Hindawi
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Volume 2022, Article ID 8023866, 42 pages
https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/8023866
Review Article
Anthelmintic Agents from African Medicinal Plants: Review
and Prospects
Jonathan Jato ,1,2,3 Emmanuel Orman ,3,4 Yaw Duah Boakye ,2
Emelia Oppong Bekoe ,5 Samuel Oppong Bekoe ,6 Samuel Asare-Nkansah ,6
Verena Spiegler,3 Andreas Hensel,3 Eva Liebau,7 and Christian Agyare 2
1Department of Pharmacognosy and Herbal Medicine, School of Pharmacy, University of Health and Allied Sciences, Ho, Ghana
2Department of Pharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences,
Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana
3Institute for Pharmaceutical Biology and Phytochemistry, University of Münster, Münster, Germany
4Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, University of Health and Allied Sciences, Ho, Ghana
5Department of Pharmacognosy and Herbal Medicine, School of Pharmacy, University of Ghana, Accra, Ghana
6Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences,
Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana
7Institute of Integrative Cell Biology and Physiology, University of Münster, Münster, Germany
Correspondence should be addressed to Christian Agyare; chrisagyare@yahoo.com
Received 12 September 2022; Revised 26 November 2022; Accepted 16 December 2022; Published 31 December 2022
Academic Editor: Harish Chandra
Copyright © 2022 Jonathan Jato et al. Tis is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License,
which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Soil-transmitted helminthiasis afects more than 1.5 billion people globally and largely remains a sanitary problem in Africa.Tese
infections place a huge economic burden on poor countries and afect livestock production, causing substantial economic losses
and poor animal health. Te emergence of anthelmintic resistance, especially in livestock, and the potential for its widespread in
humans create a need for the development of alternative therapies. Medicinal plants play a signifcant role in the management of
parasitic diseases in humans and livestock, especially in Africa. Tis report reviews anthelmintic studies that have been conducted
on medicinal plants growing in Africa and published within the past two decades. A search was made in various electronic
databases, and only full articles in English were included in the review. Reports show that aqueous and hydroalcoholic extracts and
polar fractions obtained from these crude extracts form the predominant (80%) form of the extracts studied. Medicinal plants,
extracts, and compounds with diferent chemical groups have been studied for their anthelmintic potential. Polyphenols and
terpenoids are the most reported groups. More than 64% of the studies employed in vitro assays against parasitic and nonparasitic
nematode models. Egg hatch inhibition, larval migration inhibition, and paralysis are the common parameters assessed in vitro.
About 72% of in vivo models involved small ruminants, 15% rodents, and 5% chicken. Egg and worm burden are the main factors
assessed in vivo.Tere were no reports on interventions in humans cited within the period under consideration. Also, few reports
have investigated the potential of combining plant extracts with common anthelmintic drugs. Tis review reveals the huge
potential of African medicinal plants as sources of anthelmintic agents and the dire need for in-depth clinical studies of extracts,
fractions, and compounds from African plants as anthelmintic agents in livestock, companion animals, and humans.
1. Introduction STH is one of the neglected tropical diseases (NTDs) that
afects mainly people living in regions of high poverty,
Parasitic worms afect more than one-quarter of the without adequate sanitation, and in close contact with
world’s population, with soil-transmitted helminthiases infectious vectors, domestic animals, and livestock [2, 3].
(STH) accounting for about 1.5 billion infections [1, 2]. Tey occur globally in the tropics and subtropics,
2 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
including the Americas, Asia, and sub-Saharan Africa. levamisole, pyrantel pamoate, niclosamide, ivermectin, and
Tese areas are more impacted because of the low levels piperazine, have contributed immensely to tackling livestock
of development [2, 4]. and human parasites [18].
Helminth infection is largely a sanitary problem and is Te increase in cost, availability, continual reinfection,
associated with the human-animal food chain. Parasite eggs emergence of drug-resistant parasites, adverse events as-
present in human faeces contaminate the soil where they sociated with population-wide drug use [9, 17, 19], and lack
embryonate and are taken back into the intestinal tract of coverage for other infectious agents like Strongyloides
through poorly treated drinking water and foods [5]. Tis have becomemajor drawbacks to the success of anthelmintic
creates a vicious cycle of recurrent infections that is often chemotherapy [20]. Tese threats have spurred the quest to
difcult to break or interrupt [3, 6]. discover and develop new, innovative, sustainable, efective,
Although helminthiases have a low fatality rate, they safe, alternative, and complementary treatment options,
have a huge impact on human health and livestock pro- mostly from natural products [21–24].
duction. Te severity of symptoms in humans depends on In Africa, about 80% of the population largely depend on
the worm burden and whether monospecifc or mixed in- traditional remedies for their primary healthcare needs
fections are involved [2, 7]. Whilst children constitute the [25–27]. Compared to orthodox medicines, these remedies
most vulnerable group to worm infestation, pregnant are relatively accessible and cheaper, perceived to be safe and
women also sufer impaired immunity and a lower quality of efective, and form part of folkloric practices [22, 24, 28].
life [5, 8–10]. Plants form the larger part of these traditional remedies and
Based on the location of the adult parasite in the body, have historically been used in treating internal parasites and
helminthiases may clinically present as intestinal (whip- other diseases in humans and livestock [15, 29, 30]. Tey
worms, intestinal roundworms, and hookworms), or tissue constitute a viable source of chemically diverse molecules
(trematodes, hydatid tapeworms, and tissue roundworms) with broad-spectrum activity and can be a ready means to
parasites [5, 11]. Te most common and widespread in- combat parasite resistance. From January 1981 to September
testinal nematodes in humans include Ascaris lumbricoides, 2019, 71 new approved drugs were entirely derived from
Ancylostoma duodenale, Necator americanus, Trichuris tri- natural products, 14 as natural botanicals, and 356 as
chiura, and Strongyloides stercoralis, which have been semisynthetic derivatives of natural molecules [31]. How-
classifed as soil-transmitted helminthiases [3, 12]. Mild ever, there is currently no anthelmintic drug product ap-
symptoms include abdominal pain, nausea, diarrhoea, and proved that has been developed from plant sources [18].
loss of appetite, and in children, severe cases may lead to Even though the chemical constituents and mechanisms
anaemia, eosinophilia, stunted growth, malnutrition, by which medicinal plants elicit the observed activities are
pneumonia, and poor physical and cognitive development less known [28, 32], technological advancement has reig-
[3, 13]. High-intensity infections could result in intestinal nited research using in vitro and in vivo assays to evaluate
obstruction requiring surgery and death in cases of ethnopharmacological claims and, where possible, identify
Strongyloides stercoralis [14]. such chemical entities and their mechanisms [22, 28].
Unlike for some viral and bacterial diseases, there are Tis review is unique in the sense that it gathers in-
currently no vaccines developed for human intestinal parasites formation on anthelmintic extracts, fractions, and com-
[5, 15, 16]. In livestock, however, the frst vaccine (Barbervax®) pounds from African medicinal plants. It seeks to reveal theagainstH. contortus, which is derived from an intestinal surface potential of African medicinal plants as sources of new
antigen of the nematode, has proven to be a sustainable control anthelmintic molecules and alternative therapies against
measure in small ruminants [17]. Control measures mainly helminthiases.
include periodic deworming, health education, and improve- Whereas the African continent has a huge natural re-
ments in environmental sanitation. Seasonal chemotherapy source pool that is widely used by local people, especially
with synthetic anthelmintics remains the primary measure to indigenous people, for the management of many disease
eliminate or reduce infecting helminths. Health education conditions, the continent remains one of the hardest hits by
helps to prevent reinfection, while improved sanitary condi- intestinal parasites [2]. Tere is increasing research into
tions reduce egg transfer to soil [14]. natural products, especially medicinal plants, as sources of
Morbidity due to helminthiases has been greatly reduced new antiparasitic agents. Despite eforts to gather the library
by the annual or biannual mass drug administration (MDA) of these plant products, be they extracts, fractions, or pu-
in vulnerable populations. Te two benzimidazole drugs, rifed compounds [7, 23, 33], those available from African
mebendazole and albendazole, are the core agents recom- medicinal plants are scattered and limited to certain geo-
mended by the World Health Organization (WHO) for graphical regions. Tis review, therefore, sought to expand
MDA in children of school age. Both drugs are efective, this pool of information and to create a clear picture of the
cheap, easy to administer, and have been used in large situation as far as studies of anthelmintic agents from Af-
populations for several years with minor side efects [14]. rican medicinal plants are concerned. Here, we elaborate on
Other classes of anthelmintic drugs available include mac- the various studies that have been conducted on medicinal
rocyclic lactones, imidazothiazoles, tetrahydropyrimidines, plants native to Africa and espoused on the very promising
and amino-acetonitrile derivatives. Other drugs, including plant families and species.
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 3
1.1. Methodology High-frequency preventive chemotherapy in humans
and livestock, as a result of the high disease burden and
1.1.1. Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria. For the scope of this limited number of anthelmintics, causes a reduction in
review, full-text articles published in credible peer-reviewed worm refugia-enhancing mutations and resistance de-
journals, publishers, and repositories (see below) whose studies velopment [5, 21, 39]. Prolonged use of single drugs, for
focused on the anthelmintic activities of medicinal plants that example, the use of ivermectin for Onchocerciasis control
grow in Africa were included. Only articles written in English inWest Africa and praziquantel against Schistosomiasis in
and published between January 2002 and December 2021 were Egypt, has been associated with widespread
included, no matter where the study was conducted. resistance [34].
Articles written before 2001 and after 2021 were ex- Te development and spread of drug-resistant traits at
cluded. Articles that focused on extracts, fractions, and/or the molecular level have been well investigated in the model
compounds isolated from medicinal plants not growing in organism C. elegans [40] and the barber’s pole worm (H.
Africa were also excluded. Even though this review is ex- contortus) [41]. Mutations in genes coding for drug receptor
tensive, it is not a systematic review. Te review also sig- sites or the expression of genes involved in drug efux,
nifcantly focused on gastrointestinal nematode-related detoxifcation, or amphidial drug uptake have for instance
studies than other types of helminthiases. been reported as possible causes of drug resistance [42, 43].
Resistance to the benzimidazoles in trichostrongylid nem-
atodes in ruminants has been ascribed to mutations in the
1.1.2. Literature Search and Data Extraction. Articles were isotype 1 β-tubulin gene (E198A, E198L, F167Y, and F200Y)
identifed through literature searches in relevant electronic [44–46].
databases and search engines, including Scopus, Science Nematodes, generally upon hatching, undergo multiple
Direct, Academic Journals, African Journals Online (AJOL), larval developmental stages into adult worms [5], and this
HINARI, BioMed Central, Google Scholar, JSTOR, and multistage cycle poses a challenge to drugs that target just
PubMed. Bibliographies of included articles were further a few stages. Broad-spectrum activity against egg hatching,
searched, and pertinent, relevant information retrieved in larval metamorphosis, and adult worms is therefore an ideal
primary searches was added. Tis search was conducted requirement for anthelmintic agents [7].
between April 2020 and April 2022. Te use of plant extracts may signifcantly delay and
Articles that were retrieved were independently screened reduce the spread of resistance among parasite populations
by at least three authors, and those that met the inclusion [47, 48]. Tese multicomponent systems with natural
criteria were selected for review. products from very diferent classes could interact with
Data were often obtained from relevant portions of the multiple developmental stages, help reduce natural selection
articles, including the “materials and methods” and “results” pressures, and delay resistance development, which are
sections. Te extraction focused on the botanical source of typically found in such multitarget systems [49–51]. Selec-
plant material, the nature of extracts, fractions, or com- tive treatment of individuals, multidrug therapy, and en-
pounds, and the type of assay employed, including in vitro vironmental parasite control strategies slow down the
and in vivo studies. Te relevant measures of efcacy in the emergence of selective resistance alleles [38].
test system, including IC50, EC50, LC50, and LD50, were used
to assess the anthelmintic potential of the study samples.
Mendeley Desktop (version 1.19.4, copyright 2008–2020, 3. Anthelmintic Drug Development from
Mendeley Ltd.) was used to manage the citations. Natural Products: Prospects and Challenges
Te botanical identities of plants and their habitats in Since the beginning of the use of modern anthelmintics era
Africa were verifed against information from https://www. in the 1950s, only a handful of such drugs are available for
worldforaonline.org/search (formerly https://www. use in humans [52]. Te rate of anthelmintic drug devel-
theplantlist.org) and https://plants.jstor.org/plants/browse. opment by the pharmaceutical industry has nosedived over
the past four decades, partly due to high costs and low
2. Anthelmintic Resistance in Humans returns from investments in this area [16, 53–55]. Following
and Livestock the successful introduction of ivermectin in 1987 against
onchocerciasis in humans [56], two other agents, namely
Parasite susceptibility to the existing anthelmintic drugs emodepside and tribendimidine, are well advanced in hu-
continues to rapidly decline, leading to the emergence of man clinical trials against this disease [5, 57, 58]. On the
drug-resistant parasites. Several studies have reported the other hand, monepantel, emodepside, and derquantel have
development and spread of resistance to all major classes of recently been approved for use in livestock [16].
anthelmintics [34–36], especially in livestock and, to a lesser Natural products, including those from plants, animals,
extent, in companion animals and humans [9, 37]. Te main fungi, marine organisms, and bacteria, have been acclaimed
contributing factors to drug resistance include selective as the panacea to synthetic drug discovery challenges
pressure induced by high treatment frequencies, single-drug [54, 59]. Many studies end with the evaluation of plant
regimens, preventive mass treatments, inadequate dosing, extracts, fractions, and some isolated compounds for an-
indiscriminate use, and overreliance on synthetic drugs to thelmintic activities [50], with no plant-derived compound
control helminthiases [18, 34, 38]. currently in use as an anthelmintic drug in humans [18].
4 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Pyrethrum, nicotine, and rotenone are some drug products anthelmintic hit from plant extracts must be verifed for its
of plant origin that have been used as antiparasitic agents in safety in mammalian cells [66] and, if possible, in living
veterinary practice [60]. organisms.
