University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh GHANAIAN JOURNALISTS AND PUBLIC RELATIONS PRACTITIONERS’ PERCEPTIONS OF EACH OTHER BY ELIZABETH ARABA FORSON A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF M.A COMMUNICATION STUDIES DEGREE AUGUST, 2013 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DECLARATION I do hereby declare that this work is the result of my own research conducted at the School of Communication Studies, University of Ghana, Legon. It has not been presented by anyone for any academic award in this or any other university. All references used in the work have been fully acknowledged. This work was supervised by Amb. Dr. Margaret I. Amoakohene. …………………………….. …………………………. Dr. Margaret I. Amoakohene Elizabeth Araba Forson (Supervisor) (Student) Date……………………….. Date…………………….. i University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ABSTRACT This research examined the perceptions journalists and public relations practitioners had of each other in Ghana. Journalists and public relations practitioners were randomly sampled from the membership lists of the Ghana Journalists Association (GJA) and Institute of Public Relations (IPR), Ghana respectively. A total of 220 questionnaires were sent out, 110 to each group. One hundred and fifty-nine (159) usable questionnaires were analyzed in this study. The co- orientation approach was used to determine the relationship between journalists and PR practitioners. Generally, the survey indicated some similarities and differences in perceptions on various aspects of their interactions. A significant number of respondents believed journalists and PR practitioners had a cordial relationship. With regard to whether the PR practitioner was trusted, majority of the respondents, both journalists and PR practitioners, responded in the affirmative. The data collected, however, suggested that PR practitioners and journalists disagreed with each other that PR materials were necessary to the production of news. PR practitioners believed strongly that the information they provided journalists made it possible for the latter to perform their duty satisfactorily. Journalists, however, felt strongly that PR materials did not improve the quality of the news product. ii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DEDICATION I first of all dedicate this work to Almighty God for the gift of life, love, His mercies, and to my mother Mrs. Rebecca Forson for her belief in me. Thank you mum for your kindness, selflessness, encouragement and support. iii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I am most grateful to God for mercy, life, strength, grace and unmerited favor He has given me from the beginning to the completion of this work. I am also most grateful to my supervisor, Dr. Margaret Ivy Amoakohene for her patience, time, and guidance during the supervision of this work. My appreciation also goes to my mother for her love, prayers, encouragement and support. I couldn’t have had a better mother than you. A special ‘thank you’ goes to my colleague, sister and friend, Diana Sebbie for her encouragement and support. My sincere thanks to all my lecturers at the School of Communication Studies, University of Ghana, Legon who have contributed in one way or another to my successful academic life. To all my colleagues, especially Woeliklipmi Eliklipim and Eric Boateng, I say thank you for your support and diverse contributions. iv University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh TABLE OF CONTENTS Contents DECLARATION.......................................................................................................................................... i ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................................. ii DEDICATION............................................................................................................................................ iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ......................................................................................................................... iv TABLE OF CONTENTS ........................................................................................................................... v LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................................................... vii LIST OF CHARTS .................................................................................................................................. viii CHAPTER ONE ......................................................................................................................................... 1 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Background to the study ............................................................................................................... 1 1.1.1 Journalism and Public Relations in Ghana............................................................................ 3 1.1.2 Professional bodies: Institute of Public Relations, Ghana and Ghana Journalists Association ............................................................................................................................................ 4 1.2 Problem Statement ........................................................................................................................ 5 1.3 Objectives ..................................................................................................................................... 6 1.4 Research Hypotheses .................................................................................................................... 6 Reason for Hypothesis (H1) .................................................................................................................. 7 Reason for Hypothesis (H2) .................................................................................................................. 7 Reason for Hypothesis (H3) .................................................................................................................. 8 1.5 Scope of the study ......................................................................................................................... 8 1.6 Significance of the Study .............................................................................................................. 9 1.7 Organisation of Study ................................................................................................................... 9 CHAPTER TWO ...................................................................................................................................... 11 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK .......................................................................................................... 11 2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 11 2.2 Co-orientation Theory ................................................................................................................. 11 2.3 Review of Related Studies .......................................................................................................... 13 2.4 Summary .............................................................................................................................................. 25 v University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER THREE .................................................................................................................................. 27 METHODOLOGY ................................................................................................................................... 27 3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 27 3.2 Research Design .......................................................................................................................... 27 3.3 Population and Sampling ............................................................................................................ 27 3.4 Data collection method ............................................................................................................... 28 3.4.1 Mode of data collection ........................................................................................................... 28 3.5 Method of data analysis .............................................................................................................. 29 3.6 Ethical issues and considerations ................................................................................................ 29 CHAPTER FOUR ..................................................................................................................................... 31 FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION .............................................................................................................. 31 4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 31 4.2.2 Testing of Hypotheses ............................................................................................................. 41 CHAPTER FIVE ...................................................................................................................................... 50 LIMITATIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION ....................................................... 50 5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 50 5.2 Summary of Major Findings ....................................................................................................... 50 5.3 Limitations .................................................................................................................................. 53 5.4 Recommendations ....................................................................................................................... 53 5.5 Conclusion .................................................................................................................................. 54 REFERENCES .......................................................................................................................................... 56 APPENDIX A: QUESTIONNAIRE ....................................................................................................... 60 vi University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF TABLES TABLE TITLE PAGE 1. The prime function of journalism is to dig useful information 34 2. PR practitioners encountered are people of good sense and morals 35 3. Journalists encountered are people of good sense and morals 36 4. Journalism in Ghana has a positive image 37 5. Journalists regard PR practitioners highly as compared to public relations 38 6. PR practitioners and journalists lack understanding of each other’s roles 39 7. PR practitioners understand journalistic problems 40 8. PR practitioners cannot be trusted 41 9. Journalists and PR practitioners have a cordial relationship 43 10. Public relations materials are necessary for the production of news 44 vii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF CHARTS CHARTS TITLE PAGE 1. Gender of respondents…………………………………………………………………...32 2. Professions……………………………………………………………………………….32 3. Years of practise…………………………………………………………………………33 viii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background to the study The relationship between public relations practitioners and journalists has generated a lot of interest in the field of communication studies. This is because even though the relationship is mutually beneficial, it has not always been a smooth one (Seitel, 2007). Media relations, an aspect of PR, depends on the media to reach organisation’s publics. PR practitioners, as a result, rely on the media to inform the public of an organisation’s mission, policies and practices in a positive, consistent and credible manner. Journalists, on the other hand, identify and report on that which they deem as newsworthy and of interest to the public. They rely on PR as a source of information. Pincus et al. (1993:29) put it succinctly when they said “Journalists depend on PR practitioners for news material, and practitioners depend on editors for publicity.” Some studies show that newspaper reporters often make use of information provided by PR practitioners (Turk, 1986). Seitel (2007) said modern PR practice started as an adjunct to journalism. According to Seitel (2007), before 1990, most of the professionals who entered the practice of PR were former journalists. In spite of this, research in the United States and other Western countries show that the relationship between journalists and PR practitioners has been filled with distrust and contempt (Cameron, Sallot, & Curtin, 1997) as a result of some common mistakes and tactics employed by PR practitioners in their interaction with journalists. These included contacting journalists when they were frantically making efforts at meeting a deadline, giving journalists 1 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh press releases and story ideas that had no news value or relevance to the target group of a media house, and generally being ignorant about the needs of the journalist they were contacting (Sallot and Johnson, 2006; Ryan and Martinson, 1988). Shin and Cameron (2004) also believe that both sides bring conflict to the relationship through the values, attitudes and views they hold of each other. “Journalists seek information while the practitioner seeks publicity from the journalists” (Charron 1994:52). Journalists believe they have a responsibility to get it right while resisting control by the PR practitioner over what is written and broadcasted. According to Marx et al. (1998:30), “Good PR attempts to influence public opinion in favour of the enterprise.” Journalists