EXPLORING THE FUNDING OF PUBLIC SERVICE BROADCASTING IN 
GHANA’S DEMOCRACY 
 
 
 
 
 
BY 
ABRAHAM APEMENYOR ASARE 
 
 
 
 
 
THIS DISSERTATION IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, 
LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE 
AWARD OF MA COMMUNICATION STUDIES DEGREE 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
MARCH, 2016 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
i 
DECLARATION 
I declare that except for the works of other authors duly referenced, the work presented in this 
dissertation was done by me, under the supervision of Professor Kwasi Ansu-Kyeremeh. I 
further affirm that this work has not been submitted either in part or whole to any other 
educational institution for the award of any degree, diploma or certificate. 
 
 
 
 
 
…………………………                                                              ………………………… 
Prof. Kwasi Ansu-Kyeremeh                                                          Abraham Apemenyor Asare 
 
(Supervisor)                                                                                        (Student) 
 
Date ……………………..                                                               Date ……………………. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
ii 
DEDICATION 
This work is dedicated to my dear wife Felicia Asare who provided the needed support that 
enabled me to complete this work. I also dedicate it to my children: Zoe, Sina and Jude who 
provided good company while this dissertation was being written. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
iii 
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 
I wish to express my sincere gratitude to God my refuge for giving me the strength to 
complete this research in spite of the many difficulties and setbacks I encountered.  
I am highly indebted to my supervisor, Professor Kwasi Ansu-Kyeremeh for his sacrifice and 
guidance during the period of this research. Even during times that I personally realized that 
you had a lot of work on your hand, Nana, you still made time to read my work. God will 
always remember you, Nana. I am also grateful to Prof. Audrey Gadzekpo and Dr. Margaret 
Amoakohene for their motherly guidance. To other lecturers of the Department of 
Communication Studies, I say God bless you. 
To my very good friend William Tamakloe, I say thank you. You have shown that indeed, 
“there’s a friend that sticks closer than a brother”. I will always remember your immense 
contribution to this research.  
I would also like to thank my late mother and brothers and sister who ensured that I went to 
school.  
To all who contributed to the completion of this dissertation, I say thank you. God will never 
forget your labour of love. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
iv 
ABSTRACT 
This research was undertaken to explore the sources of funding of the Ghana Broadcasting 
Corporation to determine whether it was reflective of that of a Public Service Broadcaster or 
other Broadcasting Systems. Two qualitative approaches were adopted for the study, focus 
group discussion and in-depth interviews were used in data collection. Two groups of six 
persons were used for the focus group discussion and two persons for the in-depth interview. 
The results indicated that GBCs funding is steadily moving towards commercial activities, its 
TV license fee collection is not yielding much as was expected, accounting for less than 10% 
of GBCs internally generated funds. The results also indicated that as at 2011, 50% of GBCs 
funding came from government subventions.  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
v 
TABLE OF CONTENTS 
DECLARATION ........................................................................................................................ i 
DEDICATION ........................................................................................................................... ii 
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ....................................................................................................... iii 
ABSTRACT .............................................................................................................................. iv 
TABLE OF CONTENTS ........................................................................................................... v 
 
CHAPTER ONE ........................................................................................................................ 1 
INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................... 1 
1.0 Background to the study .................................................................................................. 1 
1.1 Broadcasting Systems ...................................................................................................... 2 
1.2 Public Service Broadcasting ............................................................................................ 3 
1.3 Understanding public service broadcasting ..................................................................... 5 
1.4 History of Public Service Broadcasting in Ghana ........................................................... 7 
1.5 Public Service Broadcasting Funding Models ............................................................... 11 
1.5.1 Funding Models in Europe and Elsewhere .............................................................. 11 
1.5.2 Funding Models in Africa ........................................................................................ 13 
1.6 Problem Statement ......................................................................................................... 14 
1.7 Objectives of the Study .................................................................................................. 14 
1.8 Research Questions ........................................................................................................ 14 
1.9 Purpose of this Study ..................................................................................................... 15 
1.20 Scope of Study ............................................................................................................. 15 
1.21 Significance of the Study ............................................................................................. 15 
1.22 Chapter Summary ........................................................................................................ 16 
 
CHAPTER TWO ..................................................................................................................... 17 
LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................................................ 17 
2.0 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 17 
2.1 Theoretical Considerations ............................................................................................ 17 
2.1.1 The Political Economy Theory of the Media .......................................................... 17 
2.1.2 The evolution of public service ideals ..................................................................... 19 
2.1.3 Public service broadcasting and the challenges of the multi-channel era ............... 22 
2.2 Related Works on Funding ............................................................................................ 24 
2.2.1 Different Broadcasting Models ............................................................................... 28 
2.2.2 Some Broadcasting Models in Africa ...................................................................... 29 
2.2.3 Funding Public Service Broadcasters ...................................................................... 30 
2.3 Chapter Summary .......................................................................................................... 34 
 
CHAPTER THREE ................................................................................................................. 35 
METHODOLOGY .................................................................................................................. 35 
3.0 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 35 
3.1 Overall Approach to Study ............................................................................................ 35 
3.1.1 Focus Group Discussions ........................................................................................ 35 
3.1.2 In-depth Interviews .................................................................................................. 36 
3.2 Sampling Method ........................................................................................................... 37 
3.3 Data gathering methods ................................................................................................. 37 
3.4 Data Analysis ................................................................................................................. 37 
3.5 Ethical Considerations ................................................................................................... 38 
3.6 Chapter Summary .......................................................................................................... 38 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
vi 
 
CHAPTER FOUR .................................................................................................................... 39 
FINDINGS ............................................................................................................................... 39 
4.0 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 39 
4.1 Components of GBC Budget ......................................................................................... 39 
4.2 Sources of funding (Anticipated/Actual) ....................................................................... 41 
4.3 Operations Management in Relation to Raising Capital................................................ 43 
4.4 Defining the Kind of Broadcaster GBC is, based on Funding ....................................... 44 
4.5 Independence of the Ghana Broadcasting Corporation ................................................. 46 
4.6 Effects of the System of Funding on GBC .................................................................... 47 
4.7 Chapter Summary .......................................................................................................... 48 
 
CHAPTER FIVE ..................................................................................................................... 49 
DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION & RECOMMENDATIONS ....................... 49 
5.0 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 49 
5.1 Funding of GBC ............................................................................................................. 49 
5.2 The independence of Ghana Broadcasting Corporation ................................................ 52 
5.3 Theoretical framework of GBC’s funding ..................................................................... 54 
5.4 Limitations ..................................................................................................................... 55 
5.5 Recommendations .......................................................................................................... 55 
5.6 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................... 55 
 
Bibliography ............................................................................................................................ 57 
ANNEX 1: STRUCTURED INTERVIEW GUIDE................................................................ 60 
ANNEX 2: IN-DEPTH INTERVIEW GUIDE ....................................................................... 67 
ANNEX 3: FOCUS GROUP DISSCUSSION GUIDE ........................................................... 70 
ANNEX 4 INTERVIEW GUIDE WITH DEPUTY DIRECTOR-GENERAL, GBC ............ 72 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
vii 
LIST OF FIGURES  
Figure 1: Financial targets and proportion realized ................................................................. 40 
Figure 2: State’s contribution to funding GBC ........................................................................ 40 
Figure 3: Internally Generated Funds ...................................................................................... 42 
 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
1 
CHAPTER ONE 
INTRODUCTION 
1.0 Background to the study 
The advent of multiparty democracy in Ghana brought with it the liberalisation of the media. 
Until the 1990s, broadcasting in Ghana had been a monopoly of the public service 
broadcaster, the Ghana Broadcasting Corporation (GBC). It was argued by Ferguson (1990), 
that the public service role of GBC was necessary and critical like many other African 
countries, to bring development, foster unity and promote national culture.  According to 
Ferguson (1990), radio and television requires the use of a public resource, the frequency 
spectrum; and hence should attract licensing and regulation, both of which necessitates 
restricted entry. Flowing from Ferguson’s argument, a restricted entry in the media space 
initially created broadcasting monopoly for the state while at the same time raising funding 
issues.  
 
The term ‘public service broadcasting’ is a borrowed term from the European broadcasting 
corporations. Public service broadcasting corporations were set up as licence fee funded 
monopolies in the inter-world war period. Broadcasting institutions, therefore, attempted to 
bring into being, a culture of a shared life to the people (Mpofu, 1999).  
 
They broadcast materials that portrayed a sense of oneness to the populace. In Europe, a key 
feature of public service broadcasting is the predominance of public funding over commercial 
advertising and sponsorship. Licence fees and government grants are the main form of 
government funding. Public funding is considered therefore as the means critical to the ability 
of the public broadcasting service to produce a diversity of programming, not driven by 
advertisers according to Mpofu (1999). 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
2 
In Ghana, like other West African countries, funding for the operations of public service 
broadcasters came from direct government grants. After independence, this far exceeded 
licence fees because of the deliberate increase in government spending. In the immediate post 
independent Ghana, Dr. Kwame Nkrumah provided large sums of government funding to the 
Ghana Broadcasting Service to be used as a political and developmental tool and to transmit 
broadcasts by African liberation movements across the continent (Mbaine, 2003). This 
formed the basis of the role of the GBC over the years.  
 
1.1 Broadcasting Systems 
Over the years, there have been numerous debates on the peculiar characteristics or definition 
of the broadcasting systems inherited by most nationalist regimes from their colonial masters. 
In all these debates, four models of broadcasting was identified by Rumphorst (2003) and 
these are state, government, public and public service broadcasting systems.  
 
Rumphorst (2003) defined them as indicted following. State broadcasting is controlled by the 
state and represents state interests. It is funded (at least in part) from the public purse and 
usually independent of the government of the day. Government broadcasting, however, is 
controlled by the government of the day and represents the viewpoint of the executive. It is at 
least partly funded with public money.  
 
Public broadcasting on the one hand, is owned by the public and is thus accountable to the 
masses. It is also funded, at least partly, with public funds. Public service broadcasting, on the 
other hand, has a mandate to broadcast content that is in the public interest. A public service 
broadcaster need not be publicly owned – privately owned broadcasters may have such a role 
but a public broadcaster should always have a public service remit. 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
3 
1.2 Public Service Broadcasting 
The term ‘public service broadcasting’ was formulated in the United Kingdom by the Sykes 
Committee in 1923 during the advent of radio broadcasting. The committee, in formulating 
regulations for the operation of radio and broadcasting in general, decided among other things 
that, “broadcasting should be a ‘public utility; the airwaves were thus classified as public 
property’’ (Born, 2004, p.27).  
 
Born (2004) argued that, public service broadcasting’s overall contribution to society should 
therefore be an overtly beneficial one, providing the population with a service on a number of 
levels. There was a generalised understanding that, public service broadcasters were to satisfy 
public need or at least attempt to.  
 
The thought of protecting the airwaves from private and governmental interests and use was 
derived from a suspicion of the implementation of commercial broadcasting in the United 
States, where commercial radio had quickly been institutionalised in society and was having 
detrimental effects upon the content produced as a result of the influence of advertisers. The 
British authorities were thus stringent in their understanding of how they wanted broadcasting 
to be operated amongst the British population. Burns (1977, p.34) therefore stated that, public 
service broadcast’s had “immense potency as a means of social, cultural and ultimately 
political influence and power” within the British cultural setting. 
 
A publication by the World Radio and Television Council (2000) defines public service 
broadcasting as “neither commercial nor state-controlled”. Public service broadcasting’s only 
raison d’etre, according to the Council, is public service. It is the public’s service 
broadcasting organization that speaks to everyone as a citizen. Public service broadcasters 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
4 
encourage access to and participation in public life. They develop knowledge, broaden 
horizons and enable people to better understand themselves by better understanding the world 
and others.  
 
According to UNESCO (http://portal.unesco.org), public service broadcasting (PSB) is 
broadcasting made, funded and controlled by the public, and for the public. It is neither 
commercial nor state-owned. It is free from political interference and pressure from 
commercial forces.  One sees in these definitions, an encapsulation of the popular notion that 
public service broadcasting is characterised by programming that is broad and diverse and 
addresses all citizens rather than some citizens through both general programmes that are of 
high quality and specific programmes catering for special interest, tastes, minorities and 
marginalised groups.  
 