Te discovery and development of anthelmintic agents With the emergence and rapid spread of multidrug
from natural sources and the isolation and characterization resistance to existing synthetic anthelmintics, the prospects
of bioactive constituents have therefore become the end goal for drug development from natural sources remain high
of research in this less-funded area [7, 60]. Whereas several [67]. To attract investors, herbal anthelmintics must be
eforts have been made towards the isolation and charac- developed to a stage where rigorous and reproducible quality
terization of antiparasitic compounds from plant sources in control can be assured. Standardized extracts have a huge
the past two decades, little is seen in other organisms such as market potential due to the current drive for organic food
bacteria and fungi [7]. Te disadvantage of the isolation supplements [60]. Multicomponent plant extracts may
approach, however, is the unavoidable loss of so-called potentiate efcacy, counter toxicity, enhance bioavailability,
pharmacological synergy or toxicological antagonism as- or improve the stability of each other in formulations
sociated with multicomponent extracts and fractions [7]. [68–71].
Issues of availability of bioactive minor compounds from A more interesting addition to the herbal industry is the
the plant material in sufcient amounts, stability, formu- advancement in the genetic engineering of specifcmetabolic
lation, delivery, compatibility, and many years of develop- pathways [72]. Genetic modifcation and tissue cultures can
ment have also kept some promising plant molecules out of increase the yield of target molecules and improve the
the market. Because of their bulky nature, semisynthetic turnover rate [59]. Tis also counters the risk of plant de-
measures to modify the chemical structures and properties pletion through wild harvesting and reduces the impact of an
of plant molecules have proven difcult and expensive [60]. unfavourable climate on raw materials [72].
Generally, medicinal plants have not competed
favourably with orthodox medicines as anthelmintics. Te 4. Brief Comparison of In Vitro and In Vivo
expensive human clinical efcacy and safety trials and bu- Anthelmintic Assays
reaucratic licensing procedures, accompanied by a limited
drug market, disincentivize the pharmaceutical industry Preliminary screening of natural products for pharmaco-
from plant-based anthelmintic product development. Te logical activities requires the use of validated methods to
yield and nature of phytoconstituents are also variedly guarantee reproducible outcomes [73]. Since helminth in-
infuenced by environmental factors like climate, altitude, fections are complex and often involve mixed parasites with
soil type, rainfall, and herbivore predation. Tis erratic and varied lifecycles, models for testing for antiparasitic activities
unpredictable outcome afects the establishment of consis- also widely difer between species. Tese investigations are
tent quality control measures and hence reduces the interest grouped into the in vitro and in vivo techniques [74].
of pharmaceutical investors [7]. Most primary investigations of plant materials for an-
Proprietary issues of ownership, royalties, access, gov- thelmintic activity employ in vitro bioassays [22, 74–76],
ernment charges, and patency for plant-based drugs further which rapidly screen large numbers of samples, are simple in
defate the hopes of drug-producing companies, which have design, easy to perform, cheap to implement, require
high expectations for investment returns [60]. Te presence minimal ethical considerations, require a small quantity of
of “pan assay interference compounds,” often referred to as samples, and quickly churn out reproducible results
“PAINS,” is militating against the advancement of pre- [49, 75, 77, 78]. Tese assays target various stages of the
liminary bioassays on plant extracts. PAINS is an unor- parasite lifecycle, including egg laying or hatching, larval
ganised group of promiscuous molecules that occur as development, migration, motility, motor paralysis, and le-
unspecifc hits in several enzyme assays and in vitro thality [5, 79]. Te current gold standard for assessing the
screenings. Tese subversive compounds have often been susceptibility of adult and larval worms to drugs is in vitro
considered for optimisation steps but end up consuming worm motility assays using read out by microscopy [53].
a lot of resources of investigators [61]. Te presence of these Some in vitro assays use nonparasitic wormmodels, whereas
molecules in high-throughput screens, on the other hand, others involve the isolation of eggs or larvae from experi-
should be recognised as a cautious group requiring further mentally or naturally infected animal hosts and the growth
assessment rather than an outright rejection as of larvae in vitro, during which periods the test substances
irrelevant [62]. can be applied and activity evaluated [80].
Contrary to the popular notion, not all natural com- Te results of basic in vitro assays of test samples (“hits”)
pounds are innocuous [7]. Often produced as defence are confrmed by the higher test models, which are spe-
mechanisms or in response to external stress, some natural cialized in vitro and in vivo studies to defne possible “lead”
products from plants are potentially toxic to humans and status [78]. It is however often difcult to reproducibly
animals and can be deleterious to physiological functions extrapolate results from in vitro investigations to in vivo
[63, 64]. An investigation by Ali et al. [65], for instance, activity owing to pharmacokinetics issues [81]. Te growth
revealed that even though the crude saponins from aerial and maintenance of parasitic nematodes for long periods
parts of Achillea wilhelmsii and Teucrium stocksianum have outside the host is often a laborious, expensive, and slow
signifcant anthelmintic activities, they were cytotoxic in the process that hinders efective in vitro studies [82]. Te
brine shrimp assay. Tis, therefore, implies that any versatility, availability, ease of culture maintenance, and high
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 5
proliferation rate make C. elegans, a free-living, nonparasitic animals in which such clinical investigations have been
nematode, a suitable model for many nematocidal and reported [86, 87, 111, 112]. Tere are few reports involving
mechanistic studies [40, 76, 82]. trials in pigs, chickens, goldfsh, snails, rats, and mice
In vivo assays involve the use of whole animals and are [113–117]. Te ability of test substances to reduce faecal egg
models that remain close to the patient, which is the fnal count (FEC), a typical measure of efects on fecundity, and
target for drug development [73]. Studies involve the in vivo postmortem intestinal worm burden are the parameters
investigation of anthelmintic potential using animals in- measured in in vivo assays. A few other studies evaluated the
fected with the relevant parasites. Te outcomes of in vivo physiological impact of test substances on haematological
studies are infuenced by themode of administration, nature, indices of host animals in addition to the antiparasitic in-
and dose of the test substance, host organism, and parasite vestigations [95, 111, 116, 118–120]. Tere was no report
species involved. Faecal worm, egg count, worm shedding, cited that investigated the clinical efcacy of extracts or
and host immune response are usually the parameters isolated compounds in human subjects, neither was any
evaluated. Egg counts evaluate the efect of treatment on activity testing reported on commercially available herbal
adult parasite fecundity, whereas parasite load depicts the anthelmintic products from these medicinal plants. Tere is,
efect on larvae or adult worms. Te density-dependent therefore, is a need to clinically evaluate some of these plant
fecundity efect, however, limits the signifcance of the products and establish quality parameters for their devel-
FECR assay [49, 53] and cannot be used for Strongyloides opment into standardised remedies for helminthiases.
spp., whose eggs are not passed in stool but larvae. Te anthelmintic activities reported vary widely
Although in vivo studies provide superior and reliable depending on the plant species, type of extract, strain of
outcomes for pharmacological screening due to the natural, nematode, and its parasitic stage of development. A similar
biological, pharmacological, pharmacokinetic, and toxico- observation was reported in a review of anthelmintic agents
logical environments, they are expensive, slow for large-scale used in goats [74]. Most in vivo studies, however, produced
investigations, labour-intensive, and often bedevilled with lower efcacies compared to their in vitro counterparts
ethical and animal welfare issues [73, 75]. regarding the same plant samples [74]. Te efects of
pharmacokinetic processes such as absorption and meta-
5. General Overview of Anthelmintic bolism and the biological variations of host animals could be
Evaluation of African Medicinal Plants accountable for these observations [75]. Also, many of the
studies report activity lower than that observed for the
From this review, it is evident that African medicinal plants standard anthelmintic drugs often used as positive controls
have great potential as sources of anthelmintic agents. An [121–124]. An in vitro study of Carica papaya extracts
ideal anthelmintic agent should have broad spectrum ac- against the Indian earthworm P. posthuma, however, was
tivity, afecting almost all stages of the lifecycle of the reported to show better paralytic (p< 0.0001) and wormi-
nematodes and sufcient safety. Whereas some studies that cidal (p< 0.0001) activity than albendazole [6].
considered more than one parasite stage reported such Almost 80% of the studies evaluated aqueous or
broad spectrum activities, a few others reported disparities hydroalcoholic extracts evaluated aqueous or hydroalcoholic
in efcacy against various forms of the parasites [83–85]. extracts of various plant materials including root barks, stem
Te majority (78%) of the studies or reports reviewed barks, fowers, seeds, and whole plants, oils, and latex or
employed in vitro assays in evaluating the anthelmintic exudates (Table 1). A few organic extracts, fractions, and
activities of medicinal plants. In vitro models mainly focused crude powdered plant materials (mostly as feed) have also
on the ability of drug candidates to inhibit egg hatching, been studied [65, 84, 112, 169, 172, 197]. Tis trend is ex-
larval migration, motility, larval development or exsheath- pected since many studies seek to replicate traditional ap-
ment, and survival [86–94]. plications of the study materials.
Te in vitro test models involve parasitic nematodes Te pharmacological potential of medicinal plants is
such as Haemonchus contortus, Ancylostoma caninum, attributed to their specifc natural product composition,
Ascaris suum, Heligmosomoides bakeri, Heligmosomoides which can be infuenced by various factors, including
polygyrus, Trichostrongylus axei, Strongyloides papillosus, changes in environmental conditions [203]. To assess the
Trichuris ovis, Oesophagostomum columbianum, and pharmacological activities of individual constituents, they
Oesophagostomum venulosum [95–97]. Nonparasitic must frst be isolated and characterized. Te elucidated
earthworms, including Pheretima posthuma, Lumbricus chemical structures provide grounds for quality control,
terrestris, Eisenia fetida, and Eudrilus eugeniae, have also structural modifcation, syntheses, elucidation of bio-
been used as in vitro models for studying the anthelmintic synthesis pathways, and quantitative structure-activity re-
efects of many extracts [98–103], cited in [104]. Te free- lations (QSAR) studies [7]. In this review, several bioactive
living nematode, C. elegans, continues to remain the most anthelmintic compounds belonging to diferent bio-
widely used non-parasitic test model for in vitro an- synthetical classes have been isolated from medicinal plants
thelmintic studies [105–110]. native to Africa. Tough there have been eforts to gather
these antiparasitic phytochemical libraries [7, 23, 33], there
H. contortus and related gastrointestinal nematodes (GIN) of exists no such profle for African medicinal plants. Te
small ruminants are the most widely investigated organisms majority of the studies reporting anthelmintic activities of
in in vivo models, whereas sheep and goats are the major medicinal plants focused on extracts or fractions with
6 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Table 1: African medicinal plants with anthelmintic activities, sorted according to the respective plant families.
No. Nature of Botanical source Habitat in Outcome ofextract Africa Assay(s) conducted assay(s)
Acanthaceae
In vitro EHIA, and larval growth
(1) Aqueous extract Leaves of Acanthus montanus (Nees) West and East inhibition assay against strongylid 91.75% reduction in egg hatch and 67.02%T. Anders Africa nematodes of sheep and goats larval inhibition at 25mg/ml in 24 h [90]
(2) 1 :1 DCM: methanolic extract Roots and leaves of Linariantha bicolor Tropical Africa In vitro activity against L3, L4 and Root extract signifcantly reduced survivalB. L. Burtt & R. M. Sm. adult C. elegans (wild type, Bristol N2) of young adult worms to 57% [107]
Amaranthaceae
In vivo FEC assay against Ascaris
(3) Ethanolic extract suum, Hyostrongylus rubidus and More than 80% reduction of FEC on day 7
Leaves of Amaranthus spinosus L. West Africa Trichuris trichiura in pigs posttreatment with 0.5 g/kg [125]
(4) Ethanolic extract In vitro activity against GIN fromgoats 60% mortality at 100mg/mL [126]
In vitro antimotility, and EHIA
against H. contortus and in vivo LC50 � 0.134mg/mL against egg hatching(5) Aqueous and methanolic extracts Whole plant of Chenopodium album L. East Africa against FEC in mixed parasite infected and signifcantly reduced FEC (93.9% at
sheep 3.0 g/kg on day 13 posttreatment [127]
Anacardiaceae
(6) Acetone extract and fractions Leaves of Anacardium occidentale L. West Tropical
In vitro EHIA and larval development LC50 of acetone extract was 0.31 and
Africa and viability assays against H. 1.72mg/ml for hatchability and larvalcontortus viability test, respectively [122]
(7) Ethanolic extracts Mangifera indica L. Tropical Africa In vitro activity against GIN from Extract induced 50% mortality at 100mg/goats mL [126]
(8) Aqueous extract Leaves, stem, and root barks of Paralysis and death time in vitro assay
Leaf extract caused paralysis and death at
Spondias mombin L. against earthworm E. eugeniae 15± 0.33 and 34± 0.65min, respectively
Tropical Africa [128]
(9) n-Hexane, acetone, and aqueous Leaves of Spondias mombin L. In vitro activity against adult
All extracts show some level of activity
extracts Haemonchus placei against the worms with LC50 values of 104,30.5 and 56.27mg/mL, respectively [129]
Annonaceae
(10) Aqueous extract Leaves of Annona muricata L. West Africa In vitro EHIA, and larval mortality
Efective against egg hatching, L3 larvae
assay against H. contortus (84.91%) and adult worms and 89.08%inhibition at 33% v/v [130]
(11) Aqueous extracts Stem bark ofAnnona senegalensis Pers. Tropical Africa In vitro faecal egg hatch inhibition Concentration-dependent decline in larvalactivity against H. contortus in sheep recovery (88.5± 3.1% at 7.1mg/ml) [131]
(12) Aqueous extract Seeds of Monodora tenuifolia Benth. West and East In vitro EHIA against mixed intestinal Signifcant reduction in egg hatching (93%)Africa nematodes of goats at 100 mg/ml [87]
Both extracts possess inhibitory efects on
(13) Ethanolic extract Leaves and stem bark of Polyalthia West Africa In vitro larval mortality and in vivo larvae and FEC. At 400 mg/kg the extractslongifolia (Sonn.) FEC assays against H. bakeri in mice reduced FEC to 0.60± 0.24 and 0.40± 0.24
EPG, respectively [132]
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 7Table 1: Continued.
