International Journal of Green Energy ISSN: (Print) (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/ljge20 Status of biodiesel research and development in Kenya Mohammed Takase, Rogers Kipkoech, Paul Kwame Essandoh, Ernest Amankwa Afrifa, Jones Agyapong Frimpong & Heindel Kwasi Agama-Agbanu To cite this article: Mohammed Takase, Rogers Kipkoech, Paul Kwame Essandoh, Ernest Amankwa Afrifa, Jones Agyapong Frimpong & Heindel Kwasi Agama-Agbanu (2021): Status of biodiesel research and development in Kenya, International Journal of Green Energy, DOI: 10.1080/15435075.2021.1947823 To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/15435075.2021.1947823 Published online: 10 Jul 2021. Submit your article to this journal Article views: 86 View related articles View Crossmark data Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at https://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=ljge20 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF GREEN ENERGY https://doi.org/10.1080/15435075.2021.1947823 Status of biodiesel research and development in Kenya Mohammed Takasea, Rogers Kipkoecha, Paul Kwame Essandoha, Ernest Amankwa Afrifaa, Jones Agyapong Frimpongb, and Heindel Kwasi Agama-Agbanuc aDepartment of Environmental Science, School of Biological Sciences, University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast, Ghana; bRegional Institute for Population Studies, University of Ghana, Legon, Ghana; cFaculty of Natural Resource and Environment, University for Development Studies, Tamale, Ghana ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY Research has established that biodiesel performs well in engine and is considered to be fuel with low Received 7 November 2020 carbon emission. This gives it a possibility of replacing it with fuel obtained from fossil sources and whose Accepted 20 June 2021 amount is dwindling as they are not renewable. Biodiesel development in Kenya has begun to receive KEYWORDS high levels from the government due to continued rise in the cost of fossil fuels. Various stakeholders in Biodiesel; Kenya; energy; biodiesel industries formed the National Biodiesel Committee in January 2006 under the Ministry of fuel; transesterification Energy to have a collective voice in promoting policies such as blending mandates, tax mandates and reaction production subsidies. This review therefore, focus on status of biodiesel research and development in Kenya. Among the areas of focus include development of biodiesel in various Kenyan institutions, impact of jatropha on Kenya’s biodiesel plans, status of biodiesel research using indigenous jatropha oil, physicochemical properties of Jatropha curcas seed oil, formulation of biodiesel policy, possibility of harnessing indigenous algae for biodiesel production and the possibility of re-using waste vegetable oil and animal fat for biodiesel. The various works reviewed revealed that the energy requirement of Kenya can be met and the looming energy crisis averted. 1. Introduction foreign exchange of the world (Mazumder 2020 & Munyao Biodiesel, monoalkyl esters of long-chain fatty acids is consid- 2016). ered the most suitable substitute for diesel (Ramos et al. 2019). The use of crops such as sunflower oil, safflower oil, corn oil, The benefits of biodiesel include nontoxic, biodegradable, coconut oil, palm oil and soybean oil as a source of biodiesel clean energy, reduction in global warming, insignificant con- feedstuffs conflicts with their use as food. It cannot thus effi- tent of aromatic compounds and sulfur, higher cetane content ciently fulfill the world’s demands for biodiesel. The application and flash point (Munyao 2016; Duda et al. 2018; Ayoob and of vegetable or plant oils have some adverse effects such as Fadhil 2019; Otta 2016). Biodiesel also improved lubrication increased viscosity and low volatility which can lead to partial capabilities and reduced dangerous exhaust emissions relative ignition in compression ignition engines and henceforth, carbon to petrodiesel (Knothe and Razon 2017) deposition. Extensive research has been conducted to develop Studies indicate that biodiesel production and use in Kenya biodiesel derivatives that have properties similar to those of is still at an early stage with little research done in the sector, petrodiesel (Nyika 2020 & Onuh and Inambao 2016b). despite the country’s potential to produce the fuel (Otieno et al. The main aim of this review is to examine the current status 2018). This hinges Kenya’s effort and goal of using biodiesel as of biodiesel research and development in Kenya. It seeks to a replacement for traditional diesel and other fossil fuel by answer the following research question: what is the status of 2030. The few studies carried out on biodiesel produced from biodiesel research and development in Kenya? Among the Kenyan feedstocks include Croton megalocarpus and yellow areas of highlights in this review include development of bio- oleander (Hunsberger 2016 & Otieno et al. 2018). Other diesel in various Kenyan institutions, the impact of Jatropha on researchers have identified oils such as Moringa oleifera Kenya’s biodiesel plans, status of biodiesel research using indi- (Olubuade 2015) Calodendrum capense, Croton megalocar- genous Jatropha oil, physicochemical properties of Jatropha pus, Jatropha curcas, and Cocos nucifera (Fekadu, Feleke, and curcas seed oil, formulation of biodiesel policy, harnessing Bekele 2019). Others have however, mentioned castor oil and indigenous algae for biodiesel production and the possibility Grain amaranth as other oils in Kenya (Nyika 2020). of re-using waste vegetable oil and animal fat for biodiesel. Very little study has been done on the production of bio- diesel and tests from African countries such as Kenya. Kenya 2. Biodiesel from transesterification reaction currently, has no known commercial deposits of fossil fuels regardless of government’s attempt to explore potential loca- Transesterification is the process of converting large triglycer- tions. Consequently, all liquid fuels that are brought into the ides (TGs) to form short-chain alkyl ester molecules having country is expensive and absorbs a significant portion of the size and physical properties which are the same as those of CONTACT Mohammed Takase mohammed.takase@ucc.edu.gh Department of Environmental Science, School of Biological Sciences, University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast, Ghana © 2021 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 2 M. TAKASE ET AL. Figure 1. General equation for transesterification (Montcho et al. 2018). petrodiesel (Dash and Lingfa 2017). Each molecule of remain behind the scenes in a global biodiesel game a triglyceride stoichiometrically, requires three molecules of (Mukabane et al. 2018). alcohol to reach complete reaction and additional alcohol is Kenya is similar to other developing countries that are still usually added to change equilibrium