.69 Subordinative 152 15.96 That-nominal 174 18.27 TOTAL 952 100 In realizing Move 4, the ELS researchers have preference for the relative clause and follow it with the participial clause. It can be found from the table above that out of the 952 clauses used for Move 4, 253 (26.57%) are relative clauses which take the highest score. The participial clause 197 (20.69%) is selected after the relative clause. Examples: 92. The ideational function of a language according to SFL deals with the conceptualization processes that are evident in the mental activities within the interaction. ELS5 93. Establishing the difference between logograms and pictograms, Crystal explains that while the former are associated with sounds, the latter convey meaning through shapes. ELS12 In sentence 92, the use of the relative clause that are evident in the mental activities within the interaction once again, provides additional information about the antecedent (processes). This makes the structure more meaningful. The researcher could have ended the sentence at processes and the structure will still be meaningful but extending the structure with the relative clause provides an opportunity for the readers to have a clear understanding of the information in the sentence. Additionally, in sentence 93, the participial clause establishing the difference between logograms and 142 pictograms, is functioning as a detached clause (Thompson, 1983). The detached clause in a way, also allows the researcher to expand ideas in a single sentence. Table 41: Types of dependent clauses in Move 5 – ELS Types No. in ELS % Relative 193 20.46 Infinitival 171 18.13 Interrogative 76 8.05 Participial 140 14.84 Subordinative 259 27.46 That-nominal 104 11.02 TOTAL 943 100 From the table above, it can be found that the ELS researchers have preference for using the subordinative clause 259 (27.46%) in achieving Move 5. The next choice of the researchers is the relative clause 193 (20.46%). The subordinative clause allows the researchers to give reasons as to why they have selected a method instead of another. The relative clause on the other hand, also helps them expand specific idea in a piece of information. The following are examples of both surbordinative and relative clause used in the move. Examples: 94. Since this study deals with the speech and the point about the study is to discover specific elements and ideology that are embedded in the speech, the qualitative approach will be appropriate and suitable. ELS1 95. Qualitative data, which is empirical information about the world, and which most of the time, means words (Punch, 2003) will be the data for this study. ELS16 From the examples above it can be found that the subordinative clause in sentence 94 is used by the ELS researcher to provide a reason for the use of qualitative method in his study. The ELS researcher selects the subordinative clause because it offers him the opportunity to provide reasons for selecting a particular method. It can also be found that the subordinative clause does not only provide reasons but also 143 provide information on the place and time of the methodology used by the researcher. In sentence 95 on the other hand, the ELS researcher uses the relative clause to supplement the subordinative clause. Table 42: Types of dependent clauses in Move 5 – AG Types No. in AG % Relative 18 19.35 Infinitival 25 26.88 Interrogative 0 0 Participial 37 39.78 Subordinative 13 13.97 That-nominal 0 0 TOTAL 93 100 The AG researchers favour the use of the participial clause 37 (39.78%) in realizing Move 5. The next choice after the participial is the infinitival 25 (26.88%). Hence, the non-finite clauses are significantly used by the AG researchers in realizing the Move. The following are examples of the non-finite clauses used by the AG researchers in Move 5. Examples: 96. The normal fumigation procedures for the Disinfestations team in the Ports (Takoradi or Tema) using gas proof sheets and sand bags would be followed…. AG10 97. Data on number of insects, percent mortalities etc. shall be appropriately transformed to meet conditions of normality and homogeneity of variance before Analysis of variance (ANOVA) shall be performed.AG10 It can also be observed that whereas the ELS researchers prefer the use of the subordinative and relative clauses, the AG researchers opt for the participial and infinitival as found in the above examples. Also, the clause that is barely used by the ELS researchers is the interrogative but for the AG researchers the interrogative and the that-nominal clauses are not used. 144 Table 43: Types of dependent clauses in Move 6 - ELS Types No. in ELS % Relative 21 45.65 Infinitival 6 13.04 Interrogative 2 4.34 Participial 12 26.08 Subordinative 3 6.52 That-nominal 2 4.34 TOTAL 46 100 The table above shows that in realizing Move 6, the ELS researchers most frequently select the relative clause. Out of 46 clauses used by the ELS researchers, 21 (45.65%) are relative clauses. The next choice is the participial clause 12 (26.08%). The interrogative and that-nominal receive relatively little attention from the ELS researchers. Table 44: Types of dependent clauses in Move 6 – AG Types No. in AG % Relative 5 71.42 Infinitival 2 28.57 Interrogative 0 0 Participial 0 0 Subordinative 0 0 That-nominal 0 0 TOTAL 7 100 In the AG data, the infinitival 2 (28.57%) is considered after the relative clause 5 (71.42%). It can be deduced that both groups of researchers have preference for the use of the relative clause in realizing the communicative purpose of Move 6. It can also be found that the participial clause receives attention from the ELS researchers but the AG researchers do not use it. Also, the subordinative, interrogative and that-nominal clause are not used by the AG researchers but the ELS researchers use them in the Move. The following are examples of how the ELS researchers use the relative and the participial clauses to achieve Move 6. 145 Examples: 98. The six-part study will begin with a short background to the entire work which attempts to locate the present work on the relationship between request forms and culture in Ghana, particularly the way in which requests are made in the spoken discourse of students of selected Senior High School. ELS14 99. Having gathered data on the topic in advance and read data adequately well on my topic, I will then proceed to carry out the plan of the study. ELS2. Sentence 98 has two relative clauses 1) which attempts to locate the present work on the relationship between request forms and culture in Ghana and 2) which requests are made in the spoken discourse of students of selected Senior High School. The use of the relative clause as noted earlier, allows the researchers to expand the information in a single sentence. The participial clause in sentence 99, having gathered data on the topic in advance and read data adequately well on my topic also provides readers with two ideas packed in one sentence. The analysis done here has shown that each discipline selects different types of dependent clauses in achieving a communicating purpose of a Move. Interestingly, in each of the disciplines, the researchers select different types of dependent clauses in realizing a Move. By implication, it can be deduced that apart from the interrogative clause which does not help the researchers to realize their communicative purpose, the relative, infinitival, participial, subordinative and the that-nominal clauses allow the researchers to communicate their intentions in each of the Moves. This means that there is no specific dependent clause type which can help the researchers to achieve a communicative purpose in a Move because any of the five dependent clauses: relative, infinitival, participial, subordinative and the that-nominal can be used in achieving a communicative purpose in each Move. 146 6.6 Similarities and differences in the two sets of data Based on the analysis and discussion, some similarities and differences have emerged from the study. This is evident in the schematic structure: the frequency of occurrence of the Moves/Steps, the sequencing of the Moves, textual space and the linguistic realization of the Moves. The succeeding paragraphs consider the necessary points of convergence and divergence in the two sets of data. In other words, the analysis done in this section tries to provide answers for Research Question three (see section 1.4). 