felt that PR practitioners served “special interests rather than the public”. PR practitioners also felt journalists had a “narrow and self-righteous” opinion of their work and had little knowledge about public relations, “a profession in which ethical conduct is important" (DeLorme and Fedler, 2003: 99-100). Others (Hobsbawm, 2006; Jenkins, 2006) have said the relationship between journalists and PR practitioners has often been troubled due, in part, to their mutual dependence. Charron (1994:43) said “Public relations practitioners and journalists find themselves mutually dependent on one another, a situation which demands cooperation, while their divergent control interests cause distrust and opposition.” Cameron, Sallot and Curtin (1997), for example, discovered that 25-80% of news stories came from PR practitioners in the USA. In spite of this journalists were reluctant to acknowledge their reliance on PR sources because they wanted to be seen as independent and objective. Greenslade (2003) maintains that journalists traditionally prided themselves on being more powerful and superior to PR practitioners. Rather than believing PR is a positive, helpful source of information, journalists felt conflicted about using PR materials, needing them on the one hand, while resenting them on the other hand. The success of the PR practitioner in placing 2 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh stories in the news was attributed to the fact that most PR practitioners were actually former journalists (DeLorme and Fedler, 2003). Seitel (2007) says that the relationship between journalists and PR practitioners, should be one of “friendly adversaries rather than of bitter enemies” but regrettably, this is not always the case (Seitel, 2007:178). DeLorme and Fedler (2003) believe difficulties in the relationship can be traced back to the rise of publicity in the 19th century and the unethical tactics, such as bribes, gifts, stunts and fakes, which early PR practitioners used as a way to gain media attention and coverage for their clients and organisations. Press-agentry, a publicity model, had been used deceitfully and that impeded the growth of responsible public relations (DeLorme and Fedler, 2003). For many years this caused people to view public relations with suspicion. Mersham and Skinner (1993) reiterate that public relations had been misused and misunderstood because it was associated with propaganda, press-agentry and manipulation. It was also confused with advertising, marketing and promotion. Over time, this behaviour led journalists to view PR as deceptive, unethical and foolish. 1.1.1 Journalism and Public Relations in Ghana The development of PR in Africa in general, and Ghana in particular dates back decades ago according to Otchere-Daflagbe (2009). The use of certain PR techniques has their genesis of African civilization. Otchere-Daflagbe (2009) likened the task of a PR practitioner to that of a spokesperson or linguist at the chief’s palace in traditional African villages. He argued that the concept of PR was not foreign and did not arrive with colonialism or Western media, but existed on the African continent in a different form. The beating of drums, for example, was used to communicate messages from the chief to his subjects. Otchere-Daflagbe (2009) said the history 3 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh of PR in Ghana has not been well documented as compared to the history of PR in United States, United Kingdom and some European countries. According to Heath (2005), public relations research in Africa was practically non-existent. Only one master’s thesis, written by Margaret Gyan, was found in the search of a database of African theses and dissertations. PR as a practise and an academic discipline has received little attention in Ghana and still occupies an insignificant place on the list of professional bodies and is low in the organisational hierarchy (Heath 2005). According to Gyan (1991) in post-colonial Ghana, the Information Service Department (ISD) was given the responsibility of providing information, press and PR services for all government ministries and departments. Officers of the ISD were usually from the Ghana Institute of Journalism (G.I.J) who were given further courses through G.I.J, the School of Communication Studies and the Public Relations Association of Ghana. Just like DeLorme and Fedler (2003) discovered in the USA, PR in Ghana has also seen a tremendous move of journalists into the PR industry (Ansah, 1990). According to Ansah, as a result of this move, public relations has been seen as press or media relations, rather than one of image building and reputation management. 1.1.2 Professional bodies: Institute of Public Relations, Ghana and Ghana Journalists Association The Institute of Public Relations (IPR), Ghana and the Ghana Journalists Association (GJA) are two professional bodies to which PR practitioners and journalists may belong. These professional bodies provide standards for members as well as codes of ethics that they are to abide by. However, not all PR practitioners and journalists belong to these professional bodies. The Institute of Public Relations (IPR) was established in 1972, as the Public Relations 4 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Association of Ghana. Among its roles, IPR provides a professional structure for the practice of PR and enhances the ability and status of its members as professional practitioners by organizing training programmes for members. The Ghana Journalists Association (GJA) was established in 1949 and its membership comprises practising journalists and those in journalism related fields. The GJA is registered as a professional association recognised by Ghana’s constitution which lists it as one of the bodies that make up the National Media Commission. The GJA seeks to enhance the integrity of professional journalism in Ghana through various training programmes for its members. 1.2 Problem Statement Journalists and PR practitioners are involved in an overlapping industry where they need each other. On a daily basis they interact with each other as part of the news production process. For instance, journalists depend on PR practitioners for information or interviews to help produce news stories, and the PR practitioners depend on journalists to reach the various publics of an organisation with information they have shaped (Callard, 2011). Even though this relationship seems to benefit the two professions involved it is often a troubled one (Seitel, 2007). In the USA and other Western countries, the relationship between journalists and PR practitioners has been characterised as “distrustful and contemptuous” (Cameron, Sallot and Curtin, 1997: 147). Some reasons that have accounted for this are mainly due to mistakes PR practitioners make in media relations in their interaction with journalists. These include flooding the journalist with information that has no news value or relevance to the target group of the journalist, contacting journalists when they are trying to meet deadlines among others and generally being obstructive (Hobsbawm, 2006; Sallot & Johnson, 2006; Ryan & Martinson, 1988). Other studies also claim 5 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh that journalists’ negativity towards PR practitioners may have begun during their education. Authors “found that communication text books and journalism educators presented biased, and often prejudiced views about public relations, calling it the “dark side” (Sallot and Johnson, 2006:158). It is apparent that PR practitioners and journalists have a working relationship (Ansah, 1990), and as such this study was not interested in whether or not a relationship existed. It rather sought to determine the nature of that relationship. This has become necessary because PR practitioners work, to a large extent, with journalists and will continue to do so. A good understanding and appreciation of how they perceive each other and their relationship would help to improve their ability to engage with each other more effectively. 1.3 Objectives The objectives of the research were: 1. To determine perceptions that the two professions had of each other. 2. To ascertain differences and similarities in the perceptions of the two professions. 1.4 Research Hypotheses A hypothesis is “a formal statement regarding the relationship between variables and is tested directly. The predicted relationship between the variables is either true or false” (Wimmer and Dominick, 2011:25). The study set out to test the following hypotheses based on academic literature: 6 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh H1: Journalists are likely to have trust for PR practitioners. Reason for Hypothesis (H1) According to Callard (2011), trust and good relationships are vital factors in establishing favourable attitudes. If journalists did not believe they had a good relationship with PR practitioners, they were less likely to trust practitioners. Without trust, relationships are likely to be more difficult. Journalists view PR practitioners as people who have responsibilities towards their organisations. PR practitioners help to build good reputation and thereby manage the image of the organisation. As a result, the information they give cannot always be trusted, as they are more likely to depict their organisations favourably. Some studies including Kaur and Shaari (2006) which studied perceptions on the relationship between PR practitioners and journalists in Malaysia, found that journalists believed the PR practitioners they interacted with regularly were honest and trustworthy in their dealings with them. As such the expectation was that in Ghana, journalists would also trust PR practitioners they often encountered and with whom they had regular contact. H2: The relationship between journalists and PR practitioners is not likely to be cordial. Reason for Hypothesis (H2) Literature suggests that the relationship between PR practitioners and journalists has not been a smooth one (Seitel,2007; Kaur & Shaari, 2006; DeLorme & Fedler 2003). A number of studies conducted in the USA and Europe, among others, give various reasons why this is the case, ranging from education to some mistakes in media relations. PR practitioners were found to have committed errors in their interaction with journalists and so forth. As such the expectation was 7 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh that PR practitioners and journalists who depended on each other and were engaged in media relations in Ghana would also have a tensed relationship as seen elsewhere. H3: Journalists and PR practitioners are likely to have different views concerning the necessity of PR materials to the production of news. Reason for Hypothesis (H3) One of the contentions in the relationship between journalists and PR practitioners according to academic literature is whether or not the material from PR practitioners is crucial to the work of the journalist. For example, journalists disliked any implication that PR practitioners were important to the process of news production. PR practitioners, on the other hand, believed that the information they provided journalists enabled the latter to perform their roles satisfactorily Callard (2011). Based on this the expectation was that journalists and PR practitioners would not have the same view with regard to whether PR materials was necessary for the production of news. 1.5 Scope of the study This study investigated the perceptions Ghanaian journalists and PR practitioners had of each other. As such, the study concerned itself with members who belonged to the two professional organisations namely, Ghana Journalists Association and Institute of Public Relations Ghana. These two organisations have a large pool of journalists and PR practitioners as members. 8 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.6 Significance of the Study There has been no research done within the Ghanaian context to determine the perceptions that journalists and PR practitioners have of each other as well as the relationship that exists between them and ways in which the relationship can be improved. This study will add to the literature on the subject and serve as a basis for future research. 1.7 Organisation of Study Chapter one introduces the dissertation and the motivation for the study of perceptions between journalists and PR practitioners. The chapter also presents an overview of PR and Journalism in Ghana. The second chapter reviews literature related to this study and findings on the perceptions and relationship between PR practitioners and journalists. It also presents the theoretical framework for the study. Chapter three presents the methodology for the study. This section identifies the research design, population and sampling, data collection, mode of data collection, method of data analysis and finally some ethical considerations. The fourth chapter focuses on analysis of the data collected and discussion of the findings. The analyses are in two main parts, namely descriptive analysis of demographic data, and test of three hypotheses. Chapter five makes conclusions and recommendations for further research. It will also touch on the limitations the study. 