of the reversible reaction relying on fossil fuel which are imported. Despite having dom- for enhance yield. The mole ratio used is dependent on the oil inancy in sources of energy, there is a limitation in conven- feedstock, the catalyst employed, time of reaction and tempera- tional fossil fuel which is not equally distributed and yet a lot of ture. Some of the commonly used alcohols for transesterifica- crucial reserves are located in areas with political instabilities tion include methanol, ethanol and propanol. The biodiesel (Ndiritu and Engola 2020 & Sergi et al. 2018). Huge barrels of produced does not depend on the nature of alcohol, but rather oil are imported to Kenya. Kenya relies on natural resources in the cost of the feedstock (Chavan et al. 2015). the generation of 60% of the primary demand for energy. The Excess amount of alcohol results in a rise in emulsification importation bill of fuel is high and burdensome to the gross and separating glycerol turns out to be a challenge. The suit- domestic product of the country. At the same time, excess ability of most oil should be through experimental determina- extraction of natural resources for energy supply results in tion of every oil feedstock in regards to alcohol ratio (Demirbas degradation and biodiversity loss (in which the cases are and Edris 2017). Ester bonds are initially broken down in the extreme). Besides, using energy sources such as firewood is process of transesterification and this is preceded by cleavage of a threat to life and environment. Production of gases such as hydroxyl bonds. However, during esterification the breaking of carbon monoxide, benzene, nitrogen oxide causes pollution the hydroxyl bond results in glycerol formation as a co-product which negatively impacts the environment. Price volatility in transesterification and esterification (Montcho et al. 2018). and unreliability supply of the fossil fuels makes them not Various catalysts are used to carry out transesterification. favorable choice of energy (Tracy 2015, & Kywe and Oo 2016) Some of these include alkali, acid or enzyme (lipases) that can These challenges in energy negatively impact on the envir- promote hydrolysis of triglyceride to form fatty acid alkyl esters onment and calls for exploration to other friendly and sustain- (FAAE) and glycerol. Purification of biodiesel from glycerol is able sources of energy. Except for the high cost that entails done by separating the steps which entails washing using warm accessing renewable sources such as solar and wind, biofuel has water for a number of times (Gumba et al. 2016). The general been said to be the best substitute with a lot of potential in chemical equation for transesterification is shown in Figure 1 solving Kenya’s energy crisis. Biofuels are among the most above. economical for tropical countries due to its comparative advantage in terms of its cultivation (Mosonik et al. 2018, Sharma, & 2015; Pueyo 2018). Some of other feedstocks includ- 3. Prospects of biodiesel for Kenya’s economy ing Ricinus comminis, Croton megalocarpus, Jatropha curcas Analysis of economy for indigenous oils in Spain revealed that are under evaluation for production of biofuel. The results are the major factor in biodiesel production when compared with however, conflicting in terms of their potential as feedstocks mineral diesel is the cost of virgin vegetable oil (Callegari et al. for commercial purposes. Nonetheless, the energy crisis should 2020; Laurens, Chen-Glasser, and McMillan 2017; Prabhu, be solved through biofuel as well as the provision of positive Venkata Ramanan, and Jayaprabakar 2018). Related economic energy balance for the benefit of the environment (Mosonik studies also showed similar revelation with the solution being et al. 2018; Hunsberger 2016 & Dharma, 2016) . harnessing the vegetable oil which is obtained from indigenous Few works have highlighted the prospect of biodiesel for vegetation growing on marginal land (Takahashi et al. 2015 & Kenya. In most of these works, the possibility of producing Nyika 2020). In regards to this, India has successfully exploited biodiesel on a large scale has been looked at extensively. the Jatropha plant for the production and consumption of Emphasis has been on the requirement of the production of biodiesel of low cost in the last decade (Dalemans et al. 2018 biodiesel for sustainable development and to help in reduction & Jingura and Kamusoko 2018). Different countries have in dependency on imported fuel (Mosonik et al. 2018; endeavored to make use of microalgae as feedstock in the Hunsberger 2016 & Curcas, 2016) . production of biodiesel and outcomes have been successful (Bošnjaković and Sinaga 2020). However, Kenya appeared to INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF GREEN ENERGY 3 4. Research and development on biodiesel in various There are also other ongoing research activities on biofuel Kenyan institutions production, utilization and vegetable oil sources including crop agronomy. It became necessary to design a regional biofuel Biodiesel sector in Kenya is still at the infant stage. Non- course whose curriculum responds to emerging opportunities governmental organizations (NGOs) and private sectors have for middle-level practitioners. The course was to be adminis- been involved in the promotion of biodiesel and were involved tered jointly by both universities and users as a way to enhance in the identification of growth of feedstock which is considered the technology transfer and capacity of practitioners in public to be the major income generation for the people in marginal and private sectors (Jingura and Kamusoko 2018). places. Majority of these organizations including Vanilla Jatropha Development and Green Africa Foundation are pro- moting jatropha to the farmers, especially in the arid and semi- 4.1. Impact of Jatropha Biodiesel on Kenya’s Biodiesel arid areas. This is because its believed that Jatropha can per- plans form well in harsh environmental condition and needs less input and care. The seeds are not edible and this ensures it The effort of Kenya to harness the Jatropha plant for the does not compete with food. Even though Jatropha has been production of biodiesel is nothing short of praiseworthy. promoted mostly, other feedstocks such as croton and castor Research and development at the moment are underway. have also been considered (MITEI 2017; Hunsberger 2016 & Despite these negativities, a conclusion was made that jatropha Munyao 2016). could solve the insecurity in the energy sector and for the There has been many controversies on the growth of the benefits of the rural livelihood as well as protection of the sector. This was after the farmers abandoned cultivation of environment. In addition to being a potential cash crop, there Jatropha due to a poor harvest and limited market. There are some prospects in it making Kenya self-reliance in terms of have been concerns raised by many regarding the way energy supply with potential economic, social and energy Jatropha plant has been promoted without adequate research secured. Existence of high demand by the locals and farmers on the crop’s agronomical requirement and the seed germ- who are open-minded in Kwale District in Kenya gives plasm. The absence of the processing infrastructure and policy Jatropha a chance of proving its potential to alleviate livelihood and legal framework exacerbated the situation since the farm- in rural areas through productions and use (Mwihaki 2016, KI ers who had harvested the seeds lacked the technical capacity P, 2016 & Newell and Phillips 2016) . for processing them to oil for good market (Munyao 2016 & MITEI 2017) 4.1.1. Status of Jatropha cultivation for biodiesel The entry of the government into the seen was late and since production then has been involved actively in trying to save the situations. Even though Jatropha is not native to Kenya, the species This has been through commissioning of study in partnership appears to have been brought into the country about with GTZ in 2008 with the title, “A Roadmap for Biofuel in a century ago (Munyao 2016). Due to its natural stand in Kenya; Opportunities and Obstacles” facilitating the drafting of Kenya, the tendency to spread have not been noticed and to the biofuel policy, biodiesel strategy and bioethanol strategy in find the young Jatropha trees is rare (Hunsberger 2016; Nyika the last 3 years. The biodiesel association of Kenya was formed 2020). In Kenya, Jatropha is mainly grown in the Rift Valley in 2008 and was made up of major stakeholders such as NGOs (Kajiado, Namanga, Nakuru, Naivasha, and Marakwet), and research institutions where the ministry officials repre- Nyanza, Central (Thika), Eastern (Kitui and Meru) and the sented the government. The aim was to help in the promotion Coast (Malindi) provinces. In East Africa, Tanzania is said to and coordination of all activities that are related to biodiesel have made the most significant strides in terms of growing the (Mukhwana et al. 2016). fuel tree on a large scale. Meanwhile, Kenya is said to be well Zijani launched Kenya’s first biodiesel research and devel- ahead of other African countries in research on Jatropha (Ma, opment refinery in Nairobi in November 2014. The refinery 2016). had the capacity of manufacturing up to 13,000 l per year. The Government policy plays an important role in fostering the expectation was to generate 48,000 l of biodiesel each year growth of the biodiesel industry in Kenya. Active government beginning May 2017. The project was completed in 2016. support has been essential in every country where biodiesel and There is however, advance biodiesel plant in Nairobi that is other biofuel industries have successfully been established. capable of producing 50,000 l of biodiesel each year. This was Government policy influences the returns that can be gener- Kenya’s first plant that was dedicated to producing biodiesel ated from different value chains and thus the potential returns from cooking oil. It has resulted in Zijani pushing closer to to different types of actors. Government has an interest in achieve a 100% recovery of its resources through generation of reintroducing power alcohol as a motor fuel in its long-term biodiesel that saves more than 95% of the green gas emission policy to enhance the security of supply if it could overcome related to fossil fuels (Barasa 2018 & KIP, 2016). the problem of competitiveness in the market. However, its Biodiesel development in Kenya has received much attention (government) has taken a cautious approach toward reconsi- from the government due to the continued rise in the cost of dering support for the biofuels industry due to the experience fossil fuels and the increasing awareness on environmental con- of previous policy failures. In Kenya, various stakeholders in cerns. The attention has occasioned the formation of the biodiesel industries formed the national biodiesel committee in National Biodiesel Committee which is under the Ministry of January 2006 under the Ministry of Energy to have a collective Energy as provided by the Energy Act (2006) (Mwihaki 2016). voice in promoting policies such as blending mandates, tax 4 M. TAKASE ET AL. mandates and production subsidies (Roux et al., 2016 & Table 2. Quantity of oil from Jatropha curcus produced from the various regions in Mukabane et al. 2018). Kenya (Munyao 2016). Region Percent yield (%) 4.1.2. Status of biodiesel research using indigenous Kibwezi 23.1� 0.03 Oyugis 27.0� 0.02 Jatropha oil Meru 38.8� 0.2 The Jatropha curcas plant is a drought resistant crop that Funyula 28.4� 0.1 develops deep taproot and shallow roots allowing it to resist and control soil erosion. The leaves are smooth (4–6) lobed and 10 to 15 cm in length and width. It produces about 2–4 kg/ while those from Funyula and Oyugis were 28.4% and 27.0%, seed/tree/year. In poor soils, the yields have been reported to be respectively. The least was from Kibwezi with 23.1% (Table 2). about 1 kg/seed/tree/year. The oil yields of Jatropha curcas is According to Munyao (2016), the expected oil yield range for reported to be 1590 kg/ha (Prabhu, Venkata Ramanan, and Jatropha curcas seeds that can be processed to high-quality Jayaprabakar 2018 & Dharma et al. 2016). The major fatty acids biodiesel fuel is about 27% to 40% (average 34.4%). in Jatropha curcas seed oil are oleic, linoleic, palmitic and Values are mean ± SD of triplicate determinations triplicate stearic acids. The properties of the oils obtained from this plant are presented in Table 1 (Wahyudi et al. 2019). 4.1.4. Physicochemical properties of Jatropha curcas seed The cost of production of biodiesel from Jatropha will oil arguably vary from location to location due to labor charges, In Munyao (2016) study, Jatropha curcas accessed from land acquisition and policies in place. Hunsberger (2016) pre- Kibwezi showed the lowest moisture content (0.08275 ml) sented a strong case for biodiesel production from Jatropha. with those accessed from Funyula revealing higher levels Given that 500 workers working on a 1,500,000 ha, approxi- (0.18525 ml) (Figure 2). Moisture is a chemical contaminant mately 2,250,000 L of oil can be generated. The expected which is mixed with lubricating oil such as Jatropha oil and it is revenue can be computed using the labor cost applicable to the primary cause of most engine failure; hence the moisture the region of interest. On land use, it should be noted that it content reported herein was lower than 0.2% (Kywe and Oo costs less to grow Jatropha. Thus it does not require expensive 2016). crop rotation or fertilizers. As a result, several organizations in Kenya are involved in the production while some are involved in the testing of biodiesel from Jatropha curcas oil. The main 4.1.5. Preparation of Jatropha and diesel oil blend thrust behind the work has been a high oil content in the seeds From studies of Prabhu, Venkata Ramanan, and Jayaprabakar (ca 30% to 40%) (Asnake et al. 2020; Munyao 2016) as well as 2018 & Takase et al. (2015), it is evident that dilution or the presence of anti-nutritional chemicals in the oil that tend to blending of vegetable oil with other fuels like alcohol or diesel make it inedible (Rodrigues et al. 2016). fuel would bring the viscosity close to specification range. Therefore, Jatropha oil was blended with diesel oil in varying 4.1.3. Jatropha oil produced from the various regions in proportions to reduce its viscosity close to that of the diesel Kenya fuel. The essential physical and chemical properties of the According to studies by Tracy 2015, accession with the highest biodiesel thus prepared are given in Table 3. The various oil yield per weight was from Meru with 38.8% oil content blends were stable under normal conditions. Table 1. Highlight of properties of Jatropha curcas oil (Wahyudi et al. 2019). 4.2. Kenyan Universities research Property Parameters status Remark The University of Nairobi, Jomo Kenyatta University of Kinematic Very high The kinematic viscosity of crude viscosity J. curcas oil can be reduced to about Agriculture and Technology (JKUAT) and Kenyatta 82% after transesterification and University are carrying out different aspects of research work amount to be 4.8 mm2/s using on Jatropha and biofuel. The Chemistry Department at the preheating, blending, ultrasonically assisted methanol University of Nairobi provides biofuel policy leadership to transesterification and supercritical the National Biofuel Committee (NBC). The proposed road methanol transesterification. map for the biofuel strategy/policy is mainly based on this work Pour point Low in comparison to It may be used in some four season’s edible oils biodiesel countries (Achard 2017 & Mukabane et al. 2018). It is crucial to expand High the membership of the NBC and also strengthen its strategic Iodine value High Indicated higher unsaturation of fats leadership through the Ministry of Energy to comprehensively Flashpoint Higher in comparison Due to a higher flash point, jatropha oil to diesel has certain advantages over diesel, address the broad issues that entail the process of biofuel such as greater safety during strategy/policy formulation. Without the Ministry of Energy storage, handling, and transport. acting like a champion, biofuel policy and strategy formulation Calorific high in comparison to Jatropha has about 90% calorific value Value the diesel compared to diesel will be nonstarters and will end up as disjointed activities Cetane high as compare to Pure Jatropha oil can be used directly without any impact at the national level (Munyao 2016). Number that of diesel in engine without converting to Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology biodiesel Acid number Slightly higher than High acidity of pure Jatropha oil as (JKUAT) undertook joint research in collaboration with indus- (Mg KOH that of diesel compare to diesel leads to damage tries and other institutions such as Kenya Organic Products g-1) in engine’s rubber parts Ltd. JKUAT analyzed Jatropha oil and its by-products to INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF GREEN ENERGY 5 Moisture (ml) 0.2 0.18 0.16 0.14 0.12 0.1 0.08 0.06 0.04 0.02 0 Meru Funyula Kibwezi Oyugis Figure 2. Moisture content of Jatropha cultivated in different areas of Kenya (Kywe and Oo 2016). Table 3. Physical and chemical properties of diesel and Jatropha oil blend policy front, the Ministry of Energy has convened a team in (Prabhu, Venkata Ramanan, and Jayaprabakar 2018 & Takase et al. 2015). National Biofuel Committee (NBC) which comprises represen- Properties Diesel Jatropha curcas oil tative from the petroleum industry, ministries, agricultural Density(gm/cc), 30°C 0.836–0.850 0.93292 producers and NGOs. The Committee has drafted a biodiesel Kinematic viscosity(cSt), 30°C 4–8 52.76 Cetane No. 40–55 38.00 policy strategy with nearly exclusive focus on Jatropha. While Flash point, oC 45–60 210.00 this is on-going, researchers in universities and other institu- Calorific value, MJ/kg 42–46 38.20 tions are engaged in laboratory research on appropriate tech- Saponification value - 198.00 Iodine No. - 94.00 nical aspects of production and analysis of biodiesel fuel (Republic of Kenya Ministry of Energy and Petroleum 2016 & Roux, Lamotte, and Achard 2017) . provide guidelines for production and utilization (Hunsberger 2016). For example, based on sunflower data from South 5.1. Collaboration with other local research institutions Africa, a study has found that a plant capacity of 8,000 l per day will require about 16 tons of feedstock per day. This amount Technology for biofuel production already exists in Kenya. could be supplied by 800 farmers cultivating 5-ha plots which Virtually no practical experience exists in Kenya regarding would create 16,000 field jobs and 15 plant jobs per day. biodiesel manufacturing. However, Kenyan Industrial Consequently, the 1.8 million required to meet 4% of diesel Research Development Institute (KIRDI) has begun to consumption per day has the potential to generate 16,150 jobs research and experiment with biodiesel production technology (Chavan et al. 2015; Onuh and Inambao 2016a; Republic of on a very small scale. Expertise in biofuels production can be Kenya Ministry of Energy and Petroleum 2016) . transferred along with the technology needed for manufactur-ing. The production process and the technology required are well understood and not particularly difficult to emulate. 5. Harnessing of indigenous resources for biodiesel Machinery and equipment can be fabricated locally once the production scale of biofuels production justifies the capital cost of manu-facturing plants (Republic of Kenya Ministry of Energy and 5.1 Contributions of Energy Regulatory Commission and Petroleum 2016 & Munyao 2016). National Biofuel Committee Kenya Forestry Research Institute (KEFRI) has also been The Kenyan Government created the Energy Regulatory researching on various tree and shrub species to ascertain their Commission under section 4(1) 2006 in 2008 with the respon- potential for biodiesel production. The priority of the species is sibility for economic and technical regulation of electric power, Jatropha, Croton, Yellow oleander and Pongamia. Though renewable energy and downstream petroleum subsector. The most of the research is now focus on Jatropha, various research Ministry of Energy has been coordinating the plethora of project been carried out on Jatropha are encouraging though it ministries and departments. It acts through the creation of should be better coordinated among the participants and National Biofuels Committee which brings together research donors to avoid overlap and to take advantage of the relative institutions, universities and other public sector entities as well strengths of the various projects. Other crops such as castor as private sector and NGOs that are involved in biodiesel and croton are mentioned in the document. In some respect, development in Kenya. Kenya’s draft bioethanol and biodiesel these other crops may present a better opportunity for large- strategies identified the opportunities that biodiesel develop- scale production within short to medium term because they ment can bring in terms of environmental benefit of blending can produce large quantities of feedstock within a season biodiesel into conventional fuels and the diversification of (Republic of Kenya Ministry of Energy and Petroleum 2016) energy sources. The focus on Kenyan’s strategy is assisting & Mukabane et al. 2018). smallholders’ farmers in producing Jatropha, which can be Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI) is said to be achieved through public-private sector partnerships. On the the leading national agricultural research institution in the 6 M. TAKASE ET AL. Table 4. The cost of various biofuel feedstock (MoE, 2016 & KIP, 2016). Feedstock cost Castor a Coconutb Cottone Crotond Jatrophae Rapeseedf Sunflowerg Cost of Seed (Ksh/L) 20,000 29,327 20,000 15,000 15,000 26,000 31,984 Oil Content 40% 65% 13% 30% 30% 35% 37% Unrefined Oil (Ksh/L 44.64 40.28 137.36 44.64 44.64 66.33 78.24 Seedcake Revenue Animal Feed (Ksh/L) 2.33 89.63 19.90 24.85 Biogas (Ksh/L) 6.04 9.40 9.40 Total (Ksh/L) 38.60 37.95 47.73 35.24 35.24 46.43 53.3 country. It runs research programs in food crops, horticultural policy provides a framework for formulating a biofuel strategy and industrial crops. Other systems including livestock and and action plan. In early 2007, the Ministry of Energy and the range management, water management and socioeconomics parastatal under it prepared an inclusive Ksh.s. 50 million 10- are also included. KARI promotes sound agricultural research, year Kenya Energy Sector Environment Program (KEEP) technology generation and dissemination of food security which centered on energy and environment conservation, fuel- through improved productivity and environmental conserva- wood, watershed management, training and publicity and tion. KARI Katumani Center in Machakos is involved in awareness creation (MoE, 2016). germplasm collection, evaluation and agronomic research. The Energy Act of 2006 mandates that the government Conservation efforts by KARI have led to the preservation of pursues and facilitates the production of biofuel but does not five accessions for Jatropha – from Nyanza, Makueni, Kajiado articulate how this shall be accomplished. Liquid biofuels are and Marsabit into the National Gene Bank of Kenya (Ministry only accorded a little attention in the Act, although it does at of Energy and Petroleum, & Sustainable Energy for All 2016 & least distinguish between bioethanol and biodiesel. The Mokveld and Eije 2018). Ministry of Energy, however, drafted a policy paper on biofuel in 2004 and through its National Biofuels Committee, recently produced a biodiesel strategy. The policy and strategy together 5.2. Commercial ventures provide an important starting point for the construction of The cost of biofuel feedstock has to do principally with the a comprehensive regulatory framework. As the strategy price per ton of oilseed, the percentage of the oil that can be acknowledges, more analysis is required to determine extracted from the seed (known as “oil content”) and the a precise policy on blending target, tax incentives, overall revenue that can be collected from the seed cake that is leftover economics, production capacities and use of multiple feed- after the oil has been extracted. For edible crops such as coco- stocks in addition to Jatropha. Biofuel activities fall under the nut, cottonseed, rapeseed and sunflower the seed cake can be provision of the Energy and may be regulated accordingly sold as animal feed. For non-edible crops such as castor, croton (IALtd 2016). The newly formed Energy Regulatory and jatropha, the seed cake can be converted into bioenergy or Commission (ERC) has given the explicit authority to regulate used to power plants. The estimated price of seed is based on biofuel production and distribution, in addition to more tradi- discussions with the farmers, data from the Ministry of tional forms of energy such as electricity and petroleum pro- Agriculture and KARI. Revenue from the seed cake expected ducts. NBC has called for the adoption of new regulations and from the market price of the animal feed is the discounted where appropriate, the application of existing law regarding value of biogas that could be produced. The added capital cost environmental impact assessment, child labor, penalties for of biogas digester is included for the three feedstocks for which non-compliance within the Energy Act (Lamotte, 2016). The biogas revenue is projected (Table 4) (Munyao 2016). National Biofuel Committee which is composed of government Croton and Jatropha are the cheapest feedstock although, officials, stakeholders in research institutions, private sector they take the longest to mature and thus are potentially less and non-government organizations are currently deliberating attractive for farmers, primarily if they cannot readily be on the framework of policy issues such as blending mandate, financed for a long-term investment (Mosonik et al. 2018). tax mandate, production and subsidies. The committee has put much emphasis on the promotion of Jatropha curcas oil for sustainable biodiesel production in the country, claiming ben- 6. Formulation of biodiesel policy recommendation efits of energy security, climate change mitigation and rural development (KIP, 2016). 6.1. The Energy Act and Policy (2004) provide a framework for Jatropha development The Ministry of Energy in 2006 developed a work plan with 7. University research results a budget of Ksh.s 40 million proposing activities for main- streaming the processes for the establishment of the biodiesel 7.1. Biodiesel production industry. The draft proposal sets a target under which biodiesel The Technical University of Kenya has been involved in would account for 5% of all diesel fuel by 2022. The momen- researching the potential for biodiesel production from waste tum to improve the draft seems to have slackened as a result of cooking oil in Kenya. They produced biodiesel from waste communication and synergies among different actors and sta- cooking oil (WCO) and waste vegetable fats (WVF) from two keholders (MoE, 2016). The enactment of the Energy Act and hotels and chips restaurant. The waste cooking oil generated in INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF GREEN ENERGY 7 their laboratories was also used after it has been recycled nine transesterification process was used to produce biodiesel times. For determination of the viability of biodiesel produc- because of the number of fatty acids present in the oil. The tion from waste cooking oil in Kenya, 12 hotels within the test rig used in the experiment was an Audi 1.9 l, turbocharged capital city were selected to determine the amount of oil gen- direct injection, compression ignition engine. Emission was erated every week. The biodiesel yield was 88 ± 2.0, 90 ± 2.6, using a Horiba emission analyzer system. At the same time, 92 ± 1.3 and 72 ± 2.0% for 9x recycled oil, WCO from Hilton, combustion data was collected by the data acquisition system WVF from Utalii and WCO from chips restaurant, respec- from which cylinder pressure and rate of heat release of the test tively. Properties of biodiesel produced from the different engine in every crank angle were calculated. The two biodiesels batches of WCO were found to be markedly enhanced com- showed better emission characteristics than the fossil diesel pared to those of the parent oil. Also, the values satisfied most included in the tests for comparison purposes. Cylinder pres- standard limits according to the American Society for Testing sure and heat release of the biodiesel were also within accep- Materials (ASTM) standards for biodiesel. On average, the table ranges. However, the emission and combustion major hotels in Kenya capital City discard 60 kg of oil/fat per characteristics differed between the two biodiesels – a result week; hence biodiesel production from WCO/WVF presents likely related to their different origins. These findings prove a viable venture in Kenya. A 200-l prototype bioreactor for the that the source of biodiesel is an important factor to consider. production of biodiesel from WCO/WVF has been designed Based on collated studies with the similar results as in the and installed at the Technical University of Kenya (Roux, aforementioned discussions, Jatropha has a lower emission of Lamotte, and Achard 2017). CO, HC, NOx and smoke opacity in comparison to that of A study was conducted at the Institute of Energy and diesel. Upon evaluation, a rise in CO and HC emission as result Environmental Technology (IEET), in Jomo Kenyatta of higher engine biodiesel load with exhaust gas recirculation University of Agriculture and Technology. The research entails (EGR) gradually reduced which possibly could be because of the production of biodiesel from animal fats and evaluating its higher biodiesel amount in the fuel blends. CO decreased from potential as an alternative fuel. It involved data collection from 12.32% to 6.51% and HC reduced from 27.53% to 14.91%. 13 meat processing plants and slaughterhouses near Nairobi Emission of NOx however, increased from almost 3.29% to City to establish the potential for animal fat production in 10.75% within some particular conditions (Takase et al. 2015). Kenya. The results indicated that beef cattle and camel could produce 5.67 kg of animal fat while pig, sheep and goats can produce 7.8 kg and 1 kg, respectively. This would provide an 8. Commercial research results approximated total of 180,498 tons of animal fat production Brief descriptions regarding commercial plans for biodiesel potential in Kenya as of 2009. From the actual animal slaughter production in Kenya has already been reported in the previous figures, a total of 21,265 tons of animal fat can be produced sections. As mentioned earlier, mainly Energy Regulatory annually in the country. With a 70% biodiesel yield from the Commission and National Biofuel Committee are mandated 100-l processor, a total of 14,886 tons of biodiesel could be to regulate and to allow the commercialization of biodiesel produced. The biodiesel produced from lard and tallow feed- distribution throughout the country. The main focus appears stocks adhered to the required density and viscosity limits of to be mainly revolving around Jatropha biodiesel fuel as other 0.87894 g/ml; 0.87884 g/ml and 5.7379 mm2/s and indigenous vegetable oils have yet to show much economic 5.7479 mm2/s respectively. Observations for flash point and promise in Kenya. The bodies above are involved in regulating ash content were 59°C, 60°C, and 0.007% and 0.009%, respec- and promoting energy production and sustainability in Kenya tively. The water content of 0.001% and pour point of less than (Republic of Kenya Ministry of Energy and Petroleum 2016) & 0°C for both lard and tallow biodiesels were observed. Contents (IALtd 2016). Small-scale batch production units that are of sediments were undetectable for both lard and tallow bio- necessary for the production of biodiesel for a laboratory test diesels. Engine test results showed that at 100% load, the and standardization of production and extraction process specific rate of fuel consumption (SFC) for B100 Lard and could consider: B100 tallow were 119.79% and 124.43%, respectively as com- pared to fossil diesel while at 25% load, the rates reduced to ● Engine performance test using biodiesel. 1.64% and 1.22% respectively. For the B10 blends, the specific ● They are involved in initiating laboratory, durability and rate of fuel consumption figures was lower than fossil diesel at pilot production test in various research institutions. 4.82% and 7.29% for B10 Lard and B10 Tallow, respectively at ● Pilot generation of electricity for communities outside the 100% load. At 25% engine load, the consumption for B10 lard main grid using biofuel as a tool to alleviate poverty. was 0.60% above fossil diesel, while that of B10 tallow was ● Promotion of private sector partnership to encourage 6.81% lower than fossil diesel (Roux, Lamotte, and Achard high production of Jatropha oil to meet future demand 2017). for transport-based uses. 7.2. Biodiesel testing in engines 9. The possibility of harnessing indigenous algae for A research was carried out at the Department of Mechanical biodiesel production and Production Engineering, Moi University, Eldoret, Kenya Three major components can be extracted from microalgae by Munyao (2016) in which oil was extracted from Jatropha biomass thus: lipids, carbohydrates and proteins. These com- curcas seeds. In the study, a two-step acid-base catalytic ponents can be converted into many kinds of fuel including 8 M. TAKASE ET AL. biodiesel. The lipids (which are the keys in biofuel products) biodiesel production would benefit the nation considerably have high-energy content, chemical components such as (Ministry of Energy and Petroleum, & Sustainable Energy for hydrocarbon molecules and triacylglycerides (TAGs) All 2016; Mokveld and Eije 2018) . (Lamotte & Achard 2016 & Mukabane et al. 2018). The high cost of vegetable oils which could be up to 75% of the At the beginning of 2009, production of biofuels from total biodiesel manufacturing cost has led to the production costs microalgae was still in the early stages. The price of a gallon of biodiesel becoming approximately 1.5 times higher than that of oil from microalgae was about 21 USD. However, the cost for diesel. The use of waste cooking oil (WCO) and waste vege- began decreasing significantly from 6 USD to 3 USD for table fats (WVF) could greatly reduce the biodiesel cost as these a gallon in 2014 and are expected to decrease to less than one are considerably cheaper than virgin oils. It would also reduce dollar in the period between 2018 and 2025 (Laurens, Chen- waste treatment costs associated with WCO/WVF disposal in Glasser, and McMillan 2017). addition to alleviating health problems related to its use (Giwa Many experiments on production of biofuels from and Umanah 2019 & Awogbemi, Inambao, and Onuh 2018). For Microalgae in some developing countries have been done example, Ramos et al. (2019) indicated that animal fat (waste such including some African countries. The results were promising as tallow, lard, poultry fat and fish oil) obtained during meat and thriving in the potential for good productivity of biofuels. processing in industries serve as low-cost material for biodiesel Nile Basin countries possess a great potential for microalgae production. biofuel production. Countries like Kenya have a lot of features especially, emission of CO2 from the cement factories and oil refineries, appropriate temperatures and vast unused lands. 11. Conclusion Moreover, these countries are developing countries and in From the reviewed articles, it was noted that energy require- the greatest need of energy resources to build their economies ment in Kenya can be achieved and the looming energy crisis (Roux, Lamotte, and Achard 2017, & Mukabane et al. 2018). averted. However, to attain this, coherent biodiesel policies by The study carried out by researchers from Jomo Kenyatta the Government of Kenya need to be enforced with greater University of Agriculture and Technology on Microalgae cul- focus devoted to supporting the initial local research efforts. tivation system for biodiesel production identify it to be eco- Also, NBC and ERC initiatives to engage various universities nomically viable. The biodiesel produced from microalgae has throughout the nation should be harnessed so that effective potential for production without the serious competition of the solutions can be found in meeting the requirement of the arable land against food and feed production. However, the blending of biodiesel with mineral diesel by the year 2030. prime challenge of advanced biodiesel production was its high This is because major Kenyan research institutions and uni- cost. The present microalgae production and the separation of versities have reported that the biodiesel produced has met the the microalgal biomass from the growing media are too costly. American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM) standards. An estimated cost to produce a kilogram of microalgal biomass with a mean oil content of 30% is 2.95 USD and 3.80 USD for photobioreactors and open ponds respectively, assuming that Acknowledgments carbon dioxide is available and free (Mukabane et al. 2018 & Abbas 2015). The authors wish to acknowledge Micmod Foundation More research and development are needed to reduce the costs of growing microalgae and separation of microalgal bio- mass from the growth media and to control culture contam- Disclosure statement ination when grown in open ponds competently. Research and The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest. development efforts probably need to focus on the following areas: Selection and development of high yield, oil-rich micro- algae: Oil-rich microalgal species which can be enhanced References through cultivation and genetic engineering to increase the oil content in their biomass without compromising the bio- mass production rate (Mukabane et al. 2018 & Moejes and Abu-Zayyad, T., Aida, R., Allen, M., Anderson, R., Azuma, R., Moejes 2017). Barcikowski, E., ... & Zundel, Z. (2015). Energy spectrum of ultra- high energy cosmic rays observed with the Telescope Array using a hybrid technique. Astroparticle physics, 61, 93–101 10. Possibility of re-using waste vegetable oil and Asnake, G., J. Morken, O. Ivar, and Z. Demrew. 2020. Factors affecting the potential of Jatropha curcas for sustainable biodiesel production : animal fat for biodiesel A critical review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 110500. The used domestic waste oils and spent animal fats are argu- doi:10.1016/j.rser.2020.110500.Ayoob, A. K., and A. B. Fadhil. 2019. Biodiesel production through ably safe and cost-effective source of useable fuel (Onuh and transesterification of a mixture of non-edible oils over lithium sup- Inambao 2016a). Their conversion offers the merits of green- ported on activated carbon derived from scrap tires. Energy Conversion house gas emission (GHG), potentials for enhancing fuel diver- and Management 201 (October):112149. doi:10.1016/j. sification and qualitatively comparable energy to fossil diesel enconman.2019.112149. fuels. The average suspended particulate matter in Kenya is 3 Barry, M., & Roux, L. (2016). Land ownership and land registration about 69.983 to 397.903 μg/m . This is higher than the WHO suitability theory in state-subsidised housing in two South African guidelines of 25 μg/m3 and the exploitation of waste oils for towns. Habitat international, 53, 48–54 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF GREEN ENERGY 9 Bošnjaković, M., and N. Sinaga. 2020. The perspective of large-scale Mokveld, K., and S. Eije von. (2018). Final Energy report Kenya. 1–37. production of algae biodiesel. Applied Sciences (Switzerland) Montcho, P. S., T. R. Konfo, C. Agbangnan D. C., P., A. Sidouhounde, and 10 (22):1–26. doi:10.3390/app10228181. C. K. D. Sohounhloue. 2018. Comparative Study of Transesterification Callegari, A., S. Bolognesi, D. Cecconet, and A. G. Capodaglio. 2020. Processes for Biodiesel Production (A Review). Elixir Appl. Chem Production technologies, current role, and future prospects of biofuels 120:51235–42. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publica feedstocks: A state-of-the-art review. Critical Reviews in Environmental tion/326398301 . Science and Technology 50 (4):384–436. doi:10.1080/ Mosonik, B. C., J. K. Kibet, S. M. Ngari, and V. O. Nyamori. 2018. 10643389.2019.1629801. Environmentally persistent free radicals and particulate emissions Chavan, S. B., R. R. Kumbhar, D. Madhu, B. Singh, and Y. C. Sharma. from the thermal degradation of Croton megalocarpus biodiesel. 2015. Synthesis of biodiesel from Jatropha curcas oil using waste egg- Environmental Science and Pollution Research 25 (25):24807–17. shell and study of its fuel properties. RSC Advances 5 (78):63596–604. doi:10.1007/s11356-018-2546-5. doi:10.1039/c5ra06937h. Dabic, M., Colovic, A., Lamotte, O., Painter-Morland, M., & Brozovic, S. (2016). Industry-specific CSR: analysis of 20 years of research. Ndiritu, S. W., and M. K. Engola. 2020. The effectiveness of feed-in-tariff European Business Review policy in promoting power generation from renewable energy in Dalemans, F., B. Muys, A. Verwimp, G. Van den Broeck, B. Bohra, Kenya. Renewable Energy 161:593–605. doi:10.1016/j. N. Sharma, . . . M. Maertens. 2018. Redesigning oilseed tree biofuel renene.2020.07.082. systems in India. Energy Policy 115:631–43. doi:10.1016/j. Newell, P., and J. Phillips. 2016. Neoliberal energy transitions in the South: enpol.2018.01.030. Kenyan experiences. Geoforum 74:39–48. doi:10.1016/j. Demirbas, A., and G. Edris. 2017. Biofuels production from microalgae by geoforum.2016.05.009. liquefaction and supercritical water pyrolysis. Energy Sources, Part A: Olubuade, F. E. B. A. 2015. Comparative Studies of the Physicochemical Recovery, Utilization and Environmental Effects 39 (8):827–34. Properties of Moringa oleifera (Nigeria), Moringa oleifera (Kenya) and doi:10.1080/15567036.2016.1269143. Moringa oleifera (India). Natural Products Chemistry & Research Dharma, S., M. H. Hassan, H. C. Ong, A. H. Sebayang, A. S. Silitonga, and 03 (4):3–4. doi:10.4172/2329-6836.1000178. F. Kusumo. 2016. Optimization of biodiesel production from mixed Onuh, E. I., and F. Inambao. 2016a. Performance and emission evaluation jatropha curcas-ceiba pentandra using artificial neural network- of pure biodiesel from non-edible feedstock and waste oil in a diesel genetic algorithm: Evaluation of reaction kinetic models. Chemical engine. African Journal of Science, Technology, Innovation and Engineering Transactions 56:547–52. doi:10.3303/CET1756092 Development 8 (5–6):387–98. doi:10.1080/20421338.2016.1219483. Duda, K., S. Wierzbicki, M. Śmieja, and M. Mikulski. 2018. Comparison of Otieno, S. O., C. O. Kowenje, A. Okoyo, D. M. Onyango, K. O. Amisi, and performance and emissions of a CRDI diesel engine fuelled with K. M. Nzioka. 2018. Optimizing production of biodiesel catalysed by biodiesel of different origin. Fuel 212:202–22. doi:10.1016/j. chemically tuned natural zeolites. Materials Today: Proceedings fuel.2017.09.112. 5 (4):10561–69. doi:10.1016/j.matpr.2017.12.388. Fekadu, M., S. Feleke, and T. Bekele. 2019. Selection of seed oil biodiesel Prabhu, A., M. Venkata Ramanan, and J. Jayaprabakar. 2018. Production, producing tree species, emission reduction and land suitability. properties and engine characteristics of Jatropha biodiesel – A review. Agricultural Engineering International: CIGR Journal 21 (4):132–43. International Journal of Ambient Energy 0750:1–5. doi:10.1080/ Giwa, A., and K. S. Umanah. 2019. Optimization of biodiesel production 01430750.2018.1557548. from used cooking oil: Aspen HYSYS simulation and experimental Pueyo, A. 2018. What constrains renewable energy investment in validation. International Journal of Engineering Research in Africa Sub-Saharan Africa? A comparison of Kenya and Ghana. World 43:38–48. Development 109:85–100. doi:10.1016/j.worlddev.2018.04.008. Gumba, R. E., S. Saallah, M. Misson, C. M. Ongkudon, and A. Anton. Ramos, M., A. P. S. Dias, J. F. Puna, J. Gomes, and J. C. Bordado. 2019. 2016. Green biodiesel production: A review on feedstock, catalyst, Biodiesel production processes and sustainable raw materials. Energies monolithic reactor, and supercritical fluid technology. Biofuel 12 (23):4408. Research Journal 3 (3):431–47. doi:10.18331/BRJ2016.3.3.3. Republic of Kenya Ministry of Energy and Petroleum. (2016). SE4ALL Jingura, R. M., and R. Kamusoko. 2018. Technical Options for Kenya Action Agenda. 116. Retrieved from https://www.seforall.org/ Valorisation of Jatropha Press-Cake: A Review. Waste and Biomass sites/default/files/Kenya_AA_EN_Released.pdf Valorization 9 (5):701–13. doi:10.1007/s12649-017-9837-9. Rodrigues, J., V. Perrier, J. Lecomte, E. Dubreucq, and S. Ferreira-dias. Karimi, N. B. (2016). The relationship between employee training and 2016. Bioresource Technology Biodiesel production from crude jatro- organizational commitment in the ministry of energy and petroleum, pha oil catalyzed by immobilized lipase/acyltransferase from Candida Kenya (Doctoral dissertation, University of Nairobi) parapsilosis in aqueous medium. Bioresource Technology 218:1224–29. Knothe, G., and L. F. Razon. 2017. Biodiesel fuels. Progress in Energy and doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2016.07.090. Combustion Science 58:36–59. doi:10.1016/j.pecs.2016.08.001. Roux, J. M., H. Lamotte, and J. L. Achard. 2017. Energy Procedia. B. Framework An Overview of Microalgae Lipid Extraction in A Laurens, L. M. L., M. Chen-Glasser, and J. D. McMillan. 2017. 112:680–88. 10.1016/j.egypro.2017.03.1137 A perspective on renewable bioenergy from photosynthetic algae as Roux, J. M., Lamotte, H., & Achard, J. L. (2017). An overview of micro- feedstock for biofuels and bioproducts. Algal Research algae lipid extraction in a biorefinery framework. Energy Procedia, 112, 24 (March):261–64. doi:10.1016/j.algal.2017.04.002. 680–688 Sergi, B., M. Babcock, N. J. Williams, J. Thornburg, A. Loew, and R. E. Ciez. Mazumder, M., Miah, M. K., Amin, A., & Riyad, R. H. (2020). 2018. Institutional influence on power sector investments: A case study Comparison of Pull-Out Strength Behavior for Chemical Adhesive of on- and off-grid energy in Kenya and Tanzania. Energy Research and Anchors Installed in Concrete. American Scientific Research Journal Social Science 41 (April):59–70. doi:10.1016/j.erss.2018.04.011. for Engineering, Technology, and Sciences (ASRJETS), 72(1), 81–89 Sharma, R. K., Ganesan, P., Tyagi, V. V., Metselaar, H. S. C., & Sandaran, Ministry of Energy and Petroleum, & Sustainable Energy for All. (2016). S. C. (2015). Developments in organic solid–liquid phase change mate- Kenya Action Agenda. (January), 113. Retrieved from http://www. rials and their applications in thermal energy storage. Energy se4all.org/sites/default/files/Kenya_AA_EN_Released.pdf Conversion and Management, 95, 193–228 MITEI, V. N. P. K. Y. 2017. Synthesis and Characterization of Biodiesel Takase, M., T. Zhao, M. Zhang, Y. Chen, H. Liu, L. Yang, and from Non-Edible Castor Seed Oil. International Journal of Science and X. Wu. 2015. An expatiate review of neem, jatropha, rubber and Research (IJSR) 6 (10):2124–36. doi:10.21275/ART20177415. karanja as multipurpose non-edible biodiesel resources and com- Moejes, F. W., and K. B. Moejes. 2017. Algae for Africa: Microalgae as parison of their fuel, engine and emission properties. Renewable a source of food, feed and fuel in Kenya. African Journal of and Sustainable Energy Reviews 43:495–520. doi:10.1016/j. Biotechnology 16 (7):288–301. doi:10.5897/ajb2016.15721. rser.2014.11.049. 10 M. TAKASE ET AL. To, L. P., Bui, T. B. H., Nguyen, H. T., Chau, M. D., Ho, C. T., & Hua, N. P. Tracy. 2015. Evaluation Of Quantity And Quality Of Biodiesel Produced (2016). Biodiesel production and use for agricultural production in the From Jatropha. Mekong Delta: current status and potential. Can Tho University Wahyudi, W., M. Nadjib, M. F. Bari, and F. W. Permana. 2019. Increasing Journal of Science, (Renewable Energy 2016), 80–91 of quality biodiesel of Jatropha seed oil with biodiesel mixture of waste cooking oil. Journal of Biotech Research 10:183–89.