6.6.1 Similarities and differences at the schematic structure level 6.6.1a Frequency of occurrence of the Moves in ELS and AG data In this sub-section, a quantitative analysis of the occurrence of the Moves in both sets of data is provided. The essence of the analysis is to find out areas of similarities and differences in the two sets of data. The table below displays the frequency of occurrence in both sets of data at the level of Move identification. Table 45: Frequency of occurrence of Moves in ELS and AG data NUMBER OF ELS= n (20) AG= n (20) MOVES FREQUENCY FREQUENCY M1 20/20 (100%) 20/20 (100%) M2 18/20 (90%) 12/20 (60%) M3 20/20 (100%) 19/20 (95%) M4 19/20 (95%) 0/20 (0%) M5 20/20 (100%) 19/20 (95%) M6 12/20 (60%) 17/20 (85%) Regarding similarities, it is evident in Table 45 that Moves 1 (establishing a territory), 2 (establishing a niche), 3 (occupying a niche), 5 (spelling out a methodology) and 6 (indicating closure) frequently occur in both ELS and AG data. Accordingly, these Moves can be referred to as obligatory Moves found in the two 147 disciplines. This is because large numbers of both ELS and AG researchers use them in their RPs. In the case of Move 1, all the 20 RP researchers in both disciplines use it. A similar trend is observed in Moves 3 and 5. Moves 2 and 6 are sparingly utilized by both groups of researchers. In terms of differences, it can be noticed that while the ELS researchers use six Moves, the AGs’ use five. This means that one of the Moves is not used by the AG researchers. As can be found in the table above, none of the AG researchers uses Move 4. Table 46: Frequency of occurrence of Steps in ELS and AG data Moves Steps realizing the moves No of ELS No of AG RPs with RPs with steps Steps 1. Establishing a 1. claiming centrality 0 0 territory 2. making topic generalization(s) 0 6 (30%) 3. reviewing previous research 0 6 (30%) 2 & 3 6 (30%) 0 1, 2 & 3 14 (70%) 8 (40%) 2. Establishing a niche 1a. counter claiming 0 1 (5%) 1b. indicating a gap in previous 11 (55%) 11 (55%) research 0 0 1c. raising questions 0 0 1d. continuing a tradition 0 0 1a &1b 5 (25%) 0 1a, 1b &1c 1 (5%) 0 1b &1c 1 (5%) 3. Occupying the niche 1a. outlining purposes/research questions 1 (5%) 6 (30%) 1b announcing present research 0 0 2. announcing principal findings/expected outcome 0 0 3. indicating significance/contributions 17(85%) 10 (50%) 1a & 3 0 0 1a & 2 0 3 (15%) 1a, 1b & 3 2 (10%) 0 In terms of similarities at the level of Steps, it can be found from the table above that the majority of both researchers combine Steps 1, 2 and 3 of Move 1 to realize the 148 Move. For Move 2, 11 (55%) of the researchers most frequently use Step 1b. In the case of Move 3, the majority of both ELS and AG researchers combine Steps 1a & 3 in both data sets. In Move 5 (see Tables 5 and 6), Steps 1 & 3 are most frequently used by both researchers in realizing the Move. Additionally, the majority of researchers in the two disciplines use only Step 3 of Move 6 to realize the Move. In spite of the similarities that occurred in the frequency of steps, some differences are noticed. 14 (70%) of the ELS researchers as noted in Table 46 combine Steps 1, 2 and 3 in Move 1, while for the AG researchers, the majority of them prefer to use single Steps to realize the Move. Also, for Move 2, apart from the 11 (55%) ELS researchers who use Step 1b in the Move, the rest combine different Steps in realizing the Move. The AG researchers on the other hand, do not combine any of the Steps for Move 2. For Move 3, Step 1a has two alternatives: stating research objectives and/or research questions. This Step is overwhelmingly selected by the two groups of researchers; the ELS researchers state research questions, the AG researchers do not state research questions but use research objectives. Move 4 (establishing a theoretical basis) is not found in AG data but is identifiable in ELS. Additionally, Steps 2, 4, 6 & 7 of Move 5 are less frequent in AG data but most frequent in the ELS data. That notwithstanding, Move 6, Step 3 (stating structure of proposed M.Phil thesis) is rare in AG data but most frequent in ELS data. Hence, the ELS researchers combine different Steps of each Move more than the AG researchers. 6.6.1b Similarities and differences at the sequencing of the Moves In comparing how the Moves are sequenced in both ELS and AG data, it can be observed from Tables 7 and 8 that the ELS researchers select a minimum of 12-move sequence to a maximum of 40-move sequence. The AG researchers on the other hand, 149 select a minimum of 3-move sequence to a maximum of 12-move sequence. This finding is very intriguing in that it is difficult to explain the wide differences made by both the ELS and AG researchers. It can be observed that the only point of similarity comes in where Moves 1 and 6 are selected to begin and end the data respectively. This means that Move 1 is always found introducing the data and Move 6 has a constant position of occurring at the end of the data. (See appendices A and B for how the Moves are ordered in both sets of data). The differences between how the two groups of researchers sequence their Moves are wide. The first difference that can be identified is with the order used by both groups of researchers in each of the Moves. In both ELS and AG data for instance, the Moves have non-linear arrangements. These can be identified in the repetitive nature of the Moves. In the AG data (see Table 8 for the 5-move sequence to 12-move sequence), the arrangements of the Moves are not orderly. Apart from 6 (30%) of the researchers who use the same order, the majority of the AG researchers have different ways of arranging the Moves in the data. In the ELS data on the other hand, it can be observed from Table 7 that the Moves used by the ELS researchers are more repetitive than those used by the AG researchers. This is because there is no occasion where two researchers select the same order. Out of the 20 RPs used as data, every researcher uses an arrangement different from the other. The repetitive nature of Move 1 in a single data for instance, ranges from three to eleven times in a data. This means that in a single data, Move 1 is repeated three times or eleven times. Hence, it is impossible to identify a linear arrangement. Another difference that can be identified deals with the starting point of the data. In the ELS data, there is an occasion where one of the researchers starts with Move 3 instead of Move 1. In the AG data, there is also an occasion where a researcher begins 150 with Move 5. Additionally, there are instances where some of the researchers in the two disciplines do not make use of the obligatory Moves. 6.6.1c Similarities and differences at the textual space level In terms of similarities at the textual space level, it is found that both ELS and AG researchers give more textual space to Move 1 than any of the Moves. The Moves with less textual space in the two sets of data are Moves 2 and 6. Table 47: Textual space allocated to the Moves in ELS and AG data MOVES No of T. No. of T. Units Units in in AG ELS Move 1(establishing a territory) 1,785 324 Move 2 (establishing a niche) 126 16 Move 3 (occupying a niche) 427 103 Move 4 (establishing theoretical basis) 912 - Move 5 (spelling out a methodology) 941 191 Move 6 (indicating closure) 79 30 TOTAL 4,270 664 As can be observed from the table above, the total number of sentences (known as the T units) in Move 1 for ELS is 1,785 while that of AG is 324. By implication, the total number of sentences for Move 1 in both RPs is higher than those allocated to each of the Moves. This is because most of the researchers combine all the three Steps used to realize the Move. Thus, as noted in Tables 5 and 6, 14 (70%) of the ELS researchers combine Steps 1, 2 and 3 to realize Move 1. In the AG data, 8 (40%) of the researchers follow a similar trend. This accounts for the most occupied space by Move 1 in both sets of data. Each of the Steps consists of a number of sentences; hence if a researcher combines all the three Steps, it is possible to get large numbers of sentences. The communicative purpose of the Move also accounts for the most textual space occupied by the Move. The communicative purpose of Move 1 as noted earlier, is for the RP 151 researchers to convince their supervisors that the study to be embarked upon is viable. Also, the RP researchers need to prove to their supervisors that they (the RP researchers) have read extensively on their related field of study. Move 5 is also allocated the second highest textual space by both ELS and AG researchers. In Table 47, the ELS researchers allocate 941 sentences to Move 5 and AG researchers also use 191. This is also based on the same reasons used for Move 1. Indeed, the researchers in both disciplines combine a number of Steps in realizing the Move. Again, the communicative purpose of the Move also calls for the use of more textual space. The communicative purpose of Move 5 spells out the methodology of the study hence; both researchers need a lot of space to explain in detail the various procedures that will be undertaken to get the study done. Regarding differences at the textual space level, it can be found in the table above that the ELS researchers use more textual space than their counterpart, the AG researchers. The ELS researchers allocate 4,270 sentences to the overall Moves but for the AG researchers, they allocate 664 sentences which is about seven times the ELS data. Also, one observes that the number of sentences used in the entire AG data is less than those found in Move 1 of ELS data. This confirms that the ELS researchers use more space than the AG researchers. The difference between the two sets of data is too wide that it cannot be left without passing a comment. One is tempted to ask whether the communicative purposes of both RPs were achieved or not. It can simply be said that the ELS researchers by the nature of their discipline use more sentences than the AG researchers who normally do not show interest in that. AG belongs to the discipline, Hard Science and normally in that discipline; interest is expressed in reporting brevity rather than verbosity. The following are samples of textual space allocated to Move 1 by both ELS and AG researchers. 152 Examples: 100. The idea of texting short messages (or SMS) began as part of the Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM) network in the mid-1980s. 1However, it was not until the early 1990s that mobile phone companies started to develop the commercial possibilities (Crystal, 2008; Campbell, 2008).2 Soon after its introduction in Finland (Crystal, 2008) as an economically sensitive, faster and convenient alternative medium of communication, SMS has spread to virtually every part of the world.3Research across the globe has shown that text messages are used by almost everybody ranging from children, the youth to the aged (e.g. Al-Khawalda, 2008; Thurlow, 2003; Holfich and Rossler, 2002; Haddon, 2002).4 For example, it was estimated that over three billion of the world’s population would have a mobile subscription by 2008 (cited in Crystal, 2008: 5).5 The reason is that the mobile phone is an essential desideratum for sending and/or receiving text messages.6Oksman and Rautianen (2002:28) have maintained that the most important gratification in mobile communication remains the building up and maintaining of social networks or ‘camaraderie’ in Lakoffian terms (cited in Herring, 2004).7 Many of the world over are adept in using text messages because of the gratifications they derive from the medium.8 This observation has been confirmed by a number of researchers (e.g. Hoflich and Rossler, 2002; Vershinskaya, 2002; Chiluwa, 2008) 910In Ghana, since the first cellular service, Mobitel, was initiated in 1992, Ghana’s teledensity has continued to be attractive and “is deemed as the fastest growing on the continent” (Benoni-Okine and Asamoah, 2007:34).11 What this means is that lots of Ghanaians now own their personal mobile phones and so use them for various communicative purposes such as to obtain information, express love and gratitude, and maintain social contacts.12 Texting has also caught up with the media.13 Currently, it is a common practice among Ghanaian electronic media practitioners to seek the views and opinions of the public (Kumi, 2004) through texting.14 For this reason, many Ghanaians are nowadays sending SMS messages on radio and television programmes in order to construct certain values in response to for instance panel discussions.15Texters also send SMS messages to radio and television networks to satisfy certain gratifications.16(Move 1)As yet however, little empirical investigation of the discourse nature of text messages exists in the Ghanaian society.(Move 2)ELS 12 101. Cowpea (vignaunguiculata (L) walp) is a legume, belonging to the family of Leguminosae.1 It is an integral part of traditional cropping systems throughout Africa, particularly the semi-arid regions of West Africa.2 Cowpea is of major importance to the livelihood of millions of people in less developed countries due to its high nutritional values. 3 It is proposed to screen several improved cultivars of cowpea to determine the most suitable in terms of vigor, nutrient, taste, precocity, yield and resistance to pest in the selected environment.4(Move 1)Several improved accession will be obtained from the plant Genetic Resources Institute of the CSIR at Bunso, Savanna Agricultural Research Institute (SARI) and from the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, Ibadan, Nigeria (courtesy of Kirkhouse Trust Project coordinated from CRIG). (Move 5) AG 20 From the examples above, all the 16 sentences in italics are used by the ELS researcher to achieve Move 1 but for the AG researcher, only 4 sentences are used to achieve the same Move. It therefore, becomes obvious that the ELS researcher uses 153 more space to realize Move 1 while the AG researcher uses less space. Although these are just a few examples, the other RPs in both sets of data follow a similar trend. Indeed, the two examples indicate that the ELS researchers use more space for their RPs than the AG researchers. It can also be found that Move 6 is given the least textual space by the ELS researchers but for the AG researchers, it is Move 2 that is given the least textual space. 6.6.2 Similarities and differences at the linguistic level The similarities and differences identified at the linguistic choices of the Moves reveal interesting results. In terms of similarities, it is found that both ELS and AG researchers choose the complex sentence and the simple sentence to realize Moves 1, 2 and 3. For Move 6, both ELS and AG researchers select the simple sentence and follow it with the complex sentence. They barely use the compound sentence in realizing their communicative purposes. The following is a table that illustrates the structural types of sentences used in realizing the Moves. Table 48: Distribution of structural types of sentences found in the Moves STRUCTURAL TYPES OF MOVES SENTENCES ELS AG M1 Complex 58.45% 52.97% Simple 39.02% 32.44% Compound 3.83% 7.73% Compound complex 6.71% 6.84% M2 Complex 78.57% 65% Simple 15.08% 30% Compound 3.97% 0% Compound complex 2.38% 5% M3 Complex 61.38% 76.63% Simple 31.95% 15.88% Compound 3.68% 5.60% Compound complex 2.99% 1.86% M4 Complex 57.50% - Simple 32.25% - Compound 4.75% - Compound complex 5.50% - M5 Complex 57.23% 36.31% Simple 36.99% 52.63% Compound 2.29% 7.89% Compound complex 3.49% 3.15% M6 Complex 40% 27.27% Simple 55% 36.36% Compound 3.75% 18.18% Compound complex 1.25% 18.18% 154 From the table above, it can be found that in realizing Moves 1, 2 and 3 both ELS and AG researchers use the complex and the simple sentences. This is so because 58.45% of the sentences used in Move 1 by the ELS researchers are complex. In the AG data, 52.97% of the sentences are complex. Also, the compound complex sentence is the least preferred choice by both ELS and AG researchers in Move 3. Indeed, when the percentage score for the other types of structural sentences is considered, it can be found that the complex sentence is the most preferred choice by the two groups of researchers. The next choice after the complex sentence is the simple. Regarding Move 6, both ELS and AG researchers use the simple as their most preferred choice and follow it with the complex sentence. In terms of differences, it can be found that in Move 1, the compound sentence is the least choice of the ELS researchers while the AG researchers barely use the compound complex. Additionally, in Move 2, the AG researchers do not make use of the compound sentence but the ELS researchers do. The ELS researchers most frequently use the complex sentence in Move 5 and follow it with the simple. The AG researchers on the other hand, most frequently use the simple sentence and follow it with the complex sentence. As can be found on the table above, whereas the compound is the least choice of ELS researchers, it is the compound complex that is the least choice of the AG researchers in Move 5. Further, the researchers in both disciplines make more use of sentences with dependent clauses than sentences without dependent clauses. This can be found in section 6.3. Sentences with dependent clauses are far more used by both ELS and AG researchers than sentences without dependent clauses in Moves 1, 2 and 3. In Move 6, both groups of researchers prefer sentences without dependent clauses to sentences with dependent clauses. In terms of differences at the dependent clause level, it can be found 155 that whereas the ELS researchers have high preference for sentences with dependent clauses for Move 5, the AG researchers prefer sentences without dependent clauses for the same Move. The similarities and differences are also found in the number of dependent clauses preferred by both ELS and AG researchers in each of the Moves. In all, both researchers select a maximum of three dependent clauses in realizing each of the Moves. Sentences with more than three dependent clauses are rare in each of the data. The discussions done here are supported by tables found in section 6.4. In Moves 1 to 6, there is a disproportionate use of sentences with a maximum of three dependent clauses. The only difference at this level of analysis is that the ELS researchers partially make use of sentences with six dependent clauses in Move 1 but the AG researchers do not. In Move 2, sentences with four dependent clauses are used by ELS researchers but not used by the AG researchers. In Moves 3 and 5, sentences with five dependent clauses are partially used by ELS researchers but not used by the AG researchers. The similarities and differences at the types of dependent clauses level are also discussed. The relative, infinitival, participial, subordinative and that-clauses are significantly used by both researchers to realize their various communicative purposes in the Moves. The relative clause is the most preferred choice for the two groups of researchers but the interrogative clause does not receive much attention from them. Indeed, the differences at the dependent clause types level are numerous. This is because it can be noted that each discipline selects different types of dependent clauses in realizing each of the Moves. The ELS researchers for instance, have a high preference for the participial in Move 1. The next choice they make after the participial is the that-nominal clause. In Move 2, they select the subordinative and follow it with the participial. This process is observed throughout the six Moves found in the ELS 156 data. The AG researchers also select different types of dependent clauses in each of the Moves. Hence, it is difficult to say where specifically the point of variance begins and ends. 6.7 Chapter summary So far the analysis done here has helped to provide answers for Research Questions 2 and 3 (see section1.4). First, it has helped to identify the structural types of sentences used by both the ELS and AG researchers to realize their communicative purposes in each of the Moves. The complex sentence is predominantly used by the researchers since it allows them to pile up information. It also allows for information ranking. It has also been found that both ELS and AG researchers are more interested in using sentences with dependent clauses than sentences without dependent clauses. Both groups of researchers use a maximum of three dependent clauses in each sentence. The choice for a maximum of three dependent clauses per sentence is in order because it will not create any meaning related problems for both readers and assessors of the researchers. The ELS and AG researchers also select different types of dependent clauses to help in realizing each of the Moves. The dependent clause types which are significantly used in both data sets are the relative, infinitival, participial, subordinative and the that clauses. The choice for these clauses is significant in that it helps the researchers to organize information in a single sentence. These clauses help the researchers to avoid ambiguity since they specifically extend a part of the information such as the Head word in Nominal Group or Adjectival Group. In other words, the relative clause, and non-finite clauses sometimes perform a similar function of expanding unit-idea in a 157 sentence. In this way, the choice of relative and non-finite clauses by the researchers plays a dual function: it helps the researchers to avoid ambiguity and it also helps the readers to get the precise meaning of the researchers’ information. The interrogative clause is barely used by both writers in each of the Moves because it does not allow the writers to provide detailed information in a sentence as is done by the other types of clauses. Additionally, the similarities and differences in four perspectives: the schematic structure along the lines of frequency of occurrence of Moves, sequence of Moves, textual space allocated to each of the Moves and the linguistic realization of each of the Moves in terms of structural types of sentences and their internal structures have been discussed. 158 CHAPTER SEVEN: CONCLUSION 7.1 Introduction The main objective of this study is to explore the schematic structure and linguistic features used in realizing Moves in the overall organizational structure of the RPs in two disciplines: English Language Studies and Agricultural Science. The study embarks on a genre analysis in order to compare the RPs produced by some MPhil students in the two selected disciplines. The schematic structure of the overall organization of the RPs is discussed along the lines of the frequency of occurrence of the Moves, sequencing of the Moves, textual space allocated to each Move and the various structural types of sentences used in realizing the Moves. This chapter deals with three fundamental aspects. The first presents key findings of the study which are discussed in relation to the three research questions the study sets out to investigate. The second focuses on the implications of findings in relation to theory and pedagogy while the final section discusses delimitations of the study and suggests directions for future research. 7.2 Key findings Question 1: What rhetorical structures (Moves and Steps) characterize the research proposals in English Language Studies (ELS) and Agricultural Science (AG)? With respect to this question, some interesting discoveries in terms of the frequency of occurrence of the Moves have been made. It has been found that the ELS researchers use six Moves while the AG researchers employ five Moves in their RPs. Move 4, which is regarded as an obligatory Move in ELS RPs, is not used by AG researchers. Also, Moves 1, 2, 3, 5 & 6 occur most frequently as obligatory Moves in both disciplines. 159 Another interesting discovery made is that the majority of the RP researchers in the two disciplines combine the same Steps in realizing Moves 1, 2 and 3. In Move 1 for instance, the researchers in the two disciplines combine Steps 1, 2, and 3 in realizing the Move while, for Move 2, the researchers in the two disciplines frequently use Step 1b. For Move 3, the majority of the researchers in the two disciplines combine Steps 1a and 3 in achieving the communicative purpose of their studies. The trend in Move 5 is different as the ELS and AG researchers select different Steps in realizing the Move. Although the ELS researchers select different Steps for Move 5, Step 6 or 7 is most frequently used, the AG researchers on the other hand, do not use Steps 6 and 7. In terms of Move 6, Step 3 is most frequently used by both ELS and AG researchers. Some of the ELS researchers, however, combine Steps 2 and 3 to realize Move 6. The differences in the choice of Moves can sometimes be attributed to disciplinary predisposition while other times may be due to lack of knowledge some of the researchers have in terms of what the constituents of a research proposal should be. It can be observed that the ELS researchers use more Moves than the AG researchers. Further, the researchers in the two disciplines select different Steps in realizing each of the Moves although they sometimes select the same Steps for some of the obligatory Moves. In terms of sequencing of the Moves, it has been found that the ELS researchers select a minimum of a 10-move sequence to a 40-move sequence while the AG researchers select a minimum of a 3-move sequence to a maximum of a 12-move sequence. Also, researchers in the two disciplines do not select their Moves to follow a rigid sequence. In the ELS data, each researcher selects a different sequence but in the case of the AG researchers, there are instances where some select the same sequence. 160 Further, move cyclicity is common to the two disciplines but most common to the ELS researchers. This is because the ELS researchers repeat Moves that have been already used. The Moves that are repetitive in ELS are 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 but in the AG data, Moves 1, 2, 3 and 5 are repetitive. Even though move cyclicity has been observed in other studies such as Crookes (1986) and Bin (2006), the frequency of occurrence in this study, is too high. This might be a feature of non-experts’ writing. Textual space allocated to the overall ELS data is more than the AG data. In both disciplines, the researchers allocate more space to Moves 1 and 5. The ELS researchers allocate less space to Move 6 whereas the AG researchers allocate less space to Move 2. Question 2: What linguistic resources in relation to structural types of sentences are employed in the RPs of ELS and AG to help the researchers realize their communicative purposes? It is observed that apart from Moves 1 and 2 which have the complex sentence as the preferred structural type of sentence used by the two disciplines, Moves 3, 4, 5 and 6 have different structural types of sentence. The choice for the structural type of sentence ranges between the complex and the simple in each of the Moves. Where the researchers in the two disciplines select the complex sentence as the dominant sentence type, they follow it with the simple sentence and where they select the simple sentence they follow it with the complex sentence. The ELS researchers, for instance, select the complex sentence as the dominant form in realizing Moves 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5. They select the simple sentence next to the complex sentence whereas the AG researchers select the simple sentence for Moves 5 and 6 as the dominant sentence type and the complex sentence is their second choice. Hence, there is no occasion where the simple or complex sentence is selected throughout a Move. This confirms Halliday’s (1985) 161 concept of linguistic choices available to language users. The least structure that is used by the ELS researchers is the compound sentence. The compound sentence is barely used in Moves 1, 2, 4 and 5 but for Moves 3 and 6, it is the compound complex that receives little attention. The AG researchers, on the other hand, barely use the compound complex in Moves 1, 2, 3 and 5. The choice for the complex sentence as indicated earlier, is to allow information ranking (Wiredu, 2012). Because of ranking information, the complex sentence comprises one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses. The dependent clauses preferred by the ELS researchers range from one to six even though sentences with five and six dependent clauses are barely used. Their most preferred choice is sentences with two and three dependent clauses. In the AG data, on the other hand, the researchers select a range of one to four dependent clauses. The main idea in the complex sentence is expressed in independent clause while other supporting ideas are expressed in the dependent clauses. It can be deduced that sentences with dependent clauses do not go beyond six because it might create meaning related problems. Further, each of the disciplines selects different types of dependent clauses. Apart from Move 2 where both researchers select the same types of dependent clauses, in the other Moves, the researchers select different types of dependent clauses. In the ELS data, for instance, the participial clause is the most preferred choice for realizing Move 1 but for Move 2, it is the subordinative clause. In the AG data, the relative clause is dominant in Move 1 and for Move 2, it is the subordinate clause. The type of dependent clause that is barely used is the interrogative. Question 3: What similarities and differences are noticeable in the generic structures and linguistic resources employed by AG and ELS researchers? 162 Some similarities at the level of frequency of occurrence of the Moves have been identified. Moves 1, 3, 5 and 6 most frequently occur in the two sets of data. Further, the majority of both researchers prefer to combine Steps 1, 2 and 3 of Move 1 to realize their communicative purposes and none of the researchers in the two disciplines uses Step 1a as an individual Step in achieving Move 1. In realizing Move 2, the majority of the researchers use only Step 1b while Steps 1c and 1d are not found in both disciplines. For Move 3, the majority of the researchers in both disciplines combine Steps 1a and 3. In Move 5, none of the researchers uses only one Step to realize the Move but they combine a minimum of two different Steps of Move 5 to realize it. Step 3 of Move 6 is found used by the majority of both groups of researchers. There are, however, a number of differences between the two disciplines. A total of six Moves are found in the ELS data while five are found in AG data. Move 4 is not found in the AG data. Also, some of the Steps under some of the Moves which are most frequently used by ELS researchers are not used by the AG researchers. For instance, Step 1a of Move 3 has two alternatives: research questions and research objectives. The ELS researchers use research questions while the AG researchers use research objectives. Also, Steps 2, 4, 6 and 7 of Move 5 are most frequently used by ELS researchers but not used by the AG researchers. Additionally, Step 3 is the only step that is used as an individual Step to realize Move 6 by the AG researchers. The ELS researchers rather combine Steps 2 and 3 to realize the Move. With respect to sequencing the Moves in the two disciplines, it has been found that most of the data begin with Move 1 and end with Move 6 although each of the data has a different rhetorical pattern. A major difference between the two sets of data is that while the ELS data have a 10-move sequence to a 40-move sequence, AG data have a 163 rhetorical pattern of a 3-move sequence to a 12-move sequence. Also, the ordering of the Moves in both disciplines follows a non-linear sequence as most of the Moves are found repetitive. The Moves do not follow a rigid sequence as found in the CARS model. This might be due to the way the researchers repeat them in their data. Move cyclicity is more frequently found in ELS data than the AG data. (See appendices A and B for how the Moves appear in cycles in each of the disciplines.) Textual space allocated to Moves 1 and 5 in both disciplines is higher than any of the other Moves. In terms of differences, the ELS researchers use more space than the AG researchers. Textual space allocated to Move 1 by the ELS researchers is seven times that of the AG Move 1. In Moves 2 and 3, the ELS researchers use more space than the AG researchers. Less space is used by both researchers in Move 6. The linguistic realization of the Moves also shows a number of similarities and differences. It has been found that the structural type of sentence that is used in realizing the Moves is between the complex and simple sentences. There is an inverse relation between the choice of complex and simple sentences. This means that when the researchers select a complex sentence to realize a Move, the next choice is the simple sentence and vice versa. Further, the researchers in the two groups of disciplines select more of sentences with dependent clauses than sentences without dependent clauses. The sentences selected have a maximum of three dependent clauses, but those with more than three dependent clauses are barely used in both sets of data. Also, different types of dependent clauses are selected to realize each Move in each of the disciplines. The choices made by the two groups of researchers are restricted to the relative, subordinate, that-clauses and the non-finite clauses: participial and infinitival. The interrogative clause is scarcely used in both sets of data. 164 7.3 Implications of the study Two main implications are drawn from the findings of the study. These are discussed in relation to theory and pedagogy. 7.3.1 Theoretical implications In terms of theoretical implications, it has been found that even though the CARS model was invented for expert writing, its flexible nature has made it possible for the use of non-expert or novice writers. Although this study is not the first to modify the model, the modification in this study can still be recognized as novel since related studies such as Maroko (2012) and Bin (2016) could not work on large numbers of data as found in this study. Thus, this new model can now be used by other researchers to analyze other forms of writing done by non-experts in order to contribute to the existing stock of knowledge in the literature. The CARS model has also demonstrated its suitability for analyzing data in all disciplines. This is because a number of studies have been conducted either by modifying the CARS model or validating it. Hence, it will be important to create the awareness of genre knowledge among discipline specific instructors because they will be in a position to help their students know how information is organized and reported in their various disciplines. 7.3.2 Pedagogical implications The results of this study have pedagogical implications to help students, ESP/ ESL (or English as a second language) instructors and discipline specific instructors. Genre knowledge will be significant to university students. This is because knowledge in genre studies has a systematic way of describing typical features of key genres that students can draw on their communicative purposes in their academic lives. Also, 165 knowledge in genre studies will help students in the disciplines concerned become aware of the schematic structure of their academic write-ups and help them adjust their style of writing. In a similar vein, a copy of our results could be given to lecturers in the two disciplines for them to be aware of the rhetorical structure of the RPs of their students. In doing so, the various discipline instructors can introduce a course in academic writing which has genre study as one of the important topics, more especially, for their graduate students to help them be relieved of the problem they go through in reporting knowledge in their various disciplines. Alternatively, students’ instructors can revise their course outlines in order to factor in studies on genre knowledge to help the students. A reason for calling for restructuring of the course outlines or mounting a course in academic writing is that, it has been found that a number of Moves are unduly repeated in both disciplines, most especially, the ELS data. Additionally, there are cases where some of the ELS and AG researchers begin their RPs with Moves 3 or 5 but not 1. Moreover, in some of the two sets of data, some researchers do not use all the obligatory Moves such as Moves 1, 2, 3, 5 and 6. Thus, there is no uniformity in the way the RPs are presented by the two groups of researchers under study. The RPs of ELS seem not to follow any order neither of the AG RPs too. These instances indicate that such students tend to have either little or no knowledge in their discipline’s epistemology. Based on some of these reasons, the graduate students need to be taken through some kind of orientation in order to help them out of such predicaments. It becomes very difficult to understand why the RP researchers ignore some of the obligatory Moves. The content of such an important academic genre may be questionable. Readers of such RP might have a number of questions to ask and may not 166 regard such RPs as the work of graduate students. If the RP presented for an MPhil proposal defense does not state knowledge in the study area or an objective of the study or method to follow in achieving the results, it will be very difficult to accept such as a work of a graduate student. Also, it will be difficult to accept a RP that does not make reference to any source to substantiate claims made. 7.4 Delimitations of the study and recommendations for future research The study delimited itself for a number of reasons and thus, makes recommendations along the various delimitations. First, this study is delimited to textual data because the researcher wanted to provide a detailed analysis and also work on large quantities of data. This could not allow other forms of data such as ethnographic methods (interview, participants’ observation and focus group discussions) which could have provided justifications for why some Moves for instance were not utilized by some of the researchers. An interview with some of the lecturers could have given clarifications on issues that were not clear in the course of labelling the Moves. This, however, does not nullify the findings since after going through the entire data, it was found that some disciplines do not make use of some Moves. All the same, future researchers could add other forms of research instruments such as interview to supplement textual data and extend the time of the research in order to get ample time to work on the analysis. In addition to the above, this study is delimited to only two disciplines. This makes the findings not to be generalized to other disciplines. This has been noted by Dornyei (2007) that the more sample size the researcher can collect; the more generalizability the researcher can make. Future researchers can therefore, extend their 167 studies to make interesting discoveries in other disciplines to add to the existing stock of knowledge in the literature. Another delimitation has to do with the linguistic analysis for structural types of sentences and the internal clause structures. The study could not consider other linguistic items such as various forms of groupings such as nominal groups, verbal groups, adjectival groups and many others used by the researchers in each of the Moves. Such a linguistic analysis will make the study interesting. It is hoped that future research will work on different types of groupings to identify the various types used in realizing each Move in the two disciplines. 168 BIBLIOGRAPHY Abarghooeinezhad, M., & Simin, S. (2015). A structural move analysis of abstract in electronic engineering articles. ITRSLL, 4(4), 69-80. Abbary, A. S. (1996). Effective research, thesis and dissertation writing. Philadelphia: Pennsylvania. Adika, G. S. K. (1999). An analysis of university students’ expository discourse. Unpublished PhD dissertation. University of Ghana, Ghana. Adika, G. S. K. (2014). 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Research articles in applied linguistics: Moving from results to conclusions. English for Specific Purposes, 22(4), 365-385. Yang, R., & Allison, D. (2004). Research articles in applied linguistics: structures from a functional perspective. English for Specific Purposes, 23, 264-279. 182 APPENDICES Appendix A: Sample analysis of an ELS data MOVE ANALYSIS OF ELS 8 TEXT MOVE 1 ESTABLISHING A TERRITORY Step 2 Making topic Introduction generalization(s) The Short Message Service (SMS), a type of Computer Mediated Communication (CMC) medium, is a service which enables its users to send short message from one mobile phone to another or via internet. The usage or all phone SMS language which is a common phenomena associated with youthful exuberance among College of Education students (teacher trainees) has become increasingly popular in recent years ….. Step 3 Reviewing items of previous Coker (2011) identifies content of test message sent to love research one in a radio programme of University of Cape Coast ATL FM station as Confessions, Requests, Missing You Apologies and Forgiveness, Encouragements …. MOVE 2 ESTABLISHING A NICHE Step 1b Indicating a gap in previous Unfortunately, this kind of study is not all that common in research Ghana. Though some studies have been carried out so far into SMS messaging, I am yet to see a particular one done in Ghana’s College of Education …. MOVE 3 OCCUPYING THE NICHE Step 1a Outlining Purposes/Research Considering the nature and the exigency of this work, I Questions intend organizing this proposal by first of all, setting out the focus and questions aimed at facilitating the study …. MOVE 1 ESTABLISHING A TERRITORY Step 2 Making topic generalization It is widely speculated that indiscriminate SMS texting (s) thwarts students’ ability to remember proper vocabulary, spelling and writing …. MOVE 2 ESTABLISHING A NICHE Step 1b Indicating a gap in previous Unfortunately, the available literature on SMS messages research reveals that not so much studies have been carried out …. MOVE 3 OCCUPYING THE NICHE Step 1a outlining Thus, the current study will investigate the effect of age and gender purposes/research on the employment of politeness markers in SMS messages sent questions and received by trainee teachers of Ada College of Education. Research Questions The following research questions form the basis of the study: 1. Does the use of SMS language adversely affect students’ literacy? 2. How do age and gender influence the language of SMS texting? 3. Are there age and gender discrepancies in the use of politeness markers by students in heir SMS messaging? 183 Step 3 Indicating Significance of the Study Significance/Contributi I consider this study of vital contribution to the on-going ons investigations into the SMS language… The study will also enable researchers to consider SMS language as a hybrid of language that exhibits various linguistic features. MOVE 1 ESTABLISHING A TERRITORY Step 2 Making Topic The emergency of mobile phone was dated as early as 1947 but the Generalization(s) actual use was first documented in 1982. According to Deumaret and Masinyana (2008), the first text message in the world was sent in 1992 by Neil Papworth in United Kingdom on a Merry Christmas Day…. Step 3 Reviewing items of Rafi (2008) investigated the lexical and morpho-syntactic choices previous research of male and female. Pakistani student aged 13-15 and the results show that a “novice intelligible” language influencing media language has surfaced …. Step 2 Making topic The debate, ‘that the SMS language is gradually becoming a threat generalization(s) to standard writing’ continues to stir up fears among parents, teachers and the public as a whole. Those against the use of SMS language criticize its proliferation as being the major cause of the drawback of English language proficiency… Step 3 Reviewing items of Crystal (2009) argues that those who claim that SMS language has Previous Research been detrimental to English language proficiency are puffed up mainly because SMS language has little or no effect at all on grammar. Crystal is with the view that SMS language is merely another language …. MOVE 4 ESTABLISHING A THEORETICAL BASIS Step 1 Explaining concepts in The theoretical framework of this study is a classification system Theory of Plester et al (2009) and Crystal (2009) which postulate certain significant features of text message such as pictogram and logogram, initialisms, omitted letters, non-standard spelling, shortenings and others. MOVE 2 ESTABLISHING A NICHE Step 1b Indicating a gap in Analysis of text messaging is a recent phenomenon so the available previous research literature on it is very scantly. Most of the evidence from the previous studies evolved around teenagers aged between 13 and 19. There seems to be little research on the use of SMS language of other age groups …. MOVE 3 OCCUPYING THE NICHE Step 1a Outlining The aim of the current study, therefore is to address three issues in Purposes/Research the SMS texting literature by examining; Questions 1. The peculiarity of SMS language 2. The influence of age on the use of SMS language … MOVE 4 ESTABLISHING THEORETICAL BASIS Step 2 Explaining Theory Brown & Levinson (1987) states that discovering the principles of language usage may be largely coincident with discovering the principles out of which social relationships in their interactional aspect are structured, that is, the dimensions by which individuals manage to relate to others in particular ways. House and Kasper (1981) postulate the following structured categories that are frequently used to represent Politeness (Politeness markers are words, phrases or expressions added to an utterance by a speaker 184 to demonstrate some kind of cooperative behaviour to an address). Example of this type which is used most frequently is ‘Please’ but others such as ‘if you wouldn’t/don’t ….’ Tag questions with the modal verbs will/would …. MOVE 5 SPELLING OUT A METHODOLOGY Step 1 Stating and explaining Methodology: Research design and Sampling Technique research design The study will be undertaken qualitatively. Punch (1998) considers qualitative analysis as very important when investigating field or situations that are insightful of daily life. However, quantitative analysis may also be used in the interpretation of data in terms of figures and percentages …. Step 2 Describing research site Ada College of Education in the Dangme West District of the Greater Accra Region of Ghana will be my research site. Step 3 Describing data Since the data have to do with collection of SMS text messages, sources/instruments three techniques will be used. The first one will be direct interaction with the respondents in a form of appeal to collect real text messages on their cells phones. The second one is the user diaries which will be used to collect natural data pertaining to the study. Also, a five minute semi-structured face-to-face interview will be the third technique to elicit demographic information. Step 4 Describing sampling Also real text messages will be purposively selected from size and sampling participants made up of males and females in level 100 and 200. procedures In all, 600 text messages, (300 messages written by male and 300 messages by females) will be collected and analyzed. Step 5 Describing data The analysis will include description, interpretation and collection procedure explanation of the data. and method of analysis All the text messages will be separated according to sex and coded FO, FI, F2, F3 etc. for female messages and M0, M1, M2, M3 etc. for male messages. In addition, the ages of those who are interviewed will be taken and tabulated together with the information gathered from them. Finally, SPSS will be used to analyze the data, in order to obtain the precise percentages from respondents. MOVE 6 INDICATING CLOSURE Step 3 Indicating Appendices Table 1 (timeline, budget, Plan of Work references) Chapter Activity/Item Purpose Duration In weeks One Introduction Creation of a general 2 context for the study Two Lit. Review Creation of conceptual 10 context for the discussion of the data Three Methodology Situation of the study in 10 a given research design and explanation of 185 methods employed in study Four Data Analysis and Relation of data to the 10 Discussion answering of the research questions Five Conclusion Summary of findings, 2 drawings of conclusion, implication and recommendation for further research Submission Date 15th Oct. 2012 31st Nov. 2012 30th Jan. 2013 30th May, 2013 31st June, 2013 Chapter Text Messages Attachment of the 2 15th July, 2013 Append Text Messages to ix the study for evidence of data collection Referen Sources of Acknowledgeme 2 30th July, 2013 ces evidence nt of consulted and cited works Total 38 Table 2 Budget Item Cost (GH¢) Typing and printing 350 Photocopying of materials like articles etc 100 Stationery 150 Communication 50 Binding 100 Transportation 200 Miscellaneous 50 Total 1000 REFERENCES At Khateeb, M. & Sabbath, E. H. (2008). Language choice in mobile text messages among Jordanian university students. Sky Journal of Linguistics, 21, 37-65. Baron, N. S. (2004). See you online: Gender issues in college students’ use of IM. Journal of language and Social Psychology, 23 (4), 397-423. Baron, N. (1998) Letters by phone or speech by other means: the linguistics of email. Language and Communications, 18: 133-170. 186 Appendix B: Sample analysis of an AG data MOVE ANALYSIS OF AG 5 TEXT MOVE 1 ESTABLISHING A TERRITORY Step 1 Claiming centrality Introduction The sheanut is an economically important tree in the savannah zone of Ghana. It serves as a source of income and used for home consumption. It is also an important export crop at the national level, and at the local level, use used for oil and soap manufacture (Yakubu et al, 1993). It occurs wild and takes about 15 to 45 years to yield (Irvine, 1974). Step 2 Making topic Recognizing the above potentialities of the generalization(s) sheanut, the Cocoa Research Institute established a sub-station at Bole for research on the plant. This was aimed at improving the plant to encourage farmers to go into cultivation. MOVE 3 OCCUPYING THE NICHE Step 1a Outlining Opportunities for increasing the benefits purposes/research from shea tree deserve increased attention questions from research. MOVE 1 ESTABLISHING A TERRITORY Step 2 Making topic The long period required by sheanut to yield generalization(s) is a disincentive for farmers to cultivate. They prefer cultivating annual and short term maturing crops which have immediate returns. The sheanut is exposed to many environmental hazards such as annual wild fires, competition from weeds and indiscriminate cutting among others.Yakubu, 1993, attributed one cause of the slow growth of sheanut to annual fires, which burn the organic matter therebydepriving them of soil nutrients. MOVE 5 SPELLING OUT A METHODOLOGY 187 Step 1 Stating and explaining research design RESEARCH METHODOLOGY This shall include research design, field experimentation, data collection, presentation and data analysis. RESEARCH DESIGN The research process shall start with an introductory background, preceding the problem identification. Literature on theoretical and practical approaches shall be reviewed, to help provide clues on possible correlation among research variables. This shall in turn help in making suggestions and conclusions after the analysis of the results. RESEARCH APPROACH Quantitative methodology of research shall be adopted, since scientific experimental research entails the measurement of variables, data collection and analysis. Step 4 Describing sampling SAMPLING size and sampling Randomized complete design or randomized procedures complete block design shall be used appropriately. Step 5 Describing data DATA ANALYSIS collection procedure The data shall be analyzed quantitatively by and method of statistics using tables, analysis MOVE 6 INDICATING CLOSURE Step 3 Indicating BIBLIOGRAPHY appendices, timeline, Agroforestry Today: International Centre for budget, references Research in Agroforestry, Volume 11 Nos 3 – 4 pp. 12 – 13. Irvine, F. R. (1979): West African Trees, Oxford University Press, London pp. 68 – 70. Yakubu, Alhassan et al (1993): International Centre for Development Oriented Research in Agriculture and Nyankpala Agricultural Experiment Station. Document series 28. Pp. 81 – 83, 127 – 128 188