According to Siune (1998), the idea of public service broadcasting has always embodied a 
commitment to balanced scheduling. This means that the public service broadcaster must be 
sensitive to the needs of all segments of its audience and strive to give a balanced, impartial 
view of issues. Siune (1998) further explains that public service broadcasting institutions are 
bodies which are financially independent of the government and commercial sources. 
Normally, there is a basic payment in the form of a license fee. The political content of 
programming of PSBs is also obliged to be balanced and impartial to all political interests. 
 
These features are inextricably linked to the means of funding of any public service 
broadcaster. The lack of sufficient funding has great impact on the independence of the 
public service broadcaster. Where a public service broadcaster depends on the commercial 
sector as the main fund provider the public service broadcasting mandate is obviously 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
5 
sacrificed for profit. In the same vein, where the government is the sole supplier of funds, it 
exercises tremendous control on its editorial decisions, (Siune, 1998).  
 
1.3 Understanding public service broadcasting 
World Radio and Television Council (2000) articulates that, public service broadcasting rests 
on certain basic principles, defined in an era of general interest media, long before the 
multiplication of channels and the era of specialisation. These principles remain essential 
today and public broadcasting authorities must give them a meaning, reinterpret them in some 
way, in a world characterised by media fragmentation. Universality, diversity and 
independence remain today, like yesterday, essential goals for public broadcasting. To these 
three principles must be added a fourth, particularly important when the public service 
broadcaster exists side by side with commercial broadcasters: distinctiveness. 
 
Universality 
Public broadcasting must be accessible to every citizen throughout the country. This is a 
deeply egalitarian and democratic goal to the extent that it puts all citizens on the same 
footing, whatever their social status or income. It forces the public broadcaster to address the 
entire population and seek to be “used” by the largest possible number. 
 
This does not mean that public broadcasting should try to optimize its ratings at all times, as 
commercial broadcasting does, but rather that it should endeavour to make the whole of its 
programming accessible to the whole population. This does not merely involve technical 
accessibility, but ensuring that everyone can understand and follow its programming. As well 
as democratic, public broadcasting programming must be “popular,” not in the pejorative 
sense that some give this term, but in the sense that the public forum it provides should not be 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
6 
restricted to a minority. Thus, public broadcasting, while it should promote culture, should 
not become a ghetto constantly frequented by the same group of initiates. “The ghettoisation 
of public service broadcasting is a non-starter” 3, as the 1996 report of the European 
Parliament Committee of Culture, Youth, Education, Sports and the Media (Tongue Report) 
clearly states, opposing the notion that public networks should broadcast only the type of 
programming scorned by the commercial sector. 
 
Diversity 
The service offered by public broadcasting should be diversified, in at least three ways: in 
terms of the genres of programs offered, the audiences targeted, and the subjects discussed. 
Public broadcasting must reflect the diversity of public interests by offering different types of 
programs, from newscasts to light programs. Some programs may be aimed at only part of 
the public, whose expectations are varied. In the end, public broadcasting should reach 
everyone, not through each program, but through all programs and their diversity. Finally, 
through the diversity of the subjects discussed, public broadcasting can also seek to respond 
to the varied interests of the public and so reflect the whole range of current issues in society. 
Diversity and universality are complementary in that producing programs intended 
sometimes for youth, sometimes for older people and sometimes for other groups ultimately 
means that public broadcasting appeals to all. 
 
Independence 
Public broadcasting is a forum where ideas should be expressed freely, where information, 
opinions and criticisms circulate. This is possible only if the independence therefore, the 
freedom of public broadcasting is maintained against commercial pressures or political 
influence. Later we will examine specific means for guaranteeing respect for this principle 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
7 
and ensuring the credibility of public broadcasting in the eyes of the public. Indeed, if the 
information provided by the public broadcaster were influenced by government, people 
would no longer believe in it. Likewise, if the public broadcaster’s programming were 
designed for commercial ends, people would not understand why they are being asked to 
finance a service whose programs are not substantially different from the services provided 
by private broadcasting. This latter example, by the way, leads us to lay down another 
principle that is particularly important in countries where public broadcasting exists side by 
side with private commercial services. 
 
Distinctiveness 
Distinctiveness requires that the service offered by public broadcasting distinguish itself from 
that of other broadcasting services. In public-service programming—in the quality and 
particular character of its programs—the public must be able to identify what distinguishes 
this service from other services. It is not merely a matter of producing the type of programs 
other services are not interested in, aiming at audiences neglected by others, or dealing with 
subjects ignored by others. It is a matter of doing things differently, without excluding any 
genre. This principle must lead public broadcasters to innovate, create new slots, new genres, 
set the pace in the audiovisual world and pull other broadcasting networks in their wake. 
 
1.4 History of Public Service Broadcasting in Ghana  
Public service broadcasting, for that matter, radio, was introduced to the Gold Coast by 
Governor Sir Arnold Hodson in 1935. The first broadcast was made on July 31, 1935, via 
“Station ZOY”, the broadcasting service introduced for the purpose. The station was 
established as a public service tool with the main motive of bringing news, entertainment and 
music into the homes of Ghanaians (Ansah, 1985).  
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
8 
After 1939, the station was used for various purposes, which included educational support 
services as well as for the spread of British propaganda during the World War II. The station, 
initially under the Information Services Department, was separated from the Department in 
1962 and renamed the Ghana Broadcasting Corporation (GBC) to serve as the Government’s 
mouthpiece (GBC Report, 2006). 
 
Funding of broadcasting in the Gold Coast was done through the collection of a subscription 
fee of five shillings a month. When a statement was made at the Legislative Assembly to the 
effect that the people could not afford to pay for both broadcasting and water at exorbitant 
prices (Legislative Council Debates, March 23, 1938, p 74-75), Governor Hodgson replied a 
year later, that “nothing could be cheaper than this” ( Legislative Council Debates, March 23, 
1939, p. 195). Ghana took a bold step, venturing into international broadcasting by setting up 
the External Service of Radio Ghana in June, 1961. It broadcast in English, French, Hausa, 
French, Swahili, Arabic and Portuguese (Ansah, 1985). This was a major and audacious 
move by President Kwame Nkrumah aimed at fulfilling his foreign policy. 
 
Then in 1965, television was introduced into Ghana with the help of the Canadian 
Broadcasting Corporation. President Nkrumah said television was introduced “for the 
education and edification, the enjoyment and entertainment of our people” (Speech by 
Osagyefo, the President on the inauguration of Ghana Television, July 31, 1965, State Public 
Corp., Accra-Tema, p.3). Two years later, the Ghana Broadcasting Corporation embarked on 
a major policy shift to go into commercial broadcasting. This was against a 1953 
Broadcasting Commission advice against commercial radio (Broadcasting in the Gold Coast, 
1953). This happened in 1967 when the Commercial Service of the GBC was established. 
The government at the time explained that this was to give the “business community and 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
9 
other individuals the chance of selling their goods and services through the fastest available 
means-radio and television” (Broadcasting in Ghana, 1978; p.14). Equally important was the 
need to supplement government funding.  
 
This then marked the beginning of the commercialisation of the GBC. Subsequently, the 
GBC, unlike the BBC, began to engage in programming that could earn it advertisement. The 
GBC remained the only broadcaster in Ghana. It enjoyed the status of a monopolist until 
Ghana returned to multi-party democracy in 1992. The 1992 constitution made specific 
provisions for the liberalisation of the media in Ghana, a democratic country. Chapter five 
(Article 162) of the constitution states: “Freedom and independence of the media are hereby 
guaranteed”. Article 162(3) also states that “there shall be no impediments to the 
establishment of private press or media; and in particular, there shall be no law requiring any 
person to obtain a licence as a prerequisite to the establishment or operation of a newspaper, 
journal or other media for mass communication or information”. This constitution paved the 
way for the liberalisation of the media landscape in Ghana. 
 
In 1968, the National Liberation Council Decree (NLCD) 22, 1968 redefined the purpose of 
GBC as that: “it shall be the duty of the Corporation to provide as a public service, 
independent and impartial broadcasting services (both sound and television) for general 
reception in Ghana”. The Ghana Broadcasting Corporation Decree, (NLCD 226, 1968) also made 
provision for the structure of the GBC. According to the Decree, the governing body of the 
Corporation shall be a Board, comprising a Chairman and eight other members including the 
Director General. Per the decree, government was responsible for the appointment of the 
board. The 1992 Constitution however, gives the right to appoint members of the board to the 
National Media Commission, NMC (Article 168, 1992 Constitution).  
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
10 
The corporation has a Director General who acts as the chief executive officer. He is 
responsible to the board for the day to day administration of the corporation. The current 
democratic dispensation gives the NMC the sole responsibility of appointing director 
generals of the GBC. Provision is made by the NLCD decree 222 for the position of two 
deputy director generals. Presently, the GBC has only one deputy director general. Every 
division is headed by a director. The radio, television engineering and technical divisions are 
all headed by directors. Also, the finance, business development, corporate affairs and 
administration divisions are headed by directors. All ten (10) GBC regional offices are 
headed by directors, who report to the Deputy Director General and the Director of Human 
Resource. There is also a legal officer and an internal auditor who report directly to the 
Director General.  
 
With the demise of short wave broadcasting, the GBC is unable to reach every corner of the 
country. It has therefore set up regional frequency modulation (FM) stations in all regional 
capitals of Ghana, except in Greater Accra where it is situated at Tema. The regional FM 
stations of the GBC undertake their own programming as well as marketing and sales 
planning. Their incomes form part of the total income of the GBC. 
 
Part commercialisation of GBC meant that it now had to compete with the private media for 
ads. At the same time it produces public service programmes, no matter how boring they are. 
Article 63 of the constitution even places a burden on the state owned media. It states: “all 
state-owned media shall afford fair opportunities and facilities for the presentation of 
divergent views and dissenting opinions”. This requirement must be met by the GBC and it 
strives to do that. The GBC has little choice not to do government or state bidding because 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
11 
much of its funding comes from the state. It is a “he who pays the piper calls the tune” kind 
of a scenario.  
 
The steady demise of public service  broadcasting (that started with the demise of short wave 
broadcasting) can be attributed to the imminent onslaught of new commercial offerings via 
cable, satellite, digital transmission and more recently, the Internet” (Steamers, 2002). An 
additional reason for this “steady demise of public service broadcasting” could be the 
attraction that the private media have over the public electronic media.  
 
In spite of the description of the work of the GBC as “public service” by the NLCD decree, 
GBC still seems to have an identity crisis such that the government is now trying to “convert” 
GBC into a public service broadcaster by tasking a committee reviewing the Broadcasting 
Bill to come out with suggestions to make the GBC a true public service broadcaster. This 
ambiguity of the status of GBC is a problem that this project would seek to understand. 
 
1.5 Public Service Broadcasting Funding Models 
1.5.1 Funding Models in Europe and Elsewhere 
Apenteng (2007) explains the various kinds of public service broadcasting different countries 
practice. While NHK, the main public service broadcaster in Japan is a centralized 
organization like the BBC in UK, the German ARD is an association of broadcasting 
organizations of the individual federal states. In the Netherlands public broadcasting 
associations are given time and money to produce programmes for broadcast on publicly 
owned radio and television channels.  The United States has a highly decentralized public 
service broadcasting system where several nonprofit associations produce programmes that 
are distributed through major associations like National Public Radio (NPR) and Public 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
12 
Broadcasting Service (PBS). Governance and funding mechanisms also differ in the various 
countries (Apenteng, 2007).  
 
The BBC makes its money primarily from license fees collected from owners of television 
sets in the UK. This research will explore how the GBC has managed to fund itself in a 
democratic and pluralised media environment. This is important because the sources of 
funding, as argued by Apenteng (2007), could compromise the ability of public service 
broadcasting from carrying out its mandate. Finance could easily be used as the leverage for 
control or influence on programming.  
 
In the UK, there is a pluralised media environment, yet the BBC is able to make profit. 
According to the British Parliamentary Select Committee on Communications’ Report 
(2008–09), in a period of low inflation, or possibly deflation, the BBC is financially stronger 
and in a more secure position than virtually any other business in the UK.  
 
In the USA, voluntary contributions are used to fund public service broadcasting, but in 
Australia, the license fee is used. Like Australia, the license fee is also collected and used to 
fund the BBC in the UK. According to the British Parliamentary Select Committee on 
Communications’ Report (2008–09), BBC’s total income in 2008 was £4.4bn. Out of this, 
£3.4bn came from licence fees and £284m came from Government grants. In a period of low 
inflation, or possibly deflation, the BBC is financially stronger and in a more secure position 
than virtually any other business in the UK.There is fund for PSB activities in New Zealand 
and Singapore. Smith (2010) suggests that the ways of funding PSB should be left to the 
ingenuity of broadcasters, regulators, academics and the concerned citizens to work out what 
is best for them.  
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
13 
 1.5.2 Funding Models in Africa 
Different countries in Africa fund public service broadcasting using various formulae. Banda 
(2006) lists the different models of funding of PSBs. Direct government or state funding is 
the main mode of financing public service broadcasters in Africa. This however, raises the 
issue of autonomy from political influence. The issue of “he who pays the piper calls the 
tune” comes to play under this model. The government may see the public service 
broadcaster as its own because it is depended upon the government for the survival of the 
national broadcaster. The licence fee model is used in South Africa and Zimbabwe (Banda, 
2006). The small numbers of people in formal employment, and the problems associated with 
collecting the fee have made the amounts raised insufficient to sustain PSBs (Banda, 2006). 
The mixed formula draws on commercial revenues and public funds. Ghana, South Africa, 
Zimbabwe, Malawi and Mozambique all have this formula.  
 
Nonetheless, some schools of thought are of the opinion that public service broadcasters 
should not compete for advertising mainly because they receive funding from the state.  Debt 
financing from government, with an over-reliance on advertising revenue also happens in 
South Africa and Zimbabwe. Banda (2006) believes that such financing leaves the PSB 
operator too open to the vagaries of the advertising market. Sales of non-core services such as 
music recordings are used by South Africa and Zimbabwe. These amounts realised from 
these avenues are obviously insufficient to finance PSBs (Banda, 2006). 
 
Ghana’s public service broadcasting model is similar to that of the British Broadcasting 
Corporation. The BBC, according to its former Director-General, Mark Thompson, was 
established to inform its audiences about a wide range of charities so that they can increase 
awareness about the work they do and raise much needed funds so that they can continue 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
14 
helping those who are in need, (BBC 2013a). The British have practised this model of 
broadcasting for years as a democracy. 
 
1.6 Problem Statement 
According to Smith (2010), for each country, the funding system has to be something that 
evolves out of its own history, something that works for it. To her, public service 
broadcasters such as GBC are the captains of their own fate. This is important to note because 
the various models of funding were evolved by the respective countries themselves. For most 
countries running a PSB, the funding models they operate have sustained them sufficiently. A 
review of studies on public service broadcasting in Ghana indicates that little has been done 
to examine whether or not GBC has come up with its own funding sources (or model as has 
been done in other countries) that can sustain it as a PSB in the wake of media plurality and 
commercialisation.  There is therefore the need to examine this issue as it would help clarify 
the status of GBC as a PSB or not.  
 
1.7 Objectives of the Study 
The objectives of the study were:  
1. To explore how GBC is funded as a PSB 
2.  Understand whether its sources of funding influence its status as a PSB.  
 
1.8 Research Question 
The above background information gives rise to the following research question. The 
research this study sought to answer the following question: 
R.Q1. How have the sources of funding of the Ghana Broadcasting Corporation influenced 
the independence of GBC (from government or advertisers) as a PSB?   
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
15 
1.9 Purpose of this Study 
The purpose of this study was to examine the various means by which public service 
broadcasting is funded in Ghana. It is believed that the GBC is funded through government 
funding and advertisements. The democratic environment Ghana is enjoying brought with it a 
pluralised media set up. The introduction and increase in the number of private media houses 
has made the media terrain more aggressive in terms of funding, especially through sound 
marketing principles. This study will look at the various components by which the GBC is 
funded. Findings from the study will help to understand whether GBCs funding is reflective 
of a PSB or those of other broadcasting systems such as those of State Broadcasters or 
Commercial Broadcasters.  
 
1.20 Scope of Study 
The research aimed at exploring the funding of public service broadcasting in Ghana’s 
democracy and held focus group discussions with key broadcasting experts and conducted in-
depth interviews with officials from GBC. The difficulty in assessing literature initially was a 
challenge this study faced. Coming across literature related to this study was such a herculean 
task. 
 
1.21 Significance of the Study 
This research is significant in that it will afford students of communication insight into how 
public service broadcasting is funded in Ghana. Funding of a broadcasting station determines 
the focus of programming of that station. The Ghanaian audiences have the impression that 
because GBC is a public service broadcaster, it should be able to bring to listeners and 
viewers all programmes they desire. This project is also significant because it would inform 
the Ghanaian public about the challenges the corporation encounters in securing funding 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
16 
thereby enabling them to appreciate the difficulties it has. Appreciating these challenges will 
make it easy for the Ghanaian populace to be willing to contribute money either through tax 
or license fee to augment its funding sources. 
 
1.22 Chapter Summary 
The advent of multiparty democracy in Ghana brought with it the liberalisation of the media, 
however Ghana Broadcasting Corporation remains as the public service broadcaster. The 
chapter sought to identify its history in Ghana’s democracy and the varied models of public 
service broadcasting in the world, with an emphasis on its various funding options. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
17 
CHAPTER TWO 
LITERATURE REVIEW 
2.0 Introduction 
This chapter articulates the theoretical framework which guided this study. The first part 
presents the theoretical assumptions underlying public service broadcasting using the political 
economy theory of the Media and its varied funding options and defines its directly related 
concepts. It also examined and reviewed some studies that have been conducted that bore 
relation to this research. Various works were reviewed to provide various scholars’ 
interpretations of the concept of public service broadcasting. Finally, this chapter puts the 
concept of public service into perspective and discusses some models in Africa and around 
the world. The study was conceptualised within the frameworks of the libertarian theory of 
the press and the political economy theory of the media.  
 
2.1 Theoretical Considerations  
2.1.1 The Political Economy Theory of the Media 
The political economy theory is defined by Mosco (1995:2) as “the study of the social 
relations, particularly the power relations, which mutually constitute the production, 
distribution, and consumption of communication resources”. The theory was postulated by 
Herman and Chomsky (1988) in their book Manufacturing Consent – The Political Economy 
of the Mass Media, in which they introduced the propaganda model of the media. Herman 
and Chomsky claim that because media is firmly imbedded in the market system, it reflects 
the class values and concerns of its owners. They argue that money and power are able to 
filter out the news to fit print, marginalize dissent, and allow the government and dominant 
private interests to get their messages across to the public. They also maintain that the media 
maintains a corporate class bias through five systemic filters: concentrated private ownership; 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
18 
a strict bottom-line profit orientation; over-reliance on governmental and corporate sources 
for news; a primary tendency to avoid offending the powerful; and an almost religious 
worship of the market economy, strongly opposing alternative beliefs. These filters in effect 
limit what will become news in society and set parameters on acceptable coverage of daily 
events according to Herman and Chomsky (1988).  
 
In the propaganda model of Herman and Chomsky, maintains that owners and managers of 
media houses share class identity with the powerful and are motivated to please particularly 
those who fund them and the viewers. The independence of journalists and editors, according 
to the propaganda model is restricted because they are not immune to the influence of owners 
and managers who are also, economically motivated to please their sources of funding and 
viewers. According to Herman (1996) the model does suggest that the mainstream media, as 
elite institutions, commonly frame news and allow debate only within the parameters of elite 
interests. He also maintains that where the elite are concerned as against ordinary citizens, by 
the model, the media will uncompromisingly serve the interest of the elite. In effect therefore, 
public interest is subdued by the interest of the high and mighty in society due to financial 
considerations by the media. Corner (2003) also maintain that the propaganda model is 
essentially a proposition about the operation of five filters that act to shape and constrain the 
accounts of the political world issuing form the media. According to Corner (2003), the 
model presents a system within which media professionals comfortably if not numbly 
function and audience are just ‘brainwashed’.  
 
Klaehn (2002), on the other hand, maintains that the net result of the propaganda model is 
self-censorship without any significant coercion. According to Boyd-Barrett (1995) the term 
political economy in media research has a critical significance often associated with questions 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
19 
of media ownership and control. The political economy theory locates the power of the media 
in the economic processes and structures of media production.  Ownership and economic 
control of the media are seen as the key factor in determining control of media messages. For 
Lukin (2012), however, questions the function of the media relative to government and 
industry are complex and multidimensional rather than a simple one as the Propaganda 
Model posits. Media performance is situational and more nuanced than expected. Lukin 
(2012), therefore cited the example of Britain’s Channel 4, a state-owned commercially 
funded broadcaster which in the face of ‘factors such as patriotism, reliance upon official 
sources and ideology, was able to maintain ‘a degree of autonomy and balance that is rarely 
expected during world war times. Lukin (2012) therefore argues that the media in certain 
situations can be autonomous.  
 
In case of Ghana being a democratic state where the public broadcaster is expected to 
discharge its public service duties to its citizenry without fear or favour, the study is 
interested in finding out the extent to which the media theory of the political economy plays 
out in the output of GBC.  
 
2.1.2 The evolution of public service ideals 
Public service broadcasting ideals became influential during television’s first decades – its 
era of ‘scarcity’ (Ellis, 2000: 2). Two important facets of the context in which they initially 
thrived were a relative dearth of TV channels and the need to address early concerns about 
the potentially negative ‘effects’ of a new mass medium. Adapted to television from radio, 
the broadly influential British public service broadcasting model was pioneered by Lord 
Reith, founding director-general of the BBC in the period 1927–38. Convinced that 
governments rather than businesses should control broadcasting and coining its ‘trinity’ of 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
20 
values (inform, educate and entertain), Reith saw PSB as an opportunity to foster greater 
equality between citizens through shared experiences and, in particular, to provide ‘cultural 
uplift for the lumpen masses’ 
(Hendy, 2003: 5). 
 
As PSB evolved in British television – with the introduction and strict regulation of the 
commercial ITV network in 1955, the BBC’s expansion to two channels in 1964, and the 
introduction of a second public network, Channel 4, in 1982 – a more progressive and 
ambitious set of public service broadcasting ideals emerged. By the late 1970s, the initial 
Reithian notion that public service broadcasting should include ‘moral leadership, 
enlightenment and betterment’ had given way to the view that PSB should centre on the 
provision of services, was best facilitated by a pluralist approach, and should work harder to 
meet the needs of ‘the full range of groups in society’ (Medhurst, 2003: 42). In the 1980s, the 
British Broadcasting Research Unit detailed eight principles for public service broadcasting 
which included: universality of availability; universality of appeal; provision for minorities, 
‘especially those disadvantaged by physical or social circumstance’; the attempt to serve the 
public sphere; a commitment to the education of the public; the maintenance of a distance 
from all vested interests; encouraging ‘competition in good programming rather than 
competition for numbers’; and the use of rules which attempt to ‘liberate rather than restrict 
the programme-maker’ (Tracey, 1998: 26–32). With much the same combination of 
principles informing PSB provisions and expectations in the many countries that opted to 
follow the British broadcasting model, public service television has thus been characterized 
by a markedly more complex, ambitious set of objectives than the Reithian values under 
which it originated. 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
21 
As the first custodians of PSB ideals in television, public networks had an interest in 
developing them as a distinctive set of objectives and strategies so as to demonstrate their 
difference from commercial networks and justify their public incomes. However, as national 
TV systems matured, and with the inception of new private networks accelerating in the 
1980s and 1990s, public service ideals – which had presumed the continued dominance of 
public networks – needed to adapt to remain relevant in an environment now dominated by 
commercial operators and in which the public ownership of TV networks could no longer be 
justified by television’s scarcity relative to other media.  
 
Graham Murdock (1997: 17–18) outlined a streamlined set of interconnecting objectives for 
contemporary PSB, which are summarized here as: 
Autonomy – specifically broadcasting’s maintenance of an appropriate distance from both the 
state and commercial sector as ‘major centres of institutionalized power’; 
Universal availability – to preserve broadcasting against ‘physical or material barriers to 
inclusion’ and maximize its ability to engage and involve the full range of citizens; 
Programme diversity – which, in addition to broadening the generic, aesthetic and cultural 
range of programming that is offered, ensures the representation of a ‘diversity of interests, 
voices and perspectives’; 
Innovation – to be facilitated by the active encouragement of formal, representational and 
other creative experimentation in programming; 
Mainstreaming – the pursuit of ‘recognition and respect for difference’, to be achieved 
centrally through the incorporation of ‘“minority” experiences and views’ in ‘the full range of 
primetime programming’; and 
Access – the delivery of a ‘genuine diversity of representation’ through the inclusion of 
‘viewers as active participants rather than as simply spectators’. 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
22 
Acknowledging television’s public sphere potentials and recognizing the limitations of its 
dominance by commercial networks, the above objectives have demonstrated their continuing 
relevance by delivering on two overarching PSB outcomes which (although relevant to other 
media) are particularly significant in television because of its very high production and 
transmission costs. First, PSB objectives have increased the formal and cultural diversity of 
programming beyond what the commercial sector alone can offer and in ways that allow for 
specified minority interests to be served. Second, they have helped to ensure that PSB-funded 
programmes can remain available to all citizens regardless of their ability to pay. 
 
Introduced in late 2002, a notable example of the second PSB outcome above has been the 
BBC/Crown Castle-initiated digital platform, Free view. Offering a low-cost digital TV 
package as an alternative to private subscription – its broad, rapid take-up helping to secure a 
relatively early and unproblematic ‘switchover’ for British TV – Free view has provided an 
effective answer to the challenge of maintaining universal access in television’s unfolding 
digital age.1 Television’s continuing convergence with the internet has introduced another 
imperative in preserving universal availability to PSB funded programming and services – the 
ability to access them on the full range of new media platforms and do so ‘anywhere, 
anytime’. 
 
2.1.3 Public service broadcasting and the challenges of the multi-channel era 
Since the 1980s, a combination of institutional, political and cultural changes has undermined 
the market position of the public networks entrusted with public service obligations. These 
have included: the technology-fueled proliferation of TV channels and on-line TV services; 
the consequent fragmentation of audiences in ways that undermine the ability of any TV 
network to speak to, let alone for ‘the nation’; the media deregulation demanded by neo-
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
23 
liberal ideology; and a more general fracturing of societies into a multiplicity of identities and 
identifications. The fourth (and most complex) of the above changes has been shaped 
variously by the ‘politics of representation’, the myriad affiliations fostered by branding and 
lifestyle, and by commercial television’s fervent efforts to aggregate its audiences into ever 
more specialized niches as a way to compensate advertisers for the loss of audience size. 
 
As their market position has weakened, public networks have found themselves struggling to 
reconcile public service objectives with the often conflicting imperative to compete 
successfully with an expanding, diversifying commercial TV sector. In the aggressively 
competitive markets that have characterized television since the 1990s, a greater uniformity 
between the schedules of leading public and commercial channels has become increasingly 
apparent, this itself prompting criticism that public television has ‘dumbed down’. The 
strategic efforts of public networks to compete effectively to retain significant audience 
share, despite the fragmentation of national TV markets, have been intensified, on the one 
hand, by their dependence on an increasingly pressurized public income and, on the other, by 
the need to deliver on their PSB expectations and thereby justify continued public investment. 
With the above changes in television involving particular challenges for its public service 
providers, the special case for PSB objectives to retain provision and centrality in national 
TV systems has come under increasing pressure. 
 
Efforts to revive government support for PSB have prompted what Elizabeth Jacka (2003: 
178) described as ‘a veritable avalanche of discourse’ in which the profiling of the public 
sphere, citizenship and democratic virtues of public service television have amounted to a 
‘democracy as defeat’ justification. 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
24 
However, even this has been open to challenge, as Jacka (2003: 180) suggested, given the 
impressive record and range of public interest achievements built up by private TV networks. 
Nevertheless, in national contexts in which a limited population size has been seen to impose 
undesirable constraints on the diversity of domestic TV production, a more enduring 
justification for the continued support of television’s public service objectives has been 
‘market failure’, an argument which centres on the public funding support of commercially 
vulnerable programming that meets desired cultural or social objectives. A case in point has 
been public service TV’s provision of specified ‘minority interest’ programming, which 
(regardless of how many channels are operating) remains unviable for commercial networks. 
Acknowledging the resonance of market failure justifications for PSB in New Zealand, 
Murdock (1997: 22) argued that: ‘If neither user-pays systems nor advertising based finance 
can guarantee a broadcasting service that meets the cultural requirements of contemporary 
citizenship; we must look again at the question of public funding.’ 
 
2.2 Related Works on Funding 
Berry and Waldfogel (1999) studied public radio in the United States and said that, because 
broadcasters can capture only a part of the value of their products as revenue, there is the 
potential for public broadcasters to compete with commercial broadcasters over listening 
share and revenue. After analysing the radio stations, they concluded that due to the fear of 
commercialisation the stations received a lot of support for the Corporation for public service 
broadcasting, this according to them accounted for the vast majority of public listening. The 
study also found significant differences between the programming formats of the public 
stations and that of the commercial stations. 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
25 
Tosics, Van de Ven and Riedl (2008) studied the funding of public service broadcasting and 
state aid rules in Belgium and Ireland after complaints from the public on the state funding of 
public broadcasters. According to them, private competitors argued that the definition of the 
public service remit was not sufficiently precise and that there were no effective control 
mechanisms. The complainants also claimed that the public financing received by the public 
service broadcasters for the fulfilment of their public service tasks was not proportionate to 
the net costs of carrying out these tasks. After investigating the complaints, Tosics et al., 
(2008) concluded that public funding and surpluses generated by commercial exploitation of 
public broadcasting activities may only be used for the financing of public service activities. 
On that basis, public service broadcasters are to report on an annual basis on the use of their 
public funding. They also recommended to authorities to commit themselves to ensuring that 
the commercial transactions (commercial activities, investments, etc.) of the public 
broadcasters are clearly distinguishable from public service activities and carried out on 
market terms, taking into account the ‘arms-length principle’.  
 
Storr (2011) studied the evolution of public sector broadcasting in the small states of English 
speaking Caribbean. Storr (2011) contends that a paradigm shift, characterized by 
competition from private broadcasters, has caused changes in public service broadcasting in 
the Caribbean. A highly competitive media environment culminated in the free-fall and 
disintegration of state-funded broadcasting. According to Storr, this caused Caribbean 
governments to redefine state broadcasting and establish rules to accommodate a radically 
changing media environment. Among these changes are:  
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
26 
(1) Increased commercialization (2) Closure of state-owned systems (3) Collaborations with 
commercial partners (4) Consolidation (5) Integration of digital technology and (6) 
Restructuring and reregulation. 
 
Public Service Broadcasting (PSB) is deemed a vital element of modern democratic societies. 
Public service broadcasters are thus expected to play the important role of providing access 
to, and participation in, public life by promoting access to education and culture; developing 
knowledge; and fostering interactions among citizens. There is therefore no universally 
acceptable definition of PSB; instead, there is a plethora of definitions and descriptions of the 
concept. Barendt (1995) argues that PSB is a normative as well as a descriptive concept 
whose principal features can be identified. Barendt then identifies the following principal 
features as peculiar to public service broadcasters: 
 
 i) General geographic availability; ii) Concern for national identity and culture; iii) 
Independence from both state and commercial interests; iv) Impartiality of programmes; v) 
Range and variety of programmes; and vi) Substantial funding by a general charge on users. 
This combination of factors, according to Barendt (1995), constitutes public service 
broadcasting. In this regard, the general population, irrespective of their geographical 
location, should have easy access to the public broadcaster. In terms of the nature and 
operation of the broadcaster, Barendt (1995) mentions the broadcaster’s concern for 
maintaining and promoting the common national identity and culture of the various societies 
within the nation. The national broadcaster should also be independent of both state and 
commercial influences while producing programmes that are devoid of any leanings be it 
political, social, cultural influence, etc.  
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
27 
Chaudhry (2005) describes public service broadcasting as a broad term. According to him, if 
media is promoting social harmony in a society only then is it doing public service. Jabbar 
(2005) says PSB represents all points of view from the different segments of the society. In 
his book ‘Citizen Media Dialogue’ Jabbar gives some definitions of PSB, two of which are:  
1. “The specific part of content of media which seeks to promote the public interest in 
any given sector of life, be it education, health basic infrastructure, social justice, 
freedom of expression, human rights, gender equality, political and cultural rights 
etc.  
 
2. “Neither commercial nor state controlled, public service broadcasting’s only raison 
d’eter is to offer a public service, a public meeting place where all citizens are 
welcomed and considered equal. Because it is not subject to the dictates of 
profitability, PSB can contribute diversifying content sources, giving a voice to 
other cultures’ points of view and promoting tolerance and culture 
understanding.”  
 
Public service broadcasting, according to the UNDP’s Bureau for Development Policy 
(2004), has the potential to play a crucial role in ensuring the public’s right to receive a wide 
range of independent and non-partisan information and ideas. PSBs also help to promote a 
common sense of national identity, foster democratic and other important social values, 
provide quality educational and informational programming, while serving the needs of 
minority and other specialized interest groups within the country. 
 
According to the UN’s development agency, public service broadcasting has a key role to 
play in strengthening democracy and democratic governance as well as poverty reduction 
efforts mostly in developing countries. Public service broadcasting ensures that marginalized 
and disempowered groups, made up of those with no political, economic influence or power, 
have access to information and provide a voice for the voiceless. 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
28 
2.2.1 Different Broadcasting Models 
The UNDP’s Bureau for Development Policy (2004), identifies three main broadcasting 
models, namely; state, public service and commercial broadcasting. The document further 
distinguishes each model from the other using four parameters: description, operating 
rationale, audience and revenue sources.  
 
In terms of description, the document describes public service broadcasting as a media 
system that is defined via a meticulously articulated legislative framework in which the 
media is put in the hands of the public. The model is also characterized by a greater 
autonomy in terms of its operations and management.  
 
State broadcasters, on the other hand, are directly supervised by state authorities, with 
government exercising full control over content and or programming. Commercial 
broadcasters are privately owned and are usually accompanied by some degree of state 
regulation. 
 
In terms of the different operating rationale for the different models, public service 
broadcasters usually produce content that is driven by the general public interest, while state 
broadcasters produce content that is driven by political interests. Commercial broadcasters, 
however, churn out content that is driven by commercial interest and have the potential of 
drawing commercials for the broadcasters to make profit.  
 
The audience is another factor for classifying the different broadcasting models. While both 
public service and state broadcasters target the citizens of the country, commercial stations 
usually target consumers who are the main target of adverts placed on such networks. 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
29 
The sources of revenue for the different models differ from one another. Public service 
broadcasters are usually funded through subscription fees from viewers or listeners, alongside 
state funding and a small percentage of advertising. State broadcasters are mostly funded 
through taxes, with advertisement and private investment being the main sources of funding 
commercial broadcasters. 
 
2.2.2 Some Broadcasting Models in Africa 
Different broadcasting models exist in Africa, fuelling the debate about how one can 
characterise or define the broadcasting systems inherited by most nationalist regimes from the 
colonial period. Banda (2006) identifies four types of broadcasting across the continent. 
There is the state broadcasting, which is controlled by the state and represents state interests 
and funded (at least in part) out of public money while government broadcasting is controlled 
by the government of the day and represents the viewpoint of the executive. This model is at 
least partly funded from the public purse. 
 
Some African states have public broadcasters that are owned by the public and are 
accountable to it. Public broadcasters are funded, at least partly, out of public money. The last 
model of broadcasting in Africa, according to Banda, is the public service broadcasting, 
which has a specific remit to broadcast content that is in the public interest. A public service 
broadcaster need not be publicly owned – privately owned broadcasters may have such a role 
– but a public broadcaster should always have a public service remit (Article 19 2006: 37; cf. 
Rumphorst 2003:1-3).  
 
In Zambia, Parliament enacted the Zambia National Broadcasting Corporation (ZNBC) 
(Amendment) Act in 2002 to convert the then state broadcaster to a public sector broadcaster. 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
30 
That law has being partially fulfilled, as the state has blocked its full implementation through 
the courts of law (Banda 2006). An exception to these influences and restrictions on public 
broadcasting is that of the South African Broadcasting Corporation (SABC), which has seen 
some radical transformation from the apartheid state broadcaster to a public broadcaster. 
 
2.2.3 Funding Public Service Broadcasters 
The British House of Lords Select Committee on Communications (2009) report, 
recommended that an “element of contestable funding should be introduced to fill some of 
the gaps that might otherwise arise in public service broadcasting. This would entail the 
setting up of a limited fund to which broadcasters and programme makers could apply”. The 
committee suggests various means by which such a fund should be resourced without turning 
to the tax payer for extra support. First, the licence fee, part of which is already devoted to 
helping the elderly and disabled with the costs of digital switchover is used to fund the public 
service broadcasters. The committee realised that if part of the licence fee were to be made 
available to public service broadcasting outside the BBC, it would represent substantial 
additional funding. According to Ed Richards, there will be approximately £130 million per 
annum that could be used for something else which would have no impact whatsoever on the 
BBC’s programmes and services. 
 
The committee found that in contrast to the position of advertising-funded television, the 
BBC is in a uniquely favoured position. The corporation’s total income in 2008 was £4.4bn, 
of which £3.4bn came from the licence fee and a further £284m from Government grants. 
Under the 2007 licence fee settlement agreed following Charter Review, the BBC has secure 
funding, which will rise significantly over the period of the settlement. In a period of low 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
31 
inflation, or possibly deflation, the BBC is in a financially stronger and more secure position 
than virtually any other business in the country. 
 
A second source of funds as found out by the British Select Committee results from the 
digital switchover. Currently, the public service television companies receive an implied 
subsidy from their use of the limited analogue spectrum. With the move to digital and the 
increase in access, that advantage will go. However, analogue spectrum will still have value 
because of demand from elsewhere. Part of the receipts which will go to the Treasury could 
be used for public service broadcasting—thus continuing the policy of support, according to 
The British House of Lords Select Committee on Communications (2009) report.  
 
Third, the committee recommended that it may ultimately have to be considered whether a 
further element of the licence fee might be redirected to support public service provision 
outside the BBC. Redirecting an element of the licence fee has a long history. It has been 
used not only for the digital switchover targeted help scheme but also between 1927 and 
1961, when a portion was allocated to general public funds. 
 
The committee’s recommendation for the funding of the BBC, excluded the continuous 
dependence on the tax payer. It suggested the following sources of funding (a) the under 
spend on the digital switchover programme (b) the continuance of funding from the licence 
fee after 2012 when the digital switchover programme ends and (c) the use of at least part of 
analogue spectrum revenue after 2012. Consideration may ultimately need to be given to 
redirecting an element of the licence fee to support public service content provision outside 
the BBC. It is obvious from the recommendations, that the role of the licence fee is critical 
for the funding of public service broadcasting in the UK.  
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
32 
 
Several funding mechanisms for public service broadcasting have been adopted in Africa. 
Licence fees have been the major source of funding for numerous PSBs in Africa, such as the 
South African Broadcasting Corporation (SABC), Zambia National Broadcasting 
Corporation (ZNBC) and Ghana Broadcasting Corporation (GBC), etc. Government or state 
funding is also another way of sustaining PSBs. Almost all state and or public broadcasters in 
Africa are funding directly by government or state. This raises the question of autonomy from 
the political influences associated with government/state funding.  Some broadcasters also 
practise the “mixed formula”, that provides funding via a combination of both commercial 
revenues and public funds. Broadcasters such as the SABC, GBC, ZNBC, Malawi 
Broadcasting Corporation [MBC], Radio Maputo, etc. do combine these modes of funding to 
see to their welfare. The over-reliance on commercial advertising by most PSB operators is 
also having its influence (Banda, 2006).   
 
Some commentators argue that state ownership of PSBs does not necessarily translate into 
state control of PSB. The example given is that of the SABC of which the state is the only 
shareholder. Other commentators argue that state ownership is sometimes desirable to ensure 
that PSB serves the developmental interests of the nation i.e. nation-building, rural 
development, etc. As suggested elsewhere above, this view seems consistent with the way 
PSB has evolved in Africa, reflecting the varying ideological-developmental agendas of the 
nationalist elites. 
 
This contrasts with the findings of the Africa Media Barometer, 2011. The Africa Media 
Barometer sampled at least five media practitioners and five representatives from civil 
society groups to assess the media situation in their own country. The sample size then 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
33 
discussed the national media environment according to 45 predetermined indicators. The 
discussion and scoring was moderated by an independent consultant who also edited the 
Africa Media Barometer. The Barometer’s findings indicated that the GBC was not 
adequately funded. It says that in fact, the GBC is “financially disabled”. It says that 
subsidies from the government “are not even sufficient for salaries and sometimes the 
payment of staff is delayed”. The Barometer found out that in order to survive, “the GBC 
sells a lot of airtime, undercutting the rates set by the private competition, and has to succumb 
to the wishes of potential clients”. Due to this, the output of the GBC resembles that of a 
commercial broadcaster, rather than a public service broadcaster. 
 
Bernie Grummell (2009 24: 267), explored the interaction between education and public 
Service broadcasting in the Irish context, where it has been mediated by a complex interplay 
of institutional, economic and cultural factors. The research was based on documentary 
analysis of Irish broadcasting archives, current policies and interviews with leading 
practitioners in the field. The Irish case study illustrates the multifaceted nature of the 
interaction between education and public service broadcasting, which has important 
implications for contemporary European broadcasting.  
 
According to the journal, the complex funding and organizational structures of Irish 
broadcasting further exacerbated the position of education; with three state departments – 
communications, finance and education – all potentially responsible for educational 
broadcasting. Bell (1984: 40) cited in the European Journal of Communication argued, that 
‘State’s traditional reluctance to provide adequate finance for broadcasting, coupled with its 
perpetual desire to control it’ has been a consistent feature of Irish broadcasting.  It stands to 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
34 
reason from this literature that some states are reluctant to pay for public service 
broadcasting, yet their desire to have a strangle hold on it is obvious.   
 
2.3 Chapter Summary 
The chapter looked at political economy theory as the main theoretical framework for this 
research and reviewed some related works on funding public service broadcasting, with the 
view to using these to analyse the research data.  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
35 
CHAPTER THREE 
METHODOLOGY 
3.0 Introduction 
This chapter outlines the method employed in gathering data for this study. It describes the 
study area, sample size, data collection procedure, analysis and the presentation of the data. 
The study was designed qualitatively where the focus was not on the numbers but the depth 
of issues. In-depth interviews and focus group discussions were used to help explore the issue 
of public service broadcasting funding in Ghana. 
 
3.1 Overall Approach to Study  
A leading scholar in the field of development communication, Servaes (2001) states that 
generally, qualitative approaches may be better when investigating meaningful phenomena in 
development communication. The research design for this study made use of qualitative 
research methodologies which relate to the general aim of the study, which was, to determine 
how the state broadcaster, GBC funded its broadcasting in Ghana. 
 
3.1.1 Focus Group Discussions 
Focus group discussions are used to understand people’s attitudes and behaviour where 
between 6 to 12 people are interviewed concurrently, with a moderator who leads the 
respondents in a fairly unstructured discussion about the investigation topic.  This study used 
FGDs as part of a multi-method approach to collect data on the topic. FGDs were used by this 
study because of its flexibility in question design and follow-up and the fact that it allowed 
for more people to be interviewed at a go. 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
36 
3.1.2 In-depth Interviews 
The use of in-depth face-to-face interviews and selection of interviewees were guided by 
purposive sampling in an attempt to reach the appropriate respondents. A purposive sample is 
one subjectively selected by the researcher (Wimmer & Dominick, 2003). Purposive 
sampling selects subjects on the basis of specific characteristics or qualities. This type of 
sampling starts with a purpose in mind and the sample is thus selected to include people of 
interest and exclude those who do not suit the purpose.  
 
According to Boulton and Hammersley (2006:244), purposive sampling is a form of non-
probability sampling in terms of which decisions concerning the individuals to be included in 
the sample are taken by the researcher on the basis of a variety of criteria, including specialist 
knowledge of the research issue, or the capacity and willingness to participate in the research.  
Two in-depth interviews were conducted with two management staff of GBC, including the 
Deputy Director-General, and the Finance Director of GBC. The interviewees were chosen 
according to their importance as sources based on their in-depth knowledge of the operations 
of GBC and according to their willingness to cooperate.  
 
As suggested by Mercer (2006), the most useful interviewees for research projects are 
generally the project beneficiaries and key informants, such as organization staff and project 
leaders, donor staff, village or settlement leaders, local leaders from government, and 
business and religious institutions. It was expected that the in-depth interview would help a 
great deal in complementing the data collected through the FGDs. 
 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
37 
3.2 Sampling Method 
The non-probability method, specifically purposive sampling was used in this study to 
determine the participants for the focus group discussions. Participants of the focus group 
discussions were drawn from the media, post-graduate institutions and civil society groups 
concerned with broadcasting in Ghana.  The purposive sampling technique was also used to 
select the two participants for the in-depth interviews, the Deputy Director-General, and the 
Finance Director of GBC for the study. 
 
3.3 Data gathering methods  
This study adopted two methods for collecting data: in-depth interviews and focus group 
discussions. Focus group discussions were conducted to collect data from the participants. 
using a structured interview guide. Two focus groups made up of six (6) media industry 
experts and advocates in Ghana. Each focus group lasted for about thirty (30) minutes each. 
The discussions were held in a school building located near GBC head office. 
 
In-depth interviews were conducted with the Deputy Director-General and the Finance 
Director of GBC with each lasting not more than 30 minutes. Both focus group discussions 
and in-depth interviews were recorded and notes taken.  
 
3.4 Data Analysis 
The unit for analysis was GBC as the nation’s public broadcaster. After the fieldwork, all 
taped discussions and interviews were transcribed to supplement the notes taken during the 
actual data collection exercise. The data was then categorized into different themes based on 
the research questions. The research data was thematically coded to give meaning to the 
study as well as to put the gathered data into perspective.  
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
38 
The data that were generated during the empirical study were analysed against the theoretical 
framework proposed in chapter two (2) and the findings compared with each of the data 
gathering methods as a cross referencing mechanism for validity and reliability. The research 
findings were also analysed descriptively and presented in a narrative form along emergent 
themes. Conclusions were drawn based on the data analysed. 
 
3.5 Ethical Considerations  
In respect of the ethical considerations for this study, Gorman and Clayton (2005:43-44) state 
that the rights of individuals involved in the research study include confidentiality and 
anonymity, voluntary participation and informed consent.  
 
Approvals from the relevant authorities were also sought and acquired prior to the fieldwork 
being conducted. Discussions during personal interviews were confidential, and participants 
in the focus group discussions (FGD) were informed of the nature and purpose of the 
research verbally prior to the interview. This study therefore employed the above methods to 
ensure the requisite confidentiality and anonymity of all participating individuals.  
 
3.6 Chapter Summary 
Focus group discussions and in-depth interviews were used in gathering data for this study. 
The data was then categorized into different themes based on the research questions for the 
purposes of analysing the data for this study. 
 
 
 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
39 
CHAPTER FOUR 
FINDINGS 
4.0 Introduction 
This chapter presents findings from the data gathered for the study. The study sought to 
explore how GBC is funded, to find out which category of broadcasting the GBC was in, and 
to identify the challenges GBC encounters in its funding, if any. The analyses of both 
qualitative and quantitative data are presented in this chapter. 
 
4.1 Components of GBC Budget 
It is paramount that we analyze GBC’s annual budget to better appreciate its finance needs. In 
the in-depth interview with the Financial Director GBC, he said the following:  
“The broad components of GBC’s expenditure, which ensure a day to day running of 
the corporation among other things include; Utility expenses, payment for cleaning 
services, printing and publications, transportation and travel, repairs and 
maintenance, service charges by other companies, office consumables, training and 
conference costs, consultancy services, programmers charges,  safety, external link 
expenses etc. On the average, GBC requires over forty-five million Ghana Cedis (Ghc 
45,000,000) annually to ensure the smooth running of the organization. Although the 
corporation hardly receives this target revenue figure; the corporation has seen 
somewhat gradual increase in the amount of funds that come into its coffers over the 
past ten years. Only 14% of the needed funds (GHc 45,000,000) was realized in 2002. 
This figure rose steadily to 30% in 2007 then to 66% in the year 2011.”  
 
Information was not readily available regarding funds expected from the year 2002 to 2007. 
However, in 2008, the corporation exceeded its expectations by 2.5% although the funds that 
came in were nowhere near the figure needed for the smooth running of the corporation that 
year. In 2009, 73% of the expected funds for that year was realized; increasing to 97% in 
2010 and then dropping again to 61% in 2011. This clearly gives an indication of financial 
instability within the organization.    
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
40 
Figure 1: Financial targets and proportion realized 
 
NB: More commercial programming intensified after the fifth year 
*The years under review are 2002 – 2011 
 
Figure 2: State’s contribution to funding GBC 
 
NB: *The year under review is 2002 - 2011 
The corporation largely depends on state funds for major capital equipment and also for staff 
remuneration. From the year 2002 to 2008, funds provided from the state were on average 
only 10% of the needed funds. This figure went up to 21% and then to 46% in 2011.  The rest 
were raised from other sources other than that of the government.  
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
41 
4.2 Sources of funding (Anticipated/Actual) 
The Ghana Broadcasting Corporation has over the years hoped to generate its funds from its 
television licensing system; whilst relying on state resources to make up for any extra needed 
funds. However, TV license has since 2009 ceased to be a source of revenue. The fees have 
been suspended mainly due to the fact that the rates are so low that it is more expensive 
collecting them. The Deputy Director-General had this to say funding the corporation through 
the collection of television license fees:   
TV license are still there, it’s just that GBC is not collecting the fees because the rates 
are ridiculously low.” “I mean 30 pesewas for a whole year, does not make sense 
collecting them.  
Since the TV licensing system has not worked so well, the corporation has been forced to 
resort to other means of funding. The Deputy Director-General also added that: 
In addition to expectations from state resources, GBC currently raises funds mainly 
from the production and airing of programmes, advertisements, sponsorship deals, 
sale of airtime, announcements, rental of its masts among others. All these sources of 
funding however are still inadequate to cater for the amount of funds needed for its 
operational expenses.  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
42 
 Figure 3: Internally Generated Funds 
 
NB: Majority of internally generated funds comes from commercial receipts 
*The years under review are 2002 – 2011 
With a financial shortfall of up to 50% of the GBC in beefing up the funding sources is 
currently moving more into commercial programming as a temporal measure. This is 
however affecting the image of the corporation. The Finance Director had this to say:  
“GBC have had to be creative in expanding our sources of funding in the face of 
limited funds to fund our operations. Therefore, just for the corporation to make 
money, GBC has moved more into commercial programming than it should as a 
public service broadcaster.”  
 
Again, GBC currently relies on state funds in order to purchase medium to high cost 
equipment to make up for the shortfall in its finance. However, any time such grants are 
released the tendency for the corporation to come under some political influences is inherent. 
He added:   
Simply because the funding becomes a tax that is not dependent on government 
directly because whenever government gives you grants, they tend to try to influence 
you politically.   
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
43 
In the long term and as a more sustainable measure, GBC intends to revive the television 
licensing system hopefully through a digitized decoding system where the corporation can 
regulate who gets access to television viewing. However, until then the corporation tries to go 
into more commercial programming as a means of generating more funds to cover its 
operational costs.  
 
4.3 Operations Management in Relation to Raising Capital  
There are a number of things within the management system of the GBC that could be both 
direct and indirect factors responsible for the corporation’s current funding system. First of 
all, there is some evidence that the current monitoring and supervision system is very 
inefficient. Superiors have a loose oversight on the workers. A leading media consultant and 
analyst in Ghana and a member of the FGD said this:  
For instance a recent review of the corporation’s programming has revealed that 
within a space of three months up to one thousand (1000) adverts that were scheduled 
to be played were never played; and there has not been any disciplinary measure taken 
against the individuals directly responsible for this inaction. This lack of disciplinary 
measures has accordingly led to a break down in discipline of its workers over the 
years, to a point it is almost difficult to bring things under managerial control. 
(Monday, 1st October, 2013) 
Another FGD participant raised a key issue in the operations of GBC as a reason for some of 
the funding challenges encountered by GBC. He said:  
Many workers have very little skill in doing analysis, in-depth reporting, documentary 
and features and the corporation has not trained itself in the area of engaging the 
public in doing real public discourse. 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
44 
Attracting good sponsorship requires excellent delivery of programmes. Thus, this lack of 
skill most likely has driven away more potential sponsorship. Having the needed excellent 
output although requires some training; also depends a lot on a sense of professional touch to 
achieve excellence. However, this spirit of professionalism is said to be largely missing in the 
staff. In-depth interviews with key informants within corporation have suggested that this 
reported lack of professionalism is also believed to be one main factor hampering the rich 
opportunities available to the corporation in attracting sponsorships.  
 
4.4 Defining the Kind of Broadcaster GBC is, based on Funding 
The Ghana Broadcasting Corporation is currently experiencing what could best be described 
as identity crises. Based on managerial structure, the GBC holds an identity as a public 
broadcaster. However the corporation’s lack of financial independence seems to nullify the 
public broadcaster identity. Based on funding it cannot be said to still hold the identity as a 
public broadcaster since its funds have over the years mostly come from other sources than 
the public.  
 
A FGD participant and also an Executive Member of the National Media Commission 
described GBC as a state owned or public broadcaster, describing the structure of the national 
broadcaster as similar to that of the BBC. When he was however asked how to make the 
national broadcaster truly independent, the executive member said: 
GBC can be truly independent if it is made to run as a company to generate revenue 
for itself without depending on government purse. GBC can be run like the Graphic 
Communications Group Ltd, although it is the only state and public broadcaster. The 
appointment of key pleaders such as Director Generals and the Board of Directors is 
still by government and hence opens GBC up for political influence. 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
45 
Data available also shows that between 2002 and 2011, an average of 50% of the funds 
received by the corporation, although woefully inadequate, has come from the state [Ref Fig. 
3]. Although there seems to be some degree of autonomy in its management set up, it is still 
battling with some political influences as well as interruptions from Government from time to 
time. An FGD participant added this: 
The trend I am seeing is our journalists becoming political. So it is not as if 
government say do this or that but we are increasingly getting politicized journalists 
who then go out and do things on behalf of one side or the other.  
 
Since the year 2005 the corporation has seen some steady rise in finances [Ref Fig 3]. 
However, data available indicate that this rise is still partly due to an increase in government 
subvention as well as a diversion of the corporation’s financial strategy into more commercial 
sources. Thus this split in the funding regime makes it difficult in classifying the corporation 
into any specific category of broadcasting institution. The Deputy Director-General said in 
the in-depth interview that, 
However, in respect to management and programming GBC could be more safely 
categorized as a state broadcaster, but lacks a clear identity on the basis of funding. 
The most recent (2011) funding data available shows that up to 70% of the 
corporation’s operational funds had been provided by the state. This one year funding 
alone is not enough to supports the assertion that GBC is largely a state broadcaster.  
 
A FGD participant sees the national broadcaster as a state broadcaster that works for the state 
and thus represents the government. To this she said: 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
46 
GBC is still a state broadcaster and there is a difference between a state broadcaster 
and a public broadcaster. GBC sees itself as still there for the state and the state 
represented by government so it is quick to respond to government and quick to do 
the government’s bidding. So no matter who is in power, once it is government, GBC 
sees itself as a mouthpiece largely for the government. So its service to the public is 
secondary. Opening it channels to real public discourse does not happen. 
 
4.5 Independence of the Ghana Broadcasting Corporation 
A FGD participant however believes GBC’s independence was certain. He said:   
The broadcaster is very independent to a very large extent because no government 
comes to power to manipulate it. As at now, it is the National Media Commission 
appoints the Board and the Director General and Deputy Director General of the 
Corporation. The 1992 constitution, through the National Media Commission has 
insulated it from governmental control. 
 
Another FGD participant however believes there is more to be done to ensure this 
independence. In terms of ways of making GBC a more independent broadcaster, He said:  
GBC financially depends on the state for subvention, but if it is made purely 
commercial, where the revenue generated is used to take care of its operations, 
financing and investment activities, the organisation will be truly and totally 
independent from the state.  
 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
47 
4.6 Effects of the System of Funding on GBC 
Information collected from management indicates that the funding regime in addition to 
managerial inefficiencies is currently having the following effects on the corporation. Firstly, 
there is the lack of professionalism and pro-activeness from workers, which currently costs 
the corporation the loss of revenue of about three hundred and fifty (350) adverts every 
month. Secondly, new plans to improve services are often abandoned because the expected 
funds for capital investments are never received. The Finance Director said: 
Due to lack of needed funds, I have had to cut budget on some key expenses. This in 
turn affects our operations generally. We are therefore running GBC through 
ingenuity and with what we may have in our coffers. Remember that, if we could 
receive all the financial/ capital investments we really need, we can improve services 
and expand our impact. 
 
Again, GBC, in its attempts to raise more funds, has ventured into commercial programming, 
which has currently made it lose its public service image.   
Also, because GBC depends on the government for most of its funding the corporation sees 
itself as a government mouthpiece; as a station that is just relaying government information to 
the public. The Deputy Director-General said that: 
This image of state ownership with legal backing for the corporation to adhere to the 
demands of the presidency any time they (government) call upon the corporation has 
created a lose system where programme schedules are often easily removed due to 
requests by government for specific activities to be covered and aired.  
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
48 
4.7 Chapter Summary 
The chapter presented the findings obtained from two in-depth interviews and two focus 
group discussions with key media industry experts and analysts. The data that was gathered 
where grouped under themes that emerged from the data collected for the purpose of putting 
the gathered data into right perspective. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
49 
CHAPTER FIVE 
DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION & RECOMMENDATIONS 
5.0 Introduction 
To make the findings meaningful, this chapter discusses, draws inferences and relates the 
findings to other empirical studies. The discussion also includes implications of the findings 
for the theoretical frameworks based on which the research questions were formulated. 
 
5.1 Funding of GBC 
The GBC from 2009 to 2011 received an average of 10.9 Million Ghana Cedis annually from 
government. The corporation currently has a shortfall of about 40% in funding needed for its 
smooth running. There are clear indications of financial instability within the organization. 
This trend shows how increasingly weak and inefficient the corporation has become in being 
self-sufficient in its financing operations.  
 
Banda (2006) has indicated that deficit financing from government, as the case is in South 
Africa and Zimbabwe often leads to over-reliance on advertising revenue. This he believes 
that such financing leaves the PSB operator too open to the vagaries of the advertising 
market. This seems to be the case with GBC where the corporation battles to survive 
financially. As a result beefing up the funding sources is currently moving GBC into more 
commercial programming.  
 
Currently, an average of 80% of its internally generated funds come mainly from commercial 
proceeds, a situation which has clouded the corporation’s desired status as a public service 
broadcaster, but does this mean GBC is on a path of no return in loosing identity as a PSB or 
only going through a financial phase that will change and bounce back as a PSB?  
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
50 
Steemers (2002) points out that attracting advertisers in the face of the imminent onslaught of 
new commercial offerings via cable, satellite, digital transmission and more recently the 
internet has contributed to the steady demise of public service broadcasting. This indicates 
that GBC is probably never going to gain its desired identity as a PSB that currently struggles 
to fund major capital equipment. One of the key financing tools for PSB lies in the TV 
licensing system. World renowned PSBs such as the BBC and the USA’s NRP have been 
funded via television licensing fees. This model of financing is also effective in both South 
Africa and Zimbabwe (Banda, 2006).  
 
However, the TV license system of funding which was supposed to be the bedrock of GBC 
has not worked well for the corporation. Among other reasons for its failure in GBC are the 
low service rates, the crude manual system of its collection, and also the corporation’s 
inability to sever its service from the individuals for non-payment of the fees. At the time of 
this research, management was hoping to revise it to reflect current economic and 
technological trends. 
 
The monitoring and supervision system of activities related to income generation in GBC is 
poor. This makes its income generating activities to run into financial losses. The corporation 
lacks skilled professionals to deliver quality programmes, which drive away so much 
potential sponsorships. 
 
The lack of skilled professionals has translated into the corporation’s lack of marketing 
strategies like branding, which gives a clear identity of which sections of the public it should 
be targeting and how it should serve those needs. The lack of a clear target of different 
sectors of society makes it limited in expanding its financial capital base. This clearly shows 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
51 
in GBC’s inability to attract commercials and advertisers. This has serious influence on its 
financial engineering abilities. 
 
Reports currently indicate no clear laid down plan within the GBC for generating funds for 
investment into capital equipment except relying on the government. However, the lack of 
capital equipment poses a major limitation to the broadcaster in delivering better and 
effective programming. Just a little over half of all funds received by GBC from 2009 to 2011 
came from government; however this made up only 32% of the actual needed funds expected 
by the corporation.  
 
These funds received mostly take care of routine expenses including: utility expenses, repairs 
and maintenance, service charges by other companies, office consumables, programmers’ 
charges, safety, external link expenses etc. This result is somewhat consistent with findings 
made by the Africa Media Barometer, [AMB, 2011].  
 
The Barometer’s findings revealed that “the GBC is not merely adequately funded”, but that 
the corporation is actually “financially disabled”. The report also indicates that subsidies 
from the government “are not even sufficient for salaries and sometimes the payment of staff 
are delayed”. The Barometer’s report on GBCs survival strategies include “the sale of a lot 
more airtime, undercutting the rates set by the private competition, and has to succumb to the 
wishes of potential clients” which in many ways takes away the corporation’s supposed 
image as a public service broadcaster. 
 
According to Siune (1998), a PSB is one that is financially independent of the government 
and commercial sources. These two sources that a broadcaster ought to be independent from 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
52 
according to Siune in order to be classified as a public service broadcaster is the very source 
of current finance for GBC. Based on this, GBC can be said to lack the financial 
independence that a PSB should have, thus making the corporation unqualified to be 
classified as a PSB.  
 
According to Appenteng (2007), this is important because the sources of funding could easily 
be used as the leverage for control or influence on programming” and this “could 
compromise the ability of public service broadcasting from carrying out its mandate.  
 
Furthermore, the split in the funding regime of GBC additionally makes it difficult to classify 
the corporation into any clear and or specific category of broadcasting institution on the basis 
of funding.  
 
Similar evidence in Ireland cited in the European Journal of Communication suggests that 
‘State’s traditional reluctance to provide adequate finance for broadcasting, coupled with its 
perpetual desire to control it’ has been a consistent feature of Irish broadcasting, (Bell, 1984). 
 
5.2 The independence of Ghana Broadcasting Corporation 
This this section seeks to answer the research question, “How have the sources of funding of 
the Ghana Broadcasting Corporation influenced the independence of GBC (from government 
or advertisers) as a PSB?  In 1968, the National Liberation Council Decree (NLCD) 22, 1968 
defined the purpose of GBC  that: “it shall be the duty of the Corporation to provide as a 
public service, independent and impartial broadcasting services (both sound and television) 
for general reception in Ghana”.  
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
53 
The Ghana Broadcasting Corporation Decree, (NLCD 226, 1968) also made provision for the 
structure of the GBC. According to the Decree, the governing body of the Corporation shall 
be a Board, comprising a Chairman and eight other members including the Director General. 
Per the decree, government was responsible for the appointment of the board. The 1992 
Constitution however, gives the right to appoint members of the board to the National Media 
Commission, NMC (Article 168, 1992 Constitution).  
 
The corporation has a Director General who acts as the chief executive officer. He is 
responsible to the board for the day to day administration of the corporation. The current 
democratic dispensation gives the NMC the sole responsibility of appointing director 
generals of the GBC. Provision is made by the NLCD decree 222 for the position of two 
deputy director generals. Presently, the GBC has only one deputy director general. Every 
division is headed by a director. The radio, television engineering and technical divisions are 
all headed by directors. Also, the finance, business development, corporate affairs and 
administration divisions are headed by directors. All ten (10) GBC regional offices are 
headed by directors, who report to the director general. There is also a legal officer and an 
internal auditor who report directly to the director general. 
 
Currently, by using the process of appointment into leadership positions, which rests in the 
hands of the National Media Commission, GBC can be said to be independent, as according 
to research data gathered and presented in the previous chapter that is upheld. 
 
On the basis of funding however, since over half of all funds received by GBC from 2009 to 
2011 came from government it goes to buttress the point raised by Appenteng (2007), that the 
sources of funding could easily be used as the leverage for control or influence on 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
54 
programming” and this “could compromise the ability of public service broadcasting from 
carrying out its mandate, thus GBC’s independence is compromised.  
 
5.3 Theoretical framework of GBC’s funding 
Smith (2010) suggested that the ways of funding PSBs should be left to the ingenuity of 
broadcasters, regulators, academics and the concerned citizens to work out what is best for 
them. Appenteng (2007) also noted that governance and funding mechanisms also differ from 
country to country.  
 
To Siebert et al (1956), “in the oft-used metaphor, the press should offer a marketplace of 
ideas, pursuing profits in a natural process believed to support democracy”. These writers see 
the “only requirement for the press is to pursue its own economic interests” they believe that 
the press left on its own, will represent diverse voices and hold government accountable. 
Here again, staying competitive in this market place would require some serious financial 
injection in order to beat its competitors who are going to be mostly commercial 
broadcasters. Probably, GBC would need to revolutionise its TV licence funding system in 
order to have a more solid financial base for this market place competition of ideas.   
 
Again, very strong leadership would be most necessary to drive this whole changing process 
through. According to the Marxist Media Theory of the Political Economy (Murdock & 
Golding 1977; Murdock 1982), the power of the media lies in the economic processes and 
structures of media production where ownership and economic control of the media are seen 
as the key factor in determining control of media messages. This certainly would require 
some very different leadership and organisational structure that would create this strong sense 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
55 
of ownership and economic control for GBC just as Rumphorst (2003) has suggested that a 
public broadcaster should always have a public service remit.  
 
5.4 Limitations 
In the course of this study, certain limitations were encountered, which had some effects on 
the rate at which the research went. First was the bureaucratic process the researcher had to 
go through in getting the various respondents to grant the interview sessions, as well as 
accessing documents that were relevant to the research, but which were classified non 
disclosable. The researcher was also limited by time and cost, which also contributed to 
slowing down the rate at which the research went. 
 
5.5 Recommendations 
The researcher recommends that further research be carried out, involving all media houses in 
Ghana, with the aim of classifying them in terms of their programme content, mode of 
funding and appeal to their audiences, etc. The research further recommends a content 
analysis of the programming of GBC to see if it promotes national harmony, culture and 
views of the citizenry as a PSB.  
 
5.6 Conclusion 
Although GBC is a PSB, it is not adequately independent in terms of its funding, as about 
50% of its funding is from government sources. This makes GBC susceptible to influence 
from the state as there seems to be no clear autonomy in its operations and with a dependence 
on the state for its funding. 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
56 
In the wake of media pluralisation, GBC as a PSB has to find source of generating funds 
independently to be able to stay true to the tenets of a PSB in order to serve the interests of 
the public. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
57 
BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
Article 19. 2006. Broadcasting, pluralism and diversity: training manual for African 
regulators. London: Article 19.  
 
Apenteng, B., (2002) ‘The current and future challenges of financing public service  
broadcasting in West Africa.’A paper presented at the Regional Conference on Public 
Service Broadcasting in West Africa, 16 - 18 September 2002, organised by 
ARTICLE 19: The Global Campaign for Free Expression and the Media Foundation 
for West Africa.  
 
Banda, F. 2003. Community radio broadcasting in Zambia: a policy perspective. PhD thesis, 
University of South Africa, Pretoria. 
 
Banda, F. (2006). Negotiating distant influences: globalization and broadcasting policy  
reforms in Zambia and South Africa. Canadian Journal of Communication, 31(2). 
 
 Barendt, E. (1995). Broadcasting law: A comparative analysis. Oxford: Clarendon Press 
 Berry, T. Steven and Waldfogel Joel (1999). Public radio in the United States: does it correct  
market failure or cannibalize commercial stations? Journal of Public Economics 
71(1999) 189-211. 
 
Boulton, D. & Hammersley, M. (2006). Analysis of unstructured data. (In Sapsford, R. &  
Jupp, V., Data collection and analysis. (2nd ed). London: Sage. 243-259. 
 
Boyd-Barret Oliver (1995). The political economy approach, in O. Boyd-Barret and C.  
Newbold (eds.), Approaches to Media. Oxford University Press. 
 
Corner, J. (2003). Debate: The model in question — A response to Klaehn on Herman and  
Chomsky. European Journal of Communication, 18, 367–375. 
 
Ellis, J. (2000) Seeing Things: Television in the Age of Uncertainty. London: I.B. Tauris. 
 
Ferguson, M., (1990), (ed.) Public Communication: The New Imperative, Sage: London.  
 
Financing a public good: the evolution of television broadcasting in Ghana. 2005. [SI]: 
International Communication Association.  
 
Fuchs C., Grounding Critical Communication Studies: An Inquiry Into the communication  
Theory of Karl Marx, Journal of Communication Inquiry 2010 34:15 
 
Graham P., Critical Systems Theory: A Political Economy of Language, Thought, and  
Technology, Communication Research 1999 26:482 
 
Graham P., Political Economy of Communication: A Critique, Communication and  
Technology, University of Waterloo; pp 15-22. 
 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
58 
Gorman, G. E., & Clayton, P. (2005). Qualitative research for the information  
professional: A practical Handbook. London: Facet Publishing. p 282. 
 
Heath, C. W. (2001). Regional radio: A response by the Ghana Broadcasting Corporation to  
democratization and competition. Canadian journal of communication, 26(1). 
 
Hendy, D. (2003) ‘Television’s Prehistory: Radio’, pp. 4–7 in M. Hilmes (ed.) The Television  
History Book. London: British Film Institute. 
 
Herman, E. S. (1996). The propaganda model revisited. Monthly Review. Retrieved from  
http://www.chomsky.info/onchomsky/199607--.htm 
 
Jacka, E. (2003) ‘Democracy as Defeat: the Importance of Arguments for Public Service  
Broadcasting’, Television and New Media, 4(2), pp. 177–91. 
 
Jakubowicz K. et al, Public service broadcasting: A new beginning, or the beginning of the  
end? 2007, Knowledge Politics, www.knowledgepolitics.org.uk  
 
 
Klaehn, J. (2002). A critical review and assessment of Herman and Chomsky’s p model.  
European Journal of Communication, 17(2), 147–182. Retrieved from 
http://www.chomsky.info/onchomsky/2002----02.pdf 
 
Lukin Annabelle (2012). Journalism, ideology and linguistics: The paradox of Chomsky’s  
linguistic legacy and his ‘propaganda model’. Journalism 14(96). From 
http://jou.sagepub.com/content/14/96  
 
Medhurst, J. (2003) ‘Competition and Change in British Television’, pp. 40–4 in M. Hilmes  
(ed.) The Television History Book. London: British Film Institute. 
 
Mendel T., Public Service Broadcasting: A Comparative Legal Survey, Head of Law  
Programme, Article 19 
 
Mercer, C. (2006). Working with partners: NGOs and CBOs. In V. Desai & R. B. Potter  
(Eds.), Doing development research (pp. 94-103). London: Sage 
 
Media Institute of Southern Africa (MISA). 2004a. African Charter on Broadcasting. [0]. 
Available: http://www.misa.org/broadcasting/acb.html.  
 
Mosco Vincent (2008). Current Trends in the Political Economy of communication, Global  
Media Journal 2008, Volume 1, Issue 1, pp. 45-63 
 
Murdock, G. (1997) ‘Public Broadcasting in Privatized Times: Rethinking the New Zealand  
Experiment’, pp. 9–33 in P. Norris and J. Farnsworth (eds) Keeping it Ours: Issues in 
Television Broadcasting in New Zealand. Christchurch: New Zealand Broadcasting 
School/Christchurch Polytechnic. 
 
Republic of Ghana, Ghana Broadcasting Study, A Report for the Government of Ghana and  
the World Bank Ministry of Communications 2007. 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
59 
Rumphorst, W. 2003. Model public service broadcasting law. [[SI]: [sn].  
 
Servaes, J. (2001). Participatory communication research for democracy and social  
change. In M. Richards, P. N. Thomas, and Z. Nain (Eds.), Communication and 
development: The Freirean connection (pp. 13-43). Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press. 
 
Schulz w., Changes of mass media and the public sphere, The Public Vol.4 (1997), 2 pp 57 
Storr, Juliette (2011). The disintegration of the state model in the English Speaking 
Caribbean: Reconstructing and redefining public service broadcasting. The 
International Communication Gazette 73(7) 553-572. 
 
Tosics Nora, Van De Ven Ronald and Riedl Alexander (2008). Funding of public service  
broadcasting and state aid rules – two recent cases in Belgium and Ireland. 
Competition Policy Newsletter (3). 
 
Tracey, M. (1998) The Decline and Fall of Public Service Broadcasting. Oxford: Oxford  
University Press. 
 
Wimmer , R. D. & Dominick, J. R. (1987). Mass Media Research: An Introduction 2nd  
(edn.) Wadsworth.  
 
World Radio and Television Council, (2000), public broadcasting: why? How? UNESCO,  
Sector of Communication and Information Division of Communication Development 
WRTC: Montreal 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
60 
ANNEX 1: STRUCTURED INDEPTH INTERVIEW GUIDE 
UNIVERSITY OF GHANA 
DEPARTMENT OF COMMNICATION STUDIES 
(DISSERTATION) 
TOPIC: EXPLORING THE FUNDING OF PUBLIC SERVICE BROADCASTING IN 
GHANA’S DEMOCRACY 
I want to thank you so much for this opportunity to meet with you today, sir/madam. I am 
Abraham Apemenyor Asare, student of the School of Communication Studies, University of 
Ghana. I am undertaking research on the funding of public service broadcasting in Ghana’s 
democracy. I will like to ask a few questions. I promise that this discussion will be treated 
with the uttermost confidentiality; your response will only be used for the purpose of this 
Academic Exercise. Thank You.  
 
THE GHANA BROADCASTING CORPORATION  
State of Current Funding  
1. What is the amount of money the GBC has received annually over the past three years? 
Year Total Amount ( Gh₵ )                                              
2009    
2010   
2011   
 
2. Could you please indicate the various sources of funding of the GBC and how much 
you received from each source? 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
61 
 
Year Source Total Amount 
Expected ( Gh₵ )                                              
Total Amount 
Received ( Gh₵ )                                          
2009  1.   
2.   
3.   
4.   
5.   
6.   
7.   
2010 
  
  
1.   
2.   
3.   
4.   
5.   
6.   
7.   
2011 1.   
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
62 
2.   
3.   
4.   
5.   
6.   
7.   
 
Financial Engineering / Management  
3. In the current democratic dispensation, is the GBC able to attract commercials and 
advertisers? 
4. How does the GBC go about attracting commercials?  
.......................................................................................................................................... 
.......................................................................................................................................... 
.......................................................................................................................................... 
.............................................................................................................................. 
5. Is this way of attracting Adverts difficult?  
a. Very  
b. Difficult  
c. Normal   
d. Not at all 
 
 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
63 
6. What are the main components of your annual budget?  
Component A………………………………………………………………………… 
Component B………………………………………………………………………… 
Component C………………………………………………………………………… 
Component D………………………………………………………………………… 
Component E………………………………………………………………………… 
Component F………………………………………………………………………… 
Component G………………………………………………………………………… 
Component H………………………………………………………………………… 
7. What amount of money does the GBC require on the Average each year to run the 
corporation effectively?   Ghc ………………..…… 
8. Are the current funds you receive able to meet your budget requirements for the year? 
 
 
9. How much shortfall in percentage terms do you have annually in terms of your budget 
deficit?  ANS: ………………% 
10. Which aspects of the financial requirements, e.g salaries, etc, are covered by the 
various funding sources?  
Please turn over  
Please indicate how GBC manages to source for money.  
Component Covered 
Under Budget                                               
% covered Source of Extra Sourcing 
A.    
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
64 
B.    
C.    
D.    
E.    
F.    
G.    
H.    
 
11. Are you considering reintroducing broadcasting licensing fees? 
 
Government/Private Influences  
12. Does government influence the content and operations of GBC?  
13. On what occasions OR Circumstances? 
Occasion A…………………………………………………………………………………. 
Occasion B…………………………………………………………………………………. 
Occasion C…………………………………………………………………………………. 
Occasion D…………………………………………………………………………………. 
Occasion E…………………………………………………………………………………. 
Occasion F…………………………………………………………………………………. 
Occasion G…………………………………………………………………………………. 
 
14. How do they do this? 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
65 
 
15. How would you rate the influence that the government has on programming and 
editorial content of the GBC? 
 
16. Have there been threats from the government or its representatives or ministers to stop 
or restrict funding because of a particular editorial policy? 
17. Does this affect the work of the GBC? 
………………………………………………………………………………………… 
………………………………………………………………………………………… 
………………………………………………………………………………………… 
……………………………………………………………………………………….. 
 
18. How about advertisers? Are your reporters able to write socio-economically disturbing 
stories about major corporate institutions that sponsor your programs when it comes 
up? 
 
19. Are advertisers comfortable with your kind of programming?  
 
 
Effects of the Funding System of GBC 
20. In your opinion would you say GBC is more listened to or viewed compared to private 
broadcasters? 
 
 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
66 
21. How does your answer in Q19 affect your advertising revenue? 
a. Brings in more funds 
b. Does not in any way affect funds influx 
c. Loses some funds to private broadcasters  
d. Causes the lack of funds  
  
22. Are you able to effectively predict how much funds to expect in a given year? 
 
23. Does your current funding regime affect your planning? 
 
24. Please explain 
………………………………………………………………………………………… 
………………………………………………………………………………………… 
………………………………………………………………………………………… 
……………………………………………………………………………………….. 
 
25.  Have there been times when you had to abandon certain plans and programs because 
your expected funding did not come as expected? 
 
 
 
 
 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
67 
ANNEX 2: IN-DEPTH INTERVIEW GUIDE 
Questions to ask at GBC 
Introduction I want to thank you so much for this opportunity to meet 
with you today, sir/madam. I am Abraham Asare, 
student of the School of Communication Studies, 
University of Ghana. I am undertaking research on the 
funding of public service broadcasting in Ghana’s 
democracy. I promise that this discussion will be treated 
with uttermost confidentiality.  
  
Questions 
1. What is the amount of 
money the GBC has 
received annually over the 
past three years?  
A) Could you please indicate the various sources of 
funding of the GBC? 
B) How much do you receive from each source in a 
year? 
C) Are you considering reintroducing broadcasting 
licensing? 
  
2. What is the money that 
GBC receives from its 
“funders” able to do?   
A) Are the funds you receive able to meet your 
requirements for the year? 
B) How much shortfall in percentage terms do you 
have annually in terms of your budget 
requirements? 
C) Which aspects of the financial requirements, i.e 
salaries, etc, are covered by the various funding 
sources 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
68 
3. Does the funding 
guarantee the 
independence of GBC? 
A) How much influence does the government have 
on programming and editorial content of the 
GBC? 
B) Have there been threats from the government or 
its representatives or ministers to stop or restrict 
funding because of a particular editorial policy? 
C) How about advertisers? Are your reporters able 
to write “negative” stories about major corporate 
institutions that sponsor your programmes? 
4. In the current democratic 
dispensation, where the 
media is liberalized, how 
is the GBC able to attract 
commercials and 
advertisers? 
 
A) How difficult is it for GBC to attract ads? 
B) Are advertisers comfortable with your kind of 
programming?  
C) Due to your status as a public service 
broadcaster, I perceive that you may not have the 
kind of listenership that the private media have. 
How does that affect your advertising revenue? 
5. How predictable is the 
funding of GBC? 
A) How much does your planning depend on your 
funding expectations? 
B) Have there been times when you had to abandon 
certain plans because your expected funding did 
not come on time? 
 
 
 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
69 
Questions to ask the National Media Commission 
1. Does the funding of GBC 
enable it to be distinct 
from commercial media? 
A) What kind of a broadcaster is the GBC? 
B) Does it fit into the description of a public service 
broadcaster as that of the BBC?  
C) What would you propose should be done to make 
the GBC truly independent? 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
70 
ANNEX 3: FOCUS GROUP DISSCUSSION GUIDE 
 
1. What can you say about freedom to broadcast in Ghana? 
 
2. What do you use to measure how free a broadcaster is?  
 
3. Please score on a scale of 1 to 10 (With 10 being very well) how well the GBC is doing in 
relation to the above indicators. 
Participant Score 
A  
B  
C  
D  
E  
F  
G  
H  
I  
 
4. What would you say from your monitoring of GBC regarding the level of independence? 
………………………………………………………………………………………… 
………………………………………………………………………………………… 
………………………………………………………………………………………… 
……………………………………………………………………………………….. 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
71 
5. What kind of a broadcaster would you say the GBC is, looking at their overall outlook? 
a. State 
b. Public Service 
c. Private/Commercial 
d. Government 
e. Other Specify ……………………………………………………. 
 
6. What would you propose should be done to make the GBC more independent? 
………………………………………………………………………………………… 
………………………………………………………………………………………… 
………………………………………………………………………………………… 
………………………………………………………………………………………… 
………………………………………………………………………………………… 
……………………………………………………………………………………….. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
72 
ANNEX 4 INTERVIEW GUIDE WITH DEPUTY DIRECTOR-GENERAL, GBC 
Government/Private Influences  
1. Does government influence the content and operations of GBC?  
 
2. How would you rate the influence that the government has on programming and editorial 
content of the GBC? 
 
3. Have there been threats from the government or its representatives or ministers to 
stop or restrict funding because of a particular editorial policy? 
4. How does this affect the work of the GBC? 
………………………………………………………………………………………… 
………………………………………………………………………………………… 
………………………………………………………………………………………… 
……………………………………………………………………………………….. 
 
5. How about advertisers? Are your reporters able to write socio-economically disturbing 
stories about major corporate institutions that sponsor your programs when it comes up? 
 
6. Are advertisers comfortable with your kind of programming?  
Effects of the Funding System of GBC 
7. In your opinion would you say GBC is more listened to or viewed compared to private 
broadcasters?   
 
8. How does your answer in Q7 affect your advertising revenue? 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
73 
9. Are you able to effectively predict how much funds to expect in a given year? 
 
10. Does your current funding regime affect your planning? 
 
11. Please explain 
 
12.  Have there been times when you had to abandon certain plans and programs because 
your expected funding did not come as expected? 
 
 
 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh