COMMUNICATION CHANNEL PREFERENCE AND ITS RELATIONSHIP WITH ACCESSIBILITY TO INFORMATION BY EMMANUEL KWASI ADUGU A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION OF THE FACULTY OF AGRICULTURE, UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON, IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF PHILOSOPHY IN AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION. OCTOBER, 2001 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 0 3 7 4 1 2 5 SW -5 W ^ University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DECLARATION I, Emmanuel Kwasi Adugu do hereby declare that, except for the references to other people’s work, which have been duly cited, this thesis is the result of my own investigation. I also declare that this thesis has neither been presented in whole nor in part for the award of another degree elsewhere. ^ ............... (EMMMANUEL KWASI ADUGU) STUDENT SUPERVISOR University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DEDICATION I dedicate this thesis first of all to God for His loving-care and inspiration. I also dedicate it to my brother Patrick for his love and sacrifices and finally to Albert for creating a conducive atmosphere at home for me. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ACKNOWLEDGMENT I would like to express my profound appreciation to Dr. Felix Y.M. Fiadjoe my supervisor for the guidance, criticisms, encouragement and suggestions he offered concerning this thesis. I also appreciate the contribution of other lecturers of the Agricultural Extension Department, Legon especially Dr. P.B.Atengdem. I wish to acknowledge the counsel and encouragement I received from my friends and colleagues. My sincere thanks go to the management of the Volta Community Water and Sanitation Programme (VCWSP), extension staff of VCWSP in the Ho district and all beneficiaries of VCWSP who responded to the study questionnaire for their cooperation. I would also like to express my appreciation to Ms. Beatrice Manko for typing his thesis. Finally, thanks to Francis Srofenyoh for helping me in diverse ways in the course of this thesis. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ABSTRACT The study aimed at researching into communication channel preferences and how it relates to accessibility to information, The study was carried out in the Ho district of the Volta Region of Ghana, Data was collected from four communities in the Ho district. These are: Tanyigbe, Hodzo-Ve, Dave and Gbleve. Volta Community Water and Sanitation Program (VCWSP) ranked Tanyigbe community highest in terms of socio-economic status. Hodzo-Ve, Dave and Gbleve communities had the same lower level of ranking with respect to socio-economic status. The above four communities were purposively selected. The oldest males and females in every fifth house in all the selected communities were interviewed. Fifty-nine males and sixty-one females were interviewed. In all, one hundred and twenty beneficiaries were interviewed in the selected communities. With respect to the extension agents, the following were interviewed: The regional extension supervisor of VCWSP, the Ho district extension supervisor of VCWSP, the regional software officer of VCWSP and the regional gender officer of VCWSP. The prior state of beneficiaries was marked by water and sanitation practices, which created conducive conditions for the health problems and hazards facing them. In response to this situation, innovation information packages were developed by the VCWSP in collaboration with beneficiary communities and v University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh disseminated to them. The aim of the innovation information transfer was to change the knowledge and practices of beneficiaries from the prior state to the desired state. Based on the channels used by the source for information dissemination and the preferred channels of the beneficiaries, three categories of beneficiaries exposed to innovation information emerged. These are: A: Beneficiaries who preferred a particular channel and it was used by the source for information delivery to them. B: Beneficiaries who preferred a particular channel but it was not used by the source for information delivery to them. C: Beneficiaries to whom the source used a particular channel for information delivery but it was not their preference. For those in category “A” where preferred channels are used, accessibility to innovation information is high. For those in categories “B” and “C” where preferred channels are not used and the channels used are not preferred respectively, accessibility to information was lower compared with the cases where preferred channels are used. It follows that the higher the extent to which preferred channels of beneficiaries are used, the higher the accessibility to information. Where preferred channels of beneficiaries are used, limitations imposed on beneficiaries due to their peculiar circumstances are taken into consideration. Issues relating to opportunity to University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh interacting with and accessing information are considered. It is for these reasons that throughout the various stages of the innovation decision process, the self- employed, those employed by others and the unemployed indicated that their channel preferences would enable them undertake their economic activities more effectively. This is reflected in the self-employed having higher frequency of acquisition of information from the source compared with the other types of employment. However, due to the utility of the information to solve problems confronting beneficiaries in their prior state, even where channels used were not convenient to them, they exposed themselves to the information. This was likely due to the fact that they were in dire need of information to solve water and sanitation problems confronting them. All the categories of beneficiaries exposed to innovation information from the source indicated that there had been a change in knowledge with respect to their prior state and are practicing the suggested changes. These occurred in spite of the fact that the channels used by the source were not the preferred channels of beneficiaries to various extents resulting in different levels of accessibility to information. This is due to the fact that all beneficiaries exposed themselves to the innovation information whether channels used by the source were preferred or not preferred. Beneficiaries exposed themselves to innovation information because it was congenial with their beliefs and more importantly their critical need situation. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh In conclusion, in development communication, relevant information is best communicated to and with the ultimate users of the information through the use of appropriate channels in order to influence their behaviour in the desired direction. Behaviour modification can be achieved faster when the communication channels preferred by the target beneficiaries are used in the information exchange process since this ensures maximum information accessibility. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE DECLARATION...................................................................................................... ii DEDICATION......................................................................................................... iii ACKNOWLEDGMENT..........................................................................................iv ABSTRACT............................................................................................................ v TABLE OF CONTENTS........................................................................................ ix REFERENCES....................................................................................................xviii LIST OF APPENDICES......................................................................................xviii LIST OF TABLES................................................................................................. xix LIST OF FIGURES.............................................................................................. xxii LIST OF ABBREVIATION................................................................................... xxii CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION....................................................................................................1 1.0 Introduction................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Channels of Communication and Technology Transfer.............................. 1 1.2 Developments on Channels of Information and Gender............................3 1.3 Information Transfer and Change................. 5 1.4 Statement of the Problem.............................................................................7 1.5 Research Questions................................................................................... 10 1.6 Objectives of the Study...............................................................................11 1.7 Significance of the Study............................................................................11 1.8 Conceptual Framework...............................................................................12 1.8.1 Prior State.......................................................................................12 1.8.2 Innovation Information.....................................................................13 1.8.3 Channels Used by the Source/Sender at each stage of the Innovation Decision Process........................................................... 14 1.8.4 Channels Preferences at each stage of the Innovation Decision Process............................................................................15 1.8.5 Relationship between Channel Preferences and Channels Used by the Source/Sender and Accessibility to Information 15 1.8.6 System Factors...............................................................................17 1.8.7 Behavioural Change....................................................................... 18 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW........................................................................................ 20 2.0 Introduction.................................................................................................. 20 2.1 Innovation....................................................................................................20 2.2 Innovation Information Transfer................................................................. 22 2.2.1 The Source....................................................................................24 2.2.2 The Message.................................................................................25 2.2.3 The Channel.................................................................................. 26 2.2.4 The Receiver................................................................................. 27 2.3 The Adoption Process................................................................................28 2.3.1 Awareness.....................................................................................28 2.3.2 Interest........................................................................................... 28 2.3.3 Evaluation......................................................................................30 2.3.4 T ria l...............................................................................................30 2.3.5 Adoption........................................................................................ 31 2.4 Communication Channels used at different stages in the Adoption Process.......................................................................................................31 2.5 Channels of Information and Gender......................................................... 34 2.6 Communication Channels and Accessibility to Information.......................35 2.7 The Way Forward....................................................................................... 36 CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY.................................................................................................38 3.0 Introduction..................................................................................................38 3.1 The Study Area........................................................................................... 38 3.2 Rationale for the Choice of Study Area.......................................................39 3.3 Classification of Communities by VCWSP in the Study Area....................39 3.4 Selection of Communities for the Study..................................................... 40 3.5 The Study Population.................................................................................. 40 3.6 Sampling Procedure....................................................................................41 3.7 Development of Study Instrument...............................................................42 3.8 Pre-test.........................................................................................................43 x University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.9 Data Collection Procedure......................................................................... 44 3.10 Data Processing and Analysis....................................................................45 3.11 Identification of the Stages of the Innovation Decision Process..............47 3.12 Overlap and Calculation of Accessibility................................................... 49 CHAPTER FOUR FINDINGS OF THE STUDY................................................................................. 52 4.0. Introduction..................................................................................................52 SECTION A................................................................................................ 52 4.1 Prior State of Selected Communities........................................................52 4.1.1 Hodzo-Ve Community.....................................................................53 4.1.2. Tanyigbe Community.................................................................... 54 4.1.3 Dave Community.............................................................................55 4.1.4 Gbleve Community..........................................................................57 SECTION B................................................................................................ 58 4.2 Water and Sanitation Practices of Beneficiaries before Project Intervention and Innovation Information Produced by the Source (VCWSP).................................................................................................... 58 4.2.1 Water and Sanitation Practices before Intervention by VCWSP.......................................................................................... 58 4.2.2 Innovation Packages Produced by the Source (VCWSP)...........59 4.2.3 Relevance of Innovation Information to Problem Situation........... 60 4.2.4 Innovations of Most Interest to Beneficiaries................................ 61 SECTION C................................................................................................62 4.3 Communication Channels used by VCWSP as Indicated by Extension Agents...................................................................................... 62 4.3.1 Awareness Stage...........................................................................62 4.3.2 Interest Stage.................................................................................63 4.3.3 Evaluation Stage.............................................................................63 4.3.4 Trial Stage......................................................................................64 4.3.5 Adoption Stage.............................................................................. 64 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.3 Communication Channels Beneficiaries Indicated were used by Source (VCWSP) for Innovation Information Delivery to Them..............64 4.4.1 Awareness Stage.................................................. 64 4.4.2 Interest Stage................................................................................ 64 4.4.3 Evaluation Stage............................................................................65 4.4.4 Trial Stage ...................................................................................65 4.4.5 Adoption Stage............................................................................. 66 SECTION D................................................................................................66 4.5 Channel Preferences at the Awareness Stage........................................ 66 4.5.1 Reasons for the Channel Preference Individual Contact at Awareness Stage........................................................ 67 4.5.2 Reasons for the Channel Preference Community Meeting at Awareness Stage.........................................................68 4.5.3 Reasons for The channel Preference Brochure/Booklet at Awareness Stage..........................................69 4.6. Relationship between Channel Preferences at the Stage Awareness stage and Level of Education and Economic Activity............................... 69 4.6.1 Level of Education and Channel Preferences at the Awareness Stage..........................................................................70 4.6.1.1 Level of Education of Beneficiaries and the Channel Preference Individual Contact at Awareness Stage 70 4.6.1.2 Level of Education of Beneficiaries and the Channel Preference Community Meeting at Awareness Stage .71 4.6.1.3 Level of Education of Beneficiaries and the Channel Preference Brochure/Booklet at Awareness Stage 71 4.6.2 Economic Activities of Beneficiaries and Channel Preferences at the Awareness Stage........................................... 72 4.6.3 Influence of Economic of Activity of Beneficiaries on Channel Preference at Awareness Stage.................................... 74 xii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh SECTION E................................................................................................ 75 4.7 Channel Preferences at the Interest Stage............................................. 75 4.7.1 Reasons for Not Seeking More Information after Awareness Creation..........................................................................................76 4.7.2 Channel Preferences at the Interest Stage and the Underlying Reasons................................... .................................................... 77 4.7.2.1 Reasons for Channel Preferences at Interest Stage 77 4.8 Relationship between Channel Preferences at the Interest Stage and Level of Education and Economic Activity......................................78 4.8.1 Level of Education and Channel Preference at the Interest Stage............................................................................................. 78 4.8.1.1 Level of Education and the Channel Preference Individual Contact at the Interest Stage.........................78 4.8.1.2 Level of Education and the Channel Preference Community Meeting at the Interest Stage.......................79 4.8.1.3 Level of Education and the Channel Preference Brochure/Booklet at the Interest Stage..........................80 4.8.2 Economic Activities of Beneficiaries and Channel Preferences at the Interest Stage......................................................................80 4.8.3 Influence of Economic Activity of Beneficiaries on Channel Preference at Interest Stage.................... ...... ..............................82 SECTION F.................................................................................................83 4.9 Channel Preferences at the Evaluation Stage........................................83 4.9.1 Reasons for the Channel Preference Cinema with Talks at the Evaluation Stage............................................................................84 4.9.2 Reasons for the Channel Preference Posters with Talks at the Evaluation Stage................................... 85 4.9.3 Reasons for the Channel Preference Individual Contact at the Evaluation Stage...........................................................................85 4.9.4 Reason for the Channel Preference Brochure/Booklet at the Evaluation Stage ...........................................................85 4.9.4 Reason for the Channel Preference Community Meeting at the Evaluation Stage.................................................................85 xiii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.10 Relationship between Channel Preferences at the Evaluation Stage and Highest Level of Education and Economic Activity...................................................................................................... 85 4.10.1 Level of Education and Channel Preferences at the Evaluation Stage...........................................................................86 4.10.1.1 Level of Education of Beneficiaries the Channel Preference Cinema with Talks at the Evaluation Stage..........................................................................86 4.10.1.2 Level of Education of Beneficiaries and the Channel Preference Posters with Talks at the Evaluation Stage....................................................... 87 4.10.1.3 Level of Education of Beneficiaries and the Channel Preference Individual Contact at the Evaluation Stage........................................................ 87 4.10.1.4 Level of Education of Beneficiaries and The Channel Preference Community Meeting at the Evaluation Stage........................................................................... 88 4.10.1.5 Level of Education of Beneficiary and The Channel Preference Brochure/Booklet at the Evaluation Stage.......................................................................... 88 4.10.2 Economic Activities of Beneficiaries and Channel Preferences at the Evaluation Stage...........................................88 4.10.3 Influence of Economic Activity on Channel Preference at Evaluation Stage............................................................................91 SECTION G........................................................................................................ 91 4.11 Channel Preference at the Trial Stage.....................................................91 4.11.1 Reasons for the Channel Preference Individual Contact at the Trial Stage...........................................................................92 4.12 Relationship between Channel Preferences at the Trial Stage and Level of Education and Economic Activity........................................92 4.12.1 Level of Education and Channel Preference at the Trial Stage.............................................................................................. 92 4.12.2 Economic Activity and Channel Preference at the Trial Stage.............................................................................................. 93 xiv University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.12.3 Influence of Economic Activity on Channel Preference at Trial Stage................................................................................93 SECTION H...........................................................................................................94 4.13 Channel Preferences at the Adoption Stage............................................94 4.13.1 Reason for the channel Preference Individual Contact at the Adoption Stage................................................................94 4.14 Relationship between Channel Preference at the Adoption Stage And Level of Education and Economic Activity........................................ 94 4.14.1 Level of Education and Channel Preference at the Adoption Stage........................................................................ 94 4.14.2 Economic Activity and Channel Preference at the Adoption Stage..........................................................................94 4.14.3 Influence of Economic Activity on Channel Preference at the Adoption Stage..............................................................95 SECTION 1............................................................................................................95 4.15 Frequency of Innovation Information Acquisition by Beneficiaries from the Source........................................................................................ 95 4.15.1 Frequency of Information Acquisition by Beneficiaries and Underlying Reasons................................................................... 95 4.15.2 Frequency of Acquisition of Innovation Information and Economic Activity of Beneficiaries............................................. 96 SECTION J............................ , .............................................................................97 4.16 Overlap between Channel Preference and Channel Used by Project......................................................................................................97 4.16.1 Awareness Stage............................................................................98 4.16.2 Interest Stage............................................................................... 98 4.16.3 Evaluation Stage...........................................................................98 4.16.4 Trial Stage.....................................................................................98 4.16.5 Adoption Stage............................................................................. 99 4.17 Preferred and Used Channels Preferred but not Used Channels and Used but not Preferred Channels......................................................99 4.17.1 Awareness Stage....................................................................... 100 4.17.2 Interest Stage.............................................................................101 XV University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.17.3 Evaluation Stage........................................................................ 103 4.17.4 Trial Stage....................................................................................105 4.17.5 Adoption Stage........................................................................... 105 4.18 Accessibility to Information by Beneficiaries........................................... 106 4.18.1 Awareness Stage........................................................................ 107 4.18.2 Interest Stage...............................................................................107 4.18.3 Evaluation Stage.......................................................................... 107 4.18.4 Trial Stage....................................................................................107 4.18.5 Adoption Stage............................................................................ 108 4.19 Change in Knowledge and Practice of Beneficiaries.............................108 CHAPTER FIVE DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS............................................................................. 110 5.0 Introduction................................................................................................110 5.1 The Prior State of Beneficiaries................................................................110 5.2 Innovation Information...............................................................................112 5.3 Communication Channels Used by the Source at Each Stage of the Innovation Decision Process...................................................................114 5.3.1 Awareness Stage......................................................................... 114 5.3.2 Interest Stage..............................................................................115 5.3.3 Evaluation Stage..........................................................................116 5.3.4 Trial Stage................................................................................... 117 5.3.5 Adoption Stage............................................................................118 5.4 Channel Preferences of Beneficiaries at each Stage of Innovation Decision Process.....................................................................................119 5.4.1 Channel Preferences at the Awareness Stage.............................119 5.4.2 Economic Variables and Channel Preferences at the Awareness Stage.......................................................................... 122 5.4.3 Channel Preferences at the Interest Stage.................................... 126 5.4.4 Economic Variables and Channel Preferences at Interest Stage............................................................................................... 128 5.4.5 Channel Preferences at the Evaluation Stage............................... 129 5.4.6 Economic Variables and Channel Preferences at the Evaluation Stage............................................................................. 132 xvi University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5.4.7 Channel Preferences at Trial Stage.............................................. 133 5.4.8 Economic Variables and Channel Preferences at Trial Stage...............................................................................................134 5.4.9 Channel Preference at the Adoption Stage................................... 134 5.4.10 Economic Variable and Channel Preference at Adoption Stage.............................................................................................134 5.5 Relationship between Channel Preferences of Beneficiaries, Channels Used by the Source and Accessibility to Information............137 5.5.1 Relationship between Channel Preferences of Beneficiaries, Channels used by the Source and Accessibility to Information at the Awareness Stage................................................................. 137 5.5.2 Relationship between Channel Preferences, Channels Used by the Source and Accessibility to Information at the Interest Stage.............................................................................. 140 5.5.3 Relationship between Channel Preferences, Channels Used by the Source and Accessibility to Information at the Evaluation Stage.................................................................142 5.5.4 Relationship between Channel Preferences, Channels Used by the Source and Accessibility to Information at the Trial stage.....................................................................................145 5.5.5 Relationship between Channel Preferences, Channels Used by the Source and Accessibility to Information at the Adoption Stage............................................................................. 145 5.6 System Factors......................................................................................... 147 5.7 Behavioural Change................................................................................. 148 CHAPTER SIX CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS.................................................152 6.0 Introduction............................................................................................... 152 6.1 Conclusion................................................................................................ 152 6.1.1 Channel Preferences of Beneficiaries and Its Relationship with their Background Characteristics..........................................152 6.1.2 Channel Preferences Beneficiaries and Its Influence on Accessibility to Information...........................................................152 6.2 Recommendations............................................................................... 155 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6.2.1 Choice of Channel.........................................................................155 6.2.2 Future Research.......................................................................... 156 REFERENCES.................................................................................................... 157 APPENDIX I Questionnaire for Beneficiary.........................................................161 APPENDIX II Questionnaire for Extension Agent.............................................. 168 xviii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF TABLES PAGE Table 3.1 Variables, Information Required, Source and Methods of Data Collection.................................................................................. 43 Table 4.1: Frequency and Percentage Distributions of Water and Sanitation Practices of Beneficiaries before Intervention by VCWSP............................................................................................. 59 Table 4.2: Frequency and Percentage Distributions of Reasons Given by Beneficiaries on the Relevance of Innovation Information to Their Problem Situation.................................................................61 Table 4.3: Frequency and Percentage Distributions of Innovations of Most Interest to Beneficiaries....................................................... 62 Table 4.4: Frequency and Percentage Distributions of Channel Indicated by Beneficiaries were used by Source to Deliver Information to Them throughout the Adoption Process.......................................... 66 Table 4.5: Frequency and Percentage Distributions of Channel Preferences by Beneficiaries at the Awareness Stage...................67 Table 4.6: Frequency and Percentage Distributions of Reasons for the Channel Preference Individual Contact at Awareness Stage..........68 Table 4.7: Frequency and Percentage Distributions of Reasons for the Channel Preference Community Meeting at Awareness Stage..................................................................................................69 Table 4.8: Frequency and Percentage Distributions of Reasons for the Channel Preference Brochure/Booklet.......................................69 Table 4.9: Frequency and Percentage Distributions of Level of Education of Beneficiaries who Preferred the Channel Individual Contact at Awareness Stage..........................................................................70 Table 4.10: Frequency and Percentage Distributions of Level of Education of Beneficiaries who Preferred the Channel Community Meeting at Awareness Stage........................................71 Table 4.11: Frequency and Percentage Distributions of Level of Education of Beneficiaries who Preferred the Channel Brochure/Booklet at the Awareness Stage...................................... 72 xix University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.12: Frequency Distribution of Economic Activity of Male Beneficiaries who Preferred the Channels Individual Contact, Community Meeting and Brochure/Booklet at the Awareness Stage..................................................................................................73 Table 4.13: Frequency Distribution of Economic Activity of Female Beneficiaries who Preferred the Channels Individual Contact, Community Meeting and Brochure/Booklet at the Awareness Stage............................................................................ 74 Table 4.14: Frequency and Percentage Distributions of the Influence of Economic Activity of Beneficiaries on Channel Preference At Awareness Stage..........................................................................75 Table 4.15: Frequency and Percentage Distributions of Beneficiaries who Sought for more Information and those who did not after Awareness Creation.......................................................................... 76 Table 4.16: Frequency and Percentage Distributions of Reasons of Beneficiaries for Not Seeking More Information after Awareness Creation................. 76 Table 4.17: Frequency and Percentage Distribution of Level of Education of Beneficiaries who Preferred the Channel Individual Contact at the Interest Stage..........................................................................79 Table 4.18: Frequency and Percentage Distributions of Level of Education of Beneficiaries who Preferred the Channel Community Meeting at the Interest Stage............................................................................. 