1.8 Summary The relationship between PR practitioners and journalists has not always been a smooth one even though the relationship is a mutually beneficial one (Seitel, 2007). PR practitioners rely on the media to reach an organisation’s publics while journalists report on what they deem as 9 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh newsworthy and of interest to the public. A number of reasons have contributed to the antagonism that has characterised the relationship between PR practitioners and journalists. DeLorme and Fedler (2003) traced the difficulties to the rise of publicity in the 19th century where unethical tactics, such as bribes were used to gain media attention for clients and organisations. This caused people to view public relations with suspicion. Some journalists also prided themselves on being more powerful and superior to PR practitioners. This created tension between PR practitioners and journalists (Greenslade 2003). In Ghana, there was a great move of journalists into the PR industry. As such public relations was seen as press relations instead of one of image building and reputation management (Ansah, 1990). This study focused on journalists and PR practitioners who belonged to two professional bodies, namely, Institute of Public Relations and Ghana Journalists Association. It is apparent that there is a working relationship between journalists and PR practitioners. This relationship has been characterised by tension and difficulties. This study sought to determine the nature of the relationship between journalists and PR practitioners in Ghana. Three hypotheses were formulated and tested to determine the nature of the relationship. The study is significant because there has been no research done within the Ghanaian context to determine the nature of the relationship between PR practitioners and journalists. 10 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER TWO THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 2.1 Introduction According to Severin and Tankard (2001:11), “theories are general statements that summarize our understandings of the way the world works.” It is the ultimate goal of science. The theoretical framework introduces and describes the theory which explains why the research problem under study exists. A number of theories have been used in determining perceptions between journalists and PR practitioners. These include the grounded theory, agenda-setting theory, roles theory and co-orientation theory. The latter has received a considerable amount of attention in determining perceptions between journalists and PR practitioners. The theory that was considered for the study is the co-orientation theory. This chapter also reviews literature review on the perceptions journalists and PR practitioners have of each other. These related works are from the West, Africa, Asia and Australia. 2.2 Co-orientation Theory Co-orientation has theoretical roots in Newcomb’s (1953) symmetry theory and was advanced by McLeod and Chaffee (1973). “Co-orientation occurs when two or more individuals are simultaneously oriented to each other and to something of mutual interest” (Broom, 2005: 198- 201). The assumption is that individuals behave toward each other based on their perceptions of the other’s views and intentions, regarding an object of mutual interest. The theory was used to investigate the perceptions that journalists and PR practitioners had of each other. The object of 11 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh mutual interest to PR and journalism that was investigated in this study was the nature of the relationship between the two professions. The co-orientation model uses three variables in describing relations: agreement, accuracy, and congruency. Agreement refers to the level of similarity between evaluations of issues by two or more sides in communication. It refers to the measurement of a level in which the two sides have similar attitudes. Accuracy refers to the degree to which the perceptions or evaluations of side B by side A is accurate to the real ideas or perceptions of side B. Congruency is the degree to which each of the sides believes that the idea or evaluation of the other side is similar to theirs. This variable is also sometimes referred to as perceived agreement. The current study used these variables to determine what journalists and PR practitioners thought of the relationship that existed between them as well as whether they perceived the PR practitioner as trustworthy and if PR materials were essential to news production. The weakness of the coorientation theory lies in the fact that a person can say one thing and do an entirely different thing. This difference can make it difficult to achieve the necessary level of congruence, agreement and accuracy. This, in turn, can make it challenging for this research to determine the actual state of the relationship between journalists and PR practitioners sampled for the study. Co-orientation involves a commitment among individuals and groups to try to understand others’ perceptions of reality and events, in spite of whether that definition is shared. For harmony to be achieved, both parties in an interaction must be willing to see the world differently and accept that the other’s view is not wrong, only different (Broom, 1977; Springston and Keyton, 2001). 12 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The Co-orientation model emphasizes the point that it’s not enough to consider what one party in the relationship thinks, but that both parties have a say in defining the true nature of the relationship. Some studies including Shin, Lee and Park (2012), Mellado and Hanusch (2011), and Sterne (2010) have applied co-orientation to examine the perceptions and cross perceptions between journalists and PR practitioners, and the majority of the studies showed variances in perceptions between the two groups (Heath, 2005). 2.3 Review of Related Studies Kaur and Shaari (2006) examined perceptions on the relationship between PR practitioners and journalists in Malaysia. This perception was based on four categories of relationship: Satisfaction with contributions made to each other, interdependence, trust and ethical practices. For the category of trust, respondents answered to the following statements: PR practitioners and journalists mutually trust one another in their line of work, journalists perceive PR practitioners to be honest in their dealings with the press, PR practitioners perceive journalists to be honest in their dealings with the organization, PR practitioners set the agenda by providing information the organisation wants to divulge and journalists tend to report more on what is controversial and negative about an organisation. For the category of interdependence, respondents answered to the following statements: PR practitioners and journalists share a symbiotic relationship, the press would not survive without PR input, organisational development would be hindered without the press. A survey was conducted with forty-eight (48) PR practitioners and sixty-three (63) journalists regarding their perceptions on each other’s profession. PR practitioners polled for the survey 13 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh were from various government and corporate organisations, and the journalists were from print and electronic media organisations and publishing houses. The survey indicated some differences and similarities in the perceptions of the two groups. PR practitioners had more positive perceptions than journalists on different aspects of their symbiotic relationship. For example, PR practitioners believed more strongly that the information they provided the journalists enabled the latter to perform his or her duty more satisfactorily compared to journalists who did not place too much emphasis on the contribution made by the former. On the issue of trust, the two professional groups mutually trusted each other. They both believed that they were honest in their dealings with the other. PR practitioners also thought that there was more of an interdependent relationship between the two groups than journalists thought. In New Zealand, Sterne (2010) examined the media’s perceptions of PR and reasons behind the perceptions. The objective of the study was to identify what PR practitioners and PR Institute of New Zealand could do to improve the perceptions and build a better working relationship. Thirty (30) editors, news managers, business editors and senior news reporters from New Zealand’s radio, television, print and online media were interviewed in late 2007. Maori and Pacific Island media were also included in order to gather perspectives from the non-mainstream. The two questions central to the study were perceptions New Zealand media had of public relations and the sources of these perceptions. The research showed that the media’s perception was largely negative. The relationship had what they described as four faces: sworn enemies, traditional rivals, close collaboration, and being in a different place (not connecting). Sterne (2010) discovered that differences in purpose were one of the reasons for antagonism between 14 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh media and public relations. The media was interested in uncovering issues considered to be in the public interest, whereas public relations obligated to the serve the interest of clients. Another reason for the antagonism was environmental factors. Due to inadequate resources i.e. cuts in budget and staffing, the media had to rely on PR material and this caused resentment among media people. Another study in New Zealand by Callard (2011) also examined attitudes and perceptions of newspaper journalists towards PR practitioners. A combination of data collection methodologies namely: online survey and eight semi- structured interviews with working newspaper journalists were used for the study. Thematic content analysis was employed to analyse and interpret qualitative data. Questionnaires were emailed to four hundred and one (401) practising newspaper journalists throughout New Zealand. The survey replicated twenty-five (25) statements first employed by Aronoff (1975) and later by Kopenhaver, Ryan and Martinson (1984). A total of one hundred and two (102) newspaper journalists’ responses to the survey were used in the study. When the survey was completed, the eight semi-structured interviews with working newspaper journalists were conducted to answer the “why” component of the research question. All qualitative data was analysed using a thematic analysis approach. The key themes that emerged were relationship perceptions which referred to journalists’ perceptions of their relationship with PR practitioners. Another theme which emerged was categorized as information subsidy. This referred to the use public relations materials by journalists as information subsidies. The final theme was journalists’ perceptions regarding the levels of trust they have for PR practitioners. 15 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The study revealed that the relationship between PR practitioners and journalists was one of tensed coexistence. Journalists held negative attitudes towards PR practitioners in New Zealand. Where negative attitudes and perceptions were discovered, three key sources of frustration were responsible: the sins of PR practitioners, the traditionally opposing goals of both industries, and the economic pressures of the newsroom. The sins of PR practitioners referred to the use of bribes, gifts, and stunts to gain media attention, as well as giving information or story ideas that had no news value to journalists. Traditionally opposing goals of both industries meant that journalists were objective, fair and accurate but public relations was subjective and only served the interest of the client. Increasing commercial and economic constraints placed on newsrooms also meant that journalists were required to do more with less, which made them rely on PR practitioners and their PR materials. With regard to relationship perceptions, journalists and PR practitioners believed the relationship was antagonistic and that PR practitioners were responsible for the antagonism because of the media relations sins they committed. Again, journalists felt PR practitioners did not take the time to build relationship with journalists. They also believed that PR practitioners gave information that had no news value to journalists. Majority of respondents agreed that PR material was usually publicity disguised as news. On the issue of trust majority of journalists did not view PR practitioners as frank and honest. Callard (2011) also found that journalists’ attitudes varied according to the sector and the organisation the PR practitioner worked. About seventy-six per cent (76%) newspaper journalists were less negative towards PR practitioners who worked in specialist, technical fields of 16 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh knowledge rather than consumer PR (celebrity and entertainment PR). This is because PR practitioners were considered to perform more serious and worthwhile roles. A study in the United States by Sallot and Johnson (2006) investigated the relationships between journalists and PR practitioners working together to set, frame and build the public agenda. A content analysis of four hundred and thirteen (413) reports of interviews conducted with four hundred and eighteen (418) journalists was done from 1991 to 2004. The study which was grounded in agenda-setting, framing and agenda-building theories, found that journalists gave higher estimates of PR practitioners’ influence on the news and had better relationships with PR practitioners. They found that on average, journalists estimated that forty-four percent (44%) of the content of news in the United States was influenced by PR practitioners. Journalists who were interviewed in 2002–2004 valued PR more, but expressed love–hate sentiments as much as those interviewed in 1991–1996. In several interviews journalists attributed their tensions with practitioners to their perceptions that practitioners earned better salaries and worked fewer hours. Journalists who had worked 18–45 years reported improved relationships with PR practitioners as compared to journalists with eight or fewer years of experience. Journalists also believed good relationships with PR practitioners were important and put the responsibility for establishing and maintaining good relationships squarely on the shoulders of practitioners. It was also discovered that journalists tended to view their current relationships with PR practitioners more positively than earlier. Tilley and Hollings (2008) did a survey which sought to find out thoughts of New Zealand journalists on PR. The research was conducted using questionnaires drawn from questions from previous journalism surveys, some from the US Pew Survey (2004), and some chosen by the 17 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh researchers. The survey was tested on a small group of journalists and the results were used to identify the most useful questions for the broad questionnaire. Chief reporters or editors of various print, broadcast and internet news organisations were sent e-mails asking them to forward the email to all staff within the organisation. Three hundred and fifty-four (354) responded to the survey. Grounded theory was the theoretical framework for the study. The theory allowed key themes to be identified from close multiple readings. Results were analysed using the concordance programme MonoConc Pro version 2.2 and the Hyper Research qualitative data analysis package. The two packages allow examination of qualitative data in isolation from respondents’ demographics. This permits a researcher to focus on only transcript content without being influenced by knowledge of a respondent’s demographic profile and other answers. The findings provided support for the widespread suggestion that there was a deeply held antagonism between the two professions. They found that, generally, journalists were conflicted about the value of public relations and had inharmonious views. Most journalists’ reactions to the term public relations were reactions to specific PR practitioners they had experienced, as opposed to PR as a profession, discipline, process, or practice. This study claimed that antagonism still existed in New Zealand and for some journalists it was intense. Most journalists appeared to judge PR wholly through their interactions with the particular PR practitioners who dealt with media inquiries. Their understanding of public relations was as a result of specific, personal, individual experiences of media relations. Another explanation for journalists’ love/hate position was found in the interrelated issues raised in the 18 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh survey, that is, pay levels, newsroom resourcing, and journalists’ levels of skill and experience. Tilleys and Hollings (2008) concluded by stating that the findings of the study were in some ways not new, however, they took note of the extent to which this long-held position had endured while many aspects of the media landscape had changed. A historical analysis of journalists’ hostility toward PR by DeLorme and Fedler (2003) provided a framework to help understand why journalists treated PR and its practitioners with contempt. DeLorme and Fedler (2003) closely examined multiple data including one hundred and forty- eight (148) autobiographies, ninety-one (91) biographies, and two hundred and fifty (250) magazine articles written by and about early US newspaper reporters and editors. They identified six interrelated factors that contributed to the origins, persistence and contradictions surrounding the hostility. These factors were: the hunger for publicity, the use of flattery, bribery and exaggeration, using stunts to attract attention, and seeking free advertising. Other factors were the pressure journalists experience due to poor working conditions, and the reluctant acknowledgement that journalists often ended up in the PR profession because of the attraction of higher pay and greater job opportunities. It was discovered that among others, journalists felt that PR practitioners violated the basic rules of news writing. Editors required journalists to write stories stating the facts clearly using more nouns and verbs as opposed to adjectives and adverbs. PR practitioners, however, used favourable adverbs and adjectives. Journalists had also been trained to see both sides of every issue and to get all the facts. They therefore complained that PR practitioners favoured the organizations they worked for instead of presenting both sides of issues. The study revealed that books and articles written by and about early US newspaper reporters and editors supported the 19 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh belief that journalists treated PR and its practitioners with contempt. The entries showed that journalists who worked in cities from New York to Los Angeles and from Minneapolis to Atlanta expressed negative attitudes towards PR and its practitioners. Another study by Owanda (2010) examined the perceptions of both journalists and PR practitioners in South Africa. The study investigated the perceptions of a selected group of PR practitioners and journalists who interacted at Media24, a print media business section in Cape Town. Media24 is a leading multinational media group in Cape Town. The perceptions of PR practitioners and journalists were of self and each other's professional objectives, skills and ability, function, and their relationships. The questionnaire covered five areas, general, professional objectives, skills and abilities, journalistic and public relations function and relationship perceptions. Fifteen journalists and fifteen PR practitioners were non-randomly selected and a single self-administered questionnaire was distributed. The results obtained from the questionnaire were analysed in three parts; a) the combined group of journalists and PR practitioners; b) PR practitioners only and c) journalists only. The findings showed that females dominated in both groups. The majority of PR practitioners who interacted with Media24 on a corporate communication level did not belong to a professional body, could not define their own professional objectives and functional role. Also, the self-perception of the majority of PR practitioners who interacted with Media 24 on a corporate communication level was less positive than the perceptions of the journalists of PR practitioners. Finally, listening and writing were discovered to be required skills and abilities for PR practitioners and for journalists who interacted at Media24 on a corporate communication level. 20 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Shin, Lee and Park (2012) studied the social and professional distance that characterized the PR practitioner and journalist relationship. A survey was conducted with a random sample of one hundred and nine (109) PR practitioners and ninety-seven (97) journalists in South Korea. The sample was taken from the member directory of the Korea Public Relations Association (2007) and the Korea journalists’ database (2007). A questionnaire was posted on the internet and PR practitioners and journalists were invited by email to visit a website and fill out the questionnaire. Co-orientational analysis was used to measure perceptual differences of agreement, congruency, and accuracy. Agreement compared the two professional groups’ self-evaluation; congruency compared one groups’ self-evaluation with their prediction of the other group’s view. Accuracy determined the gap between one group’s prediction of the other’s beliefs and the other group’s actual value. The three elements revealed the differences in perceptions within and between PR practitioners and journalists. The findings indicated that there were both disagreement and social distance in the PR practitioner and journalists’ relationship. The two professionals disagreed with each other and inaccurately predicted responses of the other. On the nature of their relationship, the results showed that PR practitioners were more interested in maintaining a relationship with journalists than the latter. Mellado and Hanusch (2011) examined Chilean journalists’ and PR practitioners’ professional conceptions. A survey was conducted with journalists and PR practitioners in four regions, which represented the north, centre, and south, of Chile. The survey was part of a wider research project which was intended to identify the different professional, organizational and territorial 21 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh cultures of the public communication field. A survey link was sent to each subject’s email, asking them to respond to a questionnaire. The questionnaire was distributed to the entire population of journalists (N = 1979) and PR practitioners (N = 1630). A total of 1147 usable questionnaires completed by journalists and PR practitioners were used for the survey. Respondents answered to various statements to determine their views about media relations. The study revealed that PR practitioners and journalists were both allies in the dissemination of information. The PR practitioner disseminates information to various publics of the organisation or entity they represent whereas journalists gave relevant information to the public. However, journalists believed the work of communication departments and public relation practitioners in no way threatened the legitimacy of an independent press. Even though both professionals disseminate information, the goal for each profession was different. Journalists dug for news worthy information whereas the PR practitioner was concerned with the image of the organizations they represent. Journalists believed information provided by PR practitioners was not produced with the same journalistic rigor as the media. The study indicated that both groups had similar views of media relations and perceived themselves as part of the same professional community although PR practitioners felt closer to journalists. Callison and Seltzer (2010) did a longitudinal study from 2004-2008 which considered how responsiveness, accessibility and professionalism of PR practitioners influenced journalists’ perceptions of Southwest Airlines public relations. Three biennial surveys were conducted with key national journalists who routinely reported on Southwest Airlines (SWA). According to the researchers, the company is widely recognized for its extraordinary public relations efforts. SWA contracted a faculty research team, at the South Western University’s College of Mass Communication, to investigate how key journalists see the PR efforts of the airline. The study 22 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh progressed through three instalments and the methodology for the first instalment was a telephone survey while the last two were web surveys. However, efforts were made to maintain consistency of questions from year to year in order to establish how perception evolved over time. For each instalment of the survey, a list of journalists was supplied by the SWA PR department. In all cases, potential respondents were initially contacted by a SWA PR representative and informed that they would receive an invitation to participate from an outside researcher conducting a media audit. The SWA PR representative promised potential respondents anonymity. Journalists were asked to compare the PR department of Southwest Airlines to PR departments of other airlines to determine which was much better and much worse using a scale of 0-10, with 0 being much worse and 10 being much better. Journalists rated SWA PR as excellent compared to other airlines’ PR departments. On the issue of responsiveness journalists were asked if they considered SWA PR to be a valuable source of information. In 2004, 2006 and 2008, majority of journalists agreed that SWA PR was a valuable source of information which indicates a relationship between perceived effectiveness and response time. Journalists also rated the effectiveness of SWA PR based on accessibility using a scale of 0-10, with 0 being not accessible at all and 10 being very accessible. The results showed that journalists believed SWA PR was accessible and hence effective. As such, perceptions of accessibility were tied to opinions of PR effectiveness. The findings of this longitudinal study revealed that practitioner responsiveness and accessibility to reporters were the keys that ensured that journalists maintained positive perceptions of Southwest Airlines’ public relations. 23 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Berkowitz & Lee (2004) analysed the relationship between journalists and PR practitioners in Korea using Cheong. Cheong is regarded as a kind of spiritual tie that is unconsciously established through direct or indirect contact and common experience. The study explored how Cheong could be applied to reconsider journalist–practitioner relations in general and Korean media relations in particular. In the Korean culture, Cheong shapes the general tone of the relationship between journalists and public relations practitioners, bringing the two groups closer together without compromising their professional standards. It is the fundamental basis for relationships among Koreans. The close relationships between husband and wife, among family members, among friends, and among neighbours are formed and maintained through this unique emotion. In-depth interviews were carried out with reporters from ten (10) major Korean newspapers based in Seoul and ten (10) PR practitioners from major enterprises including Samsung, LG, and Hyundai. Interviewees had more than one year of experience because it was assumed that at least one year was needed for Cheong to be formed between journalists and PR practitioners. Journalists and PR practitioners were asked if they felt Cheong existed between them. Majority said they naturally felt Cheong through common experiences over an extended period of time. It created a working relationship between journalists and PR practitioners that facilitated information flow while respecting the professional obligations of each party. Findings showed how the concept of Cheong could alter the meaning of journalist–practitioner interactions from the typical adversarial depiction found in the Western media. The interviews suggested that PR practitioners and journalists were able to separate public role from personal relationships, shield each other, and sacrifice for the other, instead of taking advantage of each 24 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh other. These findings showed potentially beneficial aspects of unusually close PR practitioner and journalist relationships, characterized by Cheong, in Korea. Berkowitz and Lee (2004) concluded that a relationship between journalists and PR practitioners based on Cheong can positively influence media relations. 