No. Nature of Botanical source Habitat inextract Africa Assay(s) conducted
Outcome of
assay(s)
(14) Methanolic extracts Seeds and leaves of Xylopia aethiopica
In vivo assay of postmortem worm
recovery against Nippostrongylus Extract produced about 76%A. Rich brasiliensis in rats deparasitisation [133]
Tropical Africa At 30 mg/ml, the fruit extract caused
Fruits and leaves of Xylopia aethiopica paralysis and death in 65.34± 7.05 and(15) Ethanolic extracts A. Rich. In vitro activity against P. posthuma 81.72± 19.63min, respectively, whilst leafextract caused same efects in 69.27± 0.00
and 96.39± 0.00min, respectively [134]
Apocynaceae
Both extracts induced signifcant paralysis
(16) Hydroethanolic extract Stem and root barks of Alstonia booneiDe Wild In vitro assay against P. Posthuma
(17.00± 2.10 and 93.00± 2.04min) and
Tropical West death (100.00± 2.47 and 151.00± 2.27min),
and East Africa respectively [135]In vitro paralysis and mortality assay Both extracts induced paralysis
(17) Aqueous and ethanolic extracts Stem bark of Alstonia boonei De Wild against earth worms-Lumbricus (43.50± 7.67 and 34.89± 2.48min,
terretris respectively) [99]
Powder and aqueous extract reduced FEC
(18) Crude powder, aqueous and
In vitro assay against adult motility, (88.4 and 77.8% at 3 g/kg on day 7 and 10
methanolic extracts Flowers of Calotropis procera Ait. F. and in vivo FEC against H. contortus posttreatment, respectively). Aqueousin sheep extract induced 70% worm paralysis at 6 h
Tropical Africa of 25mg/ml treatment [121]
Latex possess wormicidal activity (100%
(19) Dried and fresh latex Latex of Calotropis procera Ait. F. In vitro activity against adult P. mortality at 60min of 100mg/mlposthuma treatment) and caused causing irreversible
paralysis in lower doses [136]
At 50mg/ml, the two extracts caused
(20) Methanolic extracts Stem bark and leaves of Rauvolfa Tropical Africa In vitro activity against P. posthuma paralysis at 11.17± 0.08 andvomitoria Afzel. 21.68± 0.10min and death at 21.67± 0.73
and 143.35± 1.41min, respectively [137]
At 50mg/ml, both extracts caused paralysis
(21) Methanolic extracts Stem bark and leaves of Voacanga Tropical Africa In vitro activity against P. posthuma at 7.03± 0.49 and 22.55± 0.57min andafricana Stapf ex. Scott-Elliot death at 14.77± 0.12 and 113.99± 1.01min,
respectively [137]
Asparagaceae
Sisal waste liquid of Agave sisalana West Tropical In vivo FEC assay, coprocultures and Extracts reduced FEC (50.3%) and faecal(22) Aqueous extract Perrine ex Engelm. Africa postmortem worm counts in goats worm count (80%) at 1.7 g/kg with noapparent toxicity to the animals [119]
All extracts had signifcant anthelmintic
efects. Te hot aqueous extract of the leaf
(23) Aqueous extracts Leaf, scape, and bulb of Drimia indica East and West In vitro action against adult P.(Roxb.) Jessop. Africa posthuma was the most active, inducing paralysis at41.3± 0.94min and death at 50± 0.81 at
5mg/ml [104]
8 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative MedicineTable 1: Continued.
No. Nature of Botanical source Habitat inextract Africa Assay(s) conducted
Outcome of
assay(s)
Asteraceae
At 40mg/ml, A. wilhelmsi fraction was 1.96
(24) Saponin fraction Aerial parts of Achillea wilhelmsii
In vitro assay on P. posthuma,
North Africa tapeworms (R. spiralis), and adult and 2.12 times more potent thanK. Koch roundworms (A. galli) albendazole against P. posthuma and R.spiralis, respectively [65]
(25) Aqueous extract Leafy stems of Ageratum conyzoides L. Tropical Africa In vitro efects on adult L. terrestris Extract caused 100% mortality at62± 0.28min [138]
Both extracts were active against ovine
In vitro wormmotility assay againstH. nematodes. Ethanolic extract caused FECR
(26) Aqueous and ethanolic extracts Aerial parts of Artemisia absinthium L. North Africa contortus and in vivo FEC in sheep of 90.46% at 2.0 g/kg on day 15
nematodes posttreatment, and >80% inhibition ofworm motility in vitro after 8 h with 25mg/
ml treatment [139]
In vitro inhibition of adult worm
motility against H. contortus and Methanolic extract inhibited motility (80%
(27) Aqueous and methanolic extracts Whole plant of Artemisia brevifolia South and in vivo FEC assay againstH. contortus, at 6 h with 25mg/ml treatment) andWall. Tropical Africa T. colubriformis, T. axei, O. aqueous extract reduced FEC in vivo (67.2%
columbianum, S. Papillosus and T. ovis at 3 g/kg on day 14) [140]
in sheep
In vitro paralysis and mortality assay Both extracts caused signifcant paralysis
(28) Aqueous and ethanolic extracts against earth worms-Lumbricus (59.94± 8.25 and 33.18± 12.41min,
terretris respectively) [99]
(29) Aqueous extract Leaves of Vernonia amygdalina Del. In vitro faecal egg hatch inhibition Extract had no signifcant inhibition atactivity against H. contortus in sheep 11.2mg/ml [131]
(30) Acetone extract Tropical Africa In vitro testing on eggs, infective
Extract was active with 42% ovicidal efect,
larvae, and adult stages of H. contortus 70% inhibition of larval migration 90%adulticidal efects at 300 μg/mL [141]
Chloroformic extract was more active
(31) Chloroformic and ethanolic Stem of Vernonia amygdalina Del. In vitro activity against adult P. causing paralysis and death at 11.95± 0.28extracts posthuma and 41.74± 2.21min, respectively, at 75mg/
ml [142]
Burseraceae
(32) Aqueous extracts Leaves, stem, and root barks of Tropical Africa Paralysis and death time in vitro assay
Leaf extract induced paralysis and death at
Commiphora africana A. Rich, Engl. against earthworm E. eugeniae 17± 0.72 and 87± 6.89min, respectively[128]
(33) Aqueous and methanolic extracts Stem bark of Boswellia dalzielii Hutch. West Africa In vitro assay against egg hatching of Both extracts, respectively, yield 53.8% andC. elegans strains 69.1% egg hatch inhibition at 2mg/ml [106]
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 9
Table 1: Continued.
No. Nature ofextract Botanical source
Habitat in Outcome of
Africa Assay(s) conducted assay(s)
Combretaceae
In vivo efects on FEC in sheep Dose-dependent FECR and worm burden
(34) Aqueous extract naturally infected with gastrointestinal reduction (39.5% and 33%, respectively,
nematodes after 3 consecutive days 400mg/kgtreatment) [143]
Signifcant ovicidal (ED50 � 409.5 μg/mL),
(35) Aqueous decoction Leaves of Anogeissus leiocarpus (DC.) In vitro EHIA, larvicidal assay and and larvicidal (100% eclodibility inhibitionGuill. & Perr. mortality of adult H. contortus at 1.2mg/ml) actions. Active against adult
West, Central worms, but not dose dependent [89]
and East Africa Te extract and fractions exhibited
(36) Acetone extract and fractions In vitro EHIA and larval viability concentration-dependent ovicidal andassays against H. contortus larvicidal activity. LC50 of 360 and 509 μg/
ml, respectively, for the acetone extract [92]
(37) Aqueous and ethanolic extracts Leaves and bark of Anogeissus In vitro activity against C. elegans Ethanolic extract of the bark was the mostleocarpus (DC.) Guill. & Perr. (wild type) larvae active with LC50 of 380 μg/ml [144]
(38) Methanolic and Leaves, roots, and bark of Anogeissus In vitro activity against Rhabditis
All extracts possess anthelmintic action
chloromethylenic extracts leocarpus (DC.) Guill. & Perr. pseudoelongata with EC50 between 2.5 μg/ml and 10 μg/ml[145]
(39) Fractions of ethanolic extract Stem bark of Anogeissus schimperi Tropical Africa In vivo activity against Aqueous fraction showed 64.15% efcacy atHochst. Nippostrongylus braziliensis in rats. 50mg/kg body weight [146]
Extract and fractions exhibited ovicidal
(40) Acetone extract and fractions Leaves of Combretum molle R. Br. ex Tropical East In vitro EHIA, larval development, (LC50 � 0.87mg/ml) and larvicidalG. Don Africa and viability assay in H. contortus (LC50 � 0.60mg/ml) action against H.
contortus [147]
10 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Table 1: Continued.
No. Nature of Botanical source Habitat in Assay(s) conducted Outcome ofextract Africa assay(s)
In vitro adulticidal and larvicidal Extract possess nematicidal activities with
(41) Ethanolic extracts action against A. ceylanicum, H. in vitro minimum lethal concentration ofbakeri, and T. muris and in vivo 10 μg/mL against T. muris and a worm
against these parasites in NMRI mice burden reduction of 85.3% in vivo [148]
(42) Hydroethanolic extract In vitro action against C. elegans larvae Extract caused 41.9% inhibition of larvae atLeaves of Combretum mucronatum
Schumach. & Tonn. Tropical Africa
1mg/ml [149]
In vitro action against C. elegans L4 Extract exhibited moderate activity withLC50 of 1.67mg/ml. Ethyl acetate fraction
(43) Hydroethanolic extract and
larvae. was active with LC50 of 1.73mg/ml [150]
fractions Atomic force microscopy of C. elegans Ultrastructural changes were reported in
treated with tannin-enriched extract. the cuticle but no morphological changeson the intestines [151]
Stem bark Guiera senegalensis J. F. In vitro EHIA and larval development Methanolic extract inhibited egg hatch(44) Aqueous and methanolic extracts Gmel. Tropical Africa of C. elegans (wildtype and (>80%) and larval development (>90%) inivermectin-resistant DA1316) strains both strains [152]
(45) Pet. ether, DCM, ethyl acetate, Dry fallen leaves of Terminalia catappa Tropical West In vitro EHIA and larval mortality
98.9% inhibition of egg hatching and 98.9%
methanolic and aqueous extracts L. Africa assay against H. contortus larval reduction by DCM extract at 6.25mg/ml [153]
(46) Methanolic and Leaves of Terminalia glaucescens Tropical Africa In vitro activity against Rhabditis Both extracts with active with EC50 ofchloromethylenic extracts Planch. ex Benth. pseudoelongata 2.5 μg/ml each [145]
Cucurbitaceae
(47) Aqueous and methanolic extracts Seeds of Citrullus lanatus (Tunb.) East and South In vitro paralysis and mortality efects
Aqueous extract at 50mg/ml induced
Mansf. Africa against L. terrestris paralysis and death at 38.49± 1.20 and58.2± 3.41min, respectively [154]
Aqueous extract caused
In vitro paralysis and mortality efects concentration-dependent paralysis and(48) Aqueous and methanolic extracts Seeds of Cucurbita pepo L. West Africa against L. terrestris death of the worms (37.25± 1.60 and50.49± 2.28min, respectively) at 50mg/ml
[154].
Extracts of plants from diferent ecological
(49) Ethanolic extracts Leaves of Momordica charantia L. In vitro action against adult C. elegans(wild type, N2, Bristol) zones showed varying degree of activitiesTropical Africa with LC50 between 473 and 997 μg/ml [155].
(50) Ethanolic extracts Fruits of Momordica charantia L. In vitro activity against GIN and 100% mortality at 100mg/ml and 78%in vivo FECR assay in goats FECR on day 9 posttreatment [126]
In vitro paralysis and mortality efects Aqueous extract at 50mg/ml caused(51) Aqueous and methanolic extracts Seeds of Telfairia occidentalis Hook. f. Tropical Africa against L. terrestris paralysis and death in 42.97± 1.45 and66.63± 4.10min, respectively [154]
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 11Table 1: Continued.
No. Nature of Habitat in Outcome ofextract Botanical source Africa Assay(s) conducted assay(s)
Euphorbiaceae
Te methanol extract was the most active
(52) Petroleum ether, chloroform, In vitro activity against E. eugeniae
inducing paralysis and death at
and methanol extracts (earthworms) 26.28± 0.575 and 57.30± 0.370min,Leaves of Alchornea cordifolia Tropical Africa respectively, at 12mg/ml concentration(Schumach.) Müll. Arg. [156]
Methanolic and In vitro activity against Rhabditis Te chloromethylenic extract and alkaloidal(53) chloromethylenic extracts pseudoelongata fraction signifcantly inhibited the wormswith EC50 of 2.5 μg/ml [145]
(54) Aqueous and ethanolic extracts Leaves of Euphorbia hirta L. Tropical Africa In vitro activity against C. elegans Ethanolic extract was the most active with(wild type) larvae LC50 of 2.0mg/ml [144]
Methanolic and Leaves of Mallotus oppositifolius Müll. In vitro activity against Rhabditis Both extracts and alkaloid fraction were(55) chloromethylenic extracts Arg. West Africa pseudoelongata active with EC50 of 2.5 μg/ml against theworms [145]
Fabaceae
In vitro EHIA, adult motility, and
larval development assay against H. LC50 � 512.86 and 194.98 μg/mL against egg
(56) Methanolic extract contortus and in vivo against H. hatch and larval development, respectively.
contortus, T. circumcincta, and T. ovis FEC reduced by 78.5% on day 13 post 3.0 g/Fruits of Acacia nilotica (L.) Del. Tropical Africa in sheep. kg treatment [97]
LC50 �10.8± 0.3 μg/mL against
(57) Hydroalcoholic extracts In vitro larvicidal action against C.elegans strains andOnchocerca ochengi microflariae of O. onchengi and350± 1.1 μg/mL against C. elegansWT [110]
Ethiopia, South In vivo efect on FEC and worm Moderate reduction in FEC and worm(58) Dry feed (browse meal) Leaves of Acacia polyacantha Wild. Africa burdens in experimentally infected burden: 27% and 13%, respectively, in sheepsheep and goats and 19% FEC reduction in goats [112]
(59) Acetone extracts of indigenous
In vitro EHIA, LMIA and adult Efective against egg hatching (38% at
browses Leaves of Acacia senegal (L.) Willd. Tropical Africa motility inhibition assays (AMIA) 300 μg/mL), with no dose-dependentagainst H. contortus inhibition of larvae and adults [141]
(60) Acetone extracts of indigenous Leaves of Acacia seyal Del. Tropical Africa In vitro EHIA, LMIA and AMIA
Concentration-dependent ovicidal efects
browses against H. contortus (34% at 300 μg/mL) with minimal efects onlarvae and adult worms [141]
Acetone extracts of indigenous Leaves of Acacia tortilis (Forssk.) In vitro EHIA, LMIA and AMIA Concentration-dependent ovicidal efects(61) browses Hayne Tropical Africa against H. contortus (39% at 300 μg/mL) but no signifcantlarvicidal and adulticidal activity [141]
(62) Methanolic and Leaves of Afrormosia laxifora (Benth. West Africa In vitro activity against Rhabditis
Both extracts and alkaloid fraction were
chloromethylenic extracts ex Baker) Harms pseudoelongata active with EC50 of 2.5 μg/ml against theworms [145]
(63) Ethanolic extract Stem bark of Afzelia africana Sm. West, Centraland East Africa In vitro EHIA against H. contortus
About 90.9% egg hatch inhibition at 5mg/
ml [88]
12 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative MedicineTable 1: Continued.
No. Nature of Botanical source Habitat inextract Africa Assay(s) conducted
Outcome of
assay(s)
Te aqueous extract inhibited egg hatching,
larval development, and survival of worms
Aqueous, methanolic, and In vitro EHIA and larvicidal activity
(ED50 �144.2, 65.2 and 312.4 μg/mL,
(64) against strongyle-type sheep respectively). Te methanolic extract onlychloroformic extracts nematode caused high mortality of larvaeRoot bark of Albizia anthelmintica (ED50 �11.8 μg/mL). Te chloroformic
Brongn. Southern Africa extract had moderate efects on larval
development (ED50 � 208.0 μg/mL) [86]
In vivo efcacy against Haemonchus
(65) Aqueous extract spp., Trichostrogylus spp. and Efcacy of 89.8% was observed against theOesophagostomum spp. mixed nematodes [157]
infection in sheep
Ovicidal activities with ED50 � 0.11 μg/mL
(66) Aqueous and ethanolic extract Stem bark of Albizia schimperianaOliv. Tropical Africa
In vitro ovicidal and larvicidal activity of aqueous extract and signifcantly
against H. contortus inhibited larval development (99.31% at
50mg/ml) [158]
Seeds, leaves, fowers of Butea West Tropical In vitro assay against C. elegans (wild Extract of seeds very active against C.(67) Methanolic extract monosperma (Lam.) Kuntze Africa type) larvae elegans (ED50 � 901.5 μg/mL) in microwellassay [109]
In vitro antimotility, and EHIA LC50 � 0.449mg/ml in egg hatch test. EPG
(68) Aqueous and methanolic extracts Seed kernel of Caesalpinia crista L. Tropical Africa against H. contortus and in vivoagainst FEC in mixed parasite infected reduced by 82.2% at dose of 3.0 g/kg on day
sheep 5 posttreatment [127]
Ovicidal (ED50 � 245.9 μg/mL and larvicidal
(69) Aqueous decoction Stem bark of Daniellia oliveri (Rolfe) Sudan, Senegal, In vitro EHIA, larvicidal assay and (100% eclodibility inhibition at 1.2mg/ml)Hutch. & Dalz. Egypt, Uganda mortality of adult H. contortus actions. Active against adult worms, but not
dose-dependent [89]
70) Acetone extracts of indigenous Leaves ofMillettia ferruginea (Hochst.) In vitro testing on eggs, infective
Ovicidal action (35% at 300 μg/mL) but no
browses ex. Baker Tropical Africa larvae, and adult stages of H. contortus signifcant efects against larvae and adultworms [141]
In vitro egg hatch assay and in vivo Extract signifcantly inhibited egg hatch
(71) Aqueous methanolic extract Leaves of Mimosa pudica L. East Africa using H. bakeri experimentally in vitro (LC50 of 1.160 μg/mL) and reduced
infected adult albino mice worm count in vivo [118]
ED50 � 0.13 μg/mL against egg hatch and
(72) Aqueous and ethanolic extract Leaves of Senna occidentalis (L.) Link Tropical Africa In vitro ovicidal and larvicidal activityagainst H. contortus 96.36% inhibition of larval development[158]
Chloroformic and methanolic Aerial parts of Tephrosia spinosa (L.f.) In vitro anthelmintic activity on adult Signifcant paralytic efect on worms.(73) extracts Pers. Tropical Africa Indian earth worms (Pheretima Chloroformic extract (14.34± 0.04min),posthuma) methanolic extract (21.98± 0.15min) [98]
In vitro EHIA and larval development 93.2± 0.9% inhibition of egg hatch and(74) Aqueous extracts Leaves of Tephrosia villosa (L.) Pers. West Africa assays against H. contortus 81.8± 2.99% inhibition of larvaldevelopment at 500mg/ml [94]
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 13
Table 1: Continued.
No. Nature of Botanical source Habitat in Assay(s) conducted Outcome ofextract Africa assay(s)
(75) Aqueous extracts Leaves of Tephrosia vogelii Hook.f. Tropical Africa In vitro EHIA and larval development
Signifcant inhibition against of egg hatch
assays against H. contortus (95.8± 1.71%) and larval development(99.0± 1.41%) at 500mg/ml [94]
Lamiaceae
Flowers and roots of Leonotis Southern and In vitro ovicidal and larvicidal activity Aqueous extract had ED50 � 0.25 μg/mL(76) Aqueous and ethanolic extract ocymifolia (Burm.f.) Iwarsson East Africa against H. contortus against egg hatch and 100% larvaldevelopment inhibition at 50mg/ml [158]
Aerial parts of Leucas martinicensis In vitro ovicidal and larvicidal activity ED50 � 0.09 μg/mL of aqueous extract(77) Aqueous and ethanolic extract (Jacq) R.Br. Tropical Africa against H. contortus against egg hatch and inhibited larvaldevelopment by 99.85% at 50mg/ml [158]
Ethanolic extract was most active causing
(78) Hexane and ethanolic extracts Fruits of Ocimum basilicum L. West Tropical In vitro activity against the earthworm
paralysis in 11.85± 0.71min and death in
Africa E. eugeniae 24.74± 0.42min at 5mg/ml. Tis wassignifcantly active than mebendazole, the
positive control [159]
(79) Acetone extract Leaves ofOcimum gratissimum Forssk. Tropical Africa In vitro activity against adult H. placei Concentration-dependent inhibition ofparasites with LC50 of 17.70mg/ml [160]
(80) Essential oils Whole plant of Ocimum sanctum L. Across Africa In vitro assay against C. elegans (wild
Oil and eugenol (ED50 of 62.1 μg/mL)
type) larvae showed activity against C. elegans larvae[108]
At 10mg/ml, paralysis and death time were
(81) Essential oil Aerial parts of Tymus bovei Benth. North Africa In vitro wormicidal action on adult P.posthuma 19.61± 0.88 and 47.32± 0.94min,respectively [161]
At 2mg/ml, both extracts had 83.8% and
(82) Aqueous and methanolic extracts Stem barks of Vitex doniana Sweet Tropical Africa In vitro assay against egg hatching of 92.3% ovicidal activity, respectively, againstC. elegans strains the ivermectin-resistant strain DA1316
[106]
Aerial parts of Teucrium stocksianum Tropical East In vitro assay on P. posthuma, At 40mg/ml, the fraction was 1.89, 1.96 and(83) Saponin fraction Boiss. and North Africa tapeworms (R. spiralis), and adult 1.37 times active than albendazole againstroundworms (A. galli) the three organisms, respectively [65]
14 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Table 1: Continued.
No. Nature of Botanical source Habitat inextract Africa Assay(s) conducted
Outcome of
assay(s)
Meliaceae
All fractions exhibited dose-dependent
(84) Aqueous, methanolic extract and In vitro EHIA and larval survival assay
efects. Ethyl acetate fraction had
fraction against H. contortus LC50 � 21.32 μg/ml against egg hatching and
Seeds of Azadirachta indica A. Juss. 83% wormicidal efects at 50mg/ml 1 hpostexposure [162]
In vivo inhibition of FEC and larval Both extracts induced 29.3% and 40.2%
(85) Aqueous and methanolic extracts counts in sheep naturally infected with reduction in EPG on day 15 posttreatment
H. contortus and Trichostrongyus spp with 3 g/kg [163]
Te extract signifcantly reduced paralysis
In vitro activity against P. posthuma, (17± 0.32, 13± 0.85, 19± 0.50min) and
(86) Aqueous extract tapeworms (Raillietina spiralis) and death time (30± 0.11, 38± 1.20,
roundworms (Ascaridia galli) 40± 0.50min), respectively, against all
Tropical Africa parasites [164]
(87) Crude feed In vivo efcacy against bovine Induced about 98% FECR on day 14strongylosis posttreatment [165]
Diethyl etheric, chloroformic, Leaves of Azadirachta indica A. Juss.
(88) ethanolic and methanolic In vitro activity against microflariae
Methanolic and ethanolic extracts were the
of Setaria cervi most active with 87% and 60% mortality atextracts 45min posttreatment with 200 μg/ml [166]
(89) Traditional preparations In vivo activity (FEC and TWC) 26% FECR and 15% TWCR at 7 daysagainst H. polygyrus in mice posttreatment [84]
100% mortality at 100mg/ml with 81%
(90) Ethanolic extracts In vitro activity against GIN andin vivo FECR assay in goats reduction in EPG on day 9 posttreatment[126]
Leaves, stem, and root barks of In vitro EHIA and larval inhibition Dose-dependent activity with over 90%(91) Aqueous extracts Azadirachta indica A. Juss. against strongylid nematodes of small inhibition of survival and about 50%ruminants inhibition of egg hatch at 100mg/ml [167]
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 15Table 1: Continued.
No. Nature of Botanical source Habitat in Assay(s) conducted Outcome ofextract Africa assay(s)
In vitro activity against larvae of Both extracts are active with no signifcant
(92) Aqueous and ethanolic extracts Stem bark Khaya senegalensis A. Juss. strongyles, and in vivo against mixed diference between them. Ethanolic extract
West, Central intestinal nematodes in sheep had LC50 of 0.51 mg/ml and 88.82% FECR
and East Africa at 500 mg/kg, respectively [168].
(93) Aqueous and ethanolic extracts Leaves and bark of Khaya senegalensis In vitro activity against C. elegans
Ethanolic extract of the bark and leaves had
A. Juss. (wild type) larvae LC50 of 470 μg/ml and 1.0 mg/ml,respectively, against C. elegans [144].
(94) 1 :1 DCM: methanolic extract Whole plant of Lansium domesticum Tropical East In vitro activity against L3, L4 and Extract signifcantly reduced survival ofCorrêa Africa adult C. elegans (wild type, Bristol N2) adult worms to 59% [107].
Musaceae
Signifcant inhibition of egg hatching in T.
(95) Dry feed Leaves of Musa spp Tropical Africa In vivo assay against H. contortus, andT. colubriformis in sheep colubriformis (91% on day 15posttreatment) [169]
(96) Aqueous extracts Leaves, pseudostems, and hearts of Tropical Africa In vitro activity against larval Signifcant inhibition of larval developmentMusa spp. development in H. contortus (>96.9%) recorded at 75mg/ml [170]
In vitro egg hatch, and larval Te leaf extract exhibited ovicidal
Leaves, pseudostems, and heart of development assays, and in vivo FEC (LC50 � 0.19mg/ml) and larvicidal activities(97) Aqueous extracts Musa spp. cv. Prata anã Tropical Africa reduction assay againstH. contortus in in vitro, and 33.0% FECR after 1 week of
lambs treatment with 303mg/kg body weight[171]
In vivo assay as feed for lambs
(98) Dry feed experimentally infected with H. Signifcant FECR after 21 consecutive days
contortus of feeding with 7000 g/lamb/day [172]
Leaves of Musa x paradisiaca L. Tropical Africa In vitro activity against H. contortuseggs, adult motility assay in vivo efect Extract exhibited strong in vitro activity on
(99) Hydromethanolic extracts on FEC and larval counts in sheep egg hatching (LC50 � 2.13 μg/mL) and
naturally infected with mixed species caused 80.7% reduction in FEC in vivo at
of nematodes 8 g/kg body [173]
In vitro assay against sheep tapeworm All extracts showed signifcantly paralytic
(100) Methanolic extracts Roots ofMusa spp. (M. paradisiaca,M. Tropical Africa (Moniezia benedeni), roundworm
efects on the worms. M. paradisiaca was
sapientum, and M. nana) (Ascaris lumbricoides), and adult more active with 26.07± 1.7, 57.08± 1.32,
earthworm (Esenia fetida) and 80.04± 0.5min paralysis time againstthe three worms, respectively [173]
Phyllanthaceae
Te dichloromethane extracts were more
(101) Methanolic and Leaves and bark of Bridelia ferruginea In vitro activity against Rhabditis active than the methanolic extracts withchloromethylenic extracts Benth. Tropical Africa pseudoelongata EC50 of 2.5 μg/ml and 5 μg/ml, respectively
[145]
(102) Hydroethanolic extract Shoots of Phyllanthus urinaria L. Tropical Africa In vitro action against C. elegans larvae Extract caused 10.8% inhibition of larvae(89.2% survival) at 1mg/ml [149]
16 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
li-
Table 1: Continued.
No. Nature of Botanical source Habitat in Assay(s) conducted Outcome ofextract Africa assay(s)
Piperaceae
(103) In vitro EHIA against mixed intestinal 90% inhibition of egg hatch at 100mg/ml
Aqueous extract Seeds of Piper guineense Tonn. West, East, And nematodes of goats [87]
((104) Central Africa In vitro efects on adult L. terrestris Extract induced 100%mortality of worms at40± 0.68min [138]
((105) Ethanolic extracts Seeds of Piper betle L. Tropical East In vitro activity against GIN fromAfrica goats 70% mortality at 100mg/ml [126]
Poaceae
(106) Acetone extract Leaves of Cymbopogon citratus Stapf. Tropical Africa In vitro activity against adult H. placei Extract was active against the worm withLC50 of 56.04mg/ml [160]
(107) Ethanolic extract Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. Tropical East In vitro activity against GIN from Extract exhibited 50% mortality at 100mg/Africa goats ml [126]
Primulaceae
Te two extracts showed
Tropical West In vitro ovicidal and larvicidal concentration-dependent ovicidal (82.5 and(108) Aqueous and ethanolic extracts Seeds of Embelia rowlandii Gilg Africa activities of extracts against H. bakeri 46.9%), hatch inhibition (85.8 and 41.0%),and L1 larvicidal (86.0 and 61.2%) efects,
respectively, at 5mg/ml [174]
In vivo efcacy against Haemonchus
(109) Aqueous extract Fruits and leaves ofMyrsine africana L. spp., Trichostrogylus spp., and Extract exhibited 77% efcacy against theEast and South Oesophagostomum spp. mixed parasites [157]
Africa infection in sheep
(110) Traditional preparations Seeds of Myrsine africana L. In vivo activity (FEC and TWC) 16% FECR and 10% TWCR at 7 daysagainst H. polygyrus in mice posttreatment [84]
(111) Feed paste Fruits of Rapanea melanophloeos L. Tropical Africa In vivo activity against H. polygyrus in Moderate reduction in FEC and with nomice apparent efects on total worm counts [84]
Rosaceae
Relatively polar extracts possess
Serial ether, chloroformic, Stem bark of Hagenia abyssinica Bruce Ethiopia, In vitro activity against Panagrellus anthelmintic activities against the test(112) methanolic, and J.F. Gmel Malawi, redivivus and C. elegans organisms. Methanolic extract at 20mg/mlchloromethylenic extracts Tanzania, DRC caused 67%mortality inC. elegans after 24 h
[105]
In vitro activity against R. spiralis and 89.83% and 84.2% parasiticidal activity at(113) Methanolic extract Fruits of Rubus fruticosus Marshall North Africa A. galli 40mg/ml against R. spiralis and A. galli,respectively [175]
Rubiaceae
Ethanolic extract caused 90% egg hatch
(114) Ethanolic, aqueous extracts Stem bark of Canthium mannii Hiern. West Africa In vitro EHIA against Ancylostoma inhibition at 1mg/ml after 48 h. Tecaninum aqueous extracts had <50% eclodibility
inhibition [96]
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 17Table 1: Continued.
No. Nature of Botanical source Habitat in Assay(s) conducted Outcome ofextract Africa assay(s)
(115) Methanolic and Leaves and roots of Morinda lucida In vitro activity against R. Both extracts were active with EC50 ofchloromethylenic extracts A. Gray pseudoelongata 2.5 μg/ml against the worms [145]
Extract induced dose-dependent inhibition
(116) Hydroethanolic extract Stem bark of Zanthoxylum In vitro action against P. posthuma with paralysis and death time of 18.17± 0.03zanthoxyloides A. Gray Tropical Africa and 24.34± 0.21min, respectively, at 50mg/
ml [176]
In vitro efects on egg hatching, Concentration-dependent ovicidal efect,
(117) Ethanolic extract Leaves of Morinda lucida A. Gray infective larvae, and adult worms of T. with 18% inhibition of motility at 48 h of
colubriformis 2.5mg/ml treatment [177]
In vitro EHIA against H. contortus, LC50 of 0.704 and 0.650mg/ml for the
Trichostrongylus spp., Strongyloides aqueous and ethanolic extract in vitro,
(118) Aqueous and ethanolic extracts Leaves of Nauclea latifolia Sm. spp., Trichuris ovis and respectively, for mixed parasites. Both
West and Oesophagostomum spp. and in vivo in extracts caused reduction of FEC in vivo
Central Africa sheep naturally infected with ovine with improved haemoglobin andnematodes leukocytosis in worm-infested sheep [95]
In vivo efcacy study against strongyle FEC was signifcantly reduced (93.8%) in(119) Aqueous extract Stem bark of Nauclea latifolia Sm. ovine nematodes infected animals treated with 1600mg/kgbody weight for 5 consecutive days [178]
Rutaceae
(120) Ethanolic extract Roots of Clausena anisate (Willd.) Tropical Africa In vitro LMIA against Ascaris suum Extracts were signifcantly active with EC50Hook. F. of 74 μg/mL [24]
(121) DCM -methanolic (1:1) extract Root bark of Teclea trichocarpa Engl. East Africa In vitro EHIA and larval development
Efective against egg hatching
in Strongyloides (IC50 �185.25 μg/mL) and but not larvaldevelopment at 1mg/ml [93]
Root bark of Zanthoxylum
(122) Ethanolic extract zanthoxyloides (Lam.) Zepern. & In vitro LMIA against Ascaris suum Extract inhibited larval migration with EC50
Timler of 164 μg/mL [24]
Leaves of Zanthoxylum West Africa In vitro efects on egg hatching, Signifcant inhibition of adult worm
(123) Ethanolic extract zanthoxyloides (Lam.) Zepern. & infective larvae, and adult worms of motility (87% after 48 of 2.5mg/ml
Timler Trichostrongylus colubriformis treatment) [177]
Zingiberaceae
(124) Methanolic and Leaves and rhizomes of Aframomum West Tropical In vitro activity against Rhabditis
Both extract and alkaloid fraction were
chloromethylenic extracts sceptrum (Oliv. & D. Hanb.) K. Schum. Africa pseudoelongata active with EC50 of 2.5 μg/ml against theworms [145]
(125) Aqueous extract Leafy stems of Aframomum Extract caused 100% mortality atalboviolaceum (Ridl.) K. Schum Tropical Africa In vitro efects on adult L. terrestris 86± 3.21min [138]
In vivo FEC in pigs experimentally Te powder signifcantly reduced FEC
(126) Crude powder infected with S. ransomi,H. rubidus, T. (92.6% with 25 g/kg treatment against S.
Rhizomes of Zingiber ofcinale Roscoe Tropical Africa axei and G. urosubulatus ransomi) [179]
(127) Aqueous extract and powder In vivo FEC assay against mixed
Both powder and extract caused
nematode infection in sheep a dose-dependent reduction in FEC (25.6%and 66.6%, respectively) [180]
18 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative MedicineTable 1: Continued.
No. Nature ofextract Botanical source
Habitat in
Africa Assay(s) conducted
Outcome of
assay(s)
Others
In vitro EHIA, adult motility assay Extract strongly inhibited egg hatching
(128) Hydromethanolic extracts Whole plant of Trianthema Tropical Africa againstH. contortus. In vivo FEC assay (LC50 � 2.41 μg/mL) and signifcantlyportulacastrum L. (Aizoaceae) in sheep naturally infected with mixed reduced FEC (85.6% at 8.0 g/kg on day 15
species of nematodes posttreatment) [181]
In vitro EHIA and efects on adult Both extracts were active against egg
(129) Aqueous and ethanolic extracts worms, and in vivo FEC assay against hatching (ED50 � 0.12 and 0.18mg/ml
Seeds of Coriandrum sativum Tropical East H. contortus in sheep resp.), and moderately reduced FEC (24.5%
L. (Apiaceae) Africa at 0.9 g/kg) [182]
In vitro and in vivo FEC assay against Extracts paralysed and killed the worms(130) Ethanolic extract Hymenolepis nana in mice within 30min and caused a 100% FECR at500mg/kg on day 15 posttreatment [114]
In vitro EHIA, faecal worm burden Both extracts reduce faecal parasite count
(131) Aqueous and hydroethanolic Ripe fruits of Hedera helix North and South and adult worm mortality, and in vivo
(44.2% at 2.25 g/kg) and produced ovicidal
extracts L. (Araliaceae) Africa FEC assay against H. contortus in efects; ED50 � 0.12 and 0.17mg/ml for
sheep aqueous and hydroalcoholic extracts,respectively [183]
Extract exhibited larvicidal (99.77%
(132) Ethyl acetate extract Husk of green fruits of Cocos nucifera Lowland
In vitro egg hatching and larval inhibition at 80mg/ml) and ovicidal (100%
L (Arecaceae) Tropical Africa development assays against H. inhibition at 5mg/ml). No statisticallycontortus. In vivo FEC assay in sheep signifcant activity was observed in vivo
[184]
In vitro action against larval Concentration-dependent inhibition of H.
(133) Aqueous acetone extracts exsheathment in H. contortus and T. contortus and T. colubriformis larval
Leaves of Newbouldia laevis (P. colubriformis exsheathment (81.65% and 78.6%,
Beauv.) Seem. (Bignoniaceae) West Africa respectively) at 600 μg/ml [185]In vitro efects on egg hatching,
(134) Ethanolic extract infective larvae, and adult worms of 100% inhibition of adult worm motility
Trichostrongylus colubriformis after 48 of 2.5mg/ml treatment [177]
(135) Ethanolic extracts Leaves of Ananas comosus (L.) Merr. Tropical Africa In vitro activity against GIN and
100% mortality at 100mg/ml and 73%
(Bromeliaceae) in vivo FECR assay in goats reduction in EPG on day 9 posttreatment[126]
Concentration-dependent activity was
(136) Aqueous extracts Leaves, stem, and root barks of Canna Paralysis and death time in vitro assay observed. Root extract caused paralysis andbidentata Bertol. (Cannaceae) Tropical Africa against earthworm E. eugeniae death at 3± 0.00 and 5± 0.15min,
respectively [128]
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 19Table 1: Continued.
No. Nature ofextract Botanical source
Habitat in
Africa Assay(s) conducted
Outcome of
assay(s)
Signifcant larvicidal activity causing 94%
in vitro assay against L3 larvae of and 100% mortality against the two
Haemonchus contortus and parasites at 100mg/ml, respectively, and
(137) Hydroethanolic extract Seeds of Buchholzia coriacea Engl. West and Heligmosomoides polygyrus IC50 of 16.82 and 11.20mg/ml, respectively(Capparaceae) Central Africa [117]
In vivo assay in chicken
experimentally infected with Ascardia Extract had no efect on worm load and FEC
galli in the infected animals [117]
Unripped fruits of Carica papaya In vivo anthelmintic efcacy against(138) Latex Ascaridia galli and Cappilaria spp. in Latex caused 77.7% reduction in FEC afterL. (Caricaceae) poultry 1 week of treatment [186]
(139) In vivo against GI nematodes in
Extract exhibited signifcant reduction in
naturally infected goats FEC (100%) in 7 days after drenching with100mg/ml [187]
In vivo assay against FEC of H.
(140) contortus, Trichostrongylus spp,
Extracts showed 100% reduction in FEC in
Strongyloides spp, and Ostertagia spp. listed worms after 7 days treatment with
in sheep 100mg/ml [188].
Aqueous extracts Improved haematological indices and
(141) Seeds of Carica papaya L. (Caricaceae) In vivo against FEC in mixed signifcantly (100%) reduced FEC in chicksinfections in chicks after 2 weeks of treatment with 1 :10ml (w/
v) extract [116]
In vivo assay against H. contortus, Improved haematological indices and
(142) Tropical Africa Oesophagostomum spp.,Trichostrongylus spp., and Cooperia a signifcant (100%) FECR 2 weeks after
spp. in goats drenching with 1 :10ml (w/v) extract) [111]
In vitro assay against egg hatch, larvae, Signifcant inhibition of all stages of the(143) Ethanolic extract and adult worms of T. colibriformis worm with 90.5% immobilisation after 48 htreatment at 2.5mg/ml [177]
Ethanolic extract was the most active,
(144) Ethanolic and chlorofomic Seeds of Carica papaya L. (Caricaceae) In vitro activity against adult P. inducing paralysis and death at 6.69± 0.68extracts posthuma and 19.75± 0.73min, respectively, at 75mg/
ml [142]
Comparative in vitro anthelmintic All extracts induced paralysis and caused
(145) Ethanolic and hydroethanolic Leaves, stem bark, and seeds of Carica efect of extracts against adult P. death of worms, Seeds were more activeextracts papaya L. (Caricaceae) posthuma with 7.21± 0.01 and 9.15± 0.01 paralysisand death times, respectively, at 5mg/ml [6]
Leaves and seeds of Carica papaya In vitro EHIA and larval development Seeds extract was most active (LD50 of(146) Aqueous extracts L. (Caricaceae) assays against H. contortus 49.94mg/ml for egg hatch and 49.32mg/mlagainst larval development) [94]
20 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative MedicineTable 1: Continued.
No. Nature of Botanical source Habitat inextract Africa Assay(s) conducted
Outcome of
assay(s)
18.75% inhibition of the egg-hatch at
(147) Hydroethanolic extract In vitro EHIA, and larval mortality
Seeds of Garcinia kola (Heckel) assay against Heligmosomoides bakeri
100mg/ml and 76.52% irreversible paralysis
of the larvae at 50mg/ml [91]
(Clusiaceae)
(148) Aqueous extract In vitro larvicidal efects against
Extract exhibited larvicidal action with
West and South strongylid nematodes of goats
53.3%, 66.6% and 73.3% mortality at 50,
100, and 150mg/ml, respectively [189]
Africa Extract induced dose-dependent paralysis
(149) Hydroethanolic extract Stem bark of Garcinia kola Heckel In vitro action against P. posthuma and death of the adult worms at 39.29± 0.12(Clusiaceae) and 54.29± 0.01min, respectively, for
50mg/ml [176]
(150) Aqueous extracts Seeds and stem bark of Garcinia kola In vitro EHIA against strongylid Both extracts were ovicidal (98.9% andHeckel (Clusiaceae) nematodes of small ruminants 100%, respectively) at 100mg/ml [190]
In vivo efcacy against Haemonchus
(151) Aqueous extract Root bark of Hildebrandtia sepalosa Tropical Africa spp., Trichostrogylus spp. and A 90% reduction in FEC was observed onRendle (Convolvulaceae) Oesophagostomum spp. mixed day 12 posttreatment [157]
infection in sheep
Te extract showed
a concentration-dependent paralysis
(66.67± 1.8min) and death
(152) Methanolic extract Whole plant of Cyperus diformis Africa In vitro action against P. posthuma (140.7± 2.3min) at 20mg/ml, respectively.L. (Cyperaceae) It also improved the activity of albendazole,
mebendazole and levamisole when 2mg/ml
of the extract was combined with these
drugs [100]
(153) Ethanolic extract Leaves of Diospyros mespiliformis Tropical Africa In vivo assay against fecundity of adult Extract induced about 55.08% reduction inHochst. ex A. DC. (Ebenaceae) H. contortus in sheep FEC at 200mg/kg dose [191]
(154) Ethanolic extract Roots of Anthocleista djalonensis West Tropical In vitro against L3 larvae of H. Concentration-dependent lethal efects onA. Chev. (Gentianaceae) Africa polygyrus L3 larvae with LC50 of 268.89mg/ml [192]
(155) Hydromethanolic extract Stem bark of Sacoglottis gabonensis West Tropical In vitro EHIA, and larval mortality(Baill.) Urb. (Humiriaceae) Africa assay against Heligmosomoides bakeri 100% larval paralysis at 15.63mg/ml [91]
Extracts showed considerable activity
In vitro efects on various stages of H. against the parasitic larval stages of H.(156) contortus contortus. It inhibited (94.1%) the
1 :1 DCM: methanolic extract Whole plant, and leaves of Picria North and East development of L3 to L4 larvae 7 daysfel-terrae Lour. (Linderniaceae) Africa posttreatment [193]
In vitro activity against L3, L4 and Both extracts signifcantly afected all 3(157) adult C. elegans (wild type, Bristol N2) stages of C. elegans. It produced 50%defective egg laying phenotypes [107]
(158) Aqueous fraction of an ethanolic Whole plant of Spigelia anthelmia West Africa In vivo efcacy in Nippostrongylus Efcacy of 74.35± 22.29% at 25mg/kg bodyextract L. (Loganiaceae) braziliensis infected rats weight [194]
(159) Ethanolic extract Fruit peels of Punica granatum Ethiopia In vitro LMIA against Ascaris suum Extracts active against larval migration withL. (Lythraceae) EC50 of 97 μg/mL [24]
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 21
Table 1: Continued.
No. Nature of Botanical source Habitat inextract Africa Assay(s) conducted
Outcome of
assay(s)
(160) Ethanolic extract Leaves of Corchorus olitorius Tropical Africa In vitro activity against GIN from Extract induced 60% mortality at 100mg/L. (Malvaceae) goats ml [126]
(161) Chloroformic, pet. ether and Leaves of Memecylon umbellatum Tropical Africa In vitro activity against adult
Ethanolic extract was most potent with
ethanolic extracts Burm. (Melastomataceae) Pheretima posthuma paralysis and death time of 29.66± 0.66 and42.33± 1.45min, respectively [195]
Fruits and seeds of Sphenocentrum In vitro activity against adult Seed extract caused paralysis and death at(162) Ethanolic extract jollyanum Pierre (Menispermaceae) Tropical Africa earthworms Eudrilus eugeniae, H. 18± 0.35 and 133± 3.75min, respectively,placei, and T. saginata against E. Eugeniae [196]
Leaves of Moringa oleifera Lam. In vivo against roundworms in snails Signifcant prevention of parasitisation (c
2
(163) Feed for snails (Moringaceae) West Africa (Achatina achatina) (1)� 14.97; p � 0.0001) was observed in thetreated snails [197]
In vitro activity against adult Extract showed potent activity against all
(164) Methanolic extract Stem bark of Pycnanthus angolensis worms studied. At 80mg/ml, paralysis(Welw.) Warb. (Myristicaceae) Tropical Africa earthworms Eudrilus eugeniae, H.placei, and T. saginata occurred in the earthworm at 41± 1.81minand death at 67± 2.60min [196]
(165) Ethanolic extracts Flower buds of Syzygium aromaticum Tropical Africa In vitro activity against GIN and 100% mortality at 100mg/ml and 85%(L.) Merr. & L. M. Perry (Myrtaceae) in vivo FECR assay in goats FECR on day 9 posttreatment [126]
Hydroethanolic and 1:1 DCM: Leaves, trunk bark and root bark of In vitro activity against adult O.
All extracts exhibited 100% inhibition of O.
(166) Lophira lanceolata Tiegh. ex Keay Tropical Africa ochengi and L4 larvae of various ochengi at 20 μg/mL after 72 h. Ethanolicmethanolic extracts (Ochnaceae) strains of C. elegans extract of the leaves was the most activeagainst the drug-resistant strains [68]
(167) Methanolic and Leaves of Adenia lobata Engl. Central Africa In vitro activity against Rhabditis Both extracts were active with EC50 of 5 μg/chloromethylenic extracts (Passiforaceae) pseudoelongata ml each against the worms [145]
Ethyl acetate extract was the most active of
(168) Ethyl acetate and methanloic Leaves of Plumbago zeylanica Tropical Africa In vitro efects on paralysis and the two causing paralysis and death atextracts L. (Plumbaginaceae) mortality of P. posthuma 59.85± 3.35 and 80.55± 2.66min,
respectively [198]
(169) Aqueous and ethanolic extract Leaves and roots of Rumex abyssinicus East Africa In vitro ovicidal and larvicidal activity ED50 � 0.11 μg/mL of aqueous extractJacq. (Polygonaceae) against H. contortus against egg hatch [158]
22 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Table 1: Continued.
No. Nature of Habitat in Outcome ofextract Botanical source Africa Assay(s) conducted assay(s)
In vitro EHIA, adult motility, and
Bark of Ziziphus nummularia larval development assay against H.
LC50 � 676.08 and 398.11 μg/ml against egg
(170) Methanolic extract North Africa contortus and in vivo against H. hatch and larval development, respectively.(Burm.f.) Wight & Arn. (Rhamnaceae) contortus, T. circumcincta, and T. ovis FECR (84.7%) was recorded on day 13 post
in sheep. 3.0 g/kg treatment [97]
(171) Hydroethanolic extract In vitro action against C. elegans larvae Extract caused 14.8% inhibition of larvae(85.2% survival) [149]
In vitro mortality assay against larvae
of C. elegans, Toxocara cati, Extract was active against some of the test
(172) Hydroethanolic extract Ancylostooma caninum, and Trichuris organisms. C. elegans (LC50 of 2.5 mg/ml),
vulpis. EHIA and LMIA against H. T. cati (LC50 of 112 μg/mL), and T. vulpisRoot bark of Paullinia pinnata
L. (Sapindaceae) contortus
(LC50 �17 μg/mL) [199].
Tropical Africa Ethyl acetate partition was more efective
(173) Aqueous-acetone extract, ethyl (LC50 �1.1mg/ml) than the crude extractacetate, and water partitions In vitro action against C. elegans larvae (LC50 �1.9mg/ml) and water fraction
(LC50 � 2.9mg/ml) [200]
(174) PAC fractions In vitro action against C. elegans larvae All PAC fractions exhibited a minimum of70% inhibition against the larvae [200]
(175) Methanolic and Leaves and roots of Paullinia pinnata In vitro activity against Rhabditis Extracts of both parts were active againstchloromethylenic extracts L. (Sapindaceae) pseudoelongata the worm with EC50 of 2.5 μg/ml [145]
(176) Aqueous methanolic extract Aerial parts of Verbascum thapsus North Africa In vitro activity against R. spiralis and Extract produced relative paralysis index ofL. (Scrophulariaceae) A. galli 2.08 at 40mg/ml against A. galli [201]
(177) Methanolic extract Dried fruits of Brucea javanica (L.) Tropical East In vivo activity against Dactylogyrus Extract showed profound activity againstMerr. (Simaroubaceae) Africa intermedius in goldfsh the parasites (EC50 � 49.96mg/L) [113]
Extracts signifcantly inhibited the motility
(178) Aqueous and alcoholic extracts In vitro assay against motility ofMarshallagia marshalli of the worms, causing 0.44 death rate at75mg/ml [77]
In vitro inhibition of motility against Extracts signifcantly inhibited worm
Leaves of Nicotiana tabacum H. contortus and in vivo FEC assay motility at 6 h postexposure and caused
(179) Aqueous and methanolic extracts L. (Solanaceae) Tropical Africa against H. contortus, T. axei, T. a reduction in FEC (73.6% on day 5
colubriformis, O. columbianum, S. posttreatment with methanolic extract at
Papillosus and T. ovis in sheep 3.0 g/kg) [202]
(180) Ethanolic extracts In vitro activity against GIN fromgoats 80% mortality at 100mg/ml [126]
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 23
mited bioactive constituents [8]. Like the extracts, most of related ovine gastrointestinal nematodes. It also induced
their activities have only been evaluated at the in vitro stage, 78.5% reduction in FEC on day 13 post 3.0 g/kg treatment in
with not much clinical reporting in animals or humans. sheep [97]. Similar efects were reported of its hydro-
Some specifc compounds isolated from plants have been alcoholic extracts against the larvae of C. elegans (wild type
reported to exhibit anthelminthic activity (Table 2 and strain) and Onchocerca ochengi microflariae with LC50 of
Figure 1). Phenolic compounds such as tannins and favo- 350± 1.1 μg/mL and 10.8± 0.3 μg/mL, respectively [110].
noids constitute a large class of natural molecules with Te aqueous extract of the root bark of Albizia
potential anthelmintic or antiparasitic activities anthelmintica Brongn, a plant traditionally used as an an-
[74, 79, 244]. Because of their bulky structure and ability to thelmintic [251, 252], revealed potent in vitro ovicidal (ED50
bind several macromolecules, phenolic compounds have of 144.2 μg/mL) and larvicidal (ED50 of 65.2 μg/mL) activ-
been reported to possess a broad range of biological ac- ities against strongyle nematodes of sheep [86]. Gathuma
tivities. Oligomeric and polymeric proanthocyanidins, et al. [157] also reported 89.8% in vivo efcacy of similar
hydrolysable tannins, and favonoids, for example, have been extracts of the plant in FECR assays against mixed GIN
more intensively studied than any other class of natural infections in sheep.
anthelmintic compounds [79, 245]. A study conducted by Other Acacia spp. have been reported to possess promis-
Engström et al. [244] isolated and studied the in vitro activity sory anthelmintic activities against various test models. Tis
of 33 hydrolysable tannins and gallic acid against egg included the leaves of A. polyacanthaWild [112], A. senegal, A.
hatching and larval motility of H. contortus. Tese com- seyal, and A. tortilis [141]. Extracts of other fabaceous plants,
pounds, isolated from various plants in Finland, showed such as leaves of Afrormosia laxifora, Butea monosperma,
varying anthelmintic activities [244]. Other studies isolated Millettia ferruginea, Mimosa pudica, Senna occidentalis,
diferent types of proanthocyanidins from P. pinnata root Tephrosia spinosa, Tephrosia vogelii, and Tephrosia villosa, stem
bark and C. mucronatum leaves and reported varied ac- barks of Afzelia africana, Albizia schimperiana, Daniellia oli-
tivities against C. elegans and some animal intestinal par- veri, and the seed kernel of Caesalpinia crista, have all been
asites [150, 200]. Recent reviews on polyphenolics with reported to exhibit a varying spectrum of anthelmintic ac-
anthelmintic potential have been published by Spiegler et al. tivities [88, 89, 94, 98, 109, 118, 127, 141, 145, 158].
[79] and Mukherjee et al. [246]. Alkaloids, coumarins, tri-
terpenes, terpenoids, lignoids, prenylated derivatives, iso-
thiocyanates formed after fermentation from glucosinolates, 6.2. Combretaceae. One important species in the family
and saponins have also been widely isolated and studied Combretaceae is Anogeissus leiocarpus (DC.) Guill. and Perr.
[74]. Several fatty acids and aromatic compounds have also (common name: Axlewood tree). It is widely used in African
been reported to possess anthelmintic activities [247, 248]. traditional practices and by livestock farmers for managing
Pineda-Alegŕıa et al. [249] recently reported that long-chain various parasitic disease conditions [89, 143, 145, 178].
fatty acids, including β-sitosterol, palmitic, pentadecanoic, Aqueous extracts of A. leiocarpus leaves caused 39.5% re-
stearic, and linoleic acids have nematocidal activity. duction in faecal egg count and 33% reduction in faecal
With the ever-increasing emergence of drug-resistant worm burden in sheep treated with 400mg/kg extract [143].
parasites and polyparasitism in animal and human hel- It also exhibited in vitro ovicidal (ED50 � 409.5 μg/mL) and
minthiases, there is a great need to explore the potential of larvicidal (100% excludability inhibition at 1.2mg/mL) ac-
developing some of the studied plants and their compounds tions against H. contortus [89], whereas its acetone extract
into commercial drug products. Te African herbal drug inhibited egg hatch (LC50 � 360 μg/ml) and larval develop-
market should, therefore, explore the possibility of de- ment (LC50 � 509 μg/ml) [92]. Ndjonka et al. [144] reported
veloping polyherbal formulations especially for use in that an ethanolic extract of A. leiocarpus bark was more
livestock and companion animals, and as chemopreventive active than an aqueous extract with LC50 of 380 μg/ml,
food supplements for humans. signifcantly retarding the development of larvae into adult
worms [144]. Another study reported signifcant in vitro
6. Anthelmintic Activities of African activity of methanol and DCM extracts of leaves, roots, and
Medicinal Plants bark against larvae of Rhabditis pseudoelongata with EC50between 2.5 and 10 μg/ml [145].
Medicinal plants belonging to diferent genera and families Combretum mucronatum Schumach and Tonn, tradi-
have been reported to have anthelmintic activities. However, tionally used for various ailments including helminthiases in
some families have been frequently reported than others. Africa [149, 253], has also been reported to exhibit anthelmintic
activities against various test models. Ethanolic extract of C.
mucronatum leaves exhibited in vitro nematocidal efects with
6.1. Fabaceae. Tis is the plant family with the highest re- 10μg/mL minimum lethal concentration against T. muris and
ported number of plants with anthelmintic activities. Acacia induced 85.3% reduction of worm burden in mice [148].
nilotica (L.) Del. (Fabaceae), for instance, is a popular Hydroalcoholic extracts also inhibited C. elegans larvae with
remedy for helminthiasis in Kenya [250]. Bachaya et al. [97] LC50 of 1.67mg/mL. A partition of this extract revealed that the
reported signifcant in vitro and in vivo activity of meth- ethyl acetate portion possessed stronger anthelmintic activity
anolic extracts of its fruits against the eggs (LC50 � 512.86 μg/ than the remaining aqueous fraction. Te respective activity
mL) and larvae (LC50 �194.98 μg/mL) of H. contortus and can be related to the presence of oligomeric proanthocyanidins
24 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
with diferent structures [150]. Subsequent ultrastructural inhibited microflariae of Setaria cervi in vitro [166] and
studies showed that the tannin-rich extract caused visible ef- caused a signifcant reduction in FEC and TWC against H.
fects on the cuticle without overt efects on the intestines/gut of polygyrus in mice [84]. Sujon et al. [126] reported a 100%
the worms [151]. in vitro mortality at 100mg/mL against GIN with 81% re-
Other plants from this family with reported potential duction in EPG on day 9 posttreatment of goats [126].
anthelmintic activities include Anogeissus schimperi, Com- Leaves, stems, and root barks extracts inhibit strongyle
bretum mole, Guiera senegalensis, Terminalia catappa, and nematodes, causing over 90% mortality of larvae at 100mg/
Terminalia glaucescens [106, 145–147, 153]. mL [167].
Another medicinally relevant species from the family
Meliaceae is Khaya senegalensis (Mahogany). Ethanolic
6.3. Cucurbitaceae. Some plants belonging to this taxo- extract of K. senegalensis bark induced in vitro LC of
nomic family have also been investigated for anthelmintic 500.51mg/mL and 88.82% FECR at 500mg/kg in sheep against
efects. Ethanolic extracts of Momordica charantia leaves strongyle nematodes [168]. Similar extracts of the bark and
collected from diferent ecological zones in Togo exhibited leaves had LC of 470 μg/mL and 1.0mg/mL, respectively,
varying degrees of inhibition against C. elegans larvae with 50against C. elegans larvae [144]. Methanol-dichloromethane
LC50 values between 473 and 997 μg/ml [155]. Similar ex- extract of the whole plant of Lansium domesticum also
tracts of its fruits also caused 100%mortality of GIN larvae at inhibited adult C. elegans, signifcantly reducing their sur-
100mg/mL in vitro and 78% FECR on day 9 posttreatment vival to 59% [107].
of goats with 100mg/kg [126]. Aqueous and ethanolic ex-
tracts of seeds of Citrullus lanatus, Cucurbita pepo, and
Telfairia occidentalis all exhibited signifcant mortality and 6.6. Musaceae
paralysis in vitro against the earthworm Lumbricus terrestris
at 50mg/mL [154]. Musa spp. is the only genus in this family that has been
reported to possess anthelmintic properties. Species such as
M. x paradisiaca, M. sapientum, and M. nana inhibited the
6.4. Lamiaceae. Some plants belonging to the Lamiaceae sheep tapeworm (Moniezia benedeni), roundworm (Ascaris
have been reported to possess anthelmintic properties.Tese lumbricoides), and adult earthworm (Esenia fetida), with M.
include Ocimum sanctum L., whose essential oils and eu- x paradisiaca exhibiting the highest activity against the three
genol inhibited C. elegans larvae with ED50 of 62.1 μg/mL worms [173]. M. x paradisiaca also caused signifcant FECR
[108]. Te aqueous extracts of roots of Leonotis ocymifolia when fed to lambs infected with H. contortus [172] and
(Burm.f.) Iwarsson and aerial parts of Leucas martinicensis in vitro ovicidal efects (LC50 � 2.13 μg/mL) against the same
(Jacq) R.Br. showed ovicidal (ED50 � 0.25 μg/mL and parasite [181]. Other preparations of various parts of Musa
ED50 � 0.09 μg/mL, respectively), and larvicidal (100% and spp. demonstrated ovicidal activities against T. colubriformis
99.85% inhibition, respectively, at 50mg/mL) efects against in sheep [169], in vitro ovicidal and larvicidal efects against
H. contortus [158]. Whereas the fruits ofO. basilicum L. were H. contortus, and reduction of FEC in sheep infected withH.
active against the earthworm E. eugeniae [159], the leaves of contortus [170, 171].
O. gratissimum and essential oils of Tymus bovei Benth.,
respectively, inhibitedH. placei (LC50 of 17.70mg/mL) [160]
and P. posthuma (μg/mL) [161]. 6.7. Rubiaceae. Morinda lucida andNauclea latifolia are two
plants from this family for which anthelmintic potential has
been widely reported. Methanol and DCM extracts of leaves
6.5. Meliaceae. Azadirachta indica A. Juss. (neem) is and roots of M. lucida inhibited larvae of R. pseudoelongata
a widely known plant in African traditional medicine and with EC50 of 2.5 μg/mL [145], whereas hydroethanolic ex-
contributes immensely to the management of livestock tracts of the stem bark induced dose-dependent paralysis
diseases and pests [254–256]. Almost every part of this plant (18.17± 0.03min) and death (24.34± 0.21min) at 50mg/mL
has been reported to have anthelmintic activity. Polar ex- against P. posthuma [176]. Ethanolic extract of M. lucida
tracts of neem seeds exhibited signifcant ovicidal and lar- leaves demonstrated concentration-dependent ovicidal ac-
vicidal action in vitro against H. contortus, with the ethyl tion against T. colubriformis [177]. Te aqueous and etha-
acetate fraction causing 83% wormicidal efects at 50mg/ml nolic extracts of N. latifolia leaves induced ovicidal activities
1 h postexposure [162]. Aqueous and methanolic extracts of (LC50 of 0.704 and 0.650mg/ml, respectively) against ovine
the seeds induced 29.3% and 40.2% reduction in EPG in GIN and reduced faecal egg count when administered to
sheep naturally infected with H. contortus and Trichos- naturally parasitised sheep [95]. Onyeyili et al. [178] re-
trongyus spp. on day 15 posttreatment with 3 g/kg [163]. ported signifcant reduction (93.8%) in FEC when sheep,
Neem leaves also exhibited in vitro anthelmintic efects infected with nematodes were treated with 1600mg/kg body
against the earthworm Pheretima posthuma, the tapeworm weight of aqueous extract of N. latifolia stem bark for 5
Raillietina spiralis, and the roundworm Ascaridia galli [164]. consecutive days [178]. Ethanolic extract of Canthium
In vivo studies of feed in sheep reported signifcant in- mannii stem bark induced 90% inhibition of egg hatching
hibition of bovine nematodes, causing 98% reduction in FEC against Ancylostoma caninum at 1mg/mL after 48 h
on day 14 posttreatment [165]. Te leaf extracts also incubation [96].
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 25
Table 2: Anthelmintic compounds isolated from African medicinal plants.
Chemical Habitats ofNo. Compound nature/group Plant source Reference(s) plant inAfrica
(1) β-Asarone Phenylpropanoid Rhizomes of Acorus calamus L. and A.gramineus Aiton (Acoraceae) [204] Southern Africa
(2) Aspidinol Phloroglucinol derivative Leaves of Leucosidea sericea Eckl. & Zeyh.(Rosaceae) [205] Southern Africa
(3) 3-Geranyl-1-(2’-methylbutanoyl)-phloroglucinol Phloroglucinol derivative Leaves of Hypericum roeperianum Schimp.ex.A.Rich. (Hypericaceae) [206] West Tropical Africa
(4) α-Bisabolol Sesquiterpene Leaves of Siparuna guianensis Aubl.(Siparunaceae) [207] West Africa
(5) Betulinic acid Terpenoid Stem bark of Berlinia grandifora (Vahl)Hutch. & Dalziel (Leguminosae) [208] West Africa
(6) Ursolic acid Leaves of Curtisia dentata (Burm.f.) C.A.Sm
(7) Lupeol Terpenoids (Cornaceae) [209] Southern Africa
(8) Dichapetalin A
(9) Dichapetalin X Terpenoids Roots of Dichapetalum flicaule Breteler [210] West Africa
(10) Glycerol monostearate (Dichapetalaceae)
(11) Tymol Monoterpenoid Essential oils of Tymus vulgarisL. (Lamiaceae) [211] West Tropical Africa
(12) Andrographolide Terpenoid Leaves of Andrographis paniculata (Burm.f.) East and SouthNees (Acanthaceae) [212] Africa
(13) Totarol Terpenoid Berries of Juniperus procera Hochst. Endl.
(14) (3R, 6R)-Linalool oxide acetate Monoterpenoid (Cupressaceae) [213] East Africa
(15) Borneol Monoterpenoid Aerial parts of Zanthoxylum simulans Hance(16) β-Elemene (Rutaceae) [214]
West, Central and
East Africa
(17) 8(14),15-Sandaracopimaradiene-7α,18-diol Diterpene Leaves of Tetradenia riparia (Hochst.) Codd East and South(Lamiaceae) [215] Africa
(18) Terpinen-4-ol (4-carvomenthenol) Monoterpenoid Essential oils of Melaleuca alternifolia(Maiden & Betche) Cheel (Myrtaceae) [216] South Africa
(19) Warburganal
(20) Polygodial Sesquiterpene
Leaves of Warburgia ugandensis Sprague
(Canellaceae) [217]
East and South
Africa
(21) 2-Decanone
(22) 2-Nonanone
(23) 2-Undecanone Essential oils from the aerial parts of Ruta
(24) (E,E)-2-4-Decadienal t is ok mistake from me chalepensis L. (Meliaceae) [218] North Africa
(25) Furfural
(26) Salicylaldehyde
(27) Eryngial Carbonal Whole herb of Eryngium foetidum Walter(Apiaceae) [219] Africa
(28) tr-Cinnamaldehyde Carbonal Bark of Cinnamomum verum J. Presl.(Lauraceae) [220] Tropical Africa
(29) Acetogenin Polyketide Seeds of Annona squamosa Delile(Annonaceae) [221] West Tropical Africa
26 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative MedicineTable 2: Continued.
Habitats of
No. Compound Chemicalnature/group Plant source Reference(s) plant inAfrica
(30) (+)-Epicatechin-3-O-gallate
(31) (+)-Catechin-3-O-gallate
(32) (+)-Gallocatechin Proanthocyanidins Fruits of Acacia nilotica (L.) Delile(Fabaceae) [110] Tropical Africa(33) (−)-Epigallocatechin
(34) (−)-Epigallocatechin-3-O-gallate
(35) Prodelphinidins Proanthocyanidins Flowers of Trifolium repensL. (Papilionaceae) [203] South Africa
(36) Ellagic acid Leaves and stem bark of Anogeissus
(37) Gentisic acid Simple phenolics leiocarpus (DC.) Guill. & Perr. [15]
Tropical, Central and
(Combretaceae) East Africa
(38) Gallic acid Simple phenolic Fruits of Caesalpinia coriaria (Jacq.) Willd.(Fabaceae) [222] West Africa
(39) Cafeic acid Leaves of Acacia cochliacantha Willd.
(40) Ferulic acid Cinnamic acid-like (Fabaceae) [223] Africa
(41) p-Coumaric acid derivatives (phenolics) Leaves of Senegalia gaumeri (S.F. Blake)Britton & Rose. (Fabaceae) [224] North-West Africa
(42) 6-Gingerol
(43) 6-Shogaol
(44) 10-Gingerol Phenolics Rhizomes of Zingiber ofcinale Roscoe
(45) 10-Shogaol (Zingiberaceae)
[225] Tropical Africa
(46) Hexahydrocurcumin
(47) Chlorogenic acid Phenolic Aerial parts of Tagetes flifolia Lag.(Compositae) [226] Southern Africa
(48) Joazeiroside B Saponins Stem bark of Ziziphus joazeiro Mart.(49) Lotoside A (Rhamnaceae) [210] North Africa
(50) Urs-19(29)- en-3-yl acetate
(51) (3β)-Urs-19(29)-en-3-ol Saponins Latex from the stem and leaves of Calotropis [227] North and Tropical
(52) 1-(2′,5′-dimethoxyphenyl)-glycerol procera (Aiton) Dryand. (Apocynaceae) Africa
(53) Tribulosin Spirostanol saponins Whole plants of Tribulus terrestris(54) β-Sitosterol-D-glucoside L. (Zygophyllaceae) [228] Tropical Africa
(55) Dioscin Rhizomes of Paris polyphylla Sm.
(56) Polyphyllin D Steroidal saponins (Melanthiaceae) [229] South Africa
(57) Avenacoside Steroidal saponin Seeds of Avena sativa L. (Poaceae) [230] Tropical Africa
(58) Uzarigenin
(59) Cardenolide N-1 Cardenolides Branches of Nerium indicum Mill. [231] North Africa
(60) 3β-O-(β-D-Diginosyl)-14,15α-dihydroxy-5α-card-20(22)-enolide (Apocynaceae)
(61) Chelerythrine Alkaloid Aerial parts of Chelidonium majusL. (Papaveraceae) [232] Northern Africa
(62) Piperine Alkaloid Stems of Piper sylvaticum Roxb. (Piperaceae) [233] West Africa
(63) 6-Methoxydihydro-sanguinarine Alkaloids Aerial parts of Macleaya macrocarpa (x North and South(64) Sanguinarine kewensis) Turill (Papaveraceae) [234] Africa
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 27
Table 2: Continued.
Chemical Habitats ofNo. Compound nature/group Plant source Reference(s) plant inAfrica
(65) (S)-Dicentrine Aporphine alkaloids Aerial parts of Cissampelos capensis L. f.(66) (S)-Neolitsine (Menispermaceae) [235] Southern Africa
(67) Melicopicine
(68) 6-Methoxytecleanthine Acridine alkaloids
Root bark of Teclea trichocarpa Engl.
(Rutaceae) [93] East Africa
(69) Deguelin Isofavonoids Stem bark of Mundulea sericea (Wild.)A. Chev. (Leguminosae) [216] Southern Africa
(70) Rutin
(71) Nicotiforin Flavonoids Aerial hay of Onobrychis viciifolia Scop. [236] Tropical Africa
(72) Narcissin (Fabaceae)
(73) Luteolin Flavonoid Aerial parts of Ajania nubigena (Wall.)C. Shih (Compositae) [237] Africa
(74) Galangal acetate Flavonoid Seeds of Torreya grandis (Semen torreyae)(75) Miogadial Fortune ex Lindl. (Taxaceae) [33] Tropical West Africa
(76) Epicatechin Flavan-3-ol Seeds of Persea americana Mill. (Lauraceae) [238] West Africa
(77) (−)-Epigallocatechin-(2β⟶O⟶7′,4β⟶8′)-epicatechin-3′- Dimeric favan-3-ol Leaves of Camellia sinensis (L.) KuntzeO-gallate (Teaceae) [239] East Africa
(78) Benzyl isothiocyanate Isothiocynates Seeds of Carica papaya L. (Caricaceae) [240] West, Central andEast Africa
(79) Bruceine A Quassinoid Dried fruits of Brucea javanica (L.) Merr.(80) Bruceine D (Simaroubaceae) [113] East Africa
(81) Farnesol Prenyl alcohols Aerial parts of Matricaria chamomilla Northern and(82) Nerolidol Blanco (Compositae) [241] Southern Africa
(83) 2H-Chromen-2-one Coumarin Leaves of Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Walp.(Fabaceae) [242] West Tropical Africa
(84) Mimosine Amino acid Leaves of Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) deWit. (Fabaceae) [243] Southern Africa
(85) α-Linolenic acid Fatty acid Leaves of Warburgia ugandensis Sprague East and South(Canellaceae) [217] Africa
28 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
OH O
OH O
OH
O O
H
OH
O O OH
HO
(4) Alpha-Bisabolol
(1) Beta-asarone (2) Aspidinol (3) 3-geranyl-1-(2'-methylbutanoyl)-phloroglucinol
H
H
OH OH
H
H H
O
O H
H H
HO
HO HO
H
(5) Betulinic acid (6) Ursolic acid H (7) Lupeol
H CH2OH
O
OH
O HO
O
H
H
O
H O H
OH
H
O
H
H (8) Dichaptellin A (9) Dichaptellin X
O
O
HO O
O OH
OH
(10) Glycerol monostearate O
OH
H O
HO HO
H
HO O
(11) Thymol (12) Andrographolide (13) Totarol (14) (3R,6R)-Linalool oxide acetate
HO
OH H H
OH
O O
OH H OH HH H
O O
(15) Borneol (16) β-elemene (17) 8 (14),15-Sandaracopimaradiene-7a,18-diol (18) 4-carvomenthenol (19) Warburganal (20) Polygodial
O
(21) 2-decanone
O O
(24) (E,E)-2-4-decadienal
H H
OH
(22) 2-nonanone O
O O
O O O
H
(23) 2-undecanone (25) Furfural (26) Salicylaldehyde (27) Eryngial ((E)-dodec-2-enal) (28) Trans-cinnamaldehyde
Figure 1: Continued.
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 29
OH
HO O
OH
OH
O
O O O
O OH OH
O
OH
(29) Acetogenin
OH
OH
(30) (+)-epicatechin-3-O-gallate
OH OH
OH
HO O
OH OH HO O
OH OH
OH
O OH
O
OH OH HO O
O OH HO O OH
OH
OH O
OH OH OH OH
OH OH OH OH
(31) (+)-catechin-3-O-gallate (32) (+)-gallocatechin (33) (-)-epigallocatechin
(34) (-)-epigallocatechin-3-O-gallate
OH
O
OH
OH
O
HO O O
OH
HO HOOH
OH OH
OH OH
O OOH HO
HO O HO
HO (39) Caffeic acidOH
OH O OH O
OH OH (36) Ellagic acid O
OH OHOH
HO O (37) Gentisic acid
OH
OH HO
O (40) Ferulic acid
OH OH
HO
OH O
O OHHO
OH
OH
HO
OH
OH
OH HO
(35) Prodelphinidins (oligomeric) (38) Gallic acid (41) p-coumaric acid
O OH
O OH
O O
O
O
HO HO
(42) 6-Gingerol (43) 6-Shogaol
HO (44) 10-gingerol
OH
O OH HO
O O
O O HO OH
O
O
OH
O
HO OH HO
HO
(45) 10-shogaol (46) Hexahydrocurcumin (47) Chlorogenic acid
Figure 1: Continued.
30 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
HO
HO
HO H H HO H H
HO OH O
O HO OH
O
OH O
HO OH
H HO
O O OH OH H
HO O O OH OHO HO
OH H OH H
O O O O
O O
O O
HO HO HO
OH
OH OHOH
(48) Joazeiroside B (49) Lotoside A
H
H
H OH
O
H
HO O O
O HO
OH
(50) Urs-19(29)-en-3-yl acetate (51) (3-beta)-Urs-19(29)-en-3-ol (52) 1-(2',5'-dimethoxyphenyl)-glycerol
OH OH
HO OH OH O
H
O H
OH O O OH OH
H O H
O O OHHO O
H H H
H H O O
O O
HO HO O O HO H
H
OH HO OH
HO (53) Tribulosin (54) B-sitosterol-D-glucoside (Daucosterol)
HO OH
O
H
O OH
HO
OH OH O
H
HO OH O
O O H
H H H
O O
HO OH OH
O O
H O
O O
HO OH
H O
H H
HO
HO
O O
(56) Polyphyllin D
(55) Dioscin OH
HO
OH
HO
O
OH O
OH
O
O
OH O
H
O
OH OH OH OH O HH
HO O O O
H
H H H OH
O O
HO HO O O HO
H
OH
HO HO (57) Avenacoside (58) Uzarigenin
Figure 1: Continued.
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 31
O O
O O
OH O
H O
HO N+H
O
H OH
OH O
OH H3CO O
HO HO O
H (59) Cardenolide N-1 (60) 3β-O-(β-D-diginosyl)-14,15a-dihydroxy-5a-card-20(22)-enolide (61) Chelerythrine
O
N
O OO
H
O
O
N N+O
O
O O
O
N O
O O O
O
(62) Piperine (63) 6-methoxydihydrosanguinarine (64) Sanguinarine (65) (S)-dicentrine
O
H
O O O ON
O OO O
H O
O
H
O
N O O N O O
O
O O O
O
(66) (S)-Neolitsine (67) Melicopicine (68) 6-methoxytecleanthine (69) Deguelin
O
OH OH OH
HO O HO O HO O
OH
O O O
OH O OH OH O OH OH O OH
O O O OH
O O O O O O
OH OH OH
HO O
OH
OH OH OH
HO OH HO OH HO OH
OH OH OH OH O
(70) Rutin (71) Nicotiflorin (72) Narcissin (73) Luteolin
OH
OH
O
HO O
O OH
O
O OH
O
OH OH
O OH
HO O OH
O OH
HO
O
O c OH
OH HO NO C
O H OH OH S
(74) Galangal acetate (75) Miogadial (76) (-)-epicatechin (77) (-)-Epigallocatechin-epicatechin-3'-O-gallate (A-type) (78) Benzyl isothiocyanate
Figure 1: Continued.
32 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
OH O
OH O
HO HO
O O O O
H H
O O O O
H H
O O
HO O O HO O O
H H H H HO
(79) Bruceine A (80) Bruceine D (81) Farnesol
O
O O HO
HO N OH
NH2
O
(82) Nerolidol (83) 2H-chromen-2-one (84) Mimosine
O
OH
(85) alpha-linolenic acid
Figure 1: Chemical structures of compounds listed in Table 2 against helminthiases.
6.8. Other Plant Species with Anthelmintic Activities adulticidal efects at 300 μg/mL against H. contortus [141].
Alawa et al. [131] reported no signifcant ovicidal efects of V.
6.8.1. Carica papaya L. (Caricaceae). Although the only amygdalina leaves extract at 11.2mg/mL against H. contortus
plant in this family whose anthelmintic activities have been [131]. Another study revealed that the chloroformic extract of
reported, Carica papaya (pawpaw) is one African medicinal the stem bark was more active against P. posthuma, inducing
plant whose anthelmintic potential has been widely in- paralysis (11.95± 0.28min) and death (41.74± 2.21min), than
vestigated. Investigations on various extracts and parts of its ethanolic counterpart [142]. Te anthelmintic activity
this plant have all reported some level of anthelmintic ac- might be related to the presence of sesquiterpene lactones.
tivity. Latex exudate from unripe fruits of C. papaya sig-
nifcantly reduced FEC (77.7%) of Ascaridia galli and
Cappilaria spp. in poultry after one week of treatment [186]. 6.8.3. Garcinia kola Heckel (Clusiaceae). Commonly referred
After one week of posttreatment with 100mg/mL, aqueous to as “bitter kola,”Garcinia kola is used to treat gastrointestinal
extracts of papaya seeds caused 100% reduction in FEC of helminthiases [190] and has been shown to possess this activity
GIN in goats [187] and sheep [188]. Te seed extract also in pharmacological screenings. Hydroethanolic extract of G.
induced 100% reduction in FEC two weeks posttreatment in kola seeds induced 76.5% irreversible paralysis of H. bakeri
chicks [116] and goats [111]. In vitro studies reported that C. larvae at 50mg/mL [91] whilst its aqueous extract exhibited
papaya seed extracts caused signifcant paralysis and death 53.3% larvicidal efects against strongylid nematodes of goats
of adult P. posthuma [142] and inhibited egg hatch, larvae, at same concentration [189]. At 50mg/mL, the stem bark
and adult worms of T. colibriformis [177]. An in vitro extract induced dose-dependent paralysis and death of the
comparative study of the leaves, stem bark, and seeds ex- adult P. posthuma at 39.29± 0.12 and 54.29± 0.01min, re-
tracts of C. papaya reported that the seed extracts were the spectively, for 50mg/mL [176]. Both the seed and stem bark
most active against adult P. posthuma [6]. Aqueous extract of extracts were ovicidal (98.9% and 100%, respectively) at
papaya seeds was again reported to have more active LD50 of 100mg/mL against strongylid nematodes [190].
49.94 and 49.32mg/ml against H. contortus egg hatch and
larval development, respectively [94]. Te anthelmintic
activity of pawpaw can be related to the isothiocyanates, 6.8.4. Paullinia pinnata L. (Sapindaceae). Paullinia pinnata
which are formed from the genuine glucosinolates. is used in sub-Saharan Africa as an anthelmintic agent, es-
pecially for treating ancylostomiases [149, 258]. Te anthel-
mintic properties of its root bark and leaves have been
6.8.2. Vernonia amygdalina Del. (Asteraceae). Vernonia explored, revealing a huge potential as a source of nemato-
amygdalina (bitter leaf) is an important vegetable inWest and cidal molecules, mainly oligomeric proanthocyanidins in the
Central African dishes [99] andwidely used in the treatment of bark. Okpekon et al. [145] reported that extracts of both leaves
intestinal worms across Africa [253, 254]. Anthelmintic and root bark of P. pinnata have in vitro inhibitory efects on
studies of aqueous and ethanolic extracts of its leaves revealed R. pseudoelongata with EC50 of 2.5μg/ml each [145]. Te
signifcant paralytic efects (59.94± 8.25 and 33.18± 12.41min, hydroethanolic extract of the root bark also reduced the
respectively) against the adult earthworm L. terrestris [99]. survival of C. elegans larvae to 85.2% at 1mg/mL [149].
Acetone extract of V. amygdalina leaves exhibited 42% ovi- Further in vitro investigations of this extract against some
cidal efect, 70% larval migration inhibition and 90% animal parasites and C. elegans revealed that the extract had
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 33
signifcant activity against C. elegans (LC50� 2.5mg/mL), Conflicts of Interest
Toxocara cati (LC50�112 μg/mL) and Trichuris vulpis
(LC50�17 μg/mL) [199]. Fractionation of water-acetone ex- Te authors declare that they have no conficts of interest.
tracts leads to an ethyl acetate partition with better anthel-
mintic activity (LC50�1.1mg/mL) than the water fraction Acknowledgments
(LC50� 2.9mg/mL) and the crude extract (LC50 �1.9mg/mL)
[200]. Bioassay-guided studies led to the isolation of Cin- Tis work was part of a project funded by the German
namtannin B1, a trimeric A-type procyanidin, which had Research Foundation (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft
signifcant inhibition of C. elegans (86.5% at 72 h incubation). DFG) under grant number LI 793/16-1, Projekt nummer
Te respective B-type trimer, procyanidinC1, isolated fromC. 423277515.
mucronatum, was less active (47.3%), indicating a strong
infuence of the interfavan linkage and the diferent fne
structures of the procyanidins [150, 200]. References
[1] B. Bharti, S. Bharti, and S. Khurana, “Worm infestation:
7. Conclusion diagnosis, treatment and prevention,” Indian Journal of
Pediatrics, vol. 85, no. 11, pp. 1017–1024, 2018.
Te World Health Organization’s 2030 targets for STH can [2] Who, Ending the Neglect to Attain the Sustainable Devel-
only be achieved with renewed investments in new and opment Goals: A Road Map for Neglected Tropical Diseases
efective drugs. Africanmedicinal plants will serve as a useful 2021–2030World Health Organization, Geneva, Geneva,
source of remedies for integrated parasite control, along with Switzerland, 2020.
other measures such as education and the provision of [3] WHO, Neglected Tropical Diseases − Summary, World
sanitation facilities to at-risk populations. Health Organization, Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland, 2020.
Te foregoing data validate the claims that African [4] S. Lustigman, R. K. Prichard, A. Gazzinelli et al., “A researchagenda for helminth diseases of humans: the problem of
medicinal plants have huge potential for the discovery and helminthiases,” PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases, vol. 6,
development of new, innovative, and alternative anthel- no. 4, Article ID e1582, 2012.
mintic agents. Te majority of reports and studies evaluated [5] M. Liu, S. K. Panda, and W. Luyten, “Plant-based natural
extracts of plants, with a few isolated compounds also products for the discovery and development of novel an-
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