79 Table 4.19: Frequency Distribution of Economic Activity of Male Beneficiaries who Preferred the Channels Individual Contact, Community Meeting and Brochure/Booklet at the Interest Stage 81 Table 4.20: Frequency Distribution of Economic Activity of Female Beneficiaries who Preferred the Channels Individual Contact, Community Meeting and Brochure/Booklet at the Interest Stage...........................................................................82 Table 4.21: Frequency and Percentage Distribution of the Influence of Economic Activity of Beneficiaries on Channel Preference at Interest Stage............................................................83 Table 4.22: Frequency and Percentage Distributions of Channel Preferences by Beneficiaries at the Evaluation Stage.................... 84 Table 4.23: Frequency and Percentage Distributions of Reasons for the Channel Preference Cinema with Talks at the Evaluation............ 84 xx University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.24: Frequency and Percentage Distributions of Level of Education of Beneficiaries who I Preferred the Channel Cinema With Talks at Evaluation Stage........................................... 86 Table 4.25: Frequency and Percentage Distributions of Level of Education of Beneficiaries who Preferred the Channel Posters with Talks at the Evaluation Stage..................................... 87 Table 4.26: Frequency and Percentage Distributions of Level of Education of Beneficiaries who Preferred the Channel Individual Contact at the Evaluation Stage......................................................88 Table 4.27: Frequency Distribution of Socio-Economic Activity of Male Beneficiaries who Preferred the Channels Cinema with talks, Posters with talks, Individual Contact, Community Meeting and Brochure/Booklet at the Evaluation Stage...................................... 89 Table 4.28: Frequency Distribution of Economic Activity of Female Beneficiaries who Preferred the Channels cinema with talks, posters with talks, individual contact, community meeting and brochure/booklet at the Evaluation Stage.......................................90 Table 4.29: Frequency and Percentage Distribution of the Influence of Economic activity of Beneficiaries on Channel Preference At Evaluation Stage...................................................... 91 Table 4.30: Frequency and Percentage Distributions of Reasons for The Channel Preference Individual Contact at the Trial Stage.............. 92 Table 4.31: Frequency and Percentage Distributions of Level of Education of Beneficiaries who Preferred the Channel Individual Contact at the Trial Stage................................ ............... 93 Table 4.32: Frequency and Percentage Distributions of the Frequency of Acquisition for Innovation Information and the Underlying Reason(s).........................................................................................96 Table 4.33: Frequency and Percentage Distributions of Frequency of Acquisition of Innovation Information with Specific Preference to Economic Activity of Beneficiaries......................................................................................97 Table 4.34: Frequency Distributions of Preferred and Used Channels (i.e. overlap between Preferred and Used Channels) at various Stages of the Adoption Process........................................... 99 Table 4.35 Frequency Distribution of Preferred and Used Channels, xxi University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Preferred but not Used Channels, Used but not Preferred Channels at the Various Stages of the Adoption Process.................................................................106 Table 4.36 Distribution of Preferred and Used channels U/P (%) at Various Stages of the Adoption process...................................108 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: A Conceptual Framework Showing the Relationship between Communication Channels and Accessibility to Information.............. 19 Figure 2: The Relationship between Channel Preferences and Channels Used by the Source of Information......................................................50 LIST OF ABBREVIATION VCWSP: Volta Community Water and Sanitation Programme xxii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.0 Introduction This chapter is presented under the following headings: Channels of Communication and Technology Transfer, Developments on Channels of Information and Gender, Information Transfer and Change, Statement of the Problem, Research Questions, Objectives of the Study, Significance of the Study and Conceptual Framework. 1.1 Channels of Communication and Technology Transfer Technology transfer is a communication process (Eveland, 1986). In this respect, technology transfer is a process through which innovation information is conveyed from the source to the user for the desired behavioural modification. Rogers (1995) stated that technology transfer is the exchange of technical information between the researcher and development workers who create a technological innovation and the users of the new idea. The fact that there is an exchange of information between the source and user of the new idea means that it is a communication process, which agrees with Lippit’s (1982) assertion that communication is a process in which messages flowing between two parties have arrived at a stage where images and ideas which each is trying to pass to the other have the same meaning to the receiver as the sender. Whale (1984) also stated that technology transfer is helping to convey information in such a way that it fulfils a particular need of the client and can be effectively applied to his/her situation. This implies that delivery of information in a manner that will 1 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh meet the needs of clients such that it can also be effectively applied to fit into his/her situation cannot be dispensed with in technology transfer. The information must be appropriately conveyed such that it can be put to use effectively. Channels of communication perform this function. Berio (1960) stated that channels enable information to flow meaningfully between the two main actors in the communication process (i.e. source and receiver). The channels link the source and the receiver in a collaborative relationship in which ideas can flow between either ends. No ideas can therefore be transferred from one person to another except through channels. Channels are used in different situations in extension delivery. Various channels depend on certain skills and senses such as reading, listening, touch, sight etc. for their utilisation of the user. For example, the uses of bulletins require literacy. Different channels perform different functions in the adoption process. Some channels enable the idea to be seen, read or heard while others enable a practice to be seen. Rogers (1995) indicates the suitability of certain channels at each stage of the adoption process, for example the use of radio and television at the awareness stage. It is in this regard that Wilkening et al (1962) have observed that a farmer may hear about a new idea through one channel, learn about it through another, and learn the specific details needed to put it into practice still through another. Thus the channel used must be appropriate to the peculiar situation. 2 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The type of channel used in the technology transfer process is therefore critical to the acceptance and use of the information. The appropriate use of channels will ensure effective technology transfer and ultimately its adoption and the realisation of the desired changes in the client’s prior state. 1.2 Developments on Channels of Information and Gender Development projects often assume that information given to the men will reach the women next. In practice, this is not necessarily the case, as in many cultures men will not mix public with private matters and so will not discuss for example a water supply or sanitation project at home (Karp et al, 1990, Olsson et al, 1990, Tunyayvanich et al, 1987 Wijk, 1985). This implies that an understanding of the cultural environment of the target audience and how this influences the content of discussions at home and in public may be useful in the choice of the appropriate channel of communication. f The use of the same information channels for men and women may not be effective in communicating innovation information. For information on a latrine project in Honduras, men attended meetings and demonstration, while women relied on information from the radio and other women (Spector et al, 1971, and IRC, 1988). In a latrine project in Pakistan, the spread of information and rate of acceptance and use was low, until some women who had installed a latrine and were satisfied with it were engaged as promoters and started to tell other women in the neighbourhood about it (Spector et al, 1971, and IRC, 1988). 3 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Women generally experience more constraints on attending community meetings and speaking out in them (IRC and PROWESS, 1992). These constraints may therefore be the reason for the inappropriateness of meetings and demonstrations as stated by Spector et al, (1971), and IRC, (1988). Information through such channels may therefore not be accessible to the women. This implies that in the communication of innovation information, preferred channels of target group must be used in order to have the desired impact. This points to a deficiency in the conventional innovation decision process in that it does not in any way indicate how choice of channel is related to circumstances of clientele. The principle of gender-specificity may also have to apply to the print media channel, which the conventional innovation decision process does not address. This may have to be related to the distribution and display of printed information such as posters, brochures etc. A relevant case is posters with health messages in a project in Tanzania, which were hung in public offices and other places not frequented by women (IRC, 1995). Thus where the posters, brochures etc. were put made them inaccessible to the women. Literacy levels of beneficiary and their experience with pictures (visual literacy) are matters to take into account when information is distributed. It should not only be accessible but also understandable, acceptable and applicable by the target group. Wijk and Murre (1994) stated that much hygiene education material is too general, academic or unrealistic to be applied 4 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The above issues on channels of information and how they influence access to information suggest the need to critically examine the innovation decision process from a perspective of the circumstances of beneficiaries. Issues to be considered may be socio-economic activities, educational level, gender etc. There is generally the problem of how to communicate effectively and efficiently to clientele at each stage of the innovation decision process to ensure that desirable change takes place eventually. 1.3 Information Transfer and Change In Ghana, evidence from the Volta Community Water and Sanitation Project (VCWSP) documents in 1995 show that catalogues of information packages had been produced to meet the water and sanitation needs of target beneficiaries. Kwadzokpo (1998) then described the water and sanitation situation as poor environmental sanitation, water related diseases and poor knowledge of hygiene and sanitary practices. The VCWSP mainly uses community meetings for information dissemination. Occasionally, cinemas with talks are used as channels for information delivery. Reviews by the project show that the desired changes are not being realised due to ineffective extension delivery (Hagan, 1995). According to VCWSP reports in 1998, water related morbidity has not reduced as expected. Also beneficiary knowledge of the linkages between the water usage patterns and diseases is not as high as expected. Thus the communication intervention is not producing the desired results. 5 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The ultimate purpose of any communication is to assist people to take informed decisions on their environment, agriculture, health and other factors that critically impinge upon their quality of life. Effective information transfer is therefore important for any development intervention to change beneficiary knowledge, attitude and skills. It is in this regard that Singh (1981) defines communications as a process through which ideas, innovations or messages are transferred from the source to the ultimate users for modifying the behaviour of receivers in the desired direction. The use of appropriate channels can therefore not be dispensed with in the information transfer process. The transfer of relevant information through appropriate channels makes it possible for desired changes to occur in an individual. Specific information is also required for each change. For example, in the following sequence of changes in an individual, specific information is critical at each of the stages. Cognitive change1 ^.Trial of Advocated Behaviour ^Habitual Performance of Advocated Behaviour. Various communication channels come into play at each of these stages of behavioural change. It follows that if the information is poorly accessed, the desired behavioural changes may not be well achieved. It is important in this regard to use appropriate channels that will make innovation information accessible to all clientele. Desirable changes of any development communication intervention may be enhanced if there are appropriate channels of communication, which reflect the 6 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh preferences of clientele and make information available to them. This gives a sustainable and effective extension delivery strategy. 1.4 Statement of the Problem The innovation decision process indicates the use of certain channels at each stage of the process. In this regard, different communication channels play key roles at various stages (Rogers, 1995). Rogers (2003) classifies the members of the social system on the basis of innovativeness, which is the degree to which an individual or other unit of adoption is relatively earlier in adopting new ideas than other members of the system. The innovation decision process recognizes that in a social system there are adopter categories, that is; innovators, early adopters, early majority, late majority and laggards. This means that the social system is heterogeneous in important respects relative to the innovation being introduced. Different members of the social system may thus have varied access to resources, especially information resources as a result of their peculiar circumstances. In spite of these, the innovation decision process does not indicate the need to employ different communication channels in the dissemination of information to the different members in the adoption process. It follows that the innovation decision process seemingly considers that the same channel is appropriate to all members of the adopter categories or social system. In reality, this may not be the case. For example, men and women have different areas of control and responsibility, needs, priorities and the motivation of men and women are often not the same (Sigot et al, 1995). This may be the result of their different 7 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh circumstances and characteristics. Therefore their choices and means of accessing information with respect to channels may not be the same. Research shows that men and women do not use the same information channels. For information on a latrine project in Honduras, men attended meetings and demonstrations while women relied on information from the radio and other women. In a latrine project in Pakistan, the spread of information and rate of acceptance and use was low until some women who were satisfied with it were engaged as promoters and started to tell other women in their neighbourhood. (Spector et al, 1971, IRC, 1988). It is not known whether the use of different channels by men and women was influenced by their different and peculiar economic circumstances. Egbule and Njoku (2001) found out that in Southern Nigeria, the greatest percentage of rural farmers receive information on modern agricultural practices from radio. Nevertheless, the farmers tend to prefer television to radio as a means of disseminating agricultural information to them. This means that there is the need for an appropriate communication strategy for the dissemination of improved agricultural information to the farmers through television. The need to explore the communication channel preferences of beneficiaries is reinforced by findings of a research conducted on the agricultural information preferences of North Carolina Farmers. In this research, Maddox and Mustian (2003) investigated the utility of various communication channels for the delivery of traditional and practical agricultural information. The researchers found out that communication channel preferences reported by those seeking agricultural 8 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh information were in the form of personal and printed methodologies. It means that the assumptive position that communication and information transfer is best accomplished through high technology channels of delivery like television and computers is wrong in this case. Social and economic factors may have a critical role in determining the appropriate channel for a particular group of people. Development theory and research indicate that the socio-economic structure of the target audience plays a very important role in any social intervention particularly in communication interventions (Dennis, 1983). Thus situations faced by members of the social system may act as systems constraints influencing channel preferences. Hence the accessibility to and interaction with any communication intervention may be affected by channel used. Forbes (1964) defines accessibility as implying the ease of getting to a place. In relation to innovation information, accessibility can be conceptualised as the ease with which the receiver/beneficiary is able to get innovation information from the source. The concept means in general that something is “get - at - able" (Moseley, 1979). In this respect, for effective information transfer, appropriate communication channels must be used in order to make it (information) “get - at - able “by the beneficiaries. These channels are suited to the circumstances of beneficiaries. A deficiency of the innovation decision process is that it does not have a consideration for the channel preferences of target beneficiaries of the innovation information. Such a consideration may reflect their peculiar socio-economic 9 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh circumstances and therefore the relevance of preferred channels for information transfer. The implication of these for extension delivery is that preferred channels may not be utilised. This may render ineffective any extension communication. In that respect, available information on the part of the extensionist is either inaccessible or poorly accessible to those who need it. The desired situation is to have information dissemination based on preferences of beneficiaries. But will the use of preferred channels of beneficiaries make innovation information accessible to them? 1.5 Research Questions This research seeks to find out the communication channel preferences of beneficiaries and how it relates to accessibility to information. However, what influences beneficiaries in their choice of channels? Also to what extent does the use of their preferred channels make them get information from the source at ease and effectively? This study therefore seeks to answer the following questions: 1. How do the background characteristics of beneficiaries influence their channel preferences? 2. How do channel preferences of beneficiaries influence their accessibility to information? 10 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.6 Objectives of the Study Main Objective: To find out channel preferences of beneficiaries of VCWSP extension activities and the relationship between channel preferences and accessibility to information. Specific Objectives 1. To find out the channels used by the extension staff of VCWSP for communicating with the target communities, the channel preferences of beneficiaries and the reasons for any differences. 2. To investigate how economic variables of beneficiaries are related to their channel preferences. 3. To find out the extent to which channel preferences influence accessibility to information. 4. To determine the relationship between channel preferences and communication effects. 1.7 Significance of the Study It is expected that preferred channels of beneficiaries will be associated with high levels of accessibility to information. Higher levels of use of the preferred channels of beneficiaries by the source may result in high degrees of accessibility to information. This study will be useful for effective and efficient extension communication planning based on the channel preferences of beneficiaries. This is relevant in the planning of campaigns in order to make relevant information accessible to beneficiaries for desirable change in the dynamics of their systems. 11 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.8 Conceptual Framework The components of the conceptual framework are the following: prior state, innovation information, channels used by source/sender at each stage of the innovation decision process, preferred channels of beneficiaries at each stage of the innovation decision process, different levels of accessibility and then behavioural change(s). These components are linked together to show the relationship between communication channels and accessibility to information. It also shows how accessibility to information eventually results in behavioural changes in the prior state. The interactions between these components are discussed below. Figure 1 shows a diagrammatic representation of the conceptual framework of the relationship between communication channels and accessibility to information. 1.8.1 Prior State This refers to the existing condition of an individual or community before the introduction of an innovation. It is a state that needs a change. It follows that there must be a problem situation facing the individual or community. In the case of the VCWSP, this can be a health problem, high mortality rate etc. The problem may require additional knowledge, an attitude change or new skill to solve depending on the circumstance. The prior state is therefore a state of need to change any of the above variables (i.e. knowledge, attitude or skill) in the prior state. It must however be noted that the beliefs of the individual or community can influence the perception on the need to change. If prevailing beliefs impede change, then it will be very difficult to see the need for change. 12 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Tyler (1971) defines a need as the difference between the present condition of the individual learner or learner group and a social norm that can be identified. The gap between where learners are in relation to the social norm constitutes a need. Boone (1985) states that adult educators must identify, assess, and analyse learner’s expressed/felt needs in collaboration with the individual learner, learner group and their leaders. This is imperative if adult educators are to be effective in their work. The state of need must therefore be determined through need assessment on specific issues in consultation with beneficiaries. The need state demands innovation information to change the dynamics of the system from “what is” (prior state) to “what it ought to be”(change in behaviour). 1.8.2 Innovation Information Rogers (1995) defines an innovation as an idea, practice or object that is perceived as new by an individual or other unit of adoption/client. Innovation information is therefore any information that is considered new by the unit of adoption. The innovation information should be relevant and appropriate to the prior state of the client. It must also be culturally acceptable. The relevance of innovation information relates to its ability to satisfy the need of the beneficiary. Appropriateness relates to its acceptance from the point of view of the beneficiary because it fits into the state of need. The fact that innovation information should be relevant and appropriate to the prior state and be culturally acceptable is supported by Hassinger (1959) cited in Rogers (1995) that individuals will seldom expose themselves to messages about an innovation unless they feel a need for it. He continued that such exposure would 13 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh have little effect unless the innovation is perceived as relevant to the individual needs and consistent with individual attitude and beliefs. The content of the messages are information that beneficiaries need to have to solve a problem but do not have prior to the communication intervention. The content of the innovation information should respond to the need situation of the client system by effecting desirable changes in its prior state. This information is transferred by source/sender to beneficiaries using specific channels. 1.8.3 Channels Used by the Source/Sender at Each Stage of the Innovation Decision Process This is based on the conventional decision process, which indicates the use of certain channels at each stage of the innovation process. However it does not give consideration to the channel preferences of beneficiaries. There is the likelihood that channels used by the source/sender may not be those preferred by clientele. This may be due to their different socio-economic circumstances. These circumstances can be characterised by level of education, economic activity, culture etc. For example, brochures may be appropriate for information delivery to an educated person who cannot be at group meetings. Also those employed by somebody may find it difficult to attend community meetings for information acquisition compared with the self-employed, as it is inconvenient to them. These circumstances influence the extent to which beneficiary can have access to information through channels used by the source. 14 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.8.4 Channels Preferences at each Stage of the Innovation Decision Process These are the channels that clientele desire to be used in communicating innovation information to them. This may reflect their peculiar socio-economic circumstances and therefore the appropriateness of such channels in reaching them. That is why Flores (1983:118) stated that people choose the channels and thus the messages, which reach them. The choice of channels by beneficiary may be influenced by the level of education, economic activity etc. These influence opportunity for beneficiary to access information through source channels. For example, the type of economic activity of a beneficiary may influence how convenient a particular channel is in relation to when and how to access information through it. In this respect, the use of beneficiaries’ preferred channels might have a high potential of making information accessible to them compared with the use of channels not preferred by the beneficiaries. 1.8.5 Relationship between Channel Preferences and Channels Used by the Source/Sender and Accessibility to Information In a communication process there are three main scenarios that may be encountered based on the channels used by the source/sender and the preferred channels of the beneficiaries. These are as follows: • Communication channels preferred by beneficiaries and used by source/sender. • Communication channels preferred by beneficiaries but not used by source/sender. 15 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh • Communication channels used by source/sender but not preferred by beneficiaries. This may result in different levels of accessibility depending on which of the scenarios that have been employed for communication of information. When preferred channels are used by source/sender for information transfer, there is a higher likelihood that information may be accessible to beneficiaries compared with the situation where channels used are not preferred. In cases where channels are preferred but not used, beneficiaries may still have information but accessibility may be low compared with when preferred channels are used. Therefore to have effective change(s) in the prior state, innovation information must be transferred through appropriate channels. These appropriate channels must be the preferred channels of beneficiaries due to their peculiar circumstances. The peculiar circumstances of the beneficiaries impose certain limitations on them ultimately influencing their ability to access information through a particular channel. The greater the overlap between beneficiaries preferred channels and channels used by source/sender, the more relevant those channels are for the transfer of information. Therefore the use of appropriate channel for information delivery may occur when preferred channels of beneficiary are used by source/sender. This may result in greater accessibility to innovation information Accessibility can be measured by finding the relationship between the numbers of beneficiaries who indicated that a particular channel they preferred was used by the 16 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh source to deliver information to them and the number who preferred that particular channel. Greater accessibility may ultimately lead to the realisation of desired changes in the prior state. 1.8.6 System Factors Whether preferred channels are used or channels other than the preferred are employed for information dissemination, system factors always have their influence. These are circumstances/influences in the peculiar economic environment that affect the interaction of beneficiaries with innovation information. It is in this context that development theory and research indicates that the socio-economic structure of the target audience plays a very important role in any social intervention particularly in communication intervention (Dennis, 1983). The type of economic activity of beneficiaries can influence their channel preferences. For example, the channel individual contact may be preferred to enable beneficiary undertake his/her economic activity. He/she may often not be able to acquire information from the source due to job inconveniences. It is expected that where preferred channels are used, limitations imposed by system factors on beneficiary interaction with and access to information may be minimal compared with where source/sender channels used are different from preferred channels. This may be due to the fact that where preferred channels are used, issues relating to convenience, opportunity to interacting with and accessing information through particular channels would have been considered by beneficiaries. The contrary might not hold for the case where channels used by the source/sender are not those preferred. 17 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.8.7 Behavioural Change Boone (1985) defines behavioural change as an alteration in the knowledge, attitude, or skills or any combination of these behaviours of an adult learner or learner group. This shows the extent to which the gap between “what is” and “what ought to be" with respect to the need situation has been closed as a result of access to innovation information. Higher levels of accessibility to relevant innovation information have higher potentials for effecting behavioural change(s) with respect to the prior state. Therefore to have effective change(s) in the existing water and sanitation state, innovation information developed must be transferred through appropriate channels. These appropriate channels may be the preferred channels of beneficiaries due to their peculiar circumstances. The use of preferred channels may make information accessible to beneficiaries in order to effectively change their prior state. 18 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh FIG. 1: A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN COMMUNICATION CHANNELS AND ACCESSIBILITY TO INFORMATION 19 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.0 Introduction This chapter reviews literature on innovations and how they are transferred through various stages of the adoption process. Also reviewed are: communication channels used at the stages of the adoption process, developments on channels of information and gender, gender and gender roles, communication channels and accessibility to information. 2.1 Innovation Rogers (1995) defines an innovation as an idea, practice or object that is perceived as new by an individual or other unit of adoption. According to him, it matters little, so far as human behaviour is concerned, whether or not an idea is objectively new as measured by the lapse of time since its first use or discovery. Rogers (1995) further added that the perceived newness of the idea for the individual determines his or her reaction to it. According to Jones (1963), an innovation could be regarded as any thought, behaviour or thing that is new because it is quantitatively different from existing forms. Engel (1997) conceives an innovation as a complex social process, occurring among a variety of social actors rather than as a matter of dissemination of technologies, knowledge or ideas. In the view of Engel, what social actors do to achieve innovation can be described as networking, building and maintaining relationships with other 2 0 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh actors they deem as relevant to their purposes. In that respect, communication of an innovation can certainly be seen as a purposive activity. However, all the social actors involved in the innovation process are, at the same time, both users and sources of relevant knowledge and information. Particular communication practices may be adapted to exchange experiences, ideas, and knowledge and information e.g. interpersonal channels. The communication linkages between the social actors may emerge as a direct consequence of the social actor’s decisions to create joint learning opportunities and then produce information exchange among them to solve their immediate problems. In this respect, innovation is a social process among stakeholders or those who have an interest in it in one way or another. Innovations may be ideas, methods, practices or techniques, which provide opportunity for increased productivity and income. An innovation can therefore be conceptualised as an idea, thought, practice or behaviour in a particular situation, which is perceived by the client system as capable of changing the dynamics of the system from “what is” to "what it ought to be”. It is obvious that innovations when introduced and adopted should bring about desirable changes in the client system. In general, any innovation should respond to a need situation in the client system. The recognition of the “need for a change” is critical for the adoption of any innovation. This is pointed out by Anthony, Jones and Uchendu (1979) that farmers who recognise that their traditional farming techniques and present level of knowledge impose a limitation on their farming activities and thus realise the need for innovations are on the threshold to success. 21 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.2 Innovation Information Transfer Information is the basis for any development intervention to change people s knowledge, attitude, practices and skills. According to Sawhney (1967) information is sine qua non of all attitude changes. Planned changes have the basic aim of changing attitudes. Hence information is indispensable for any changes. Information transfer plays an important role in the change process. This brings in the concept of communication. Rogers (1962) defines communication as the process by which participants create and share information with one another in order to reach mutual understanding. Lippit (1982) agrees with Rogers (1962) definition above. He states that communication is a process in which messages flowing between two parties have arrived at a stage where images and ideas which each is trying to pass to the other have the same meaning to the receiver as to the sender. Singh (1981) defines communication as a process through which ideas, innovations or messages are transferred from the source to the ultimate user for modifying the behaviour of the receiver in the desired direction. Birdwhistell (1968) states that communication has been studied as a process identified by the passage of information through the transmission of more or less meaningful symbols from one individual to another, from one group or representative of a group to another group or representative. Thus for any change in behaviour to occur whether in thinking, feeling as well as overt action, information transfer is essential. 22 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Effective transfer of information about an innovation is important for adoption. Sawhney (1967) identifies five elements that determine the possibility and effectiveness of communication. These according to him are: • Person or group originating the message (source) • Content of message originating that is communicated • Medium or media employed • The persons receiving the message (receiver or recipient) • The response manifested (feedback) It follows that the above elements cannot be dispensed with in information transfer. Imperfect functioning by any of them can adversely affect information transfer. Quite similar to Sawhney’s identified elements for effective communication, Berlo(1960) identified the following as the ingredients of communication. These are: i. The source ii. The message iii. The channel iv. The recipient (receivers) Thus for effective transfer of any innovation information, certain elements must be functional. These are the source, the message, the channel, and the receiver. These are discussed below. 23 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.2.1 The Source This is the originator or the one who conceives the idea and has the intention to communicate the idea in order to achieve a certain purpose. The source therefore provides a relevant stimulus to which the receiver reacts. Berio (1960) lists four kinds of factors within the source that can affect the effectiveness of communication. These factors do not only affect the source’s communicating behaviour but also the purpose, treatment of message and the content itself. These factors are: i. Communication skills ii. Attitudes iii. Knowledge level iv. Socio-cultural system i. Communication skills The source or encoder should have the skills of writing or speaking and reasoning. The source should either be able to write, speak or know the symbols representing things, to be able to transmit any ideas. The skill of thought or reasoning for a communicator is of primary importance. All these factors enable perfect expression of source purpose. ii. Attitudes The effectiveness of communication greatly depends on the attitudes of the source or communicator towards himself, the subject matter being communicated and the receiver. Where the source has a positive attitude towards the receiver, good response is encouraged. 24 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ///'. Knowledge Level Communicator or communication sources need to be highly knowledgeable in the subject matter to be communicated to make it possible for him/her to tell the receiver what he/she needs to know. For effectiveness, the source must know the subject matter and how to communicate it. (iv) Socio-Cultural System For effective communication the source or communicator must be aware of the characteristics of the social system, culture and values of the receiver. This awareness will enable the communicator to select an appropriate set of symbols and channels for his message. In like manner, it is essential for the receiver to be aware of the socio-cultural system within which the source is operating to be able to understand his message clearly. 2.2.2 The Message The source may put together or select symbols, which are structured or arranged in a way as to express and convey the meaning of the source’s purpose. The message according to Berio (1960) is the translation of the ideas, purposes and intentions of the source into systematic set of symbol. In extension communication, the message may refer to new ideas, improved practices, new methods that are transmitted to the receiver. The quality of communication between the source and receiver is influenced by the message. This influence relates to the content and treatment of message before transmission. According to Berio (1960) message code has to do with the way in 25 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh which symbols are structured. Content has to do with selection of material to express a purpose. Treatment has to do with the way in which the message is presented that is frequency, redundancy, emphasis etc. Therefore for effective extension communication, the following must be considered: • Ideas to be expressed. • Information to be transmitted. • The means by which the idea or information is to be presented. 2.2.3. The Channel No ideas or techniques can be transferred from one person to another except through certain media. These are the channels. Channels of communication can be viewed as the motor skills possessed by the source and the receiver or media which enable information to flow meaningfully between the two main actors in the communication process (Berio, 1960). This is quite similar to Rogers (1995) definition, which defines a channel as the means by which a message gets from the source to the receiver. For Deutchmann (1963) channels are various methods available to any communicator in reaching an audience with a message. Channels are therefore vehicles used to get messages to target groups. Different channels are widely used in different situations in the dissemination of information. Rogers (1995) indicates that researches categorize communication channels as either interpersonal or mass media in nature. In these broad groups of 2 6 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh channels, techniques such as demonstrations, personal visits, talks, radio, newspapers, bulletins, posters etc. have been recognised. These techniques may rely on various skills such as reading, writing, listening, speaking, touching, seeing etc. for their utilisation. The channels of communication are therefore indispensable in the transfer of innovation from the source to the ultimate users. In communication of innovation information, it is the responsibility of the communicator to decide as to what channel to use so as to reach as many potential users as possible. This implies that he/she has to decide whether to use channels, which can make messages to be seen, touched or heard. Whatever the choice, the following must be considered for effective communication. 1. Channels that are available. 2. Channels that are popular with most people. 3. Channels that have the most impact. 4. Channels that are most adaptable to the kinds of purposes at hand. 2.2.4 The Receiver The receiver is the target of all communication and is supposed to respond to the stimulus from the source. Therefore the message code, treatment and content and also channel selection should be influenced by the characteristics of the recipient. The reason for this according to Berio (1960) is that the receiver has certain skills, attitudes, and knowledge levels and comes from a particular social system, all of which influence his/her communication behaviour. These again influence the way he/she receives and interprets messages. The elements for effective communication 27 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh discussed earlier (i.e. source, message, channel, and receiver) are indispensable in the adoption process. 2.3 The Adoption Process Rogers (1962) defines the adoption process as the mental process an individual passes from first hearing about an innovation to its final adoption. Consciously or unconsciously, every person goes through certain mental steps before changing his ideas or practices (Bradfield, 1975). This means that people do not accept new ideas or innovations or practices immediately upon hearing of them. Rather they go through certain steps or processes before taking any decision. Van den Ban and Hawkins (1988) identified the following stages which people pass through from first hearing about an idea or practice to its final adoption. These are awareness, interest, evaluation, trial and adoption. Lionberger (1968) also recognises the existence of these stages. And so does Bradfield (1975). These stages are discussed below. 2.3.1 Awareness According to Lionberger (1968) at this stage the individual has first knowledge about a new idea, product or practice. In the view of Bradfield (1975) the individual learns of the existence of the technology (i.e. idea or practice) but knows little about it. Therefore this stage occurs when an individual is exposed to the existence of the idea, practice or technology. The idea may have been in existence for some time but once the individual has not been exposed to it, it is new to him/her. If the knowledge or idea that the individual has is regarded as relevant to his/her situation and 28 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh therefore potentially useful then further information may be sought about it. Also the knowledge exposed to the individual must be consistent with the individual’s attitudes and beliefs in order to move him/her further to take a favourable decision concerning the idea. This agrees with Hassinger (1959) in Rogers (1995) argument that individuals will seldom expose themselves to messages about an innovation unless they feel a need for those innovation messages. He continued that such exposure would have little effect unless the innovation is perceived as relevant to the individual’s needs and as consistent with individual’s attitudes and beliefs. 2.3.2 Interest Bradfield (1975) states that at this stage the individual needs information on the new idea as a result of interest developed. Information may be sought from friends who have tried out the practice or the one who created awareness. To Lionberger (1968), this is a stage of active seeking of extensive and detailed info about the idea to determine its possible usefulness and applicability. The information exposed to client at awareness stage must have therefore been relevant to his need situation. This accounts for the active information seeking to respond to any questioning and doubts that might have arisen about the idea or innovation. The individual at this stage wishes to understand the innovation to give meaning to it. It is in this regard that Lionberger (1968) indicates that at this stage the individual is willing to listen, read and learn more about the innovation introduced to him/her. 29 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.3.3 Evaluation Lionberger (1968) states that at this stage, there is weighing and sifting of the acquired information and evidence in the light of existing condition into which the practice would have to fit. To Bradfield (1975) at this stage the individual considers the idea as it affects him/her or how it will benefit him/her. Consideration is also given to the difficulties or disadvantages to him /her due to the new idea. He /she may seek further information or go to a demonstration meeting. It follows that perceived attributes of innovation are considered at this stage. For example relative advantage, complexity and compatibility come into focus. Relevant information must be sought from convincing sources to reduce uncertainty about the innovation/idea. It is then that client toward the new idea or innovation can form a favourable attitude. 2.3.4 Trial According to Lionberger (1968) at this stage there is the tentative trying out of the practice or idea accompanied by information on how to do it. In the view of Bradfiled (1975), when risk appears manageable and potential benefit outweighs cost, very often, the individual decides to try the idea on a small scale. It means therefore that at the trial stage, the innovation is used on a probationary basis in order to determine its usefulness to the need situation of the client. This will reduce any uncertainty inherently associated with the new idea. The trial stage is therefore necessary because without it the client will remain unconvinced of the benefit of adopting a proposed change. 30 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.3.5 Adoption When the individual is convinced by the results at the trial stage, he/she accepts the idea fully and applies the idea in preference to the old method (Bradfield, 1975). That is the individual makes full use of the innovation or idea as the best available course of action. This agrees with Lionberger (1975) assertion that there is full-scale integration of he practice into the on-going operation. Therefore at the adoption stage, the innovation exposed to client is demonstrably proved to be relevant to his/her need situation. Also all inherent uncertainty must have been dealt with. However, Van den Ban and Hawkins (1988) point out those decisions in practice may often be made in a much less rational and systematic manner than outlined. Lionberger (1968) also comments on the stages of the adoption process. In his view, the decision sequence can be truncated at any point or stages may be blended that it is impossible to distinguish between where one begins and the other ends. It means that not all the stages in the adoption process may be applicable to all clients in practice. Some clients may not go through all these stages. 2.4 Communication Channels Used At Different Stages in the Adoption Process Rogers (1995) states that different communication channels play key roles at various stages of the innovation decision process/adoption process. According to Lionberger (1968) at the awareness stage where the audience learns about the new idea or practice, mass media are most used. Mass media channels are means of transmitting messages involving a mass medium such as radio, television, newspapers and so on that enable a source of one or few individuals to reach an audience of many. Starrs and Rizzuto (1995) indicate that mass media channels are 31 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh useful for raising awareness and can convey simple messages very effectively. For Saville (1965) mass media channels are usually designed to create general awareness among the people. Mass media channels are therefore normally used to create knowledge among potential adopters of a new idea or practice. According to Lionberger (1968) mass media and other farmers rate high as sources of information at the interest stage. These are perceived as relevant sources that can respond to client’s questioning concerning the innovation. At the evaluation stage, where a decision regarding the basic merit of the new idea, product or practice is required, and the considerations regarding applicability to the local condition become paramount, fellow individuals who have had the requisite experience and whose opinions are respected are the sources most in demand. Rogers (1995) states that individuals depend on their near-peers for innovation evaluation information, which decreases their uncertainty about the innovation’s expected consequences. This information seeking behaviour enables the individual to know if he/she is on the right track. According to Lionberger (1968), mass media are distinctly less used at the evaluation stage. Saville (1965) has a contrary view. According to him, in order to advance people from awareness and interest to the evaluation and trial stages of accepting a new practice, group methods are used. They include general meetings, group discussions, result demonstrations, methods demonstrations, farm visits, conducted tours and short courses for instruction. Van de Ban and Hawkins (1988) list friends and neighbours as sources of information at this stage. 32 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Lionberger (1968) states that at the trial stage where information regarding application of innovation is needed, friends and neighbours usually top the list. These are likely to be convincing sources with personal experiences. Van de Ban and Hawkins (1988) state that opinion leaders are the main sources of information. This could reduce uncertainty about the innovation and convince clients that it is worth experimenting. At the adoption stage, superior performance or demonstrated merit is required. Saville (1965) points out that frequently individual meetings are needed to persuade a farmer at the adoption stage. This is due to the fact that interpersonal communication channels are more effective in causing persuasion effects. But according to Lionberger (1968), sources of information used are research findings from government agencies, industry and the experiences of others that have been successful. It must however be recognised that the use of mass media and interpersonal channels at various stages of the adoption process as outlined earlier are generalisations. There are some contradictions. For example Deutschmann and Fals Borda (1962b) in Rogers (1995) found that Columbian villagers heavily used interpersonal channels even at the knowledge stage. In Bangladesh villages, Rahim (1961, 1965) in Rogers (1995) found mass media channels were seldom mentioned as channels about agricultural innovations, whereas cosmopolite-interpersonal channels were very important. There seems therefore to be no clearly defined channel usage at the various stages of the adoption process. 33 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.5 Channels of Information and Gender Development projects often assume that information given to men will reach the women next. In practice, this is not necessarily the case, as in many cultures men will not mix public with private matters and so will not discuss a water supply or sanitation project at home (Karp et al, 1990, Olsson et al, 1990, Tunyayvanich et al, 1987 Wijk, 1985). This implies that the characteristics of the target audience influence the choice of channel to be used to transfer information. The use of the same information channels for men and women may not be effective in communicating innovation information. For information on a latrine project in Honduras, men attended meetings and demonstrations, while women relied on information from the radio and other women. In a latrine project in Pakistan, the spread of information and rate of acceptance and use was low, until some women who had installed a latrine and were satisfied with it were engaged as promoters and started to tell other women in their neighbourhood (Spector et al, 1971, and IRC, 1988). Women generally experience more constraints on attending community meetings and speaking out in them (IRC and PROWESS, 1992). These constraints may therefore be the reason for the inappropriateness of using meetings and demonstration for the case stated earlier. The lower literacy levels of women and less experience with pictures (visual literacy) should be taken into account. When information is distributed, it should not only be 34 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh accessible but also understandable, acceptable and applicable by the target group. Much hygiene education material is too general, academic or unrealistic to be applied (Wijk and Murre, 1994). The principle of gender - specificity may also have to apply to the print media channels. Relevant cases are posters with health messages in a project in Tanzania, which were hung in public and other places not frequent by women (IRC, 1995). 2.6 Communication Channels and Accessibility to Information Forbes (1964) defines accessibility as implying the ease of getting to a place. In the view of Moseley (1979), the concept of accessibility means in general that something is “get-at-able”. In relation to innovation information, accessibility can be conceptualised as the extent to which beneficiaries get “it” from the source. “It” here refers to any innovation information. Accessibility may be influenced by socio­ economic activities, gender etc. The innovation decision process seems to assume that the audience is just a mass of individuals in order to reach them. Therefore the same channel is appropriate to them. In reality, this may not be the case. Men and women have different areas of control and responsibility. Needs, priorities and motivation of men and women are often not the same (Sigot et al, 1995). This is a result of their different and peculiar circumstances. Therefore their choices and means of accessibility may not be the same. Berio (1960) says that for effective communication the source or communicator must be aware of the characteristics of the social system, culture and values of the 35 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh receiver. This awareness will enable the communicator to select an appropriate set of symbols and channels for his message. Also development theory and research indicates that the socio- economic structure of the target audience plays a very important role in any social intervention and particularly in communication interventions (Dennis, 1983). The socio-cultural/economic structures of men and women may act as systems constraints influencing channel preferences by them. Hence the channel used may affect their accessibility to and interaction with any communication intervention. 2.7 The Way Forward Communication has undergone some dramatic changes from one-way, top-down transfer of messages, to a social process that starts with beneficiaries and brings together both the source and beneficiary in a two-way sharing of information among communication equals. It highlights the importance of cultural diversity, concerted action, dialogue, local knowledge and stakeholder participation. The participation of beneficiaries also in the process information transfer to them is an issue that must be addressed. Rowling (1988) indicated that there are imperfections in the way information is transferred in the adoption process a result of the heterogeneity of the adopter categories. For that matter, using the same communication channels to disseminate information to members of a social system may not elicit the desired response. There is the need to look at channels beneficiaries desire the source to use for information transfer to them as mounting evidence from certain research findings seem to suggest. 36 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Egbule and Njoku (2001) found out that mass media (radio) performed poorly in disseminating requisite agricultural information to farmers. Farmers preferred television to radio and newspapers as a means of agricultural information dissemination to them. Farmer's preference for television over other mass media channels demands the television be used in information transfer to them in order to be effective and have desirable results in terms of agricultural productivity. Maddox and Mustian (2003) commented that while the technological advances have emerged as the information delivery channels of the 21st century, it is apparent that this may not be the preferred channel of information access. They found out that communication channel preferences for agricultural information were in the form of personal and printed methodologies. This requires that organizational entities providing information to agricultural producers must switch over to the choices of their beneficiaries in order to be effective and efficient in their work. The literature review has demonstrated the need for a new paradigm of information dissemination that is based on the communication channel preferences of the beneficiaries. This new paradigm could be appropriate in eliciting desirable changes. This research may contribute to such a new paradigm in information transfer. 37 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY 3.0 Introduction This chapter deals with the study area and choice of selected communities under it. It also presents sampling and data collection procedures and how the study instrument was developed to achieve the objectives of the study. It covers also how data was processed and analysed. 3.1 The Study Area The study was conducted in the Ho district of the Volta region of Ghana. Danida (1994) project report states that majority (about 80%) of the inhabitants in the Ho district live in the rural areas. The majority of them are farmers. About 10% are engaged in the manufacturing industry, the most popular being food processing and textile weaving. About 23% of them are engaged in trading. In the rural areas, residence is patrilocal meaning people live in units comprising the extended patrilineal family. Villages are divided into clans or units comprising patrilineal entities or extended families. There are female-headed households, which are in most cases migrant labor. The migrant labor is often made up of farmers and salaried workers (teachers, nurses, and agricultural extension workers from other parts of the country (Kwadzokpo, 1998). Before the inception of the Volta Community Water and Sanitation Programme, the Ho district was beset with a number of water related problems. Access to potable water supply was low. 38 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The sanitation situation was no better. The majority of rural dwellers in the district had no access to hygienic toilets, thus giving room to open and indiscriminate defecation. According to the annual report of the Ministry of Health in 1990, four of the leading causes of hospitalisation in the district are directly related to water and sanitation. Malaria, the leading cause of morbidity and mortality, is endemic. Intestinal worms, tetanus, diarrhoea diseases, anaemia (probably due to repeated malaria attacks and worms), bilharzia, guinea worms, yaws and skin disease are prevalent. 3.2 Rationale for the Choice of Study Area The Ho district was chosen for the study. This was due to the fact that the community water and sanitation project in the Volta region was first initiated in that district in 1993. Hence community members have experience on the project in terms of the acceptance and use or non-acceptance of the community water and sanitation concept. Also appreciable project services have been established. This means that innovation technology has been transmitted to the beneficiaries for an appreciable time to enable a study on communication channel preference to be conducted. These conspired to make the district suitable for the study. 3.3 Classification of Communities by the Volta Community Water and Sanitation Programme (VCWSP) in the Study Area The VCWSP serves over one hundred communities in the Ho district. These communities are classified on socio-economic levels. The classification was arrived at by the project using the following factors: • Degree to which community members are in formal employment. • Level of education of community members 39 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh • Infrastructure development (i.e. roads, water supply, electricity, schools etc). Based on the above factors the communities were ranked by the project from the highest to the lowest in terms of socio-economic status. The highest ranked community is Tanyigbe. Dave, Hodzo-Ve and Gbleve communities had the same lowest level of ranking. 3.4 Selection of Communities for the Study The highest ranked community Tanyigbe was purposively selected. Dave,Hodzo-Ve and Gbleve communities which had the same lowest level of ranking were also purposively selected. Patton (1990) states that for purposive sampling, subjects are selected because of some characteristic. In this study, the basis of classification of the communities by VCWSP reflects differences in the socio-economic circumstances of beneficiaries. Dennis (1983) stated that the socio-economic structure of audience play a very important role in communication interventions. Variations with respect to level of education and type of socio-economic activity may influence channel preferences of beneficiaries. Therefore the choice of communities ranked high and low by VCWSP may reflect differences in channel preferences by different socio-economic activity categories. This is in agreement with Kumekpor (1999:136) that “purposive sampling is useful for the study of communities with respect to cause of, or reason for, interest in, indifference or opposition to specific projects, ideas or innovations”. 3.5 The Study Population The study population that was studied in order to realise the objectives of the study consisted of all the men and women in the selected communities who have been 40 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh residing there prior to the project intervention. It also included the extension agents of the VCWSP. 3.6 Sampling Procedure The units of enquiry were: • Individual men and women in the communities. • Head of extension agents/field officers of the VCWSP. All the houses were numbered in each of the selected communities from one to the total. Then numbers from 1 to 10 were written on pieces of paper. These were folded to conceal the numbers and put together into a box. The box was thoroughly shaken. The piece of paper with the number 5 written on it was picked at random from the box. Therefore a male and female in every 5th house in all the selected communities were interviewed. This was done to have as many male respondents as their female counterparts. The oldest males and females in the selected houses were interviewed. The number of beneficiaries interviewed in each community depends on its size. The larger the community, the higher the number of beneficiaries interviewed. Fifteen beneficiaries were interviewed at Gbleve community. This was made up of seven males and eight females. Similarly, seven males and eight females were interviewed at Dave community. Thirty beneficiaries were interviewed at Hodzo-Ve community. This was made up of fifteen males and fifteen females. Finally, sixty 41 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh beneficiaries were interviewed at Tanyigbe community. This comprised thirty males and thirty females. Fifty-nine males and sixty-one females were interviewed in the selected communities. In all, 120 males and females were interviewed in all the four selected communities. All the heads of the various unit of VCWSP that are involved in planning extension activities were selected. These were: the regional software officer of VCWSP, the regional gender officer of VCWSP, the regional extension supervisor of VCWSP, the Ho district engineer of VCWSP, the Ho district extension supervisor of VCWSP. 3.7 Development of Study Instrument An interview schedule and a questionnaire were developed as instruments for the collection of data for the study. The interview schedule was used for community members and the questionnaire for extension agents. The questions were organised in such a way as to ensure that responses would be reliable and relevant to the objectives of the study and eventually answer the research questions. Table 3.1, which indicates variables, information required, source and method of data collection were used to develop the study instrument. 42 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table3.1 Variables, Information Required, Source and Methods of Data Collection VARIABLE INFORMATION RQUIRED SOURCE DATA COLLECTION METHODS Personal Characteristics: 1. Men 2. Women Age Level of Education Type of Occupation - Religion Men and Women -Questionnaire -Interview Schedule Innovation Information Relevance and Appropriateness to existing condition -Men and Women -Extension agents -Interview Schedule -Questionnaire Channels used by Source for information Dissemination - Stages of Innovation- decision process at which each channel is used by source and the underlying reasons - Stages of Innovation decision process at which beneficiary indicated channel was by used by source -Men and Women -Extension Agents -Questionnaire Schedule - Interview Schedule Channel Preference Various channels preferred by beneficiaries with underlying reasons Men and Women Interview Schedule Behavioural Change(s) Change in knowledge and practices of beneficiaries -Men and Women -Extension Agents -Questionnaire -Interview schedule 3.8 Pre-test An interview schedule and questionnaire were used for data gathering from beneficiaries and extension agents respectively for pre-test. Moser and Kalton (1971) and Sarantakos (1993) have noted that pre-testing helps the researcher assess whether the interviewers understand and can administer the instrument effectively and whether the target respondents find the interview schedule adequate for its purpose. The questionnaire and interview schedule was therefore pre-tested to assess their validity and reliability. Questionnaire for community members was pre-tested at Ayi Mensah, a community in the Greater Accra region. Most of them are farmers. Some are food processors and traders. They speak Ewe. Four men and two women were interviewed. The questionnaire was reviewed after pre-testing because some of the questions were not valid and reliable. 43 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Some examples of the changes made were: “Did the new idea seem to have the potential of satisfying a need in your life?” This question has been changed to “Was the new idea relevant to your problem situation?” The first one was unclear to them. The question “How was the new idea introduced to you?” was difficult for respondents to give any relevant responses after translation into Ewe. “How” translated into Ewe is “aleke” which has lots of meanings. To some of the respondents this question meant “what were you told'. This question has therefore been revised to “ what medium did the source use to introduce the innovation to you?” This was well understood to mean the means by which innovation information was communicated to them. The questionnaire for extension agents was administered to five environmental health assistants (EHA). Three of them were women. The rest were men. The pre-test provided the opportunity to effect the necessary corrections in the measuring instrument before it was taken to the field of study. 3.9 Data Collection Procedure The researcher contacted the chiefs and opinion leaders in the selected communities through the assistance of the field agents of VCWSP The purpose of the research was explained to them. They then informed the community members that anybody selected should co-operate with the student researcher. The researcher administered the interview schedule to the beneficiaries. Cannel and Kahn 1968 cited in Kalton and Moser 1971:271 outlined three broad conditions for a successful interview as follows: 44 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh • “The accessibility of the information to the respondent. • Cognition or understanding by the respondent of what is required. • Motivation on the part of the respondent not just to answer the question but give accurate answers”. Therefore the purpose of the interview was first explained to each beneficiary before the interview. Also the beneficiary must have been residing in the community prior to the project intervention. The language used for interview was Ewe since student researcher speaks it very well. The interview was conducted from 10th April - 15th May 2000. An average of five beneficiaries was interviewed each day. The researcher arranged meetings with the heads of extension agents and administered questionnaires to them in their respective offices. These were: the regional software officer of VCWSP, the regional gender officer of VCWSP, the regional extension supervisor or VCWSP, the Ho district engineer of VCWSP, the Ho district extension supervisor of VCWSP 3.10 Data Processing and Analysis The information obtained from the beneficiaries was edited by critically reading through each questionnaire. A coding frame was then developed. The data was computer analysed using Statistical Package for Social Scientists (SPSS) to generate frequencies and percentages of the various variables. 45 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Data was processed to bring out information on the channel preferences of beneficiaries at the various stages of the adoption process and the underlying reasons for such preferences. It also revealed channels through which innovation information was received. In addition, it brought out socio-economic activity distribution of beneficiaries, relevance of innovation information etc. All the above processing of data was disaggregated by sex for comparison. Data analysis was done after processing. At this stage, the level of education and socio-economic activity of beneficiaries were categorized. The education level of beneficiaries was also categorized into “no formal education, “low formal education” and “high formal education". Those in the low formal education category comprised those who had primary, junior secondary school and middle school levels of education. Those who had the following levels of education; ‘O' and ‘A’ Levels, SSS, technical, post secondary were put into the category of high formal education. The socio-economic activities of beneficiaries were grouped into the following categories: self-employed, employed by somebody and unemployed. The self- employed comprise the following: brewers, masons, seamstress, herbalists, palm wine tapers, blacksmiths, food processors, shoe makers, charcoal producers, carpenters, traders, drivers, hairdressers, farmers and fishmongers. Those employed by someone comprise teachers, plumbers, electricians, labourers, civic educators, watchmen, pastors, and agricultural officers. The unemployed are those involved in household chores. 46 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The various channel preferences were cross-tabulated against the categorized level of education and socio-economic activities of beneficiaries. The questionnaire for the extension agents were analysed manually to find out channels used by VCWSP (source/sender of innovation information) at each stage of the adoption process, reasons for use of such channels and other relevant information. 3.11 Identification of the Stages of the Innovation Decision Process Beneficiaries were interviewed in a logical sequence through the various stages of the innovation decision process. The following shows the stages and the criteria used by the researcher to identify each stage in order to find out channel preferences of beneficiaries, source of information and channel used by source for information delivery. Awareness Stage - Was the beneficiary exposed to the innovation information? - When did the beneficiary first have knowledge about the innovation? Or when was the beneficiary first exposed to the innovation? - Was the innovation relevant to the beneficiary need situation? Interest Stage - What did the beneficiary do after he or she has been introduced to the innovation? 47 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh What was the response of the beneficiary after he or she has been exposed to the innovation? - If the beneficiary regarded the innovation as relevant to his or her need situation, what did the beneficiary do after exposure to the innovation? - Was information sought or not to clarify any issues or to deal with any doubts after exposure to the innovation? Evaluation Stage 1. After getting exposed to the innovation, which was relevant to the beneficiary state of need, information may or may not be sought. 2. Those who did not seek for the information have no need for clarification. 3. Others who sought for the information had need for clarification. - After the beneficiary went through 1 and 2 or 1 and 3, has he or she considered a change to the innovation from the old practice? - Did the beneficiary consider perceived attributes like relative advantage, complexity, etc of the innovation? Trial Stage - Was the innovation used by the beneficiary on a probationary basis to determine its usefulness to the state of need? - Was the innovation used on probationary basis to reduce any inherent uncertainty about it? - After consideration of benefits of change from the old to the new practice what did the beneficiary do after he or she was convinced? University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Was further information received before using the innovation on a probationary basis to determine its usefulness? Adoption Stage - Has the beneficiary accepted continuous use of the innovation as the best available course of action compared with the old practice? - Is the beneficiary now practising the innovation? - How long did it take the beneficiary to start practising the innovation after getting convinced of its benefits? - In order to get more convinced did the beneficiary receive any information after using the innovation on a probationary basis? With respect to the heads of agents involved in extension planning, they were knowledgeable concerning the stages of the innovation decision process and were able to indicate the channels they used at each stage with reasons. 3.12 Overlap and Calculation of Accessibility The overlap between channels preferred by beneficiaries and channels used by source for information delivery occurs when preferred channels are used by the source for information delivery. The following Venn diagram (Fig.2) shows the relationship between channel preferences of beneficiaries and channels used by the source of information. 49 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Fig. 2: The Relationship between Channel Preferences and Channels Used by the Source of Information. Where: U= the number of beneficiaries who indicated that a particular channel was used by the source for information delivery to them. P= the number of beneficiaries who preferred a particular channel. P1= the number of beneficiaries who preferred a particular channel but it was not used by the source for information delivery to them. U1= the number of beneficiaries who indicated a particular channel was used by the source but did not prefer it. P=U= the number of beneficiaries who indicated a particular channel they preferred was used by the source for information delivery to them. Accessibility is measured by U/P. U1 is calculated using U1=U- (P=U) under the following conditions: 1. Where all beneficiaries who preferred a particular channel had it used by the source for information delivery to them. In such a case, P1=0. That is there 50 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh was no beneficiary who preferred that particular channel and it was not used by the source for information delivery. 2. All the number of beneficiaries who indicated that a particular channel was used by source for information delivery is greater than the number who preferred that channel. P1 is calculated using P1=P- (P=U) under the following conditions: 1. The number of beneficiaries who preferred a particular channel is greater than the number who indicated it was used by source for information delivery. This implies there are beneficiaries who preferred that channel but it was not used by source. 2. Channel was not used to deliver information to any beneficiary who did not prefer it (i.e. U1 = 0). 51 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FOUR FINDINGS OF THE STUDY 4.0. Introduction This chapter indicates the findings of the study. Sections A shows the prior state of selected communities. Section B deals with water and sanitation practices of beneficiaries before intervention by VCWSP and innovation information produced by the source (VCWSP). Section C covers communication channel used by the source (VCWSP) as indicated by extension agents and communication channels beneficiaries indicated were used by the source to deliver information to them. Section D, E, F, G and H show channel preferences at the awareness, interest, evaluation trial and adoption stages respectively and how these are related to the level of education and socio-economic activities of beneficiaries. Section I covers the frequency of information acquisition by beneficiaries from the source. Finally, section J shows the relationship between channel preferences of beneficiaries and channels used by the source and accessibility to information and then behavioural changes in beneficiaries as a result of exposure to information. SECTION A 4.1 Prior State of Selected Communities This section describes the prior state of selected communities before intervention by VCWSP. The selected communities were: Hodzo-Ve, Tanyigbe, Dave and Gbleve The information below on the tradition, major health problems, health hazards, sanitation and water supply in the above communities were culled from the VCWSP documents of 1994. . 52 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.1.1 Hodzo-Ve Community Tradition Hodzo-Ve community has a traditional structure of leadership headed by the chief. There are no beliefs in the community, which may prevent or impede behavioral changes in relation to water and sanitation activities. Major Health Problems Five major diseases in the community from the point of view of the chief and other opinion leaders are Guinea worm, worms, ringworm, hookworm, diarrhoea, and malaria. Health Hazards The major health hazards, which are the greatest threats to the health of the inhabitants of the community as identified by both environmental health assistant (EHA) and the community are: Indiscriminate garbage dumping, indiscriminate defecation, stray animals and stagnant waste water (from bath enclosures). The community was concerned to tackle these health problems and hazards because of the ill health they cause. They also threaten the life of their children and adversely affect their farming activities. Existing Sanitation Situation The community has no public or household latrines. Defecating in and around is practised in the bushes of the village. The inhabitants do not use the community garbage site. Rather there are several household dumps at the edge of the 53 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh surrounding bushes. Wastewater from some bath enclosures is not well drained and stands in pools. Water Supply The inhabitants of Hodzo-Ve face a critical situation in which their main source of domestic water is over 7kms away. There are no reported permanent streams within 5kms of the community although several seasonal streams flow during the rainy seasons. While several health problems are associated with the use of open water bodies e.g. Guinea worm infestation and bilharzia in some cases the question of availability of water is not one of safe or unsafe water. Rather it is one of having unsafe water or no water. 4.1.2. Tanviqbe Community Tradition Tanyigbe has a stable structure of traditional authority in the community. This structure, headed by the chief and elders is assisted by the association of males and females (Soheawo) and elected executives of the unit committees. There are no beliefs in the community, which may prevent or impede behavioural changes in relation to water and sanitation activities. Major Health Problems Major water and sanitation related health problems from the point of view of the chief and other community opinion leaders are Bilharzias (Schistosomiasis) other worms, ringworms, and hookworms. 54 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Health Hazards The community identifies the following as its greatest threats to the health of inhabitants: Indiscriminate garbage dumping, indiscriminate defecation, grass/bush (mosquito breading places), poorly maintained latrines and stray animals. The community is concerned about the above health problems and hazards in order to improve the health status of its members. Existing Sanitation Situation The traditional pit latrines in use are shallow because of the unconsolidated nature of the soil. Free ranging is practised in the bushes around the settlement. There are no household latrines. Despite the establishment of communal garbage sites, a significant number of households have their individual dumps at the edge of the surrounding bushes. Water Supply The main source of drinking water for the community is a stream. It lies at the lowest part of the community and is easily polluted by run off from the town. It is also open and exposed to all sorts of droplets. Users step into the stream before fetching. 4.1.3. Dave Community Tradition Dave community is made up of two clans with a traditional structure headed by the chief. The community is well organised with very good community management. There are no beliefs in the community, which may prevent or impede behavioural changes in relation to water and sanitation activities. 55 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Major Health Problems The community leaders have identified the following diseases as very serious health problems: Malaria, diarrhoea, skin conditions, intestinal worm infestation and guinea worm. Health Hazards The major health hazards identified by both the community leaders and EHA are: Stagnant water bodies, indiscriminate garbage dumping, indiscriminate defecation, and absence of latrines and bad drinking water. Existing Sanitation Situation There are currently no existing communal or private latrines of any sort in the community. The people practice open defecation in and around the community. Hence sanitary condition is very poor. Water Supply The community has no water source in use. They however, depend on a pipe borne water behind Ho Leprosarium, which is about 3.5km from the community, for their use. People depend on water from streams and dugouts. The distance from the streams to the community is half mile. 56 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.1. 4 Gbleve Community Tradition Gbleve community has a traditional structure of leadership headed by the chief. There are no beliefs in the community, which prevent or impede behavioural changes in relation of water and sanitation activities. Major Health Problems Five major health problems of the community from the point of view of the chief and other community opinion leaders are; Guinea worm, stomach troubles, dysentery, skin diseases and eye troubles. Health Hazards Five main health hazards identified by the community and EHA are; stagnant water bodies, indiscriminate garbage dumping, grasser bush (mosquito breeding places) poorly maintained latrines and bad drinking water. The greatest threats to the health of the inhabitants of the community as identified by the community are stagnant water bodies. The community is concerned about its health problems and hazards because these cause morbidity and decrease productivity for its members. Existing Sanitation Situation There are two communal pit latrines, one for males and one for females, located at the outskirts of the community. These are however, in very poor conditions. They are roofed with thatch but without any enclosure, and the squat slabs, which are 57 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh made of narrow planks, are weak. They are shallow and almost full. In spite of the fact that there are two pit latrines, open defecation is practised. No individual owns household latrine. Water Supply The community depends on two sources of water supply during the rainy season. There is a seasonal stream, which lies about 200 meters to the northwest and a dugout to the north-northeast. This dugout also dries up in the early months of the dry season. Thus in the thick of the dry season the community faces acute shortage of any form of water and community members have to travel to Ho to fetch water. Even the available sources in the rainy season are not of good quality. They are highly turbid and infested with aquatic insects. SECTION B 4.2 Water and Sanitation Practices of Beneficiaries before Project Intervention and Innovation Information Produced by the Source (VCWSP) The water and sanitation practices of beneficiaries before project intervention (prior state), the information packages produced by the source in response to the prior state and how relevant these packages were to beneficiaries are presented below. Innovations beneficiaries indicated were of most interest to them were also presented. 4.2.1 Water and Sanitation Practices before Intervention bv VCWSP Table 4.1 below shows water and sanitation practices of beneficiaries before communication intervention by project. This reveals that 40.7% males and 24.6% 58 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh females were practising indiscriminate disposal of refuse, faeces etc. before the project intervention. Seventeen percent males and 42.7% females were also defecating in an around the community before the project intervention. However, 18.6% males and 27.9% females practised defecating in and around community and indiscriminate disposal of refuse. Pollution of water sources was practised by 8.5% males compared to 1.6% females. With respect to poor personal hygiene, 3.4% males and 3.2% females were practising it before project intervention. Table 4.1: Frequency and Percentage Distributions of Water and Sanitation Practices of Beneficiaries before Intervention by VCWSP Practice Before Project Intervention Beneficiaries Male Female Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage Defecating in and around community 17 28.8 26 42.7 Defecating in and around community and indiscriminate disposal of refuse, faeces etc. 11 18.6 17 27.9 Indiscriminate disposal of refuse, faeces etc. 24 40.7 15 24.6 Pollution of Water Source/Points 5 8.5 1 1.6 Poor personal hygiene 2 3.4 2 3.2 Total 59 100.0 61 100.0 4.2.2 Innovation Packages Produced bv the Source (VCWSP) According to the source (VCWSP), the following information packages were produced and disseminated to the beneficiaries: • Rubbish should be disposed of from the household. • Disposal sites should be regularly looked after through burning etc. • Areas around all houses should be free from weeds, refuse, stagnant water and faeces. 59 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh • Take measures to ensure that wastewater is not left to create breeding places for mosquitoes. • Wash hands with soap after using latrine. • Wash hands with soap before eating, feeding. • Water containers should be covered during transportation. • Water should be collected in clean containers. • Water pots should have fitting covers. • The surroundings of drinking water pots should be kept clean. • Drinking water should be fetched from the storage container such that hands, cups etc, do not contaminate water. • Water fetching points should be free from rubbish, weeds and animal droppings • Water fetching points should be free from standing water and mud • Water fetching points should be free from domestic animals • Take measures to ensure that wastewater does not contaminate safe water. 4.2.3 Relevance of Innovation Information to Problem Situation Table. 4.2 below shows that 64.0% males and 73.7% females said the innovation information was relevant to their problem situation because it was capable of solving the problem of unhealthy environment due to indiscriminate disposal of refuse, faeces, etc. Similarly, for 23.7% males and 21.3% females, the innovation information was relevant because it was capable of solving health problems due to poor environmental sanitation. Few beneficiaries made up of 4.3% males and 3.3% females indicated that innovation information was relevant because it was capable of preventing disease contraction due to poor personal hygiene. Similarly, 8.0% males 6 0 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh and 1.7% females said innovation was relevant because it was capable of solving the problem of unsafe water points. Table 4.2 reveals that innovation information can be grouped into three areas. These are environment, water points/sources and individual health. Findings show that to most beneficiaries, the innovation information was relevant to their environmental problem situation. Table 4.2: Frequency and Percentage Distributions of Reasons Given by Beneficiaries on the Relevance of Innovation Information to Their Problem Situation Reason Beneficiaries Male Female Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage Capable of solving health problems due to poor environmental sanitation 14 23.7 13 21.3 Capable of solving the problem of unsafe water points 5 8.0 1 1.7 Capable of solving the problem of unhealthy environmental due to indiscriminate disposal of refuse, faeces, etc. 38 64 45 73.7 Capable of preventing disease contraction due to poor personal hygiene 2 4.3 2 3.3 Total 59 100.0 61 100.0 4.2.4 Innovations of Most Interest to Beneficiaries Table 4.3 below shows innovations of most interest to beneficiaries. This reveals that innovations on areas around all houses should be free from weeds, refuse, stagnant water and faeces were of most interest to 45.7% males and 47.6% females. This was followed by innovation on household latrine, which was of most interest to 35.6% males and 44.4% females. However, innovation on rubbish disposal some distance from the house was of most interest to 3.4% males and 3.2% females. Also burning of at disposal sites regularly was of most interest to only the males (3.4%). 61 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Similarly, washing hands with soap before feeding was of most interest to a male (1.7%). Preventing wastewater from contaminating safe water was of most interest to one beneficiary and to no female. Table 4.3: Frequency and Percentage Distributions of Innovations of Most Interest to Beneficiaries Innovation of Interest Beneficiaries Male Female Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage Rubbish should be disposed some distance from the house 2 3.4 2 3.2 Disposal sites should be regularly looked after through burning 2 3.4 - Areas around all houses should be free from weeds, refuse, stagnant water and faeces 27 45,7 29 47.6 Household Latrine 21 35.6 27 44.4 Wash hands with soap after using latrine 1 1.7 2 3.2 Wash hands with soap before feeding 1 1.7 - - Fetching points should be free from rubbish, weeds and animal droppings 4 6.8 1 1.6 Ensure that waste water does not contaminate safe water 1 1.7 - - Total 59 100.0 61 100.0 SECTION C 4.3 Communication Channels used by VCWSP as Indicated by Extension Agents Various communication channels were used by the project (VCWSP) at each stage of the innovation decision process as a means of getting innovation information to beneficiaries. These channels are indicated below with the reasons for their use. 4.3.1 Awareness Stage According to the project (VCWSP), community meeting is mainly used at the awareness stage. The reason for the use of this channel was that it could convey 62 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh innovation information quickly to a large number of beneficiaries. From their experience of the VCWSP, there were problems with the use of this channel. These were: difficulty in assembling community members, low attendance by community members, shyness on the part of some community members to express themselves, low assimilation due to large audience, information delivered subject to different interpretations due to little or no room for asking questions. 4.3.2 Interest Stage Community meeting with group discussion was used. This according to the VCWSP made the environment a little participatory compared with what pertained at the awareness stage. This would elicit the involvement of clientele. At this stage just as at awareness stage, there was difficulty in assembling community members. Occasionally, individual contact was used for clarifying issues. 4.3. 3 Evaluation Stage The following channels were used: cinema with talks and posters with talks. The main reason for the use of these channels was for beneficiaries to see and believe in the information. The problem with the above two channels was that information would be subject to different interpretations at times. The uses of such channels were also very expensive to undertake. 63 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.3.4 Trial Stage The following channels were used: cinema with talks and posters with talks. The use of the above two channels was to get beneficiaries more convinced. The problem with the use of such channels was that they were very expensive. 4.3.5 Adoption Stage The following channels are used: cinema with talks posters with talks and role-plays. These according to the project were very expensive. But they were employed to encourage beneficiaries put information into habitual practice. 4.4 Communication Channels Beneficiaries Indicated were used by Source (VCWSP) for Innovation Information Delivery to Them Beneficiaries indicated various channels were used by VCWSP in the transfer of information to them throughout the stages of the adoption process. Table 4.4 below shows channels beneficiaries stated were used by source (VCWSP) to deliver information to them throughout the various stages of the adoption process 4.4.1 Awareness Stage At the awareness stage, majority of both male and female respondents said the channel '‘community meeting” was used by source to deliver information to them. That is 98.4% males and 98,3% of female beneficiaries. Only one male and one female said that individual contact was used as a channel by the source for information delivery to them. 4.4.2 Interest Stage At the interest stage, majority (86.4%) of males and majority (83.3%) of females received information from the source through community meeting compared to 64 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 13.6% male and 16.7% female beneficiaries who said they received information through individual contact. It must be noted that the interest stage was applicable to only 22 males and 12 females (i.e. only 22 males and 18 females went through the interest stage of the innovation decision process) compared to fifty-nine males and sixty-one females who were exposed to the innovation at the awareness stage. This was due to the fact that the rest of the beneficiaries did not go through the interest stage. 4.4.3 Evaluation Stage. The channels cinema with talks and posters with talks were used by the source at the evaluation stage. As shown in table 4.4, 55.2% of males and 47.5% of females received information from source through cinema with talks compared with 31.0% and 32.8% of males and females respectively who had their information through posters with talks. Individual contact was used by source to deliver information 5.4% males and 9.9% females. With respect to the channel community meeting, 5.4%males compared with 8.2% females said it was used by the source to deliver information to them. Brochure was used to deliver information to two males (3.0%) compared to one (1.6%) female beneficiary. 4.4.4 Trial Stage The trial stage was applicable to only six males and two females compared to fifty- nine males and sixty-one females that had been exposed to the innovation at the awareness stage. This was due to the fact that the rest of the beneficiaries did not go through the trial stage. The six males and two females said the channel individual contact was used by the source to deliver information to them at this stage. 65 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.4.5 Adoption Stage The beneficiaries indicated that the channel used by the source at the adoption stage was individual contact. Only one beneficiary received information from the source after using innovation on a probationary basis. Table 4.4: Frequency and Percentage Distributions of Channel Indicated by Beneficiaries were used by Source to Deliver Information to Them throughout the Adoption Process. Stage Channel Used By Source As Indicated By Beneficiaries Beneficiaries Male Female Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage Awareness Individual Contact 1 1.6 1 1.7 Community Meeting 58 98.4 60 98.3 Interest Individual Contact 3 13.6 2 16.7 Community Meeting 19 86.4 10 83.3 Evaluation Individual Contact 3 5.4 6 9.9 Community Meeting 3 5.4 5 8.2 Brochure/Booklet 2 3.0 1 1.6 Posters with Talks 18 31.0 20 32.8 Cinema with Talks 32 55.2 29 47.5 Trial Individual contact 6 100.0 2 100.0 Adoption Individual contact 1 100.0 ■ - SECTION D 4.5 Channel Preferences at the Awareness Stage This section shows the channel preferences of beneficiaries at the awareness stage of the innovation decision process. There were three channel preferences. These were individual contact, community meeting and brochure/booklet. The frequency and percentage distributions of the various channel preferences of respondents are shown in table 4.5 below. As shown in table 4.5, 47.5% males preferred individual contact compared to 60.7% females who preferred the same channel. With respect 66 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh to community meeting, 42.4% males and 32.8% females preferred it as a channel of information delivery to them. Brochures/booklet was preferred by 10.1% males and 6.5% females. Table 4.5: Frequency and Percentage Distributions of Channel Preferences by Beneficiaries at the Awareness Stage Type of Channel Preference Beneficiaries Male Female Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage Individual Contact 28 47.5 37 60.7 Community Meeting 25 42.4 20 32.8 Brochure/Booklet 6 10.1 4 6.5 Total 59 100.0 61 100.0 4.5.1 Reasons For the Channel Preference Individual Contact at Awareness Stage Various reasons were given by beneficiaries for preferring the channel individual contact. The frequency distributions of the reasons for the channel preference individual contact are shown in table 4.6 below. As shown in table 4.6, the reason “I can personally ask for immediate clarification” had more responses from both male and female beneficiaries than any of the other reasons given by beneficiaries for the channel preference individual contact. That is 21 and 25 responses from males and females respectively. The issue of convenience with respect to the channel individual contact was of more concern to female beneficiaries with the males having six responses compared with 14 responses from the females. The reason for free and easy self-expression had six responses from male and five from female beneficiaries. Having time for activities was a reason for some females preferring individual contact. There were two responses in that respect. 67 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4,6: Frequency and Percentage Distributions of Reasons for the Channel Preference Individual Contact at Awareness Stage Reason for Channel Preference Beneficiaries Male Female Frequency Frequency I can personally ask for immediate clarification 21 25 It is convenient to me 6 14 It affords free and easy self - expression 6 5 It will enable me have time for my activities - 2 Total 33 46 Note: The number of responses in table 4.6 differs from the actual number who preferred the channel because beneficiaries gave more than one response (multiple responses) 4.5.2. Reasons for the Channel Preference Community Meeting at Awareness Stage Various reasons were given by beneficiaries for preferring the community meeting as a means of information dissemination to them. The frequency and percentage distributions of reasons for the channel preference community meeting are shown in table 4.7 below. This reveals that the reason ideas can be shared among the group had more responses from both male and female beneficiaries than any other response. That is 17 and 11 responses for male and female beneficiaries respectively. 68 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.7: Frequency and Percentage Distributions of Reasons for the Channel Preference Community Meeting at Awareness Stage Reason for Channel Preference Beneficiaries Male Female 1 could benefit from the contribution of others 6 6 Issues can be clarified to others at the meeting 2 3 Ideas can be shared among group 17 11 Total 25 20 Note: The number of responses in table 4.7 differs from the actual number who preferred the channel because beneficiaries gave more than one response (multiple responses) 4.5.3. Reasons for The channel Preference Brochure/Booklet at Awareness Stage The frequency and percentage distributions of reasons for the channel preference brochure/booklet are shown in table 4.8 below. This shows that convenience and timesaving were of concern to beneficiaries for their channel preference. Table 4.8: Frequency and Percentage Distributions of Reasons for the Channel Preference Brochure/Booklet Reasons For Channel Preference Beneficiaries Male Female Frequency Frequency I can read at my own convenient time. 6 4 It saves time 5 4 Total 11 8 Note: The number of responses in table 4.8 differs from the actual number who preferred the channel because beneficiaries gave more than one response (multiple responses) 4.6. Relationship between Channel Preferences at the Awareness Stage and Level of Education and Economic Activity The various channel preferences at the awareness stage were cross-tabulated against each of the following variables: 69 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh • Level of education • Economic activity 4.6.1. Level of Education and Channel Preferences at the Awareness Stage The relationships between the educational levels of beneficiaries and their preferences for the channels individual contact, community meeting and brochure/booklet at the awareness stage are described below. 4.6.1.1 Level of Education of Beneficiaries and the Channel Preference Individual Contact at Awareness Stage The relationship between the level of education of beneficiaries and the channel preference individual contact is shown in table 4.9 below. It reveals that those who no formal education and preferred the channel individual contact were made up of 10.7% males and 24.3% females. Majority (78.6%) of the males and majority (59.5%) of the females had low formal education compared to 10.7% males and 16.2% females that had high formal education and preferred the channel individual contact. Table 4.9: Frequency and Percentage Distributions of Level of Education of Beneficiaries who Preferred the Channel Individual Contact at Awareness Stage Level of Education Beneficiaries Male Female Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage No formal education 3 10.7 9 24,3 Low formal education 22 78.6 22 59.5 High formal education 3 10.7 6 16.2 Total 28 100.0 37 100,0 70 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.6.1.2 Level of Education of Fteneficiaries and the Channel Preference Community. Meeting at Awareness Stage. The relationship between the level of education of beneficiaries and the channel preference community meeting is shown in table 4.10 below. This reveals that majority (64.0%) of males and majority (60.0%) females had low formal education compared with 36.0% males and 15.0% females that preferred the same channel. Twenty five percent of females who preferred community meeting as a means of information acquisition had no formal education. However, there was no male beneficiary who had no formal education and preferred the channel community meeting. Table 4.10: Frequency and Percentage Distributions of Level of Education of Beneficiaries who Preferred the Channel Community Meeting at Awareness Stage Level of Education Beneficiaries Male Female Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage No formal education - - 5 25.0 Low formal education 16 64.0 12 60.0 High formal education 9 36.0 3 15.0 Total 25 100.0 20 100.0 4.6.1.3 Level of Education of Beneficiaries and the Channel Preference Brochure/Booklet at Awareness Stage The relationship between the level of education of beneficiaries and the channel preference brochure/booklet is shown in table 4.11 below. All the females had high formal education compared with 66.7% of their male counterparts. There was no beneficiary who had no formal education and preferred brochure/booklet as a means of information acquisition. 71 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.11: Frequency and Percentage Distributions of Level of Education of Beneficiaries who Preferred the Channel Brochure/Booklet at the Awareness Stage Level of Education Beneficiaries Male Female Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage No formal education - - - Low formal education 2 33.3 - High formal education 4 66.7 4 100.0 Total 6 100.0 4 100.0 4.6.2 Economic Activities of Beneficiaries and Channel Preferences at the Awareness Stage This section shows the relationship between the economic activities of beneficiaries and their channel preferences at the awareness stage. Table 4.12 below shows how the preferences by male beneficiaries for the channels individual contact, community meeting and brochure/booklet are related to their economic activities. It reveals that for male beneficiaries who are self-employed, 40 responses went to those who preferred individual contact, 41 responses to those who preferred community meeting as compared with nine responses to those who preferred brochure/booklet. For male beneficiaries employed by somebody, seven responses went to those who preferred individual contact, four responses to those who preferred community meeting and four responses to those who preferred brochure/booklet. For male beneficiaries who are unemployed, two responses went to those who preferred individual contact, and one to those who preferred community meeting. There was no response for brochure/booklet. 