2.4 Summary The theory used for this study is coorientation theory. It states that coorientation occurs when two or more individuals are simultaneously oriented to each other and to something of mutual interest. Individuals and groups must try to understand others perceptions of reality and events, even if that definition is not shared. Coorientation says in any given situation both parties have a say in defining the true nature of the relationship. A study by Kaur and Shaari (2006), there was no tension between journalists and PR practitioners. The two professional groups mutually trusted each other. Berkowitz and Lee (2004) found unusually close relationship between journalists and PR practitioners. PR practitioners and journalists were able to separate public role and personal relationships. They defended each other, and sacrificed for the other, instead of taking advantage of each other. Where tension was discovered, differences in purpose was found to be the cause of tension in the relationship (Sterne, 2010). Other reasons included PR practitioners use of bribes to gain media attention as well as giving information with no news value to journalists (Callard, 2011). It was also discovered that some journalists also appeared to judge public relations wholly based on interactions with particular PR practitioners (Tilley and Hollings, 2008). Journalists also felt PR practitioners violated basic rules of news writing. They complained PR practitioners favoured organisations they worked for instead of presenting both sides of an issue. Another reason for 25 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh antagonism in the relationship with journalists and PR practitioners was social and professional distance (Shin, Lee and Park, 2012). Mellado and Hanusch (2011) discovered that though journalists and PR practitioners were allies in the disseminating information, journalists believed information provided by PR practitioners lacked basic rules of news writing. 26 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY 3.1 Introduction This chapter discusses the methodology adopted for the study. It focuses on research design, population and sampling, data collection method, mode of data collection and method of data analysis, ethical issues and considerations. 3.2 Research Design The study was quantitative; a survey was used to gather data. The researcher chose a survey approach because surveys allow one to study a population using a sample from the population especially because one cannot study a whole population (Wimmer & Dominick, 2011). It allows the findings of the study to be generalized from a sample to a population the sample represents. According to Wimmer and Dominick (2011), surveys permit a large amount of data to be collected with ease and many variables examined. Surveys are also flexible and allow for many questions to be asked on a given topic. 3.3 Population and Sampling Two populations were represented in the study; they are PR practitioners of Institute of Public Relations (IPR) and journalists who belong to Ghana Journalist Association (GJA). The researcher chose these two professional bodies because they are organised bodies for both PR 27 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh practitioners and journalists in Ghana. They are also able to provide lists of their members for the study to enable the researcher carry out the survey easily. The researcher anticipated low response and return rates so two hundred and twenty (220) questionnaires were administered. A hundred and ten (110) went to members of IPR Ghana and a hundred and ten (110) to members of GJA. The sampling technique for the study was random sampling. Names of the members of IPR in good standing were typed out on an A4 sheet, cut into pieces and placed in a bowl. The researcher randomly selected respondents. The procedure was replicated for the members of the GJA. 3.4 Data collection method The instrument used for data collection was a questionnaire which was divided into three sections: Section I asked respondents to select the profession they belonged to. Section II asked respondents to evaluate twenty (20) statements and indicate their level of agreement or disagreement using the following scales: Strongly Agree, Agree, Neutral, Disagree, and Strongly Disagree. Section III asked for demographic data. 3.4.1 Mode of data collection About 220 questionnaires were administered in total. Some questionnaires were sent by email and others were administered in person. The rationale for the choice of e-mail is its comparative low cost and convenience as compared to other modes of data collection. Administering the questionnaire in person was also employed for a number of reasons. Some respondents preferred to fill a hard copy rather than a soft copy to save time because they had little time to spare. Some respondents also said filling a hard copy of the questionnaire was much easier for them as 28 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh opposed to searching for the questionnaire in their emails. Others also complained that they were unable to download the questionnaire which was attached to the email. Again questionnaires were administered in person to respondents whose email addresses were not provided but whose phone numbers were provided. The researcher got a colleague to help with administering the questionnaire in person. The process of collecting data took about six weeks and out of the number administered, one hundred and fifty-nine (159) questionnaires were received representing a response rate of 72.27%. 3.5 Method of data analysis Descriptive statistics was used to analyse the demographic data and Pearson Chi-Square statistical co-efficient was used to determine relationships between variables stated in hypotheses 1 to 10. The analyses were done with the SPSS programme, version 16.0. The package provides analysis such as frequencies and percentages. The findings for the study were presented using tables and charts. 3.6 Ethical issues and considerations A letter was taken from the School of Communication Studies and sent to both IPR and GJA. In the process of collecting data, respondents were assured in an introductory letter that their identity would be kept strictly confidential as well as the information gathered. They were also assured that their responses would be used for the study only. Anonymity of respondents was adhered to in storing and processing data. The researcher has duly acknowledged all scholarly work consulted including books, journals, theses, and research materials. 29 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.7 Summary A survey was used to gather data for the study. The two populations represented in the study are PR practitioners of Institute of Public Relations and journalists who belong to Ghana Journalists Association. In all two hundred and twenty-two were administered, through email and in person. The instrument used for data collection was a questionnaire. Out of the number administered, one hundred and fifty-nine questionnaires were received and analyzed. An SPSS programme was used to do analyses and findings were presented in tables and charts. Anonymity of respondents was adhered to in storing and processing of data. The Researcher also duly acknowledged all scholarly work consulted for the study. 30 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FOUR FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION 4.1 Introduction This chapter presents the research findings based on the data gathered through the survey. A questionnaire formulated with twenty statements was the sole tool of data generation in this research. Demographic information was also required. All respondents received the same questionnaire and were required to respond to the same questions. Respondents were asked to indicate their level of agreement based on a five-point Likert scale. 4.2 Analyses The analyses have been divided into two main parts, that is, preliminary analysis, and the test of hypotheses. The preliminary analysis involved the descriptive analysis of variables. The test of hypotheses employed the Pearson Chi-Square statistical co-efficient to test for statistical significance. In mass communication research, a significance level of 0.05 is acceptable for samples of 500 or less, (Wimmer & Dominick, 2011). A significance level of 0.05 means a relationship has a probability of occurring by chance 5 times in 100 samples. A statistical significance simply shows that an observed relationship exists in the population from which the sample was drawn. As such, whenever the significance level is 0.05 or less the null hypothesis is rejected, if it is more than 0.05 the null hypotheses is accepted (Wimmer and Dominick, 2011) 31 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.3 Demographic Data Chart 1: Gender of Respondents The demographic information collected (Chart 1) indicated that out of one hundred and fifty- nine (159) respondents surveyed for the study, males represented 42.1% while females represented 57.9%. Females constituted more than half of the entire sample. Chart 2: Professions Journalist 11.3 28.9 Public relations 21.4 practitioner Both 38.4 Originally journalist now public relations practitioner Although the study centered on two main professions for the study, namely Journalism and Public relations, various categories within the two professions were considered. These categories 32 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh were journalist, PR practitioner, both journalist and PR practitioner, originally journalist and now PR practitioner, originally PR practitioner and now journalist. Out of one hundred and fifty-nine (159) respondents surveyed (Chart 2), PR practitioners constituted the largest group (38.4%), followed by journalists (28.9 %). Respondents who belonged to both professions constituted 21.4% of the entire sample. Respondents who were originally journalists but currently PR practitioners constituted the least of the sample (11.3%). There was no representation for the category of those who were originally PR practitioners and were now journalists. Generally, respondents who described themselves as PR practitioners were the majority out of the total number of respondents surveyed. Chart 3: How many years have you practised 40 35.8 35 28.9 30 25 18.9 20 15 11.9 10 4.4 5 0 1-5 years 6-10 years 11-15 years 16-20 years Over 20 years The findings of Chart 3 indicated that with regard to number of years respondents have practised their profession. Persons with 6-10 years of practice constituted the largest proportion and represented 35.8% of the sample. Next were those in the group of 1-5 years, who represented 28.9% of the sample. This is followed by respondents with 11-15 years of practice who formed 18.9%. Respondents with 16-20 years of practice formed 11.9% and the least are respondents who have practiced over 20 years who formed 4.4% of the sample. 33 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.4 Descriptive Analysis The descriptive analysis of eight variables was done to describe attitudes and opinions between journalists and PR practitioners concerning various aspects of their interaction and profession. Table 1: Profession by “The prime function of journalism is to dig information that is useful to the public” The prime function of journalism is to dig information that is useful to the public Strongly Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly Agree Disagree Total Journalist 27 16 3 0 0 46 58.7% 34.8% 6.5% 0.0% 0.0% 100.0% Public relations practitioner 23 30 2 6 0 61 37.7% 49.2% 3.3% 9.8% 0.0% 100.0% Both 15 17 0 1 1 34 44.1% 50.0% 0.0% 2.9% 2.9% 100.0% Originally journalist now 5 10 0 1 2 18 public relations practitioner 27.8% 55.6% 0.0% 5.6% 11.1% 100.0% Total 70 73 5 8 3 159 44.0% 45.9% 3.1% 5.0% 1.9% 100.0% Table 1 shows that with regard to the statement “The prime function of journalism is to dig information that is useful to the public”, more than half of the respondents who described themselves as journalists (58%) strongly agreed with the statement, and more than three out of ten (34.8%) agreed. Less than half (49.2%) of respondents who described themselves as PR practitioners agreed with the statement and more than three out of ten (37.7%) strongly agreed. With regard to respondents who described themselves as both PR practitioners and journalists, half (50%) agreed with the statement and less than half (44%) strongly agreed. Less than three per cent (2.9%) disagreed 34 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh and less than three percent (2.9%) strongly disagreed. More than half (55.6%) of respondents who had once been journalists but presently PR practitioners agreed with the statement and more than two out of ten (27.8%) strongly agreed. A small proportion (5.6%) disagreed and more than one out of ten (11.1%) strongly disagreed. Table 2: Profession by The majority of PR practitioners I’ve encountered are people of good sense, goodwill and good morals The majority of PR practitioners I’ve encountered are people of good sense, goodwill and good morals Profession Strongly Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly Total Agree Disagree Journalist 4 18 14 7 3 46 8.7% 39.1% 30.4% 15.2% 6.5% 100.0% Public relations practitioner 14 36 11 0 0 61 23.0% 59.0% 18.0% 0.0% 0.0% 100.0% Both 1 29 9 2 1 34 2.9% 61.8% 26.5% 5.9% 2.9% 100% Originally journalist now 2 10 6 0 0 18 public relations practitioner 11.1% 55.6% 33.3% 0.0% 0.0% 100% Total 21 85 40 9 4 159 13.2% 53.5% 25.2% 5.7% 2.5% 100% Table 2 shows that with regard to the statement “The majority of PR practitioners I’ve encountered are people of good sense, goodwill and good morals”, nearly two out of five (39.1%) respondents who described themselves as journalists agreed with the statement, less than one out of ten (8.7%) strongly agreed. More than one out of ten (15.2%) disagreed and less than one out of ten (6.5%) strongly disagreed. Out of one hundred and fifty-nine (159) respondents surveyed for the study, more than half of those who described themselves as PR practitioners agreed with the statement. Two out of ten (23%) strongly agreed. Six out of ten (61.8%) of respondents who described themselves as belonging to both professions agreed with the statement. Less than three percent (2.9%) strongly 35 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh agreed, and less than one out of ten (5.9%) disagreed. Less than three percent (2.9%) strongly disagreed. Out of the number of respondent surveyed, more than half (55.6%) of respondents who used to be journalists but currently PR practitioners agreed with the statement, and one out of ten (11.1%) strongly agreed. Table 3: Profession by “The majority of journalists I’ve encountered are people of good sense, goodwill and good morals.” The majority of journalists I’ve encountered are people of good sense, goodwill and good morals Strongly Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly Agree Disagree Total Journalist 4 20 16 4 2 46 8.7% 43.5% 34.8% 8.7% 4.3% 100.0% Public relations practitioner 6 27 12 14 2 61 9.8% 44.3% 19.7% 23.0% 3.3% 100.0% Both 1 13 13 7 0 34 2.9% 38.2% 38.2% 20.6% 0.0% 100.0% Originally journalist now 0 9 7 1 1 18 public relations practitioner 0.0% 50.0% 38.9% 5.6% 5.6% 100.0% Total 11 69 48 26 5 159 6.9% 43.4% 30.2% 16.4 3.1% 100.0% Table 3 shows with regard to the statement ‘The majority of journalists I’ve encountered are people of good sense, goodwill and good morals’, four out of ten (43.5%) of respondents who described themselves as journalists agreed with the statement. Less than one out of ten (8.7%) strongly agreed. Also, less than one out of ten (8.7%) disagreed with the statement and less than one out of ten (4.3%) strongly disagreed. Four out of ten (44.3%) of respondents who described themselves as PR practitioners agreed with the statement and nearly one out of ten (9.8%) strongly agreed. Two out of ten (23.0%) strongly disagreed with the statement, and less than one out of three (3.3%) strongly disagreed. 36 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Out of one hundred and fifty respondents surveyed, three out of ten (38.2%) of respondents who belonged to both professions agreed with the statement and less than three percent (2.9%) strongly agreed. Two out of ten (20.6%) disagreed with the statement. For respondents who formerly journalists but were now PR practitioners, half (50.0%) agreed with the statement and less than one out of ten (5.6%) disagreed. Table 4: Profession by Journalism in Ghana has a positive image Journalism in Ghana has a positive image Strongly Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly Agree Disagree Total Journalist 5 10 8 18 5 46 10.9% 21.7% 17.4% 39.1% 10.9% 100.0% Public relations practitioner 3 12 21 22 3 61 4.9% 19.7% 34.4% 36.1% 4.9% 100.0% Both 0 7 6 16 5 34 0.0% 20.6% 17.6% 47.1% 14.7% 100.0% Originally journalist now 1 6 4 6 1 18 public relations practitioner 5.6% 33.3% 22.2% 33.3% 5.6% 100.0% Total 9 35 39 62 14 159 5.7% 22.0% 24.5% 39.0% 8.8% 100.0% Table 4 revealed that out of one hundred and fifty respondents surveyed, more than three out of ten (39.1%) of respondents who described themselves as journalist disagreed with the statement that journalism in Ghana has a positive image. One out of ten strongly disagreed with the statement. Two out of ten (21.7%) agreed with the statement and one out of ten strongly agreed with the statement. With regard to respondents who described themselves as PR practitioners, more than three out of ten (36.1%) disagreed with the statement. Less than one out of ten (4.9%) strongly disagreed. More than one out of ten (19.7%) agreed with the statement and less than one out of ten (4.9%) strongly agreed. Four out of ten (47.1%) of respondents who belong to both professions 37 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh disagreed and one out of ten (14.7%) strongly disagreed with the statement. Two out of ten (20.6%) agreed with the statement. Three out of ten (33.3%) of respondents who used to be journalists but now PR practitioners disagreed with the statement while less than one out of ten (5.6%) strongly disagreed. Three out of ten (33.3%) agreed with the statement and less than one out of ten (5.6%) strongly agreed. Table 5: Profession by Journalists regard PR practitioners they have regular contact with more highly than they do of PR as a whole Journalists regard PR practitioners they have regular contact with more highly than they do of PR as a whole Profession Strongly Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly Total Agree Disagree Journalist 6 8 12 16 4 46 13.0% 17.4% 26.1% 34.8% 8.7% 100.0% Public relations practitioner 3 18 15 19 6 61 4.9% 29.5% 24.6% 31.1% 9.8% 100.0% Both 4 11 13 5 1 34 11.8% 32.4% 38.2% 14.7% 2.9% 100% Originally journalist now 1 9 4 4 0 18 public relations practitioner 5.6% 50.0% 22.2% 22.2% 0.0% 100% Total 14 46 44 44 11 159 8.8% 28.9% 27.7% 27.7% 6.9% 100% According to table 5, three out of ten (34.8%) of respondents who described themselves as journalists disagreed with the statement ‘Journalists regard PR practitioners they have regular contact with more highly than they do of PR as a whole’. Less than one out of ten (8.7%) strongly disagreed. One out of ten (17.4%) agreed with the statement and one out of ten strongly agreed. Three out of ten (31.1%) of respondents who described themselves as PR practitioners disagreed with the statement and nearly one out of ten (9.8%) strongly disagreed. Nearly three out of ten (29.5%) agreed with the statement and less than one out of ten (4.9%) strongly agreed. 38 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Three out of ten (32.4%) respondents who belong to both professions agreed with the statement, and one out of ten (11.8%) strongly agreed. One out of ten (14.7%) disagreed with the statement and less than one out of ten (2.9%) strongly disagreed. Half (50%) of respondents who described themselves as formerly journalists and currently PR practitioners agreed with the statement, and less than one out of ten (5.6%) strongly agreed. Two out of ten (22.2%) disagreed with the statement. Table 6: Profession by Both PR practitioners and journalists lack awareness and understanding of each other’s roles and profession Both PR practitioners and journalists lack awareness and understanding of each other’s roles and profession Profession Strongly Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly Total Agree Disagree Journalist 0 16 10 10 10 46 0.0% 34.8% 21.7% 21.7% 21.7% 100.0% Public relations practitioner 1 4 9 32 15 61 1.6% 6.6% 14.8% 52.5% 24.6% 100.0% Both 4 8 11 10 1 34 11.8% 23.5% 32.4% 29.4% 2.9% 100% Originally journalist now 0 7 6 5 0 18 public relations practitioner 0.0% 38.9% 33.3% 27.8% 0.0% 100% Total 5 35 36 57 26 159 3.1% 22.0% 22.6% 35.8% 16.4% 100% Table 6 shows that with regard to the statement ‘Both PR practitioners and journalists lack awareness and understanding of each other’s roles and profession’ three out of ten (34.8%) of respondents who described themselves as journalists agreed with the statement. Two out of ten (21.7%) disagreed and two out of ten (21.7%) strongly disagreed. More than half (52.5%) of respondents who described themselves as PR practitioners disagreed with the statement. Two out of ten (24.6%) strongly disagreed, and less than one out of ten (6.6%) agreed with the statement. More than two out of ten (29.4%) of respondents who described themselves as belonging to both professions disagreed with the statement. Two out of ten (23.5%) agreed and one out of ten 39 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (11.8%) strongly agreed. More than three out of ten (38.9%) respondents who were formerly journalists but were now PR practitioners agreed with the statement and more than two out of ten (27.8%) disagreed. Table 7: Profession by PR practitioners understand such journalistic problems as meeting deadlines, attracting reader interest and making the best use of space. Public relations practitioners understand such journalistic problems as meeting deadlines, attracting Profession reader interest and making the best use of space. Total Strongly Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly Agree Disagree Journalist 4 11 7 17 7 46 8.7% 23.9% 15.2% 37.0% 15.2% 100.0% Public relations practitioner 21 36 4 0 0 61 34.4% 59.0% 6.6% 0.0% 0.0% 100.0% Both 4 19 4 5 2 34 11.8% 55.9% 11.8% 14.7 5.9% 100% Originally journalist now 1 11 1 2 3 18 public relations practitioner 5.6 61.1% 5.6% 11.1% 16.7% 100% Total 30 77 16 24 12 159 18.9% 48.4% 10.1% 15.1% 7.5% 100% The table shows that three out of ten (37.0%) of respondents who described themselves as journalists disagreed with the statement above, and one out of ten (15.2%) strongly agreed. Two out of ten (23.9%) agreed with the statement and less than one out of ten (8.7%) strongly agreed. More than half (59.0%) of respondents who described themselves as PR practitioners agreed, and three out of ten (34.4%) strongly agreed. More than half (55.9%) of respondents who belonged to both professions agreed with the statement and one out of ten (11.8%) strongly agreed. More than half (61.1%) of respondents who were formerly journalists but presently PR practitioners agreed with the statement and less than one out of ten (5.6%) strongly agreed. More than one out of ten (16.7%) strongly disagreed and one out of ten (11.1%) disagreed. 40 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.2.2 Testing of Hypotheses Hypothesis according to Wimmer and Dominick (2011:25) is “useful for eliminating trial-and- error research.” It helps the researcher to determine a specific area for study. Hypothesis testing, also known as significance testing, involves either rejecting or accepting a null hypothesis. For this study three hypotheses were tested using the Pearson chi-square statistical co-efficient. The hypotheses tested are as follows: (a) H1: The first research hypothesis assumed that journalists were likely to have trust for PR practitioners. Table 8: Profession by PR practitioners encountered cannot be trusted The majority of PR practitioners I have encountered cannot be trusted Strongly Strongly Agree Agree Neutral Disagree Disagree Total Journalist 1 5 10 20 10 46 2.2% 10.9% 21.7% 43.5% 21.7% 100.0% PR practitioner 0 1 5 36 19 61 .0% 1.6% 8.2% 59.0% 31.1% 100.0% Both 0 3 13 13 5 34 .0% 8.8% 38.2% 38.2% 14.7% 100.0% Originally journalist now 0 0 7 10 1 18 PR practitioner .0% .0% 38.9% 55.6% 5.6% 100.0% Total 1 9 35 79 35 159 .6% 5.7% 22.0% 49.7% 22.0% 100.0% =27.510 df=12 ρ=0.007 Table 8 was developed to help test the assumption that journalists would trust PR practitioners. The table shows that with regard to the statement; “The majority of PR practitioners I have 41 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh encountered cannot be trusted”, one out of ten (10.9%) respondents who described themselves as journalists agreed with the statement, and less than three percent (2.2%) strongly agreed. Less than half (43.5%) disagreed with the statement and more than two out of ten (21.7%) strongly disagreed. More than half of respondents who described themselves as PR practitioners (59%) disagreed with the statement and more than three out of ten (31.1%) strongly disagreed. One out of five (1.6%) agreed. With regard to respondents who belonged to both professions, less than one out of ten (8.8%) agreed with the statement, more than three out of ten (38.2%) disagreed and more than one out of ten (14.7%) strongly disagreed with the statement. More than half of the respondents who had once been journalists but presently PR practitioners (55.6%) also disagreed with the statement and less than one out of ten (5.6%) strongly disagreed. Thus, the data presented in Table 8 suggests that the journalists surveyed trusted PR practitioners. When the data was subjected to a statistical test, Table 8 produced a Chi-Square value of 27.510 at 12 degrees of freedom and accompanying probability of 0.007. The last is less than the 0.05 set for the study. The null hypothesis that journalists were not likely to have trust for PR practitioners is rejected. The research hypothesis that journalists are likely to have trust for the PR practitioner is, therefore, supported by the data collected for the study. (b) H2: The second hypothesis assumed that the relationship between journalists and PR practitioners would not be cordial. 42 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 9: Profession by Journalists and PR practitioners do not have a cordial relationship Journalists and PR practitioners do not have a cordial relationship Strongly Strongly Agree Agree Neutral Disagree Disagree Total Journalist 1 4 9 17 15 46 2.2% 8.7% 19.6% 37.0% 32.6% 100.0% PR practitioner 1 2 13 37 8 61 1.6% 3.3% 21.3% 60.7% 13.1% 100.0% Both 5 5 3 14 7 34 14.7% 14.7% 10.7% 41.2% 18.7% 100.0% Originally journalist 0 0 8 8 2 18 now PR practitioner .0% .0% 44.4% 44.4% 11.1% 100.0% Total 7 11 35 76 30 159 4.4% 6.9% 22.0% 47.8% 18.9% 100.0% = 31.407 df= 12 ρ=0.06 Table 9 was developed to help test the supposition that the relationship between journalists and PR practitioners would not be cordial. The findings show that out of one hundred and fifty-nine (159) respondents surveyed for the study, six out of ten (60.7%) of respondents who described themselves as PR practitioners disagreed with the statement “Journalists and PR practitioners do not have a cordial relationship.” One out of ten (13.1%) strongly disagreed with the statement. Less than one out of ten (1.6%) strongly agreed and less than four percent (3.3%) agreed. More than four out of ten (44.4%) respondents who were originally journalists and now PR practitioners disagreed and more than one out of ten (11.1%) strongly disagreed. More than four out of ten (41.2%) of respondents who belonged to both professions disagreed with the statement and more than one out of ten (18.7%) strongly disagreed. Over three out of ten (37%) of journalists surveyed also disagreed with the statement ‘Journalists and PR practitioners do not 43 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh have a cordial relationship’ and more than three out of ten (32.6%) strongly disagreed. Less than one out of ten (2.2%) strongly agreed with the statement and less than one out of ten (8.7%) agreed. Table 9 suggests that journalists and PR practitioners have a cordial relationship since majority of respondents disagreed with the statement that journalists and PR practitioners did not have a cordial relationship. When the data was subjected to a statistical test, Table 9 produced a Chi-Square value of 31.407 at 12 degrees of freedom and accompanying probability of 0.06. The level of significance is more than the 0.05 set for the study. The null hypothesis that the relationship between journalists and PR practitioners is likely to be cordial is accepted. The research hypothesis that the relationship between journalists and PR practitioners is not likely to be cordial is not supported by the data gathered. (c) H3: The third hypothesis assumed that journalists and PR practitioners would have different views regarding the importance of PR materials to news production. Table 10: Profession by Public relations materials are necessary for the production of news Public relations materials are necessary for the production of news Profession Strongly Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly Total Agree Disagree Journalist 4 6 7 20 9 46 8.7% 13.0% 15.2% 43.5% 19.6% 100.0% Public relations practitioner 14 26 10 9 2 61 23.0% 42.6% 16.4% 14.8% 3.3% 100.0% Both 6 11 4 13 0 34 17.6% 32.4% 11.8% 38.2% .0% 100.0% Originally journalist now 2 7 3 5 1 18 public relations practitioner 11.1% 38.9% 16.7% 27.8% 5.6% 100.0% Total 26 50 24 47 12 159 16.4% 31.4% 15.1% 29.6% 7.5% 100.0% =33.021 df=12 p=0.001 44 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 10 was developed to help test the assumption that journalists and PR practitioners would have different views on the necessity of PR materials to the production of news. The distribution shows that of the one hundred and fifty-nine (159) respondents surveyed for the study, more than four out of ten (43.5%) of respondents who described themselves as journalists disagreed with the statement ‘Public relations materials are necessary for the production of news’. Nearly two out of ten (19.6%) strongly disagreed, a little over than one out of ten (13%) agreed and less than one out of ten (8.7%) strongly agreed. For respondents who described themselves as PR practitioners, more than four out of ten (42.6%) agreed with the statement and more than two out of ten (23%) strongly agreed. A little over one out of ten (14.8%) disagreed while less than four percent (3.3%) strongly disagreed. For respondents who belonged to both professions, nearly four out of ten (38.2%) disagreed with the statement. More than three out of ten (32.4%) also agreed with the statement and more than one out of ten (17.6%) strongly agreed. With regard to respondents who used to be journalists but were presently PR practitioners, nearly four out of ten (38.9%) agreed with the statement and one out of ten (11.1%) strongly agreed. Nearly three out of ten (27.8%) disagreed and less than one out of ten (5.6%) strongly disagreed. Table 10 suggests that there is a relationship between the category a respondent belonged to, that is, journalist, PR practitioner, both journalist and PR practitioner, originally journalist but now PR practitioner and whether PR materials were necessary for the production of news. Majority of journalists disagreed with the statement that PR material was necessary for the production of news while the majority of PR practitioners agreed to the statement. 45 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh When the data was subjected to a test for statistical significance it produced a Chi-Square value of 33.021 at 12 degrees of freedom and accompanying probability of 0.001. The latter is less than the significance set for the study which is 0.05. As such, the null hypothesis that journalists and PR practitioners are not likely to have different views concerning the necessity of PR materials to the production of news was rejected. The research hypothesis that journalists and PR practitioners are likely to have different views concerning the necessity of PR materials to the production of news was supported by the data gathered for the study. 4.2.3 Discussion of Findings The research revealed that among the population sampled for the survey, journalists and PR practitioners generally agreed that the function of journalists is to dig for useful information for the benefit of the public. Even though respondents generally agreed that the role of journalists is to dig for useful information, respondents who described themselves as journalists, as well as journalists who were currently practising public relations agreed PR practitioners and journalists lacked understanding of each other’s roles, journalism and public relations as a whole. Respondents who described themselves as PR practitioners as well as those who belonged to both professions, however, disagreed with the statement. Respondents also agreed that journalists and PR practitioners they had both encountered were people of good sense, goodwill, and good morals. However, with regards to the image of journalism in Ghana, respondents who described themselves as journalists believed journalism in 46 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Ghana did not have a positive image. This view was also shared by PR practitioners surveyed; they also agreed that journalism did not have a positive image in Ghana. When respondents were asked if they regarded PR practitioners they had had regular contact with more highly than public relations as a whole, respondents who described themselves as journalists disagreed they regarded PR practitioners they had regular contact with more highly than public relations as a whole, however, respondents who described themselves as PR practitioners were of a divided opinion. A good percentage agreed they regarded PR practitioners they had regular contact with more highly than public relations while an equally greater number disagreed with the statement. Literature reveals that one of the reason for the tensed relationship between journalists and PR practitioners was the fact that journalists believed PR practitioners did not understand journalistic problems such as meeting deadlines, and keeping readers interested while making the most of space (Sallot and Johnson, 2006). The survey revealed that respondents who described themselves as journalists disagreed that PR practitioners understood journalistic problems like deadlines, reader interest among others. Respondents who described themselves as PR practitioners, however, agreed that PR practitioners understood journalistic problems. Three hypotheses were tested for this study. It was discovered that journalists surveyed believed PR practitioners could be trusted. This finding is consistent with that of Kaur and Shaari (2006) who did a study of perceptions on the relationship between public relations practitioners and journalists and found that generally, journalists trusted the PR practitioner and believed that the latter was honest in his or her dealings with the former. Conversely, the study found that respondents generally disagreed that the nature of their relationship was not cordial. As the co-orientation theory posits, the nature of a relationship rests 47 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh on shared meaning, it is not enough to consider what one party in a relationship thinks. All parties involved have a say in defining the true nature of the relationship. This finding is inconsistent with some studies that found that the relationship between journalists and PR practitioners was not cordial. For example, Callard (2011) discovered, in his study of attitudes and perceptions of newspaper journalists towards PR practitioners in New Zealand, that the relationship between PR practitioners and journalists was one of tensed coexistence. Tilley and Hollings (2008) also studied thoughts of New Zealand journalists on public relations and concluded that there was widespread suggestion that there was antagonism between these two professions. The finding of this study is, however, consistent with Shaw and White (2004) which discovered both journalists and PR practitioners disagreed that the journalist/public relations practitioner relationship was generally adversarial. Journalists surveyed disagreed that PR materials were necessary to news production whereas PR practitioners believed that the materials provided by public relations was necessary for news production. This finding was consistent with Kaur and Shaari (2006) who found that whereas PR practitioners believed more strongly that the information they provided the journalists enabled the latter to perform his or her duty, journalists did not believe strongly that PR materials were an important aspect of the news production process. 4.3 Summary Females constituted more than half of the entire samples. Out of the one hundred and fifty-nine respondents, PR practitioners constituted the largest group in the study. Respondents who had practised for six to ten years also constituted the largest proportion of the sample for the study. 48 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Analyses were divided into two main parts, namely, preliminary analysis and the test of hypotheses. The study revealed that journalists and PR practitioners sampled for the study understood the role of the journalists even though the population of journalists felt each lacked some understanding of each’s peculiar role. Journalists also believed both PR practitioners and journalists generally lacked understanding of the two professions. Both professional groups seemed to agree that the individuals who practised journalism and public relations were good people although journalists in this study felt journalism as a profession did not have a positive image in Ghana. Journalists, however, highly regard both PR practitioners as well as public relations as a profession, whereas PR practitioners are of a divided opinion. While some have high regard for fellow PR practitioners they have regular contact with as compared to public relations as a whole, others have high regard for public relations as a profession. Journalists also believed PR practitioners did not understand the basic rules of news writing and the importance of meeting deadlines while making good use of space. This opinion was not shared by PR practitioners sampled for the study. The hypotheses tested for the study revealed that journalists trusted the PR practitioner. Respondents also believed their relationship was free from antagonism and tension as seen elsewhere in the world even though journalists believed PR materials did not determine the quality of news gathered. This opinion was also not shared by PR practitioners sampled for the study. These results show that although journalists and PR practitioners sometimes share different opinions on some aspect of their interaction, nevertheless their relationship remains a cordial one. 49 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FIVE LIMITATIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION 5.1 Introduction The research sought to determine Ghanaian journalists and PR practitioners’ perceptions of each other. A survey was conducted and responses of 159 respondents were analysed for the study. The study also sought to determine differences and similarities in the perceptions of journalists and PR practitioners. Three hypotheses were formulated and tested for statistical significance. This final chapter of the study presents a summary of the key findings, limitations of the study as well as recommendations for further research. 5.2 Summary of Major Findings The data collected suggests that journalists in Ghana trust PR practitioners. Trust and good relationships are vital factors in establishing favourable attitudes. Without trust, relationships are likely to be more difficult (Callard, 2011). It was also discovered that PR practitioners and journalists generally believed that each had good sense, goodwill and good morals in the discharge of their duties. The belief of journalists that PR practitioners had good morals and good sense is, however, not in agreement with modern –day public relations in the United States. Public relations at the time employed the use of manipulation to get media attention (Mersham and Skinner, 1993). This caused journalists to 50 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh view public relations and its practitioners as unethical, manipulative and deceptive (DeLorme and Fedler, 2003:99). The current study also discovered that journalism did not have a positive image in Ghana according to journalists and PR practitioners surveyed for the study. Respondents, however, agreed that journalists and PR practitioners encountered are people of good sense and good morals. It seems even though the image of journalism in Ghana is not a positive one, journalists are generally trusted. Again, according to the findings of this study, both journalists and PR practitioners generally had good understanding of the other’s role and profession, unlike Kaar and Shaari (2006) who discovered that journalists and PR practitioners were sceptical of each other’s role. They were sceptical because they lacked understanding of each other’s role and profession. This lack of understanding was found to be one of the many reasons for the tense relationship between the two professions (Davis, 2000; Gower, 2007). The data gathered also revealed that PR practitioners understood journalistic problems such as meeting deadlines, attracting reader interest among others. This is inconsistent with a study by Cameron, Sallot & Curtin (1997) that revealed that the lack of understanding of journalistic problems was one of the reasons antagonism existed between journalists and PR practitioners in the U.S. It is worthy of note that in Ghana, there was a tremendous move of journalists into the PR industry. PR was also taught as an adjunct of basic journalism (Ansah, 1990). This meant that journalists and PR practitioners were trained together and as such each would understand the basic principles which governed each other’s profession. Hence, PR practitioners would appreciate deadlines journalists had to meet as well as the need to write stories which were of interest to readers. 51 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Tilley and Hollings (2008) in their study in New Zealand discovered that journalists experience with PR practitioners had caused journalists to hold negative views of public relations as a profession. The study revealed that in Ghana, journalists also regarded PR practitioners they had regular contact with more highly than public relations as a profession. However, journalists did not view public relations negatively. The current study also revealed that both journalists and PR practitioners agreed that their relationship was cordial. Also, the finding of the study was consistent with that of Callard (2011) who found that generally, journalists viewed PR materials as publicity disguised as news and hence the former could not depend on PR material for news. The assumption that journalists and PR practitioners in Ghana would have different views regarding the importance of PR materials to the news production process is, however, inconsistent with the findings of Sallot and Johnson (2006). They investigated the relationships between journalists and PR practitioners as they worked together to set, frame and build the public agenda. Their findings revealed that journalists valued PR and estimated that about forty-four percent (44%) of the content of news in the United States came from public relations. The two professionals agreed that PR materials were essential for news production. The major findings of the study were that, on issues of trust of PR practitioners, and cordial relationship between journalists and public relations practitioners, the data collected showed that the PR practitioner was trusted and the relationship between journalists and PR practitioners was cordial. It is important to note that the data collected showed no variation in answers given to the statements ‘The majority of PR practitioners I have encountered cannot be trusted.’ and ‘Journalists and PR practitioners do not have a cordial relationship.’ The majority of respondents for all categories listed disagreed to the two statements above. The hypothesis ‘Journalists are 52 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh likely to have trust for PR practitioners’ was statistically supported. However, the hypothesis ‘The relationship between journalists and PR practitioners is not likely to be cordial’ was not statistically supported. On the issue of PR material being necessary to news production, the data showed variations in answers. Journalists and PR practitioners were at opposing ends. While the majority of journalists disagreed with the statement that said PR material was necessary to the production of news, majority of PR practitioners agreed that PR material was necessary for the production of news. 5.3 Limitations Like any academic research, this study had some limitations. The research method chosen for the study was a survey. Though very valuable in communication research, surveys only count the number of times a phenomenon occurs. They do not provide in-depth information on the phenomenon under study. Again, even though the findings of the study are useful, they cannot be generalized to the wider population of journalists and PR practitioners in Ghana. This is because many journalists and PR practitioners do not belong to the two professional bodies the study confined itself to, that is, Institute of Public Relations (IPR) and Ghana Journalism Association (GJA). 5.4 Recommendations The researcher recommends that future studies employ both qualitative and quantitative approaches which will provide rich data and give an insight to the complexity and different dimensions of the relationship that exists between journalists and PR practitioners. A future 53 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh research should not only consider journalists and PR practitioners who belong to professional bodies but should also include practitioners who do not necessarily belong to those two bodies. 5.5 Conclusion The study found that there is more agreement in perceptions of journalists and PR practitioners on their relationship and the trustworthiness of the PR practitioner. They, however, had differing views about the necessity of PR materials to news production. The researcher considers this study as an addition to the body of knowledge in the study of journalists and PR practitioners’ perceptions of each other within the Ghanaian context. It provides a glimpse and not details of the relationship between the two professions. Regardless of the limitations, the researcher believes that this study has provided an insightful view into the relationship and perceptions between the two professions in Ghana. The researcher hopes that the findings and recommendations made will help improve further research. 5.6 Summary The study revealed that the relationship between PR practitioners and journalists is cordial unlike studies elsewhere which found the relationship to be characterized by antagonism and tension. The current study is consistent with the study by Callard (2011) that discovered journalists viewed PR materials as publicity disguised as news and hence did not depend on it for news. Sallot and Johnson (2006) however, revealed that journalists valued PR and found PR materials as necessary for news production. 54 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Although the study is useful for academic purposes, the research method chosen does not provide in-depth information on the phenomenon under study. It only counts the number of times a phenomenon occurs. The findings cannot also be generalized since the study only focused on respondents who belonged to Institute of Public Relations and Ghana Journalists Association. Many journalists and PR practitioners, however, do not belong to these two professional bodies. Future studies should employ a quantitative and qualitative approach in order to gather rich data that will give an insight into the dynamics of the relationship between journalists and PR practitioners. The study should also not only consider individuals who belong to professional bodies. 55 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh REFERENCES Ansu-Kyeremeh, K. (1998). Indigenous Communication in Africa: A Conceptual Framework. Accra: School of Communication Studies, University of Ghana. Aronoff, C. (1975). Credibility of PR for journalists. PR Review, 1(3), 45-56. Belz, A., Talbot, A., & Starck, K. (1989). Using role theory to study cross perceptions of journalists and PR practitioners. PR Research Annual, 1(1), 125-139. 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Still stuck in a love-hate relationship: Understanding journalists' enduring and impassioned duality towards PR. Paper presented at the Australian and New Zealand Communication Association 2008 Conference: Power and Place, Wellington, New Zealand. Retrieved May 25, 2013 from www.massey.ac.nz Turk, J. (1986). PR' influence on the news. Newspaper Research Journal, 7(4), 15-27. Weigle, C.F. & Clark, D.G. (1969). The American Newspaper by Will Irwin: A series first appearing in Colliers, January-July, 1911. Ames: The Iowa State University Press. White, C., & Shaw, T. (2005). Portrayals of PR in mass communication textbooks. In Paper presented to the PR Division at the annual meeting of the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication. White, J., & Hobsbawm, J. (2007). PR and journalism: The unquiet relationship – a view from the United Kingdom. Journalism Practice, 1(2), 283-292. Wimmer, R. & Dominick, J.(2011). Mass Media Research: An Introduction. (9th Ed.). Wadsworth Cengage Learning. 59 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDIX A: QUESTIONNAIRE Dear respondent, I am a student of the School of Communication Studies, University of Ghana, and undertaking this survey to find out Ghanaian journalists and PR practitioners’ perceptions of each other. I will greatly appreciate your responses as this will increase the value and accuracy of the survey. Thank you for giving your valuable time to this important exercise, your identity will be kept strictly confidential. Your time is very much appreciated. I undertake that all responses will be used for this study only. Information gathered is strictly confidential. Sincerely, Elizabeth Forson Graduate Student, University of Ghana. 60 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh QUESTIONNAIRE How do you describe yourself? (Please tick one) Journalist PR practitioner Both journalist and PR practitioner Originally journalist now PR practitioner Originally PR practitioner now journalist I. Evaluate the following statements and indicate your level of agreement or disagreement using the following scales (Strongly Agree, Agree, Neutral, Disagree, and Strongly Disagree). Please circle your choice and do not leave any item unanswered. If you received this by e-mail, please highlight your choice. Strongly Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly Agree Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 1. The prime function of PR is to get free advertising space and airtime for companies and institutions. 1 2 3 4 5 2. PR in Ghana has a positive image. 1 2 3 4 5 3. The majority of PR practitioners I’ve encountered are people of good sense, good will and good morals. 1 2 3 4 5 4. The majority of PR practitioners I have encountered cannot 1 2 3 4 5 be trusted. 5. PR practitioners understand such journalistic problems as meeting deadlines, attracting reader interest and making the 1 2 3 4 5 best use of space. 6. N ews releases or statements by PR are matters of genuine news value and public interest. 1 2 3 4 5 7. P R materials are necessary for the production of news. 1 2 3 4 5 8. The prime function of journalism is to dig information that 1 2 3 4 5 is useful to the public. 61 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 9. Journalism in Ghana has a positive image. 1 2 3 4 5 10. T he majority of journalists I’ve encountered are people of 1 2 3 4 5 good sense, good will and good morals. 11. The majority of journalists I have encountered cannot be 1 2 3 4 5 trusted. 12. Journalists understand PR. 1 2 3 4 5 13. J ournalists regard PR practitioners they have regular contact 1 2 3 4 5 with more highly than they do of PR as a whole. 14. The majority of journalists I have encountered cannot do without ‘soli’. 1 2 3 4 5 15. PR practitioners and journalists are partners in the dissemination of information. 1 2 3 4 5 16. B oth PR practitioners and journalists lack awareness and understanding of each other’s roles and profession. 1 2 3 4 5 17. PR and Journalism are equal in status. 1 2 3 4 5 18. PR practitioners are paid more than journalists and have a 1 2 3 4 5 better working environment. 19. Journalists and PR practitioners do not have a cordial 1 2 3 4 5 relationship. 20. Good relationships between PR practitioners and journalists 1 2 3 4 5 are important, but PR practitioners are responsible for improving the relationship. II. Demographic data Please tick where applicable Gender Male Female Age 20-29 years 30-39 years 40-49 years 50-59 years 60 years and above Highest educational level attained Certificate Diploma Degree Post graduate Other (specify) 62 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh How many years have you practiced? 1-5 years 6-10 years 11- 15 16 – 20 Over 20 years years years 63