72 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.12: Frequency Distribution of Economic Activity of Male Beneficiaries who Preferred the Channels Individual Contact, Community Meeting and Brochure/Booklet at the Awareness Stage Type of Economic Activity Channel Preferences By Male Beneficiaries Individual Contact Community Meeting Brochure/Booklet Frequency Frequency Frequency Self-Employed 40 41 9 Employed by Somebody 7 4 4 Unemployed 2 1 Note: The number of responses in table 4.12 differs from the actual number who preferred the channels because beneficiaries gave more than one response (multiple responses) Table 4.13 below shows how preferences by female beneficiaries for the channels individual contact, community meeting and brochure/booklet are related to their economic activities. It reveals that for the female beneficiaries, who are self- employed, 56 responses went to those who preferred individual contact, 31 responses to those who preferred community meeting as compared with six responses to those who preferred brochure/booklet. For female beneficiaries employed by somebody, I response went to those who preferred individual contact, three responses to those who preferred community meeting and three to those who preferred brochure/booklet. For those who are unemployed, 16 responses went to those who preferred individual contact, seven responses to those who preferred community meeting as compared with one response to preference for brochure/booklet. 73 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4,13: Frequency Distribution of Economic Activity of Female Beneficiaries who Preferred the Channels Individual Contact, Community Meeting and Brochure/Booklet at the Awareness Stage Type of Economic Activity Channel Preferences By Female Beneficiaries Individual Contact Community Meeting Brochure/Booklet Frequency Frequency Frequency Self-Employed 56 31 6 Employed By Somebody 1 3 3 Unemployed 16 7 1 Note: The number of responses in table 4.13 differs from the actual number who preferred the channels because beneficiaries gave more than one response (multiple responses) 4.6.3 Influence of Economic of Activity of Beneficiaries on Channel Preference at Awareness Stage Table 4.14 below shows the influence of economic activity of beneficiaries on their channel preferences at the awareness stage. This reveals that majority of both male and female beneficiaries who preferred individual contact gave the reason “I can afford to undertake my economic activity”. That comprises 92.8% and 97.3% of males and female respectively. Majority of both male and female beneficiaries who preferred community meeting gave the reason” I can afford to dispense with economic activity. That is 64.0% and 50% of males and females respectively. In the case of those who preferred brochure/booklet, 100% of males and females gave the reason “I can afford to undertake economic activity. 74 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh At Awareness Stage Table 4,14: Frequency and Percentage Distributions of the Influence of Economic Activity of Beneficiaries on Channel Preference Channel Influence of Economic Activity Beneficiaries Male Female Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage Individual Contact I can afford to undertake economic activity 26 92.8 36 97.3 Not applicable 2 7.2 1 2.7 Community Meeting I can afford to dispense with economic activity 16 64.0 10 50.0 I can afford to undertake economic activity 5 20.0 8 40.0 Not applicable 4 16.0 2 10.0 Brochure/Booklet I can afford to undertake economic activity 6 100.0 4 100.0 Total 59 61 SECTION E 4.7. Channel Preferences at the Interest Stage Two groups of beneficiaries emerged. These are (i) Those who sought for more information after awareness creation (ii) Those who did not seek for more information after awareness creation. The frequency and percentage distributions of the above two categories are shown in table 4.15 below. Majority of both male and female respondents did not seek for more information after awareness creation. That is 62.7% and 82.0% of males and females respectively did not seek for more information. 75 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.15: Frequency and Percentage Distributions of Beneficiaries who Sought for more Information and those who did not after Awareness Creation Information Seeking Beneficiaries Male Female Frequenc y Percentage Frequency Percentage Sought More Information after Awareness Creation 22 37.3 11 18.0 Did not seek for more Information after Awareness Creation 37 62.7 50 82.0 Total 59 100.0 61 100.0 4.7.1 Reasons for Not Seeking More Information after Awareness Creation The various reasons given by beneficiaries for not seeking for more information after awareness creation are shown in table 4.16 below. This reveals that 62.0% males and 50.0% females did not seek for more information because information delivered to them during awareness creation was clear. Questions asked by others for clarification at the awareness stage resulted in 38.0% males and 50.0% females not seeking for more information. This was due to the fact that questions asked were beneficial. Table 4.16: Frequency and Percentage Distributions of Reasons of Beneficiaries for Not Seeking More Information after Awareness Creation Reasons For Not Seeking More Information Beneficiaries Male Female Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage Others asked clarifying questions which were beneficial to me 14 38.0 25 50.0 Information was clear 23 62.0 25 50.0 Total 37 100.0 50 100.0 76 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.7.2 Channel Preferences at the Interest Stage and the Underlying Reasons Beneficiaries who sought for more information after awareness creation preferred the channels individual contact, community meeting and brochure/booklet. Eighteen males and ten females preferred individual contact whereas three males and two females preferred community meeting as a means of information acquisition. Only one beneficiary (a male) preferred brochure/booklet 4.7.2.1 Reasons for Channel Preferences at Interest Stage The reasons given by beneficiaries for preferring individual contact, community meeting and brochure/booklet are shown below. Reason for Channel Preference Individual Contact Eighteen male and ten female beneficiaries preferred the channel individual contact at the interest stage. The reason for their preference is that issues can be clarified to them through the individual contact channel. Reason for Channel Preference Community Meeting Three male and two female beneficiaries preferred community meeting because at such a setting, ideas could be shared Reason for Channel Preference Brochure/Booklet There was only one beneficiary who preferred the channel brochure/booklet. He preferred this channel because it is convenient to him. 77 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.8 Relationship between Channel Preferences at the Interest Stage and Level of Education and Economic Activity The various channel preferences at the interest stage were cross-tabulated against each of the following variables • Highest level of education • Economic activity 4.8.1 Level of Education and Channel Preference at the Interest Stage The relationships between the educational level of beneficiaries and their preferences for the channels individual contact, community meeting and brochure/booklet at the interest stage are described below. 4.8.1.1 Level of Education and the Channel Preference Individual Contact at the Interest Stage The relationship between the level of education of beneficiaries and the channel preference individual contact is shown in table 4.17 below. Those who had no formal education and preferred individual contact were made up of a male and two females. Majority (72.2%) males and majority (66.7%) females had low formal education compared to 22.2% males and one female who had high formal education preferred individual contact. 78 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.17: Frequency and Percentage Distribution of Level of Education of Beneficiaries who Preferred the Channel Individual Contact at the Interest Stage Level of Education Beneficiaries Male Female Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage No formal education 1 5.6 2 22.2 Low formal education 13 72.2 6 66.7 High formal education 4 22.2 1 11.1 Total 18 100.0 9 100.0 4.8.1.2 Level of Education and the Channel Preference Community Meeting at the Interest Stage The relationship between the level of education of beneficiaries and the channel preference community meeting is shown in table 4.18 below. This reveals that 100% of the males had low formal education compared with 50% of their female counterparts. Only one female who had no formal education preferred community meeting. There was no male beneficiary who had no formal education and preferred community meeting. Table 4.18: Frequency and Percentage Distributions of Level of Education of Beneficiaries who Preferred the Channel Community Meeting at the Interest Stage Level of Education Beneficiaries Male Female Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage No formal education - - 1 50.0 Low formal education 3 100.0 1 50.0 High formal education - - - - Total 3 100.0 2 100.0 79 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The only beneficiary who preferred the channel brochure/booklet had high formal education. 4.8.2 Economic Activities of Beneficiaries and Channel Preferences at the Interest Stage This section shows the relationship between the economic activities of beneficiaries and their channel preferences at the interest stage. Table 4.19 below shows how the preferences by male beneficiaries for the channels individual contact, community meeting and brochure/booklet are related to their economic activities. It reveals that for male beneficiaries who are self-employed, 29 responses went to those who preferred individual contact, six responses to those who preferred community meeting and one response for brochure/booklet. For male beneficiaries employed by somebody, there was one response for the channel individual contact. There was none for community meeting and one went to the channel preference brochure/booklet. With respect to the unemployed, there was no response for the channel preferences above. 4.8.1.3 Level of Education and The Channel Preference Brochure/Booklet at the Interest Stage 80 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.19: Frequency Distribution of Economic Activity of Male Beneficiaries who Preferred the Channels Individual Contact, Community Meeting and Brochure/Booklet at the Interest Stage Type of Economic Activity Channel Preference By Male Beneficiaries Individual Contact Community Meeting Brochure/Booklet Frequency Frequency Frequency Self-Employed 29 6 1 Employed by Somebody 1 1 Unemployed - - Note: The number of responses in table 4.19 differs from the actual number who preferred channels because beneficiaries gave more than one response (multiple responses) Table 4.20 below shows how preferences by female beneficiaries for the channels individual contact, community meeting and brochure/booklet are related to their economic activities. It reveals that for female beneficiaries who are self-employed, 17 responses went to those who preferred individual contact as compared with three responses to those who preferred community meeting. There were no responses for the channel brochure/booklet. With respect to female beneficiaries who are unemployed, three responses went to those who preferred individual contact. There were no preferences for the channels community meeting and brochure/booklet. 81 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.20: Frequency Distribution of Economic Activity of Female Beneficiaries who Preferred the Channels Individual Contact, Community Meeting and Brochure/Booklet at the Interest Stage Type of Economic Activity Channel Preferences By Female Beneficiaries Individual Contact Community Meeting Brochure/Booklet Frequency Frequency Frequency Self-Employed 17 3 Employed by Somebody - - - Unemployed 3 - Note: The number of responses in table 4.20 differs from the actual number who preferred the channels because beneficiaries gave more than one response (multiple responses). 4.8.3 Influence of Economic Activity of Beneficiaries on Channel Preference at Interest Stage Table 4.21 below shows the influence of economic activity of beneficiaries on their channel preferences at the interest stage. Majority of both male and female beneficiaries who preferred individual contact gave the reason “I can afford to undertake economic activity. That constitutes 94.4% of males and 90.0% of females. For the channel community meeting two out of the three males gave the reason “I can afford to dispense with economic activity. The two females also gave the same reason as their male counterparts. 82 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh at Interest Stage Table 4.21: Frequency and Percentage Distribution of the Influence of Economic Activity of Beneficiaries on Channel Preference Channel Influence of Economic Activity Beneficiaries Male Female Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage Individual Contact I can afford to undertake economic activity 17 94.4 9 90.0 Not applicable 1 5.6 1 10.0 Community Meeting I can afford to dispense with economic activity 2 66.7 2 100.0 Not applicable 1 33.3 - - Brochure/Booklet I can afford to undertake economic activity 1 100.0 Total 22 12 SECTION F 4.9 Channel Preferences at the Evaluation Stage There are various channel preferences at the evaluation stage. These are: cinema with talks, posters with talks, individual contact, brochure/booklet and community meeting. The frequency and percentage distributions of channel preferences are shown in table 4.22 below. Table 4.22 reveals that majority of both male and female beneficiaries preferred cinema with talks. That is 88.1% males and 87.0% females. With respect to the channel posters with talks, 1.7% males compared with 8.2% female beneficiaries preferred it. Individual contact was preferred by 6.8% male beneficiaries compared with 1.6% of their female counterparts. There was no male beneficiary who preferred brochure/booklet whereas there was only one female beneficiary who preferred it. 83 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.22: Frequency and Percentage Distributions of Channel Preferences by Beneficiaries at the Evaluation Stage Channel Preference Beneficiaries Male Female Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage Cinema with Talks 52 88.1 53 87.0 Posters with Talks 1 1.7 5 8.2 Individual Contact 4 6.8 1 1.6 Brochure/Booklet - - 1 1.6 Community Meeting 1 1.7 1 1.6 Not Applicable 1 1.7 - Total 59 100.0 61 100.0 4.9.1 Reasons for the Channel Preference Cinema with Talks at the Evaluation Stage The frequency and percentage distributions of reasons for the channel preference cinema with talks are shown in table 4.23 below. This reveals that 63.5% males and 61.5% females who preferred cinema with talks gave the reason it is convincing and realistic compared with 36.5% males and 38.5% females who also preferred the above channel because they could see and believe the information when the channel is used. Table 4.23: Frequency and Percentage Distributions of Reasons for the Channel Preference Cinema with Talks at the Evaluation Stage Reasons For Channel Preference Beneficiaries Male Female Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage I can see and believe the information 19 36.5 19 38.5 It is convincing and realistic 33 63.5 34 61.5 Total 52 100.0 53 100.0 84 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.9.2 Reasons For the Channel Preference Posters with Talks at the Evaluation Stage One male and a female beneficiary preferred posters with talks because it is convincing and realistic. Four female beneficiaries preferred posters with talks because information delivery can be interrupted for clarification. 4.9.3 Reasons For the Channel Preference Individual Contact at the Evaluation Stage Four males compared with one female beneficiary preferred individual contact because care is taken for them to understand issues. 4.9.4 Reason for the Channel Preference Brochure/Booklet at the Evaluation Stage There was no male beneficiary who preferred brochure/booklet. There was only a female who preferred brochure/booklet. She preferred this channel because it is convenient to her. 4.9.5 Reason for the Channel Preference Community Meeting at the Evaluation Stage There was a male and a female beneficiary who preferred community meeting. They preferred this channel because ideas can be shared when it is used as a means of information delivery. 4.10 Relationship between Channel Preferences at the Evaluation Stage and Highest Level of Education and Economic Activity The various channel preferences at the evaluation stage were cross-tabulated against each of the following variables: 85 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh • Level of education • Economic activity 4.10.1 Levei of Education and Channel Preferences at the Evaluation Stage The relationship between the educational levels of beneficiaries and their preferences for the channels cinema with talks, posters with talks, individual contact, community meeting and brochure/booklet are described below. 4.10.1.1 Level of Education of Beneficiaries and the Channel Preference Cinema with Talks at the Evaluation Stage The relationship between the level of education of beneficiaries and the channel preference cinema with talks are shown in table 4.24 below. This reveals that those who had no formal education and preferred the channel individual contact were made up of 5.8% males and 24.5% females. Majority (71.2%) males and majority (52.8%) females had low formal education. Table 4.24: Frequency and Percentage Distributions of Level of Education of Beneficiaries who Preferred the Channel Cinema With Talks at Evaluation Stage Level of Education Beneficiaries Male Female Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage No formal education 3 5.8 13 24.5 Low formal education 27 71,2 28 52.8 High formal education 12 23.0 12 22.7 Total 52 100.0 53 100.0 86 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.10,1.2 Level of Education of Beneficiaries and the Channel Preference Posters with Talks at the Evaluation Stage The relationship between the level of education of beneficiaries and the channel preference posters with talks is shown in table 4.25 below. This reveals that there was only one female who preferred posters with talks and had no formal education. Four out of the five females had low formal education. The only male beneficiary had high formal education. None of the females had high formal education. Table 4.25: Frequency and Percentage Distributions of Level of Education of Beneficiaries who Preferred the Channel Posters With Talks at the Evaluation Stage Level of Education Beneficiaries Male Female Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage No formal education - - 1 20.0 Low formal education - - 4 80.0 High formal education 1 100.0 - - Total 1 100.0 5 100.0 4.10.1.3 Level of Education of Beneficiaries and the Channel Preference Individual Contact at the Evaluation Stage The relationship between the level of education of beneficiaries and the channel preference individual contact is shown in table 4.26 below. This reveals that none of the beneficiaries fell in the category of those who had no formal education. The only female beneficiary had low formal education. The rest had high formal education. 87 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.26: Frequency and Percentage Distributions of Level of Education of Beneficiaries who Preferred the Channel Individual Contact at the Evaluation Stage Level of Education Beneficiaries Male Female Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage No formal education - - - - Low formal education 2 50.0 1 100.0 High formal education 2 50.0 - Total 4 100.0 1 100.0 4.10.1.4 Level of Education of Beneficiaries and The Channel Preference Community Meeting at the Evaluation Stage There was one male and one female beneficiary who preferred community meeting. They all had low formal education. 4.10.1.5 Level of Education of Beneficiary and The Channel Preference Brochure/Booklet at the Evaluation Stage There was only one beneficiary who preferred brochure/booklet. She had high formal education. 4.10.2 Economic Activities of Beneficiaries and Channel Preferences at the Evaluation Stage This section shows the relationship between the economic activities of beneficiaries and their channel preferences at the evaluation stage. Table 4.27 below shows how the preferences by male beneficiaries for the channels cinema with talks, posters with talks, individual contact, community meeting and brochure/booklet are related to their economic activities. It reveals that for male beneficiaries who are self-employed, 82 responses went to those who preferred University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh cinema with talks, one response for posters with talks, five responses for those who preferred individual contact and one response for community meeting. With respect to male beneficiaries employed by somebody, 11 responses went to those who preferred cinema with talks, one response for posters with talks, and two responses for those who preferred individual contact. For those who are unemployed, two responses went to those who preferred cinema with talks and one response for individual contact. There was no unemployed who preferred posters with talks, community or brochure/booklet. Table 4.27: Frequency Distribution of Economic Activity of Male Beneficiaries who Preferred the Channels Cinema with talks, Posters with talks, Individual Contact, Community Meeting and Brochure/Booklet at the Evaluation Stage Type of Economic Activity Channel Preferences By Male Beneficiaries Cinema With Talks Posters with Talks Individual Contact Community Meeting Brochure/ Booklet Frequency Frequency Frequency Frequency Frequency Self-Employed 82 1 5 1 ■ Employed by Somebody 11 1 2 - - Unemployed 2 " 1 ■ * Note: The number of responses in table 4.27 differs from the actual number who preferred the channels because beneficiaries gave more than one response (multiple responses). Table 4.28 below shows how preferences by female beneficiaries for the channels cinema with talks, posters with talks, individual contact, community meeting and brochure/booklet are related to their economic activities. It reveals that for female beneficiaries who are self-employed, 81 responses went to those who preferred 89 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh cinema with talks, nine responses for those who preferred posters with talks, one response for individual contact and two responses for those who preferred community meeting. There was no self-employed who preferred brochure/booklet. With respect to female beneficiaries employed by somebody, six responses went to those who preferred cinema with talks and one response for brochure/booklet. There were no preferences for the channels posters with talks, individual contact and community meeting by those employed by somebody. For the unemployed, 22 responses went to those who preferred cinema with talks, one response for posters with talks and one for brochure/booklet. There were no preferences for the channels individual contact and community meeting by the unemployed. Table 4.28: Frequency Distribution of Economic Activity of Female Beneficiaries who Preferred the Channels cinema with talks, posters with talks, individual contact, community meeting and brochure/booklet at the Evaluation Stage Type of Economic Activity Channel Preferences By Male Beneficiaries Cinema with Talks Posters with Talks Individual Contact Community Meeting Brochure/Booklet Frequency Frequency Frequency Frequency Frequency Self-Employed 81 9 1 2 - Employed by Somebody 6 « 1 Unemployed 22 1 - - 1 Note: The number of responses in table 4.28 differs from the actual number who preferred the channels because beneficiaries gave more than one response (multiple responses). 90 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.10.3 Influence of Economic Activity on Channel Preference at Evaluation Stage. Table 4.29 below shows influence of economic activity of beneficiaries on their channel preferences at the evaluation stage. It reveals that the reason “I can afford to undertake my economic activity influenced all their channel preferences. Majority of beneficiaries at this stage preferred cinema with talks and was influenced by the above reason. This constitutes 96.0% males and 92.0% females. Table 4.29: Frequency and Percentage Distribution of the Influence of Economic activity of Beneficiaries on Channel Preference At Evaluation Stage Channel Influence of Economic Activity Beneficiaries Male Female Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage Cinema with Talks 1 can afford to undertake economic activity 50 96.00 49 92.0 Not applicable 2 4.00 4 8.0 Posters with Talks 1 can afford to undertake economic activity 1 100 4 80.0 Not applicable - ” 1 20.0 Individual Contact 1 can afford to undertake economic activity 4 100.0 1 100.0 Brochure/Booklet 1 can afford to undertake economic activity - * 1 100.0 Community Meeting Not applicable 1 100.0 1 100.0 Total 59 61 SECTION G 4.11 Channel Preference at the Trial Stage There are eight beneficiaries who preferred individual contact. This is made up of six males and two females. These were the beneficiaries who had the trial stage applicable to them. This is due to the fact that the rest of the beneficiaries did not go through the trial stage. 91 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Various reasons were given by beneficiaries for their preferring the channel individual contact. As shown by table 4.30 below, majority of both male and female beneficiaries preferred individual contact for issues to be clarified to them. That is 66.6% males and 100.0% females gave the above reason. One male preferred individual contact in order to get convinced while another did so for its convenience. Table 4.30: Frequency and Percentage Distributions of Reasons for The Channel Preference Individual Contact at the Trial Stage 4.11.1 Reasons for the Channel Preference Individual Contact at the Trial Stage Reason for Channel Preference Beneficiaries Male Female Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage For issues to be clarified to me 4 66.6 2 100.0 To get convinced 1 16.7 - It is convenient 1 16.7 - - Total 6 100.0 2 100.0 4.12 Relationship between Channel Preferences at the Trial Stage and Level of Education and Economic Activity The channel preference at the trial stage was cross-tabulated against each of the following variables: • Level of education • Economic activity 4.12.1 Level of Education and Channel Preference at the Trial Stage The relationship between the level of education of beneficiaries and the channel preference individual contact is shown in table 4.31 below. This reveals that none of 92 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh the females had low formal education. Three out of the six males had low formal education. The rest had high formal education. Table 4.31: Frequency and Percentage Distributions of Level of Education of Beneficiaries who Preferred the Channel Individual Contact at the Trial Stage Level of Education Beneficiaries Male Female Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage No formal education - - 1 50.0 Low formal education 3 50.0 - - High formal education 3 50.0 1 50.0 Total 6 100.0 2 100.0 4.12.2 Economic Activity and Channel Preference at the Trial Stage At the trial stage, there were seven responses from male beneficiaries who are self- employed and preferred individual contact compared with two responses from their female counterparts. With respect to those employed by somebody, there was only one response for male beneficiaries 4.12.3 Influence of Economic Activity on Channel Preference at Trial Stage At the trial stage, five out of the six male beneficiaries preferred individual contact so that they could afford to undertake their economic activities. One out of the two female beneficiaries gave the above reason. The rest (one male and a female) had no reasons with respect to their economic activities for their channel preference. 93 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh SECTION H 4.13 Channel Preferences at the Adoption Stage This stage is applicable to only one beneficiary. This was the only beneficiary who before adopting received information from the source after using innovation on a probationary basis. 4.13.1 Reason for the channel Preference Individual Contact at the Adoption Stage The reason given by the beneficiary for preferring individual contact was to get more convinced. 4.14 Relationship between Channel Preference at the Adoption Stage and Level of Education and Economic Activity. The channel preference at the adoption stage was cross-tabulated against each of the following variables. • Level of education • Economic activity 4.14.1 Level of Education and Channel Preference at the Adoption Stage The only beneficiary at this stage who also preferred individual contact had low formal education. 4.14.2 Economic Activity and Channel Preference at the Adoption Stage The only beneficiary at this stage preferred individual contact and he is self- employed. 94 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4,14.3 Influence of Economic Activity on Channel Preference at the Adoption Stage At the adoption stage, the only beneficiary who had it applicable to him preferred individual contact so that he could afford to undertake his economic activity. SECTION I 4.15 Frequency of Innovation Information Acquisition by Beneficiaries from the Source The frequency at which beneficiaries acquire information from the source with their underlying reasons is described below. Also included is how the frequency of acquisition by beneficiaries is related to their economic activities. 4.15.1 Freouencv of Information Acquisition by Beneficiaries and Underlying Reasons Table 4.32 below shows the frequency of acquisition of innovation information by beneficiaries and the underlying reason(s). This reveals that 31 out of the 59 males and 31 out of the 61 females often acquire innovation information from the source. Twenty male and 18 female beneficiaries quite often acquire information from the source. Eight males out of 59 males and 12 females out of 61 females do not often acquire innovation information from the source. Majority of those who often acquire innovation information from the source said they do so because they are in dire need of information. That constitutes 54.8% of both male and females that often acquire innovation information from the source. Inconveniences in the performance of economic activity were the reason given by majority of those who quite often acquire information from the source. That is 65.0% males and 61.1% females. Majority of beneficiaries often do not acquire innovation information from the source because of inconveniences in performance of their economic activity. That is 87.5% males and 91.6% females. 95 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.32: Frequency and Percentage Distributions of the Frequency of Acquisition of Innovation Information and the Underlying Reason(s) Frequency of Acquisition Reason(s) Beneficiaries Male Female Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage Often In dire need of information 17 54.8 17 54.8 Information to solve water and sanitation problems 2 6.6 7 22.5 Guarantees my survival 12 38.6 7 22.7 Quite often In dire need of information 3 15.0 6 33.3 Information to solve water and sanitation problems 2 10.0 1 5.6 Inconveniences performance of economic activity 13 65.0 11 61.1 Survival issues are of much importance 2 10.0 Not often Inconveniences in performance of economic activity 7 87.5 11 91.6 Could not afford to leave economic activity though information is needed 1 12.5 1 8.4 4.15.2 Frequency of Acquisition of Innovation Information and Economic Activity of Beneficiaries Table 4.33 below shows the frequency of acquisition of innovation information with specific reference to the type of economic activity of beneficiaries. This reveals that majority of those who are self-employed often acquire information from the source. That is 51.0% males and 55.0% females. Majority of males who were employed by somebody quite often acquire information from the source. With respect to those who do not often acquire information from the source, 33.0% males and 96.0% females are employed by somebody. 96 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.33: Frequency and Percentage Distributions of Frequency of Acquisition of Innovation Information with Specific Reference to Economic Activity of Beneficiaries Frequency of Acquisition Economic Activity Beneficiaries Male Female Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage Often Self-employed 48 51.0 51 55.0 Employed by somebody 3 20.0 1 14.0 Unemployed 1 33.3 15 63.0 Quite often Self-employed 32 35.0 27 29.0 , Employed by somebody 7 47.0 - - Unemployed 1 33.3 5 21.0 Not often Self-employed 12 14.0 15 16.0 Employed by somebody 5 33.0 6 86.0 Unemployed 1 33.3 4 16.0 Note: The number of responses in table 4.33 differs from the actual number who preferred the channel because beneficiaries gave more than one response (multiple responses). The total percentages of the responses for the different economic activities add up to 100%. SECTION J 4.16 Overlap between Channel Preference and Channel Used by Source The overlap between channels preferred by beneficiaries and channels used by source for information delivery occurs when preferred channels are used by the source for information delivery. Table 4.34 below shows the number of beneficiaries who indicated that their preferred channels were used by the source for information delivery to them at various stages of the adoption process. 97 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.16.1 Awareness Stage At the awareness stage community meeting has the highest overlap by both male and female beneficiaries. That is 25 and 20 of males respectively had their preferred channel community meeting used by the source to deliver information to them. One male and one female beneficiary had their preferred channel individual contact used by source for information delivery to them. However, there was no overlap for brochures at the awareness stage. 4.16.2 Interest Stage At this stage, there was no overlap for brochure/booklet. Three and two females had their preferred channel individual contact used by the source to deliver information to them. Similarly, three males and two of those who preferred community had it used by source to deliver information to them. 4.16.3 Evaluation Stage At the evaluation stage, cinema with talks had the highest overlaps. That is 32 males and 29 females had their preferred channel cinema with talks was used to deliver information to them. One male and five female beneficiaries had their preferred channel posters with talks used by the source for information delivery to them. Also, one male and one female ha their preferred channel used by the source for information delivery. 4.16.4 Trial Stage At the trial stage, six males and two females indicated that their preferred channel individual contact was used to deliver information to them. 98 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh contact was used to deliver information to him. There was no other beneficiary. Table 4.34: Frequency Distributions of Preferred and Used Channels (i.e. overlap between Preferred and Used Channels) at various Stages of the Adoption Process. 4.16.5 Adoption Stage At the adoption stage, one male indicated that his preferred channel individual Stage Overlap Between Channel Preferences And Channels Used By Project Beneficiaries Male Female Frequency Frequency Awareness individual Contact 1 1 Community Meeting 25 20 Brochures 0 0 Interest Individual Contact 3 2 Community Meeting 3 2 Brochure/Booklet 3 0 Evaluation Cinema with Talks 32 29 Posters with Talks 1 5 Individual Contact 2 1 Brochure/Booklet 0 1 Community Meeting 1 1 Trial Individual Contact 6 2 Adoption Individual Contact 1 - 4.17 Preferred and Used Channels Preferred but not Used Channels and Used but not Preferred Channels From section 3.12; U= the number of beneficiaries who indicated that a particular channel was used by the source for information delivery to them. P= the number of beneficiaries who preferred a particular channel. 99 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh P1= the number of beneficiaries who preferred a particular channel but it was not used by the source for information delivery to them. U1= the number of beneficiaries who indicated a particular channel was used by the source but did not prefer it. P=U= the number of beneficiaries who indicated a particular channel they preferred was used by source for information delivery to them. Table 4.35 below was derived from tables 4.4, 4.34 and number of beneficiaries preferring particular channels at various stages of the innovation decision process. 4.17.1 Awareness Stage At the awareness stage, 58 males indicated that the channel community meeting was used by the source for information dissemination to them (Table 4.4). Twenty- five males preferred community meeting (Table 4.5). Also, twenty-five males indicated their preferred channel community was used by the source for information delivery to them (Table 4.34). Therefore there was no beneficiary who preferred community meeting and it was not used by the source for information delivery to him or her. (i.e.P1=0). It follows those who the channel community meeting was used but did not prefer it (U1) is 58-23. This is equal to 33. Similarly for females, 60 indicated community meeting was used by the source for information delivery. Twenty of them also indicated that their preferred channel community meeting was used by source to deliver information to them. Therefore the number of female beneficiaries who preferred community meeting but it was not used by the source to deliver information to them is zero (i.e.P1=0) 100 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh It follows that the number of females to whom the channel community meeting was used but did not prefer it (i.e. U1) is 60-40, This is equal to 40. For the channel individual contact, one male beneficiary indicated it was used by the source to deliver information to him (Table 4.4). But twenty-eight males preferred individual contact. Also one male indicated that his preferred channel individual contact was used by the source to deliver information to him. Therefore there was no male beneficiary who had the channel used for information delivery to him but did not prefer it. Therefore number of males who preferred individual contact but it was used not by the source for information delivery to them: P1=28 -1=27. Similarly for their female counterparts, one indicated that individual contact was used by the source to deliver information to her. But thirty-six females preferred this channel. Also one female indicated that her preferred channel individual contact was used by the source for information delivery to her. Therefore there was no female who had the channel used for information delivery to her but did not prefer it. Therefore the number of females who preferred individual contact but it was not used by the source to deliver information to them: P1 = 37 - 1 = 36. For brochure/booklet, no beneficiary indicated it was preferred and used. Six males and four females preferred it. It was not used to deliver information to any beneficiary who did not prefer it. This is due to the fact that where P = U = 0, then P1 = P and U1 =0. 4.17.2 Interest Stage At the interest stage, eighteen males preferred individual contact (Section 4.7.2.1). i.e. P = 18. Three males indicated that they preferred individual contact and it was 101 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh used by the source to deliver information to them. i.e. P = U = 3 (Table 4.34). Also three males indicated that the above channel was used to deliver information to them by the source (Table 4.4). That means U1 = 0. Hence number males who preferred individual; contact but it was not used for information delivery to them: P1 = P - (P = U) = 18-3= 15. Similarly for their female counterparts, ten of them preferred individual contact. Two females indicated that they preferred individual contact and it was used by the source for information delivery to them. i.e. P=U=2. Also two females indicated that the channel individual contact was used by the source to deliver information to them. That means U1 = 0. Hence number of females who preferred individual contact but it was no used by the source to deliver information to them: P1 = P - (P = U)= 10 - 2= 8. For community meeting, three males preferred it (Section 4.7.2.1) i.e. P = 2. Three males indicated that they preferred it and it was used by the source to deliver information to them i.e. P = U = 3. (Table 4.34). This means P1 = 0. However, nineteen males indicated that the above channel was used by the source to deliver information to them. Hence the number of males who had community used by the source for information delivery to them but did not prefer it: U1 = U - (P = U)= 19 - 3 = 16. Similarly for their female counterparts, two of them preferred community meeting (i.e. P = 3). Two females indicated that they preferred community meeting and it was used by the source for information delivery to them. It means P1 = 0. However, ten females indicated that the channel was used by the source to deliver information to them. Hence the number of females who had community used by the source to deliver information to them but did not prefer it: U1 = U - (P = U) = 10 - 2 = 8. 102 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh For brochure/booklet a male preferred it (Section 4.7.2.1). It was not used by the source to deliver information to any beneficiary. 4.17.3 Evaluation Stage At the evaluation stage, fifty-two males preferred cinema with talks (Table 4.22) i.e. P = 52. Thirty-two males indicated that they preferred cinema with talks and it was used by the source for information delivery to them i.e.: P = U = 32 (Table 4.34). Also thirty-two males indicated that it was used by the source for information delivery to them (Table 4.4). It means that U1 = 0. Hence the number of males who preferred cinema with talks but it was not used by the source for information delivery to them: P1 = p. (p = u) = 52 - 32 = 20. Similarly for their female counterparts, fifty-three of them preferred cinema with talks. Twenty-nine of them indicated that they preferred cinema with talks and it was used by the source to deliver information to them (i.e. P = U = 29). Also twenty-nine females indicated that cinema with talks was used by the source to deliver information to them. It means U1 = 0. Hence the number of females who preferred cinema with talks but it was not used by the source for information delivery to them: P1 = P - (P = U) = 52 - 29 = 24. For posters with talks, a male preferred it (Table 4.22). He indicated that his preferred channel was used by the source to deliver information to him (Table 4.34). It means that P1 = 0. However, eighteen males indicated that posters with talks was used by the source to deliver information to them (Table 4.4). Hence the number of males who had posters with talks used by the source to deliver information to them but did not prefer it: U1 = U - (P = U) = 18 -1= 17. 103 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Similarly for their female counterparts, five of them preferred posters with talks. Five females indicated that they preferred posters with talks and it was used by the source to deliver information to them. It means that P1 = 0. However, twenty females indicated that posters with talk were used by the source to deliver information to them. Hence the number of females who had posters with talks used by the source to deliver information to them but did not prefer it: U1 = U - (P = U) = 20-5 = 15. With respect to individual contact, four males preferred it i.e.: P = 4 (Table 4.22). Two males indicated that they preferred it and it was used by the source to deliver information to them (Table 4.34). However, two males indicated that it was used by the source to deliver information to them (Table 4.4). It means that U1 = 0. Hence the number of males who preferred individual contact but it was not used by the source for information delivery to them: P1 = P - (P = U) = 4 - 2 = 2. For their female counterparts, one female preferred individual contact. She indicated that her preferred channel was used by the source to deliver information to her. This means that P1 = 0. However, six females indicated that individual contact was used by the source to deliver information to them. Hence number of females who had individual contact used by the source to deliver information to them but did not prefer it: U1 = U - (P = U) = 6 -1 =5. With respect to community meeting, one male preferred it i.e. P = 1 (Table 4.22). He indicated that his preferred channel was used by the source in information delivery to him (Table 4.34). It means that P1 = 0. However, three males indicated that it was used by the source for information delivery to them. Hence the number of males who had community meeting used by the source to deliver information to them but did not prefer it: U1 = U- (P = U) = 3- 2 = 1. 104 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Similarly for their female counterparts, one preferred community meeting. She indicated that her preferred channel was used by the source for information delivery to her. It means P1 = 0. However, five females indicated that community meeting was used by the source for information delivery to them. Hence number of females who had community meeting used to deliver information to them but did not prefer it: U1 = U - (P = U) = 5 -1=4 . For brochure/booklet, no male preferred it. But it was used by the source to deliver information to two males. One female preferred brochure/booklet and she indicated that her preferred channel was used by the source for information delivery to her. Brochure/booklet was also used by the source for information delivery to her. 4.17.4 Trial Stage At the trial stage, six males and two females preferred individual contact. They all indicated that their preferred channel was used by the source for information delivery to them. Hence there was no case of preferred but not used channel. Also there was no case of any beneficiary having the channel used for information delivery but did not prefer it. 4.17.5 Adoption Stage At the adoption stage, one male preferred individual contact. He indicated that his preferred channel was used by the source for information delivery to him. Hence no case of preferred but not used channel. Also there was no beneficiary who had the channel used for information delivery but did not prefer it. 105 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.35 Frequency Distribution of Preferred and Used Channels, Preferred but not Used Channels, Used but not Preferred Channels at the Various Stages of the Adoption Process Stage Channel Preferred and Used Preferred But Not Used Used But Not Preferred Male Female Male Female Male Female Awareness Individual Contact 1 1 27 36 0 0 Community Meeting 25 20 0 0 33 40 Brochure/Booklet 0 0 6 4 0 0 Interest Individual contact 3 2 15 8 0 0 Community Meeting 3 2 0 0 16 8 Brochure/Booklet 0 0 1 0 - - Evaluation Cinema with Talks 32 29 20 24 0 0 Posters with Talks 1 5 0 0 17 15 Individual Contact 2 1 2 0 0 5 Community Meetings 1 1 0 0 2 4 Brochure/Booklet 0 1 0 2 0 Trial Individual Contact 6 2 0 0 0 0 Adoption Individual Contact 1 - 0 0 0 4.18 Accessibility to Information by Beneficiaries Accessibility =U/P Where U= the number of beneficiaries who preferred a particular channel and it was used by the source to deliver information to them. P = the number of beneficiaries who preferred a particular channel. The various U/P values are shown in table 4.36 with their corresponding percentages. 106 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.18.1 Awareness Stage At awareness stage for the channel preference individual contact for male beneficiaries U= 1, P = 28. Therefore U/P = 1/28.For females, U=1 and P=37, U/P=1/37 For community meeting U = 25, P = 25 Therefore U/P = 25/25.Similarly, U/P for females is 20/20.This means that at awareness stage accessibility is 100 for community meeting for both male and female beneficiaries. Brochure/booklet was not used. Hence U/P = 0 for both male and female beneficiaries. 4.18.2 Interest Stage At the interest stage U/P for individual contact for males is 3/18 and that for females is 2/10. U/P for community meeting is 1 for both males and females etc. 4.18.3 Evaluation Stage At the evaluation stage cinema with talks has U/P = 32/52 for males and 29/53 for females. For individual contacts U/P for males is 2/4 and for females is 1/1. With respect to brochures there was no U value therefore the sign (-) 4.18.4 Trial Stage At the trial stage individual contact has U/P for males = 6/6 and that for females 1/1. 107 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.18.5 Adoption Stage At adoption stage U/P = 1/1. There were no female beneficiaries. Table 4.36 Distribution of Preferred and Used channels U/P (%) at Various Stages of the Adoption Process. Stage Channel Beneficiaries Male Female U/P U/P% U/P U/P% Awareness Individual Contact 1/28 3.6 1/37 2.7 Community Meeting 25/25 100.0 20/20 100.0 Brochure/Booklet 0/6 0.0 0/4 0.0 Interest Individual Contact 3/18 17.0 2/10 20.0 Community Meeting 3/3 100.0 2/2 100.0 Brochure/Booklet 0/1 0.0 Evaluation Cinema With Talks 32/52 61.5 29/53 55.0 Posters With Talks 1/1 100.0 5/5 100.0 Individual Contact 2/4 50.0 1/1 100.0 Brochure/Booklet - 1/1 100.0 Community meeting 1/1 100.0 1/1 100.0 Trail Individual Contact 6/6 100.0 1/1 100.0 Adoption Individual Contact 1/1 100.0 100.0 4.19 Change in Knowledge and Practices of Beneficiaries In formation was delivered by the source (VCWSP) to beneficiaries throughout the various stages of the innovation decision process with the aim of changing the knowledge and practices of beneficiaries with respect to their prior state. Based on the channels used by the source and the preferred channels of the beneficiaries three categories of beneficiaries exposed to the information emerged. These are: 108 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh A. Beneficiaries who preferred a particular channel and it was used by the source for information delivery to them. B. Beneficiaries who preferred a particular channel but it was not used by the source for information delivery to them. C. Beneficiaries for whom the source used a particular channel for information delivery but it was not their preference. All the above three categories of beneficiaries indicated that they have acquired relevant knowledge on water and sanitation and are practising them. 109 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FIVE DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS 5.0 Introduction In this chapter, the explanations and implications of the findings of the study are offered. The chapter examines the prior state of beneficiaries, innovation information, channels used by the source of information, preferred channels of beneficiaries, relationship between channel preference and channels used by the source and accessibility to information, system factors and behavioural changes in beneficiaries as a result of exposure to innovation information. 5.1 The Prior State of Beneficiaries The prior state of beneficiaries is a state that needs a change with respect to their knowledge and practices. There were various water and sanitation practices of beneficiaries before intervention by VCWSP as indicated in section 4.2.1. These water and sanitation practices were responsible for the health problems and hazards affecting beneficiaries. The relationship between the water and sanitation practices of beneficiaries and their health problems and hazards are discussed below. Behavioural changes are influenced by prevalent beliefs in society. Chitambar (1993) states that the beliefs or values that determine its goals influence the direction of change in a community. Therefore, individuals in a community will attempt to change so that movement is in the direction of achievement of community goals. The beliefs of a particular community can act as a barrier to change. Long - standing, well-learned and integrated beliefs create a mind-set that can make change impossible or difficult. The fact that there are no existing beliefs in the 110 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh selected communities that can impede behavioural changes with respect to water and sanitation practices provides a context conducive for the needed behavioural change. Water and sanitation practices of beneficiaries before intervention by VCWSP (section 4.2.1) reveal that such practices created conducive conditions for health hazards and problems. That was why all the communities were plagued by health problems and hazards like diarrhoea, bilharzias, stagnant wastewater, etc. as indicated in their profiles. According to the Ministry of Health report in 1990 and DANIDA report in 1994, most of the cases of morbidity in these communities were related directly to water and sanitation practices. There is therefore the need to change that state of affairs. Tyler (1971) defines a need as the difference between the present condition of the individual learner or learner group and a social norm that can be identified. The gap between where learners are in relation to a norm constitutes a need. In this regard, the need is to change the prior state of the beneficiaries with respect to their water and sanitation knowledge and practices. Evidence from the profile of selected communities in section 4.1 shows that through collaborative needs assessment with the communities, there was an agreement between them and VCWSP to change the prior state. This is imperative for effective extension communication. This is why Boone (1985) states that adult educators must identify, assess and analyse learner's expressed/felt needs in collaboration with the individual or learner group and their leaders. This will let the beneficiaries see the need and relevance of the proposed change. This is due to the fact that the needs and beliefs of the target beneficiary influence change in behaviour. I l l University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh In conclusion, the prior state of beneficiaries was characterized by health problems and hazards due to water and sanitation practices. That state of affairs demands innovation information to change the dynamics of the system from “what is “(prior state) to "what it ought to be “(behavioural change). 5.2 Innovation Information Section 4.2.2 shows innovation information packages produced by the source (VCWSP). These were disseminated to the beneficiaries to change the dynamics of the system. Innovation information in this context should be seen to be able to bring about desirable changes in the client system if accepted and used. The recognition of the need for a change is critical for the acceptance and use of any innovation information. It is obvious from section 4.2.3 that the innovation information packages produced by the source were relevant to the environment, water point/source and individual health of beneficiaries. To about 8.0% males and only one female, the innovation information was relevant to their problem on water point/sources. This means these beneficiaries considered water point contamination as a health hazard or problem. Innovation information on personal hygiene was considered by 4.3% males and 3.3%females as capable of preventing disease contraction. These agree with the reports of the Ministry of Health in 1990 and DANIDA in 1994 in which diseases in the communities were related to water and sanitation practices. Findings also show that majority (64%) males and (73.7%) females stated that innovation information was relevant to their problem situation because it was capable of solving the problem of unhealthy environment due to indiscriminate disposal of faeces, refuse etc. 112 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Therefore innovation information relevant to most beneficiaries was on issues on their environment affecting them. These information fits into the state of need of beneficiaries and can therefore be accepted by them. The recognition of innovation information relevant to beneficiaries on the various aspects of their problem situation means that behavioural changes envisaged by such information can be achieved. Anthony, Jones and Uchendu (1979) pointed this out that farmers who recognize that their traditional farming techniques and present level of knowledge impose a limitation on their farming activities and thus realize the need for new ideas/innovations are on the threshold to success, it follows that the realization of beneficiaries that they need information to change the dynamics of their system from what is, to what it ought to be, put them on the threshold to success. Their recognition of information for this change agrees with Sawhney (1967) that information is sine qua non of all attitude changes. Information is needed to take informed decisions on their water and sanitation practices. Section 4.2.4 shows beneficiary’s interest in innovation information. This reveals that innovations on areas around all houses should be free from refuse, weeds stagnant water and faeces was of most interest to 45.7% male 47.6% female beneficiaries. This was followed by innovation on household latrine, which was of most interest to 35.6% male and 44.4% female beneficiaries. Information is therefore most needed in those areas to solve their water and sanitation problems. All these reinforce the fact that the practices of beneficiaries before intervention by VCWSP and the relevance of innovation information provide the necessary condition for change. Without this, any information delivered will fail to elicit the desired response. Hassinger (1959) in 113 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Rogers (1995) supports this, that the individuals will seldom expose themselves to messages about an innovation unless they feel a need for it. Therefore the needs, desires and interests of the beneficiary must be recognized for effective extension delivery. The beneficiary must be made to see the value of the purpose and ends of the information that is transmitted. The fact that beneficiaries recognize the need for change and considered innovation information relevant to their problem situation means that they are ready to expose themselves to it. This provides conducive condition for the achievement of desired behavioural changes. However, in order to transmit information to beneficiaries, specific information channels must be used by the source. 5.3 Communication Channels Used by the Source at Each Stage of the Innovation Decision Process. Beneficiaries indicated that various communication channels were used by the source (VCWSP) in the transfer of innovation information as presented in section 4.4. The number of channels beneficiaries indicated were used by the source varies according to the adoption stage. The percentages of beneficiaries who indicated a particular channel was used for information delivery to them also differ throughout the stages of adoption. The source also indicated that it used various channels throughout the innovation decision process. These are discussed below with those beneficiaries indicated were used by the source. 5.3.1 Awareness Stage Extension agents of the VCWSP indicated that the channel community meeting was used at the awareness stage. This explains why 98.4% males and 98.3% females 114 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh said community meeting was used by the source (VCWSP) to deliver information to them. The reason for the use of this channel by the source was that it could convey information quickly to a large number of beneficiaries. Lionberger (1968) states that at the awareness stage, where the audience learns about the new idea or practice, mass media are most used. According to him, mass media channels are means of transmitting messages involving a mass medium such as radio, television, newspapers and so on that enable a source of one or few individuals to reach on audience of many. With respect to the findings, the purpose for the use of this channel (community meeting) by the source and that stated by Lionberger (1968) converge. That is to reach a large number of beneficiaries for awareness creation. But this purpose could not be achieved since there was difficulty in assembling community members as stated by their low attendance by the source (extension agents). Also information delivered was subject to different interpretations. These render ineffective the use of community meeting by the source. The issue of difficulty in assembling community members and subjecting information to different interpretations were not considered by Lionberger (1968). It also eludes others like Starrs and Rizzuto (1995) who stated that mass media channels are useful for raising awareness and conveying messages effectively. 5.3.2 Interest Stage Extension agents of the VCWSP used community meeting with group discussion at the awareness stage. This according to them was done to make the environment for information delivery a little participatory compared with what pertains at the awareness stage. This contradicts the channels beneficiaries said was used by the source (extension agents of VCWSP) to delivery information to them. That is, 86.4% 115 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh males and 83.3% females indicated the channel community meeting was used by source. At the interest stage where beneficiary needs information that can respond to his/her questioning due to interest developed and relevance of innovation information, the use of a channel that creates an atmosphere for that should be used by the source. It is in this respect that the use of community meeting with discussion is most effective. This can respond to any doubts on the part of the beneficiary. The individual learns about the new idea at this stage as indicated by Lionberger (1968). In this regard, he/she can give meaning to the idea. The use of community meeting by source could not create an atmosphere for exchange. Information flow was just from source to beneficiary and not vice versa. Therefore getting detailed information on the usefulness and applicability of the information was impossible. 5.3.3 Evaluation Stage The extension agents of VCWSP indicated that they used the channels cinema with talks and posters with talks at this stage. According to them, the reason for the use of these channels is for beneficiaries to see and believe in the information. With respect to beneficiaries, 55.2% males and 47.5% females indicated that cinema with talks was used by the source. Similarly, 31,0% males and 32.8% females indicated that the channel posters with talk were used. Bradfield (1975) states that at the evaluation stage, the individual considers the idea as it affects him/her. Lionberger (1968) also stated that at this stage, there is weighing of the acquired information and evidence in the light of existing condition 116 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh into which the practice would have to fit. Considering the prior state of beneficiaries, which was characterized by water related morbidity, unhealthy environmental practices etc, there is the need for tangible evidence concerning the suggested change. It is in this light that the use of the channels cinema with talks and posters with talks fulfil that function. They provide opportunities for beneficiaries to directly or indirectly observe suggested changes. These reduce their uncertainty about the suggested change in order to form a favourable attitude toward it. 5.3.4 Trial Stage The extension agents of the VCWSP indicated that at this stage, cinema with talks and posters with talks was used for information delivery. The reason according to them was to get beneficiaries more convinced. Contrary to the above assertion by extension agents, all the six male and two female beneficiaries who had the trial stage applicable to them indicated that they had information through the channel individual contact. At the trial stage, there is tentative trying out of the idea accompanied by information on how to do it (Lionberger, 1968). It is this that the source seeks to do through the use of cinema with talks and posters with talks. This further reduces uncertainty about the proposed change. However, beneficiaries said that the channel individual contact was used. This channel is good in terms of delivering convincing information. Opinion leaders are the main sources of convincing information at this stage (Van de Ban, and Hawkins, 1988). Such sources are not only convincing but have personal experiences to share. The use of the channels cinema with talks, posters with talks or individual contact at this stage is useful for the purpose of convincing beneficiary use the innovation on a 117 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh probationary basis to determine its usefulness to his/her water and sanitation need situation. 5.3.5 Adoption Stage According to the extension agents of the VCWSP, at this stage, the following channels are use: cinema with talks, posters with talks and role-plays. The only beneficiary who had the adoption stage applicable to him indicated that a different channel i.e. individual contact was used by the source. Though the channels stated by the source could influence beneficiaries to make full use of the idea as the best available course of action, the channel (i.e. individual contact) the beneficiary indicated was used by source to deliver information could also achieve this objective. The interpersonal communication channel (individual contact) is very effective in persuasion effects. Therefore using the channel individual contact, any inherent uncertainty concerning the information can be dealt with for its full integration into practice. This agrees with Saville (1965) who points out that frequently individual meetings are needed to persuade clients at the adoption stage. In conclusion at the awareness stage, the channel community meeting was mainly used for information delivery by the source. This channel was to afford the source get information to large number of beneficiaries. However, this could not be achieved due to difficulty in assembling beneficiaries. At the interest stage, community meeting with group discussion was used in order to make the environment for information delivery participatory compared with what pertains at the awareness 118 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh stage. This creates a conducive atmosphere for information exchange between the beneficiaries and the source. At the evaluation stage, the channels cinema with talks and posters with talks were used in order to present information on suggested behavioural changes in a vividly striking manner. All beneficiaries at the trial stage indicated that they received information through individual contact. This is useful for the purpose of convincing beneficiaries to use the innovation on a probationary basis. At the adoption stage, the channel individual contact was used by the source. This could influence the beneficiary make continuous use of the innovation since individual contact is very effective in persuasion. 5.4 Channel Preferences of Beneficiaries at each Stage of Innovation Decision Process The channels preferred by beneficiaries vary according to the stage of the innovation decision process. Also there are differences in the percentages of individuals who preferred a particular channel. Beneficiaries for their channel preferences gave various reasons. This section discusses preferred channels of beneficiaries at each stage of the innovation process. Also discussed is the relationship between channel preferences and socio- economic variables. 5.4.1 Channel Preferences at the Awareness Stage From section 4.5, at the awareness stage beneficiaries preferred three channels. These are: individual contact, community meeting and brochure/booklet. Associated with each preference are reasons. The channel preferences of beneficiaries and the accompanying reasons are discussed below. 119 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh From table 4.5, 47.5% males and 60,7% females preferred the channel individual contact. The main reason given by both male and female beneficiaries for preferring this channel was to enable them personally ask for immediate clarification. Others were that it affords free and easy self-expression. The above reasons given by beneficiaries can facilitate the learning process that starts with awareness creation. Individuals have varying levels of abilities to learn. They also have different perceptions and processing of information. Their preference here will allow learning to progress at their own pace. This will create the necessary condition for beneficiaries to have the required information at this stage. Also misconceptions concerning the information delivered can be dealt with. The environment created with individual contact for direct interaction between the source and beneficiary can also afford him (beneficiary) to have the source’s confidence, which is necessary for bringing about change. Certain questions that cannot be asked by shy beneficiaries in the group settings can be asked during individual contacts. Synder (1972) supports these arguments in Seaman (1977) that the heart of individual contact is providing learning activities specifically tailored to the needs, interests and abilities of beneficiaries. IRC and PROWESS (1992) stated that women generally experience more constraints in attending community meetings and speaking out in them. The implication here is that both men and women have constraints in attending and speaking out at community meetings. But the women have more. It is in this regard that considering the reasons given by beneficiaries for preferring individual contact 120 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh creates an atmosphere that is safe and encouraging without any hindrance to self- expression. This condition is conducive for awareness creation by the source. From table 4.5, 42.4% males and 32.8% females preferred the channel community meeting. The reasons given by beneficiaries for their preference were mainly to share ideas among the group. Others were to benefit from the contributions of colleagues and for others issues could be clarified. According to ISODEC (1998), most people find it difficult to speak during community meetings. Further, in a big group (for example community meeting) there is usually not enough time for all to speak and also most people cannot listen attentively. These contrast with findings. The preference for community meeting by beneficiaries gives them opportunity to share ideas. This is to make information delivered by the source understood. It means that those who preferred community meeting could express themselves in such settings contrary to what ISODEC (1998) asserts. Research by IRC and PROWESS (1992) revealed that women generally experience more constraints in attending community meetings and speaking out in them. That explains why 42.4% males and 32.8% females preferred the channel community meeting. That means less women than men preferred community meeting because they face more constraints in attending such meetings. It follows that the channel community meeting is less relevant to women compared with their male counterparts. However, male and female beneficiaries who preferred community meeting equally expressed the desire to share ideas among them during such 121 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh meetings contrary to IRC and PROWESS (1992) assertions that women generally have more constraints in speaking out at community meetings. From section 4.5.3, at the awareness stage, 10.1% males and 6.5% females preferred the channel brochure/booklet. Their reasons for the preference were on convenience in terms of when to read and also timesaving. Brochure/booklet are convenient and save time because they can possibly be read at own times that do not conflict with beneficiary activities. In spite of the above reasons for preferring brochure/booklet, Starrs and Rizzuto (1995) argued that print media like brochure/booklet are less participatory than other forms of information channels. It follows that though the beneficiary can have information at own convenience and save time, the opportunity for immediate feedback is difficult. There is no direct interface between source and beneficiary. These can compromise the understanding and applicability of the information in brochure/booklet. It is in this respect that Wijk and Murre (1994) reported that printed information should not only be made accessible but also understandable, acceptable and applicable by the beneficiary. This is why though beneficiary can read brochure/booklet at own time, it is important for the source to find out if the purpose of the information delivered is achieved. 5.4.2 Economic Variables and Channel Preferences at the Awareness Stage Section 4.6.2 depicts the type of employment of beneficiaries and their channel preferences at the awareness stage. Examining tables 4.12, 4.13 and 4.14 concurrently, it is obvious that all the economic groupings (self-employed, employed 122 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh by somebody and unemployed) have preferences for the channels individual contact, community meeting and brochure/booklet. Majority of both male and female beneficiaries (about 93% males and 97% females) who are self-employed or employed by somebody or unemployed preferred individual contact so that they could afford to undertake their economic activities. For them, it is this channel that can make it possible for them to interact with and access information from the source. Majority of both male and female beneficiaries (64% male and 50% female) who are self-employed or employed by somebody or unemployed preferred community meeting because they could afford to dispense with their economic activities. For these beneficiaries, they are prepared to leave their economic activities in order to access information through the channel. This can be due to their need for information to solve problems confronting them. All the male and female beneficiaries who are self-employed or employed by somebody or unemployed preferred brochure/booklet so that they could afford to undertake their economic activities. This will make it possible for them to interact with and access information with respect to their circumstances. These have implications for the frequency of acquisition of information by the beneficiaries from the source. Section 4.15.2 shows the frequency of acquisition of innovation information from the source and its relationship to the economic activity of beneficiaries. It reveals the ability of beneficiaries in accessing information through channels used by the source. With respect to the self-employed, 51.0% males and 55.0% females had often 123 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh acquired information from the source. Self-employed who quite often acquire information from the source had 35.0% males and 29.0% females whereas 12.0% males and 16.0% females had not often acquired information. It means that the self- employed had less difficulty in accessing information through channels used by the source since they most often acquire information through source channels. But the same cannot be said concerning those employed by somebody. Table 4.33 shows that generally most of them were not able to access information. This can be due to the fact that the channels used by the source did not suit their circumstances. However, a critical look at the frequency at which beneficiaries acquire information from the source and the underlining reasons depicts a different picture. Though beneficiaries preferred channels for the convenient performance of their socio­ economic activities, most of them were able to acquire information through the channels used by the source, which were not appropriate to their circumstances. That is irrespective of the type of employment of beneficiaries, most of them were able to acquire information from the source. Section 14.15.1 shows the frequency of information acquisition by beneficiaries and the underlining reasons. Those who had often acquired information from the source gave reasons that had nothing to do with their economic activities but rather to their state of need. That is why 54.8% of both male and female beneficiaries often acquire information from the source because they were in dire need of innovation information. It is obvious from table 4.32 that 38 (64.0%) out of 59 males and 38 (62.0%) out of 61 females often and quite often acquire information from the source because of their state of need. They have realized that the information fits into their 124 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh need state and has the ability to solve their water and sanitation problems. Hence they expose themselves to the information though channels were not convenient to their circumstances. However, some beneficiaries quite often or not often acquire information from the source due to inconveniences in the performance of their economic activities. It is evident that the prior state of beneficiaries plays an important role in their acquisition of information through channels used by the source though they were inappropriate to most of them. Research by Spector et al (1971), IRC (1988) showed that for information on a latrine project in Honduras, men visited meetings and demonstration from the radio and other women. It was not stated why there were differences in channels preferred by men and women. But it is likely that in their circumstances such preferences were convenient with respect to information acquisition. It is in this respect that the use of preferred channels of beneficiaries would ensure effective access to information transferred by the source. Other factors that influence channel preferences are levels of education of the beneficiaries. With respect to those who preferred brochure/booklet, 66.7% males and 100% females had high formal education. The reasons for such preferences had already been discussed in section 5.4.1. With respect to the channels individual contact and community meeting, their preferences have no bearing on the levels of education of beneficiaries. As 125 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh discussed earlier, the preferences for the above two channels were based on the conducive conditions that each channel could create for information acquisition from the source. 5.4.3 Channel Preferences at the Interest Stage Bradfield (1975) stated that at the interest stage the individual needs information on the new idea as a result of interest developed. This is a stage of active seeking of extensive and detailed information about the idea to determine its possible usefulness and applicability (Lionberger, 1968). The information exposed to the client at the awareness stage must have therefore been relevant to his/her situation. This accounts for the active information seeking to respond to any questioning and doubts that might have arisen about the idea or innovation. However, Lionberger (1968) also commented that the decision sequence can be truncated at any point or the stages may be blended that it is impossible to distinguish between where one begins and the other ends. It means that not all the stages in the adoption process may be applicable to all clients in the process. Some clients may not go through all the stages in practice. This is in conformity with the findings of this study at the interest stage. Findings show that two groups of beneficiaries emerged. These are those who sought for information after awareness creation on innovation information and those who did not. Table 4.15 shows that 62.7% males and 82.0% females did not seek for more information during delivery. The reasons given for not seeking more information 126 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh were due to the fact that awareness created was clear. This means that they had no doubts and questioning concerning the awareness created as done by those who sought for information. This is why Van den Ban and Hawkins (1988) also stated that decisions in practice might often be made in a much less rational and systematic manner than outlined by the adoption process. Those who sought for more information preferred the following channels: They are: individual contact, community meeting and brochure/booklet. From section 4.7.2.1, all the eighteen males and ten females who preferred individual contact did so in order to have issues clarified to them. It is in this regard that Lionberger (1968) indicates that at the interest stage the individual is willing to listen read and learns more about the innovation. The individual contact provides the atmosphere for the beneficiary to learn more about the new idea. The source can also respond to client’s questioning immediately. Those who feel uncomfortable to talk during group settings can also express themselves (during individual contact). In effect individual contact basically provides learning activities specifically tailored to the needs, interests and abilities of clients (Synder, 1972) in Seaman (1977). From section 4.7.2.1 the entire three males and two female beneficiaries who preferred community meeting did so that ideas could be shared among the group. According to ISODEC (1998), most people find it difficult to speak in groups. Further, in a big group (for example community meeting) there is usually not enough time for all to speak and most people cannot listen attentively. However, it is obvious 127 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh that those who preferred community meeting, it was the appropriate channel through which they could express themselves or benefit from the contribution of those who could express themselves. The only beneficiary who preferred brochure/booklet did so because it was convenient. Thus he can read at his own time that will not conflict with his activities. 5.4.4 Economic Variables and Channel Preferences at Interest Stage Section 4.8.2 depicts the type of employment of beneficiaries and their channel preferences at the interest stage. Examining tables 4.19, 4.20 and 4.21 concurrently, it is obvious that whether self-employed or employed by somebody or unemployed, preferences for individual contact and brochure/booklet was to enable at least ninety percent of beneficiaries undertake their economic activities. Their preference will enable them access information from the source conveniently. The scenario is different for those who preferred community meeting and were all self-employed. They said they could dispense with activities in order to access information. This readiness on their part could be due to their dire need for information. As discussed in section 5.4.2, economic activities act as constraints on beneficiary’s frequency of acquisition of information. Beneficiary’s preferences are therefore based on what will afford them the opportunity to access information through a particular channel considering their circumstances. 128 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh However, as discussed in section 5.4,2, it is evident that the prior state of beneficiaries plays an important role in most of them acquiring information though channels used by the source were inappropriate to them. Another factor that influences channel preference is level of education. Preference for brochure/booklet is associated with high formal education. Channel preferences for individual contact and community meetings were not associated with any level of education. Preferences for the above channels were rather linked to the economic activities of the beneficiaries and the atmosphere created by the channels for information acquisition from the source. These have been discussed earlier. 5.4.5 Channel Preferences at the Evaluation Stage From section 4.9 at the evaluation stage, both male and female beneficiaries preferred the following channels: cinema with talks posters with talks and community meeting, individual contact and brochure/booklet. Associated with each preference are reasons. The channel preferences of beneficiaries and associated reasons are discussed below. From table 4.22, 88.1% males and 87.0% females preferred the channel cinema with talks. According to 63.5% males and 61.5% females, they preferred the above channel because it was realistic and convincing. For 36.5% males and 38.5% females, their preference was due to the fact that they could see and believe the information. 129 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Majority of beneficiaries preferred cinema with talks. The channel cinema with talks combines the use of two senses. These are sight and hearing. It is these attributes that demonstrably make information relevant to the prior state of beneficiaries. It also sets the stage for them to weigh information in the light of evidence through the channel. Through this, expected benefits were made real. The channel also provides opportunity to beneficiaries to consider the attributes of innovation information in the light of demonstrated evidence to reduce any uncertainties. The reasons given by beneficiaries suggest that when proposed changes are presented in a vividly striking way to beneficiaries, favourable responses can be elicited from them. Starrs and Rizzuto (1995) stated that cinema convey messages in a memorable and dramatic way, and instruct people how to do something. Though they did not include talks to the channel, its inclusion will make information delivery at this stage effective due to atmosphere for exchange between the source and beneficiary in order to give them a better evaluation of the information delivered with respect to their need situation. These will ultimately help beneficiaries form favourable attitudes towards the innovation information. The male and five female beneficiaries who preferred posters with talks as shown in section 4.9.2 gave various reasons. The reason it is convincing and realistic means that the channel provided them the opportunity to consider how the information is relevant to their problem situation. For others, the fact that information delivery can be interrupted was their reason for the preference of posters with talks. This will 130 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh enable them ask questions for clarification. In this respect, the beneficiary could have comprehension of the issues necessary for the consideration of change. Research has shown that simply handling someone posters, no matter how carefully designed, will not get the right message to that person by itself (Starrs and Rizzuto, 1995). In this regard, the preference of posters with talks by beneficiaries will afford them to receive the right message intended by the source. All the reasons given by beneficiaries for preferring posters with talks will allow them weigh information and evidence in the light of their prior state. Section 4.9.3 shows reasons for the channel preference individual contact at the evaluation stage. Beneficiaries preferred individual because care will be taken for them to understand issues. The channel individual contact creates an atmosphere for face-to-face interaction between the source and beneficiary. This accounts for the reason given for their channel preferences. In effect, the channel individual contact provides opportunity for each beneficiary to have his/her peculiar learning needs satisfied. This is why Synder (1972) in Seaman (1977) stated that the heart of individual contact is providing learning activities specifically tailored to the needs, interests and abilities of beneficiaries. In must be noted that learning need at this stage are geared towards weighing of information and evidence in the light of existing condition of the prior state. Section 4.9.4 shows that the only beneficiary who preferred brochure/booklet did so because it is convenient to her in terms of when to read. Though information is 131 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh available to beneficiary, issues about its understanding and benefits with respect to the prior state may be compromised. From section 4.9.5, one male and one female preferred the channel community meeting so that they could share ideas. This is to make any information delivered by the source understood. According to ISODEC (1998), most people find it difficulty to speak during community meetings. Further, in a big group (for example community meeting) there is usually not enough time for all to speak and also most people cannot listen attentively. In spite of these findings, those who preferred community meeting have found it relevant to their circumstances. 5.4.6 Economic Variables and Channel Preferences at the Evaluation Stage Section 4.10.2 depicts the type of employment of beneficiaries and their channel preferences at the evaluation stage. Examining tables 4.27, 4.28 and 4.29 concurrently, it is obvious that the self-employed, those employed by somebody and unemployed prefer cinema with talks so that they could afford to undertake their economic activities. Cinema is used in most rural communities for information dissemination in the evening. The preference for cinema with talks by about ninety percent of beneficiaries is convenient to them in the sense that they would have undertaken their economic activities prior to the periods used for information dissemination through the channel. Also, cinema with talks could also be a source of entertainment in the communities that hardly have any forms of entertainment. For most beneficiaries, it is the channel cinema with talks, which can make it possible for them to interact with and access information from the source. The rest (about 10% of both male and female beneficiaries) who preferred posters with talks, individual 132 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh contact, community meeting and brochure/booklet were all influenced by the same reasons just as those who preferred cinema with talks. Therefore irrespective of the economic grouping, the channel preferences of beneficiaries are guided by what will give them the opportunity to access information considering their circumstances. As discussed in section 5.4.2, the frequency acquisition of information from the source and the type of economic activity show that the economic activity of beneficiaries act as constraints in their channel preferences. Beneficiary’s channel preferences are therefore based on what will afford them opportunity to access information through a particular channel. However, due to the state of need for information to solve problems in their prior state, 54.8% male and female beneficiaries often acquire information through channels used by the source. 5.4.7 Channel Preferences at Trial Stage Not all the stages of the adoption process may be applicable to all clients. Some clients may not go through all the stages in practice. These are in conformity with Lionberger (1968) and Van den Ban and Hawkins (1988). The trial stage was applicable to eight beneficiaries. They all preferred the channel individual contact. Beneficiaries for their preferences gave various reasons. As shown in section 4.11, 66.6% and 100%male and female beneficiaries respectively preferred the above channel so that issues could be clarified to them. This is necessary because without it the client may remain unconvinced of the benefits in order to try out the innovation tentatively. The same necessity is applicable to those who preferred the channel in order to get convinced. 133 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5.4.8 Economic Variables and Channel Preferences at Trial Stage At the trial stage, there were seven responses from male beneficiaries who are self- employed and preferred individual contact compared with two responses from their female counterparts. Examining sections 4.12.2 and 4.12.3 together shows that most beneficiaries who are self-employed preferred individual contact so that they could afford to undertake their economic activities. These have implications for their frequency of acquisition of information from the source. As discussed in section 5.4.2, economic activities of beneficiaries act as constraints on their frequency of acquisition of information from the source. Beneficiary's channel preference is therefore based on what will offer them access to information through a particular channel. 5.4.9 Channel Preference at the Adoption Stage Not all the stages in the. adoption process may be applicable to all clients. This is in agreement with Lionberger (1968) as discussed in sections 5.4.3 and 5.4.7. The adoption stage is applicable to one beneficiary. His preferred channel was individual contact in order to get more convinced. This will enable him deal with all inherent uncertainty concerning the innovation before making it part and parcel of his 5.4.10 Economic Variable and Channel Preference at Adoption Stage Section 4.14.3 shows the influence of economic activity on channel preference at the adoption stage. This reveals that the beneficiary preferred individual contact so that 134 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh he could afford to undertake his economic activity. This will afford him the opportunity to access information conveniently from the source. In summary and conclusion, at the awareness stage, beneficiaries preferred individual contact to enable them ask them for immediate clarification and also for free and easy self-expression. The individual contact channel creates an atmosphere for direct interaction between the source and the beneficiary. This provides opportunities for learning activities to be specifically directed to the situational needs of beneficiaries. Those who preferred community meeting did so in order to share ideas among the group This will enhance comprehension of information delivered by the source. Beneficiaries preferred brochure/booklet in order to save time. This will enable them conveniently carry out their activities. However, the use of brochure/booklet could compromise the understanding and applicability of information. At the interest stage, there was truncation of the innovation decision sequence. Those who preferred individual contact did so in order to have issues clarified to them. This channel that provides an atmosphere for beneficiaries to learn more about the new idea suits beneficiaries who feel uncomfortable to talk in group settings. Beneficiaries preferred community meeting in order to share ideas and benefit from the contribution of others who could express themselves. Brochure/booklet was preferred since beneficiary could read it at own time that does not conflict with activities. However, the understanding and applicability of may be compromised with the use of brochure/booklet, as the source may not be available for questioning. 135 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh At the evaluation stage, majority of beneficiaries preferred cinema with talks because it is realistic and convincing. The channel combines the use of the sense of sight and hearing. These attributes make information on prior state demonstrably relevant. Evidence on the proposed changes are made real in order to elicit favourable responses from them. At the trial stage, there was a truncation of the innovation decision process. Beneficiaries preferred individual contact in order to be convinced to tentatively try out the innovation. At the adoption stage, there was a truncation of the innovation decision process. Preference was for individual contact to enable beneficiary put innovation into use continuously. Throughout the various stages of the innovation decision process, the type of employment of beneficiaries influences their channel preferences. The self- employed, employed by somebody and unemployed all indicated that their channel preferences would enable them undertake their economic activities. It is for this reason why the self-employed have a higher frequency of acquisition of information from the source compared with the other types of employment. However, due to the utility of the information to solve problem in prior state, which threatens the existence of beneficiaries, most of them expose themselves to information though channels used were not convenient. 136 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Apart from the influence of type of employment on channel preferences, majority of those with high level of education preferred brochure/booklet for the sake of convenience. 5.5 Relationship between Channel Preferences of Beneficiaries, Channels Used by the Source and Accessibility to Information Three categories of beneficiaries emerged based on the communication channels used by the source for information dissemination and the preferred channels of beneficiaries. These are: A. Beneficiaries who preferred a particular channel and it was used by the source for information delivery to them. B. Beneficiaries who preferred a particular channel but it was not used by the source for information delivery to them. C. Beneficiaries for whom the source used a particular channel for information delivery but it was not their preference. Section 4.17 shows the interrelationship between channels preferred by beneficiaries and used by the source, channels preferred by beneficiaries but not used by source and channels used by source but not preferred by beneficiaries at the various stages of the innovation decision process. These are discussed below. 5.5.1 Relationship between Channel Preferences of Beneficiaries. Channels used bv the Source and Accessibility to Information at the Awareness Stage Though all the twenty five males and twenty females who preferred community meeting indicated it was used by the source for information delivery them, the channel community meeting was used to deliver information to thirty three males and forty females. This was not their preferred channel. This means that there was an 137 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh overuse of the channel community meeting by the source. This was done at the expense of those who preferred the channels individual contact and brochure/booklet. The overuse of community meeting was responsible for twenty- seven males and thirty-six female beneficiaries who preferred individual contact but did not have it used by the source to deliver information to them. The same reason applies to the six males and four female beneficiaries who preferred brochure/booklet but was not used to deliver information to them. It must be noted that from table 4.35, twenty-seven male beneficiaries preferred individual contact but it was not used by the source. Similarly, six male beneficiaries preferred brochure/booklet but it was not used by the source. All these preferred but not used channels add up to thirty-three. This is equal to the thirty-three male beneficiaries who indicated community meeting was used to deliver information to them but did not prefer it. With respect to their female counterparts, thirty-six preferred individual contact and four preferred brochure/booklet. These add up to forty. Thirty three male and forty female beneficiaries who indicated community meeting was used to deliver information to them was responsible for the thirty-three male and forty female beneficiaries who preferred individual contact and brochure/booklet but did not have them used by the source. These have implications for accessibility to information by beneficiaries. Examining tables 4.35 and 4.36, it is obvious that there is a relationship between accessibility and preferred but not used channels and used but not preferred channels. 138 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh A male and a female beneficiary indicated that their preferred channel individual contact was used by the source to deliver information to them whereas twenty-seven males and thirty-six females indicated that though they preferred individual contact, it was not used by the source for information delivery to them. However twenty-eight males and thirty-seven females preferred the channel individual contact at this stage. It is for these reasons why accessibility for individual contact at awareness was 3.6% for males and 2.7% for females. With respect to community meeting, twenty-five male and twenty female beneficiaries indicated that their preferred channel community meeting was used by the source for information delivery to them. All beneficiaries who preferred community meeting had it used by the source for information delivery to them. Twenty-five males and twenty females preferred the channel community meeting. It was for this reason why accessibility was 100% for both male and female beneficiaries with respect to the channel community meeting. For brochure/booklet, none of the beneficiaries who preferred it had it used by the source for information delivery to them. Six males and four female beneficiaries preferred it but they did not have it used for information delivery to them by the source. However, six males and four female beneficiaries preferred brochure/booklet. These explain why accessibility was zero for both male and female beneficiaries with respect to brochure/booklet. It follows that the higher the extents to which preferred channels of beneficiaries are used by the source for information dissemination, the higher the accessibility. This 139 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh means that the chances of beneficiaries getting information from the source when preferred channels are used will be higher compared with cases where preferred channels are not used. In order to increase accessibility to information from the source, appropriate channels must be used. These are the preferred channels of beneficiaries. The greater the overlap between preferred channels of beneficiaries and channels used by the source, the more relevant these channels are for information transfer and the higher the accessibility. Therefore in order to increase accessibility channels preferred but not used and those used but not preferred will also have to diminish. Maximum accessibility is achieved when channels used by the source are just those preferred by the beneficiaries. 5.5.2 Relationship between Channel Preferences. Channels Used by the Source and Accessibility to Information at the Interest Stage With respect to the channel community meeting, though the entire three male and two female beneficiaries who preferred it had it used by the source for information delivery to them, the channel was used to deliver information to six teen male and eight female beneficiaries who did not prefer it. This means that there was an overuse of the channel community meeting. This was done at the expense of those who preferred individual contact and brochure/booklet. The overuse of community meeting was responsible for the fifteen male beneficiaries who preferred individual contact and one male beneficiary who preferred brochure/booklet not having it used by the source for information delivery to them. The same holds for the eight female beneficiaries who preferred individual contact but did not have it used by the source. This explains why community meeting was used to deliver information to eight female beneficiaries but was not preferred. These have implications for accessibility. 140 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Examining tables 4.35 and 4.36, it is obvious that there is a relationship between accessibility, channel preference and usage. Three male and two female beneficiaries indicated that their preferred channel individual contact was used by the source to deliver information to them whereas fifteen male and eight female beneficiaries indicated that though they preferred individual contact, it was not used by the for information delivery to them. However, eighteen males and ten females preferred the channel at this stage. It is for the above reasons why accessibility for individual contact at the interest stage was 17% and 20% for male and female beneficiaries respectively. With respect to community meeting, three male and two female beneficiaries indicated they preferred it, and it was used by the source for information delivery to them. All beneficiaries who preferred community meeting had it used by the source for information delivery to them. Also three males and two females preferred the channel at this stage. It was for these reasons why accessibility was 100% for both male and female beneficiaries with respect to the channel community meeting at the interest stage. Similarly, for brochure/booklet, the beneficiary who preferred it did not have it used by the source for information delivery to him. One beneficiary preferred it. That was why accessibility was zero. It follows that at the interest stage just as at the awareness stage, the higher the extent to which preferred channels of beneficiaries are used by the source for 141 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh information dissemination, the higher the accessibility. This will diminish the incidence of channels preferred by beneficiaries not used by the source and channels used by the source but not preferred by the beneficiaries. This means that the chances of beneficiaries getting information from the source when preferred channels are used are higher compared with case when they are not used. Therefore in order to increase access to information from the source, appropriate channels must be used. These are the preferred channels of beneficiaries. The greater the overlap between preferred channels of beneficiaries and channels used by the source, the higher the accessibility. Hence the chances of beneficiaries getting information from the source are higher. 5.5.3 Relationship between Channel Preferences. Channels Used by the Source and Accessibility to Information at the Evaluation Stage There was an overuse of the following channels: posters with talks, individual contact and community meeting .The overuse were in the sense that though they were used by source for information delivery, they were not preferred by beneficiaries. The overuse of posters with talks was responsible for the case where twenty male and twenty-four female beneficiaries preferred cinema with talks but it was not used to deliver information to them. The overuse of the channels posters with talks, individual contact and community meeting were done at the expense of those who preferred cinema with talks. The same applies to the one male beneficiary who preferred individual contact but did not have it used by the source to deliver information to him. It must be noted that from table 4.35, posters with talks was used to deliver information to seventeen males who did not prefer it. Similarly, community meeting was used for two males who did not prefer it. Brochure/booklet was used for information delivery to two males who did not prefer it. All these used but not 142 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh preferred channels add up to twenty-two. Twenty of these used but not preferred channels were responsible for the twenty males who preferred cinema with talks but did not have it used by the source From table 4.35, the channels posters with talks, individual contact and community meeting were used to deliver information to twenty-four females who did not prefer it. This was responsible for the twenty-four females who preferred cinema with talks but did not have it used by the source for information delivery to them. Similarly with respect to their male counterparts, the overuse of the channels posters with talks, brochure/booklet, individual contact, and community was responsible for the twenty males who though they preferred cinema with talks did not have it used by the source for information delivery to them. These have implications for accessibility to information by beneficiaries. Thirty two male and twenty nine female beneficiaries indicated that their preferred channel cinema with talks was used by the source for information delivery to them whereas twenty male and twenty four female beneficiaries indicated that though they preferred individual contact, it was not used by the source to deliver information to them. However, fifty-two males and fifty-three females preferred the channel cinema with talks. It was for the above reasons why accessibility for cinema with talks at the evaluation stage was 61.5% for male and 55.0% for female beneficiaries. With respect to posters with talks, one male and five female beneficiaries indicated that their preferred channel was used by the source for information delivery to them. All beneficiaries who preferred posters with talks had it used by the source for 143 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh information delivery to them. Also one male and five females preferred the channel. These result in accessibility of 100.0% for both male and female beneficiaries at the evaluation stage. Similarly, two male and one female beneficiaries indicated that they preferred individual contact and it was used by the source to deliver information to them. Two male beneficiaries indicated that though they preferred it, it was not used by the source to for information delivery to them. However, their female counterpart had her preference satisfied. Four males and one female beneficiary preferred the channel individual contact. These give rise to accessibility of 50.0% and 100.0% for male and female beneficiaries respectively for the channel individual contact at the evaluation stage. The channel community meeting was preferred by one male and one female beneficiary and was also used to deliver information to them. Thus accessibility is 100.0% for both male and female beneficiaries. Similarly accessibility for brochure/booklet was 100.0% because the female beneficiary who preferred it had it used by the source for information delivery to her. The use of the preferred channels of beneficiaries will diminish the incidence of preferred but not used channels and used but not preferred channels. It follows that the higher the extent to which preferred channels of beneficiaries are used by the source for information transfer, the higher the accessibility. This means that the chances of beneficiaries getting information from the source when preferred channels are used are higher compared with the cases where preferred channels 144 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh are not used. The greater the overlap between preferred channels of beneficiaries and channels used by the source, the more relevant they are for information transfer. 5.5.4 Relationship between Channel Preferences. Channels Used bv the Source and Accessibility to Information at the Trial stage This stage was applicable to six male and two female beneficiaries. All the six male and two female beneficiaries who preferred individual contact said it was used by the source for information delivery to them. There was no beneficiary who preferred the above channel and it was not used by source for information delivery. Neither was the channel used to disseminate information to any beneficiary who did not prefer it. Accessibility was therefore 100.0% for both male and female beneficiaries. The chances that all beneficiaries get information from the source was hundred percent. This means the channel was the appropriate one for information transfer to beneficiaries. 5.5.5 Relationship between Channel Preferences. Channels Used bv the Source and Accessibility to Information at the Adoption Stage This stage was applicable to only one beneficiary. He preferred individual contact and it was used by the source for information delivery to him. Hence there were no cases of preferred channels not used or channels used but not preferred. Accessibility was therefore hundred percent. This means beneficiary has a hundred percent chance of getting information from the source. It also follows that the channel is relevant for information transfer to beneficiary. In conclusion and summary, for all the three categories of beneficiaries that emerged based on the channels used by the source for information delivery to them and the 145 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh preferred channels of the beneficiaries, information is needed to solve problems described by their prior state. Whether the channel used by the source is preferred or not preferred, there is at least “some" exposure by the beneficiary to information. As long as information is perceived as useful to the beneficiaries’ prior state, though channel used by the source may be inconvenient, they will expose themselves to it. This accounts for the varying degrees of accessibility to information from the source. Channel preferences of beneficiaries relate to convenience. It is for this reason that where preferred channels of beneficiaries are used by the source accessibility is higher since beneficiary can conveniently expose himself/herself to the information from the source. However, for cases where preferred channels are not used or channels used are not preferred, the predisposition of beneficiary would be one of initial resistance to information acquisition through channel used. There is therefore distraction to information acquisition from the source. But as a result of the utility of information to solve problem confronting beneficiaries, there would be at least “some” exposure with time. These also account for lower accessibility to information from the source. It follows that if time frame were put on accessibility, it would vary at different times for the various categories of beneficiaries. For cases where preferred channels are used, accessibility to information will be within the shortest possible time compared with those where preferred channels are not used. Therefore where preferred channels are used, accessibility will be higher and faster. Beneficiary accessibility to information is influenced by system factors. 146 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5.6 System Factors System factors are circumstances in the peculiar economic environment of beneficiaries that affect their interaction with and access to innovation information. System factors therefore predispose beneficiaries to their channel preferences. Its influence is discussed below. In general, irrespective of channels preferred by beneficiaries their economic activities play an important role. Most of the self-employed were able to often acquire information from the source. Few of those who were employed by somebody had often acquired information from the source. This could be due to the fact that they had specific times to report for work and close at specific times. These restrict their movements. That was why those employed by somebody rather had often not acquired information from the source. Thus economic activities influence the extent to which information through certain channels can reach particular categories of beneficiaries. For those who quite often acquired information from the source, their main reason was due to inconveniences in the performance of their economic activities. Also 87.5% male and 91.6% female beneficiaries who not often acquired information from the source said it was due to inconveniences in performance of economic activities. It is in the above respects that development theory and research indicates that the socio-economic structure of the target audience plays a very important role in any social intervention particularly in communication interventions (Dennis, 1983). As discussed earlier, throughout the various stages of the innovation decision process, the higher the extent to which preferred channels of beneficiaries are used, 147 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh the higher the accessibility values. Hence the higher the chances of beneficiaries interacting with and accessing information from the source. Where preferred channels are used, limitations imposed on beneficiaries due to their peculiar circumstances are taken care of. This explains why higher levels of accessibility occur whenever preferred channels are used to a greater extent by the source. Issues relating to limitations in their peculiar environment, opportunity to interacting with and accessing information are considered. Forbes (1964) defines accessibility as implying the ease of getting to a place. In the view of Mosely (1979), the concept of accessibility can be conceptualised as the extent to which beneficiaries get “it” from the source. It is in this respect that where preferred channels of beneficiaries are used by the source, there will be no limitations imposed by economic factors on beneficiaries getting information from the source. This ensures that the desired behavioural change occurs. 5.7 Behavioural Change Boone (1985) defined behavioural change as an alteration in the knowledge, attitude or skills or any combination of these behaviours of an adult or learner group. In this research, the change in knowledge of the beneficiaries and practice of knowledge acquired were used as the measurements of change due to innovation information from the source. The source (VCWSP) used different communication channels for information dissemination to beneficiaries throughout the various stages of the innovation decision process in order to change their prior state from “what is “to the desired 148 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh state. Based on the channels used by the source and the preferred channels of the beneficiaries, three categories of beneficiaries emerged, showing the relationship between preferred and used, preferred but not used and used but not preferred channels. After exposure to innovation information at various degrees of accessibility, all the different categories of beneficiaries indicated that they have acquired relevant knowledge on water and sanitation from the source. They also indicated they are practicing all the knowledge acquired. Therefore there has been a change from old practice to what it ought to be as a result of information disseminated by the source. But given the fact that appropriate channels were not used by the source for information transfer, it would have been expected that the above changes could not have occurred to a large extent. A compelling reason for the change can be obtained from section 4.16. It reveals that only seven out of the fifty-nine males beneficiaries had not often acquired information from the source. Similarly, only twelve out of the sixty-one female beneficiaries had not often acquired information from the source. The rest had often and quite often acquired information from the source. Whatever the reasons given for the different frequencies of information acquisition, the fact is that information is acquired though at different extents. It must also be stated that the relevance of the innovation information to the need situation of the beneficiaries also accounts for their changes in knowledge and practices. The need situation of beneficiaries were marked by health problems, health hazards etc. that threaten their existence. Therefore though channels used by the source were not appropriate to some beneficiaries, for the sake of ensuring 149 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh survival, they often or quite often acquired information from the source. For those who did not often acquired information, once it was relevant to their problem situation, the few frequencies of acquisition could be responsible for the changes. Therefore though appropriate channels were not used at certain points by the source, the changes in knowledge and practice by beneficiaries were attributable to the critical need situation of beneficiaries, which made them respond appropriately to the information disseminated. It must however, be stated that the changes in knowledge and practice of beneficiaries could be done faster if appropriate channels are used. These appropriate channels are the preferences of beneficiaries. This takes into account ability to get information from the source and could ensure a faster change. For example, in a latrine project in Pakistan, the spread of information and rate of acceptance and use was low, until some women who had installed a latrine and were satisfied with it were engaged as promoters and started to tell other women in the neighbourhood (Spector et al, 1971, IRC 1988). Thus the use of appropriate channels for information dissemination would result in higher levels of acceptance and use of information. The more appropriate channels are used by the source, the higher accessibility to information. Thus the use of preferred channels of beneficiaries of any communication intervention is sine qua non of desired behavioural changes. It is in this respect that Flores (1983) stated that people choose the channels and therefore the information, which reach them. In conclusion, in any communication process, ideas, innovations or messages are transferred from the source to the ultimate users for modifying behaviour in the 150 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh desired direction (Singh, 1981). It implies that the gap between “what is” (prior state) and “what ought to be” (desired state) can be closed as a result of access to relevant information. This information must be transferred through appropriate channels in order to make it conveniently accessible. This would also make it accessible to beneficiaries within the shortest possible time. Thus the use of preferred channels enhances the behavioural change process. However the use of channels that are not preferred could also result in behavioural change(s). This is due to the fact that so long as beneficiary is in dire need of information there would be exposure to it, though inconvenient. Accessibility in such cases is lower and the time dimension for accessibility to information through channels not preferred would be longer. Therefore in order to change the prior state faster, information must be made available to beneficiaries through their preferred channels. 151 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER SIX CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 6.0 Introduction The conclusions and recommendations of the study are presented in this chapter. The conclusions of the study are derived from the findings. The conclusions seek to provide answers to the research questions of the study. In the recommendations, the researcher suggests options for effective and efficient extension communication based on the findings of the study. 6.1 Conclusion The conclusion is presented under the following headings: Channel preferences of beneficiaries and its relationship with their background characteristics; channel preferences of beneficiaries and its influence on accessibility to information 6.1.1 Channel Preferences of Beneficiaries and Its Relationship with their Background Characteristics Throughout the stages of the innovation decision process, the channel individual contact was preferred at all stages. Community meeting and brochure/booklet was preferred at only evaluation, interest and awareness stages. Cinema with talks and posters with talks were preferred at only the evaluation stages. Irrespective of these differences in the number and type of channels preferred at the respective stages, all beneficiaries had their channel preferences influenced by their type of employment. Most of the self-employed were able to often acquire information from the source because it is convenient to them and channels used were preferred. Few of those employed by somebody had often acquired information from the source. This is due to the fact that they face constraints on their movements at their places of 152 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh employment. Thus the types of employment influence the extent to which information through certain channels can reach particular categories of beneficiaries. Hence channels preferred by beneficiaries are those that will allow them opportunity to interact with and access information from the source at ease and without any hindrances. Apart from the influence of type of employment on channel preferences, most beneficiaries with high level of education preferred brochure/booklet. This will allow them access the information at appropriate time, which does not conflict with their activities. 6.1.2 Channel Preferences of Beneficiaries and Its Influence on Accessibility to Information Three categories of beneficiaries emerged based on channels used by the source for information delivery to them and the preferred channels of the beneficiaries. These are: A. Beneficiaries who preferred a particular Channel and it was used by the source for information delivery to them. B. Beneficiaries who preferred a particular channel but it was not used by the source for information delivery to them. C. Beneficiaries to whom the source used a particular channel for information delivery but it was not their preference. For those in category A, their preferred channels are used for information delivery to them. Issues relating to convenience, opportunities to interacting with information are catered for. It is for this reason that accessibility is high where preferred channels of beneficiaries are used. In the cases where preferred channels are not used or used channels are not preferred, accessibility is lower compared with where 153 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh preferred channels are not used. Hence the different levels of accessibility depending on the extent to which preferred channels are used. It follows that in order to increase accessibility to information, the incidence of preferred but not used channels and used but not preferred channels must diminish. This will reduce hindrance in the way of beneficiaries to getting information from the source. It is for this reason why throughout the various stages of the innovation decision process, beneficiaries indicated that their preferences would enable them undertake their economic activities. That is why those who are self-employed and therefore have "freedom of movement" had often acquired information from the source compared with the other types of employment. Thus the higher the extent to which preferred channels are used, the more relevant these channels are for information transfer. However, due to the relevance of innovation information to the need situation of beneficiaries, even where channels used by the source were not preferred, they exposed themselves to the information. That was why all categories of beneficiaries exposed to innovation information from the source indicated there had been a change in knowledge with respect to their prior state and are practicing the knowledge acquired. It must be emphasized that the rate of behavioural change could be faster if preferred channels are used to make information "get-at-able" by beneficiaries without any hindrances and at ease. The findings of this research further support studies by Egbule and Njoku (2001), and Maddox and Mustian (2003) reinforcing the emerging need to take into consideration the channel preferences of beneficiaries in any communication intervention in order to have the best communication effect. 154 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh In conclusion, in any communication intervention, in order to make relevant information accessible to the ultimate beneficiaries for behaviour modification in the desired manner, their preferred channels must be used by the source in information transfer. The higher the extent to which preferred channels are used by the source in information transfer, the higher the degree to which information is made accessible to them. 6.2 Recommendations Based on the findings of the study, the following recommendations are made toward making information accessible to beneficiaries in any technology transfer intervention. 6.2.1 Choice of Channel • The channel preferences of beneficiaries in any communication intervention must be identified by the source and used in information transfer to ensure that access to the information is high. This is due to the fact that the higher the extent to which preferred channels of beneficiaries are used, the higher the accessibility and hence the faster the desired behavioural change. • It follows from the above recommendation that the source should also find out communication channels beneficiaries use most often and use such channels for information transfer to ensure maximum accessibility. • Where community groups are organized, smaller groups should be farmed during such meetings in order to share ideas effectively. This affords easy self-expression for those who have difficulty in speaking during ’’big” group settings. It also allows better interaction between group members. • In the use of cinema for information dissemination, the delivery must be interspersed with talks for effective information transfer. This affords better comprehension of information disseminated. 155 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6.2.2 Future Research • Research should be conducted on various categories of individuals to find out their specific channel preferences. This can be used to develop a framework of communication channels to be used in reaching them. • Research should be conducted into what makes certain women speak during mixed group community meetings contrary to observations that generally women find it difficult to speak at such meetings. 156 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh REFERENCES Anthony, K.M. Johnson, Jones, W.O. and Uchendu, V.C. (1979). Agricultural Extension Services: In: Agricultural Change in Tropical Africa Cornell University Press Ithaca, Cornell University Press. Pp. 223-246. Berio, David. (1960). The Process of Communication : An Introduction to Theory and Practice. San Francisco: Rinehart Press. Birdwhistel, R. L. (Ed), 1968).Communication. 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Prentice Hall Inc., Englewood Cliffs. 158 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Maddox, S., Mustian, D. (2003). Agricultural Information Preferences of North Carolina Farmers. Agricultural Communications, Mobile, Alabama. Ministry of Health. (1990). VCWSP Health Report. Ho. Moseley, M.J. (1979). Accessibility, the Rural Challenge. London: Methuen. Moser, C. A. and Kalton, G. (1971). Survey Methods in Social Investigation. 2nd Ed. London Heinemann Educational Books 549. Roling, Niels (1988). Extension Science. Cambridge University Press. Olsson, P. et. al. (1990). Manic land Health, Worker and Sanitation Programme. Stockholm, Sweden. Patton, M. Q. (1990). Qualitative Evaluation and Research Methods. 2nd Ed. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications. Rogers, E,M, (1962). Diffusion of Innovations. 2nd Ed. New York: The Free Press. Rogers, E.M. (1995) Diffusion of Innovations. 4th Ed. New York: The Free Press. Sarantakos, s. (1993). Methods of Social Research. 3rd ed. The Free Press, New York: p.533. Saville, A.H. (1965). Extension in Rural Communities. Oxford University Press. Sawhney, M.N. (1967). Farm Practice Adoption and the Use of Information Sources and Media in a Rural Community in India. Rural Sociology. Vol. 32(3). pp. 310-323. Seamen, D.F. (1977). Adult Education Teaching Technigues. The Centre for Vocational Education. The Ohio State University, 1960 Kenny Road, Columbus ,Ohio. Sigot, A. Lori, A.T. and Green, J. et al. (1995). Gender and Natural Resource Management in Africa. ACTS Environmental Policy Series No. 6. Nairobi, Kenya. Singh, K.N. (1981). The Need for a Communication Strategy for Rural Development. Extension Education and rural Development Vol. 2 - International Experience in Strategies for Planned Change. Crouch ,B.R. and Shankariah Chamala (Ed) 605 Third Avenue, New York,John Wiley and Sons. Spector, P et al. (1971) Communication Media and Motivation. In the Ndoption of New Practices: In: Human Organisation. Vol. 30, No.1: p.39-46. Starrs, M.A.and Rizzuto, R.R. (1995). Getting The Message Out: Designing an Information Campaign on Women’s Health. Family Care International, Inc. U.S.A. 159 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Tunyayvanich, N. et.al. (1987). Women. Water and Sanitation in the Rural North-east of Thailand. Baseline study. Bangkok. Thailand, Mahidol University. Tyler, R.W. (1971). Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Van den Ban, A. W. and Hawkins, H. S. (1988 ). Agricultural Extension. Longman Scientific and Technical. John Wiley and Sons Inc N.Y. WCARD, (1979). Communication for Rural Development. Report of the World Conference on Agrarian Reform and Rural Development. Rome, Italy. Whale, W.B. (1984). Technology Transfer Revisited: Changing Practices. In: Foundations and Changing Practices in Extension. Blackburn, D.J. (Ed). University of Guelph. Canada .13:108-118. Wijk, C. (1985). Participation of Women in Water Supply and Sanitation: Roles and Realities. Technical Paper Series; no. 22. The Hague, The Netherlands, IRC International Water and Sanitation Centre. Wilk, C. and Murre, T. (1994). Motivation of Better Hygiene Behaviour: Importance for Public Health and Mechanisms of Change. New York, NY, USA, UNICEF. Wileninig, E.A. (1962). Acceptance of Improved Farm Practices in Three Coastal Plan Countries, Raleigh: North Carolina Agricultural Expt. Station Technical bulletin 98. 160 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDIX I: QUESTIONNAIRE FOR BENEFICIARY This questionnaire aims at studying channels you desire to be used in communicating innovation information to you and its relationship with your accessibility to information. I would be very grateful if you could answer the following questions. Any information given will be treated confidentially. SECTION A. PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS 1. Age.... 2. Sex: 1. Male [ ] 2. Female[ ] 3. Marital Status 1. Married[ ] 2. Single [ ] 3. Separated/Divorced [ ] 4. Widowed [ ] 4. Hometown............................ 5. Ethnicity................................ 6. How long have you been residing in the area?..... 7. Religion 1. Christianity [ ] 2. Islam [ ] 3. Traditional [ ] 4. Others [ ] 8. Highest Educational Level Attained: 1. Primary! ] 2. JSS [ ] 3. Middle Sch[ ] 4. SSS[ ] 5. Post Sec [ ] 6. TechnicalA/ocational Sch [ ] 7. Polytechnic [ ] 8. University [ ] 9. No Formal Education [ ] 10. Other (specify)......................................................................... 9. Occupation........................................................................................... SECTION B INNOVATION INFORMATION AND CHANNELS 10. What were the innovations introduced to you? 11. When were you first introduced to such innovations? 12. Please pick one innovation you were introduced to which is of most interest to you and use it to answer the following questions. State the innovation........................................................................................... 161 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 13. Was the innovation in Q.12 relevant to your problem situation? 1. Yes[ ] 2. No[ ] 14. Please give reasons for your answer to Q.13 15. Who introduced the innovation to you?............................................................... 16. What medium did the source in Q.15 use to introduce the innovation to you? 17. What information was delivered to you by the source in Q.15?................................................................................................................ 18. What medium would you have preferred to be used in introducing the innovation to you ................................................................................................ 19. Please give reasons for your answer to Q18..................................................... 20. Was your preferred channel used by the source in Q.15 for information delivery to you? 1. Yes[ ] 2. No[ ] 21. What did you do after you were introduced to the innovation? 1. Sought more information about the new idea. 2. Was apathetic to new idea. 3. Other (specify) 22. Give reasons for your answer to Q.21. 23. If you sought more information about the innovation, who did you consult? 24. What medium was used for information delivery to you by the source in Q.23?.................................................................................................................... 25. What information was delivered to you by the source in Q.23?.................................................................................................................... 26. What medium would you have preferred to be used information delivery to you by the source in Q.23?.................................................................................. 27. Please give reason(s) for your answer to Q.26 162 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 28. Was your preferred channel used by the source in Q.23 for information delivery to you? 1. Yes[ ] 2. No[ ] 29. What was your old practice before your exposure to the new practice?.................................................................................................................. 30. What made you consider a change from old practice to the new practice? 1. Its expected benefits compared with old practice. 2. Its ease of understanding and use. 3. Its compatibility with our values. 4. Other (specify)............................................................................................. 31. Who delivered the information to you that made you change from old practice to new practice?.................................................................................................... 32. Through what medium was the information delivered to you by the source inQ.31?.................................................................................................................. 33. What information was delivered to you by the source in Q31? 34. What medium would you have preferred to be used in information delivery to you by the source inQ.31?................................................................................... 35. Please give reasons for answer to Q.34.............................................................. 36. Was your preferred channel used by the source in Q.31 for information delivery to you? 1. Yes[ ] 2. No[ ] 37. When you were convinced of the benefits of the innovation, what did you do? 1. Fully applied the innovation to find out if it would be a solution to my problem. 2. Started practising immediately after conviction because innovation met a felt need in my life. 3. Applied the innovation bits by bits to see if it is really relevant to my situation. 4. Other (specify)............................................................................................ 38. Did you seek for further information before you were convinced to take any decision(s) in Q.37? 1. Yes [ ] 2. No[ ] 163 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 39. Please give reason(s) for your answer to Q.38 40. If yes to Q.38, who delivered the information to you? 41. Through what medium was the information delivered to you by the source in Q.40?..................................................................................................................... 42. What information was delivered to you by the source in Q.40?..................................................................................................................... 43. What medium would you have preferred to be used in information delivery to you by the source in Q.40?................................................................................. 44. Please give reasons for your answer to Q.43 45. Was your preferred channel used by the source in Q.40 for information delivery to you? 1. Yes[ ] 2. No[ ] 46. Have you discontinued the application of the innovation after you first put it into use to see if it works? 1. Yes[ ] 2. No[ ] 47. If yes to Q46, give reasons why you discontinued the application of the innovation.............................................................................................................. 48. Are you now practising the innovation? 1. Yes[ ] 2. No[ ] 49. Please give reasons for your answer to Q .48................................... 50. How long did it take you to start practising the innovation after getting convinced of its benefits?.................................................................................... 51. Please give reasons for your answer to Q.50....................................................... 52. If you did not change completely old practice after knowing benefits of innovation, how long did it take you to start practising completely?.......................................................................................................... 53. What were your reason(s) for your behaviour in Q.52? 164 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 54, Did you seek further information before deciding to practice the innovation? 1. Yes[ ] 2. No[ ] 55. If no to Q54, why?................................................................................................ 56. If yes to Q54, who did you consult? 57. Why did you seek for further information from such an individual in Q.56?..................................................................................................................... 58. Through what medium was the information delivered to you by the source in Q.56?..................................................................................................................... 59. What information was delivered to you by the source in Q.56?..................................................................................................................... 60. What medium would you have preferred to be used in information delivery to you by the source in Q.56?.................................................................................. 61. Please give reasons for your answer to Q.60...................................................... 62. Was your preferred channel used by the source in Q.56 for information delivery to you ? 1. Yes[ ] 2. No[ ] SECTION C. CHANGES RESULTING FROM EXPOSURE TO INNOVATION 63. Please indicate in the table below any change(s) in knowledge you have as a result of your exposure to the innovation. ASPECT CHANGE IN KNOWLEDGE 64. Have you put into practice these changes in knowledge (in Q.63) acquired? Yes[ ]2. No[ ] (if no, go to Q.66) 165 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 65. If yes to Q.64, please indicate those innovations you are now practising in the table below. PRACTICEI ASPECT 66. If no, why (please fill table below) INNOVATION REASON (S) FOR NOT PRACTISING 67. How would you rate the innovations introduced. Innovation Rating Appropriate Inappropriate Indifferent SECTION D. SOCIO-ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES OF BENEFICIARIES AND OPPORTUNITY FOR GETTING INNOVATION INFORMATION 68. Please indicate activities that you perform which are of socio-economic importance to you.................................................................................................... 69. Activity sharing And Underlying Reason. Use options 1,2,3, 4 and others (specify) below to answer Q69. Reasons for activity sharing. 1. Tradition /culture [ ] 2. Income [ j 3. Training [ ] 4. Education 5. Others (specify).................................................................. Activity Is Activity Male/ Female OR Male and Female Reasons For Distribution 166 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 70. Please indicate in the table below the frequency at which you acquire information through channels used by the source. Frequency of Acquisition Often Quite often Not often 71. Please indicate in the table below the frequency at which you information from the source with the underlining reasons. Frequency of Acquisition Reason Often Quite Often Not Often 167 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh This questionnaire aims at studying preferences for communication channels by your beneficiaries and its relationship with accessibility to information. I would be very grateful if you could answer the following questions. Any information given will be treated confidentially. SECTION A INNOVATION INFORMATION AND CHANNEL USAGE 1. What were the water and sanitation problems in the communities prior to the project intervention?................................................................................... ............. APPENDIX II: QUESTIONNAIRE FOR EXTENSION AGENT 2. Please indicate the innovations you have introduced with reference to the community water and sanitation programmes........................................................ 3. When were the innovations in Q2 introduced into the communities? 4. Please pick one innovation introduced to your clientele and use it to answer the following questions. State the innovation..................... ........................................................................... 5. Please indicate in the table below channels that were used at the various stages of the innovation decision process to introduce innovation stated in Q4 to your clientele. Stage o f Innovation Decision Channel Usage Awareness Interest Evaluation Trial Adoption SECTiON B FACTORS INFLUENCING CHOICE OF CHANNELS BY PROJECT 6. Please indicate in the table below which of the following factors influence your choice of channels in Q5. Factors 1. Nature of the message. 2. Different roles and responsibilities of beneficiaries. 3. Socio-cultural constraints of beneficiaries. 4. Ability of beneficiaries in terms of literacy level. 5 Gender 6. Others 168 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Stage Channel Factors Considered 7. Please rank in order of importance in the table below the factors considered in channel usage in Q6. Factors Considered Most Important Important Least Important Not Important 8. Please indicate in the table below your reasons for ranking in Q7. Factors Considered Ranking Reasons for ranking 9. Please indicate in the table below the frequency of use of channels by project at each stage and the underlying reasons. Stage Channel No. Of times channel is used Reason Most often Often Not often 10. Please fill in the table below the limitations of channels used by project and how these are overcome. Channels Limitation Solution SECTION C CHANGES DUE TO INNOVATION 11. Do you think the innovations introduced into the communities brought any changes in the water and sanitation practices of the community members? 1. Yes [ ] 2. No [ ] 169 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 12. If no, to Q11 why? 13. If yes to Q11, please indicate any change(s) in knowledge, which have resulted in the clientele in the table below. Innovation Changes In Knowledge of beneficiary 14. If yes to Q11, please indicate in the table below those innovations that your clientele are now practising. Innovation Practice 15. Please indicate in the table below any innovation(s), which your clientele have knowledge about but are not practising. Innovation Reasons For Not Practising Thank you for your help 170 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh