UNIVERSITY OF GHANA CENTRE FOR MIGRATION STUDIES MIGRATING UNDER THE USA DIVERSITY VISA PROGRAMME: INTENTIONS AND MOTIVATIONS OF UNIVERSITY OF GHANA STUDENTS BY SETH ABORAH ADUSEI 10273243 THIS THESIS IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF MPHIL MIGRATION STUDIES DEGREE JULY, 2015 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ii DECLARATION I, Seth Aborah Adusei, hereby declare that, except for references to other people‟s work, which have been duly acknowledged, this thesis is the outcome of my independent research conducted at the Centre for Migration Studies, University of Ghana, Legon, under the supervision of Professor John. K. Anarfi and Dr. Bossman Asare. I, therefore, declare that this thesis has neither in part nor in whole been presented to any other institution for an academic award. ……………………………… ……….......................... Seth Aborah Adusei Date Student ……………………….. ……………………... Prof. John K. Anarfi Date Principal Supervisor ……………………………........ ……………………. Dr. Bossman Asare Date Second Supervisor University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh iii DEDICATION This work is dedicated to God, my parents and siblings. Thank you Mr. Attah Adusei and Madam Victoria Achiaa for your immense support and sacrifices made. God bless you. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENT To God be the glory great things he has done. May His name be praised for bringing me this far. My sincere gratitude goes to my supervisors Prof. J. K. Anarfi and Dr. Bossman Asare. Thank you for your careful critique, advise and insightful comments that has seen this work through to completion. I have learnt a lot through you and I am most grateful. God richly bless you. I also thank Dr. (Mrs) Delali Badasu, Director, Centre for Migration Studies for her support and motherly love shown to me throughout my study. Mummy God bless you. To the dynamic course Coordinator at the Centre for Migration Studies, Dr. Joseph Teye and other lecturers Dr. Setrana, Dr. Kandilige and all faculty members. I thank Dr. E.A. Ofosu-Mensah of the Department of History, University of Ghana who introduced me to this program, my senior brother Prince Opoku Adusei, I will not forget your support. Ebenezer Yaw Gyamerah, a special friend and brother, as well as Joshua Asante, you guys deserve a big thank you. Finally, I thank all staff members colleagues, and national service personnel (2015) at the Centre for Migration Studies; Sonia, Henry, Judith, Daina, Zainab, Theo, George, Simpi, Kofi and Emma. God bless you all. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh i TABLE OF CONTENTS Content Page DECLARATION ............................................................................................................................ ii DEDICATION .............................................................................................................................. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................................... iv TABLE OF CONTENTS................................................................................................................... i ABBREVIATIONS ....................................................................................................................... vii ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................... 1 CHAPTER ONE ............................................................................................................................ 2 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 2 1.1 Background to the Study.................................................................................................. 2 1.2 Problem Statement .......................................................................................................... 6 1.3 Research Questions ......................................................................................................... 8 1.4 Objectives of the Study .................................................................................................... 8 1.5 Relevance of the Study .............................................................................................. 9 1.6 Definition of concepts .................................................................................................... 10 1.7 Organization of the Study .............................................................................................. 10 CHAPTER TWO ......................................................................................................................... 12 LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORITICAL FRAMEWORK ........................................................... 12 2.0 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 12 2.1 History of Ghanaian Emigration ..................................................................................... 12 2.2 Youth Migration ............................................................................................................. 14 2.3Migration Intentions and motivations ............................................................................ 16 2.4 Migration of Students to Developed Countries ............................................................. 18 2.5 Labour Migration Programs of Some Developed Countries .......................................... 20 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ii 2.6 The USA Diversity Visa Program .................................................................................... 22 2.6.1 The US DV Lottery Program And African Countries .................................................... 24 2.6.2 Participation in the Diversity Visa Program ................................................................ 26 2.6.3 Effect of the DVLP on African Countries ..................................................................... 28 2.6.4 Participation of Ghanaians in the Diversity Visa Programme ..................................... 29 2.7 THEORETICAL AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORKS ............................................................. 30 2.7.1 The Human Capital Theory ......................................................................................... 31 2.7.1.0 Limitations of the Human Capital Theory ........................................................... 32 2.7.2 Dual Labour Market theory......................................................................................... 33 2.7.2.0 Strength and Weakness of the Dual Labour Theory ............................................ 34 2.7.3 The Push-Pull Theory of Migration ............................................................................. 35 2.7.3.1 The Push and Pull Factors .................................................................................... 35 2.8 Conceptual Framework ...................................................................................................... 36 Independent Variables Intermediate variables Dependent Variables ......................................................................................................................... 37 2.8.1 Background Characteristics......................................................................................... 38 2.8.2 Push and Pull factors (Motivating Factors) ................................................................. 40 CHAPTER THREE ....................................................................................................................... 43 METHODOLOGY ....................................................................................................................... 43 3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 43 3.2 The Study Area ............................................................................................................... 43 3.2.1 Hall of residence ..................................................................................................... 44 3.3 Research Design ............................................................................................................. 44 3.4 Sources of Data .............................................................................................................. 45 3.5 Sample Size .................................................................................................................... 45 3.6 Population and Sampling Procedure ............................................................................. 46 3.7 Data Analysis .................................................................................................................. 48 3.7.1 Quantitative Data and Analysis .................................................................................. 48 3.7.2 Qualitative Data and Analysis ..................................................................................... 49 3.8 Ethical Considerations ........................................................................................................ 50 3.9 Challenges and Limitations of the Study ............................................................................ 51 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh iii CHAPTER FOUR ........................................................................................................................ 52 BACKGROUND CHARATERISTICS AND MIGRATION INTENTIONS OF STUDENTS ................. 52 4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 52 4.2 Socio-Demographic and Economic Characteristics .................................................. 52 4.2.1 Age of Respondents .......................................................................................... 52 4.2.2 Sex Distribution of Respondents ...................................................................... 53 4.2.3 Religious affiliation of respondents ................................................................. 53 4.2.4 Source of Funding of University Education ..................................................... 54 4.2.5 Marital status of respondents .............................................................................. 55 4.2.6 Children ever born of respondents ...................................................................... 56 4.2.7 Level of Study of Respondents ............................................................................. 57 4.2.8 Employment status .............................................................................................. 58 4.3 Job Assurance After Study ....................................................................................... 59 4.4 Migration intentions of students ............................................................................. 60 4.5. Factors influencing students’ migration intentions ................................................. 63 4.5.1 Determinants of Migration Intention Using A Logistic Regression Analysis .. 63 4.5.2 Students‟ reasons for intending to migrate ...................................................... 70 4.5.3 Preferred country of destination ............................................................................. 73 4.5.3.1 Factors that influence choice of destination ........................................................ 74 4.6 Challenges to Students’ Intention to Migrate.......................................................... 76 4.7 Summary .................................................................................................................. 78 CHAPTER FIVE .......................................................................................................................... 79 EXAMINING THE KNOWLEDGE AND PARTICIPATION OF DV PROGRAMME BY STUDENTS ..... 79 5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 79 5.2 Students’ knowledge about the Diversity Visa program ............................................... 79 5.3 Sources of Students’ Knowledge about the DV Program .............................................. 80 5.4 Intentions of Students to Participate In the DV Programme ......................................... 82 5.5 Expectations for intending to participate in the DV Program ....................................... 85 5.6 In-Depth Interview Of Former University of Ghana Students in the USA, through the Diversity Visa Programme .................................................................................................... 88 5.6.1 Participation in the DV Programme and Motivation .................................................. 89 5.6.2 The Decision to Migrate After Winning the DV .......................................................... 90 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh iv 5.6.3 The Motivation of Employment opportunity in the USA ............................................ 91 5.6.4 The Motivation of Educational opportunities in the USA ........................................... 93 5.6.5 Remittance from DV Migrants in the USA .................................................................. 94 5.6.6 Challenges Faced by the DV Migrants in the USA ....................................................... 96 5.6.7 Return Migration intention ......................................................................................... 97 5.7 Suggestions and opinions of students ............................................................................... 99 5.7 Summary ...................................................................................................................... 101 CHAPTER SIX ........................................................................................................................... 102 SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ........................................................ 102 6.0 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 102 6.1 Summary of findings .................................................................................................... 102 6.2 Conclusions .................................................................................................................. 104 6.3 Recommendations ....................................................................................................... 106 6.3.1 Emerging issue for further research ...................................................................... 107 REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................... 108 APPENDIX A ............................................................................................................................ 120 APPENDIX B ............................................................................................................................ 129 APPENDIX C ............................................................................................................................ 133 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh v LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page Figure2.1: Conceptual framework showing the Pathway to the migration intentions of University students………………………………………………………… 37 Figure 4.1: Marital status of respondents………………………………….. 56 Figure 4.2: Children ever born…………………………………………..… 57 Figure 4.3: Level of University Study…………………………………….. 58 Figure 4.4: Employment Status…………………………………………….59 Figure 4.5: Job Assurance of Students After Completion of Studies…….. 60 Figure 4.6: Migration Intention of University of Ghana Students……..….. 60 Figure 4.7: Preferred destination countries of students…………………… .74 Figure: 5.1: Sources of Knowledge about the DV Program………………. 81 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh vi LIST OF TABLES Table Page Table 2.1: Winning chances per year, per continent, per legitimate entry, DV-2007 through DV-2012………………………………………………………… 26 Table 2.2: DV lottery entrants from Ghana, 2010-2015………………… 30 Table 4.1: Summary of Socio-Demographic Characteristics of Respondents. (Age, Sex, Religion and Source of funding of University Study)……………… 55 Table 4.2: Summary of the Results of the Logistic Regression Analysis… 64 Table 4.3: Cross tabulation of job assurance and migration intentions……………..65 Table 4.4: Distribution of the reasons behind the intention to migrate abroad……..73 Table 4.5: Challenges to students‟ migration intention………………………… 77 Table 5.1: Distribution of the Knowledge of respondents about the DV Program.. 80 Table 5.2: Distribution of students‟ intention to migrate under the DV Program… 83 Table 5.3: Distribution of students‟ migration expectations/motivations under the DVLP………………………………………………………………………………..86 Table 5.4: Respondents‟ suggestions of the role of government to retain university graduates in Ghana…………………………………………………………… 99 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh vii ABBREVIATIONS DV Diversity Visa DVLP Diversity Visa Lottery Programme ECOWAS Economic Community of West African States IOM International Organisation for Migration OECD Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development SHS Senior High School SPSS Statistical Package for Social Science UN United Nations UNDP United Nations Development Programme University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 ABSTRACT This study sets out to examine the migration intentions of university of Ghana students with respect to the USA Diversity Visa Lottery Program (DVLP). The study investigates the determining factors of migration intentions of students, drawing on their intention to participate in the DVLP. The study employed a methodological triangulation in data collection: a survey of 125 respondents and 7 in-depth interviews (5 students and 2 former University of Ghana students, resident in the USA through winning the DV program). The study draws on Lee‟s Push-Pull framework to show the pathway to the migration intentions of students. Overall, the study revealed that majority of University of Ghana students (71%) have intention to migrate from Ghana. The factors that motivate their intention to migrate are largely due to economic considerations; key among them is the search for employment opportunity. Beside this, is the desire of students to pursue their study abroad. The study finds out that students‟ assurance of securing employment upon completion of their study is a significant predictor of their migration intentions. That is, if a student is assured of getting a job here in Ghana upon completion of university education, then it is less likely that the student would intend to migrate abroad. The study finds out that a great majority of students (89%) know about the US Diversity Visa programme where more than half of them intend to participate in the program. Their intention to participate in the program is underlined by their expectations of securing employment and educational opportunities in the USA. The study reveals that although sections of the migration literature describe the migration of highly educated as a brain drain to sending countries, majority of university students see it as a survival strategy to mainly escape unemployment and also better their life including the pursuit of higher education abroad. Majority of students who could not have secured employment in Ghana and contributed to the development of the country could have employment and educational opportunity abroad and be able to meaningfully contribute to development through remittances as in the case of two participants of the study in the USA. The study therefore recommends that since the economy of Ghana cannot absorb all university graduates, creating a backlog of unemployed graduates in the country, policymakers should facilitate the migration of the excess labour to developed countries that can absorb them into their economy. Government of Ghana could therefore liaise with the USA and other developed countries such as Canada, Australia and Norway that may need such category of labour. This would enable migrants under this program to contribute meaningfully to Ghana‟s development by supporting their family through remittance and also importantly, reduce unemployment in the country. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2 CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background to the Study Migration of Ghanaians takes place within the country, within the West African sub- region and Africa in general as well as across the continent (Awumbila et al, 2011). Initially, internal migration was the commonest form of migration in Ghana (Boahen, 1975,) and it usually took the form of north-south and rural-urban migration (Anarfi, 2003). Although internal migration continues to be very popular in Ghana till date, migration across the borders of Ghana has been a growing trend since 1965 (Anarfi, Awusabo- Asare et al. 2000) Ghanaians migrated to West African countries from the period of 1965 when Ghana experienced an unprecedented economic downturn. Not only did Ghanaians become disinterested in living in Ghana but the rate of in-migrants also reduced substantially from 12.3% in 1960 to 6.6% in 1970 (Anarfi, 2003). Many Ghanaians made Cote d‟Ivoire a major point of destination in West Africa (Awumbila et al, 2011). In the 1980s, migration of Ghanaians, skilled and unskilled increased when the economy worsened and according to Anarfi (2003:7) migration became a survival strategy. The Structural Adjustment Program introduced by the government of Ghana in the 1980s deepened the economic woes of the people where several public sector workers were laid off leading to the rise of unemployment rate (Awumbila et al University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3 2013). The consequence of this was that Ghanaian professionals and trained personnel migrated in large numbers to neighbouring countries and other African countries (Anarfi, Awusabo-Asare et al, 200). The Ghana-Nigeria corridor became a major migration gate during this period. According to Anarfi (1982), unofficial figures of Ghanaian migrants to Nigeria averaged about 300 per day and as of December 1980 about 150,000 Ghanaians had registered with the Ghana High Commission in Lagos (Anarfi, 2003). A critical situation of this migration was that the country lost much of its trained personnel with about 50 per cent of the architects trained by the University of Science and Technology in Kumasi migrating to Nigeria (Anarfi, 2003). In 1986, the number of Ghanaians in Côte d‟Ivoire was estimated to be between 500,000 and 800,000 (Anarfi, Awusabo-Asare et al. 2000). The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) formed in 1975 also facilitated Ghanaian emigration to neighbouring West African countries as part of its objective to promote free movement of its members within the sub-region (Anarfi, 2003). It is estimated that about two million Ghanaians emigrated between 1974 and 1981 (Anarfi, 2003). Also, Ghanaians migrated to other parts of African countries during this same period of economic decline in the 1980s. They migrated in search of jobs and professionals like teachers, lawyers and administrators were invited by countries such as Uganda, Botswana, Nigeria and Zambia to assist with their national development after independence (Anarfi, Awusabo-Asare et al. 2000). It is estimated that between 1975 and 1981, Ghana may have lost about 14,000 qualified teachers, among them 3,000 university graduates (Rado, 1986). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4 Overall, there is a long history of emigration from Ghana to other West African and African states, as well as Europe and North America, for various reasons including employment, education and training (Nuro, 1999). Meanwhile, a very significant recent development indicates North America has become increasingly dominant as a destination for Ghanaians (Adepoju 2010). The top four countries of destination were the US, Germany, Italy and Nigeria and from 1986 to 2001, about 49,703 Ghanaians emigrated to the US and by 2001, 104,000 Ghanaians were living in the US, whilst 114,335 were registered in Canada (Anarfi 2003). More so, these new migrants were found to be youthful and well educated. According to Anarfi (2003), these migrants were predominantly young (aged 20-29), and were found to be better educated than non-migrants, after controlling for age differences between the non-migrants and migrants interviewed. According to IOM‟s report (2013), South–North migrants are more likely to be highly educated than migrants who move from South to South. According to Adepoju (2010), although total immigration from sub-Saharan Africa to the USA is relatively small in comparison with the total inflow and stock of immigrants to the USA, the Sub- Saharan African immigrants consist primarily of highly educated people, especially those from Ghana, South Africa and Nigeria. OECD estimates that 24% of all migrants in the North have completed tertiary education (Dumont et al, 2010). According to Adepoju (2010) 23000 University graduates leave Sub-Saharan Africa annually. Available statistics from the Ghana Immigration Service estimate the total emigration from Ghana between 1996 and 2005 to be 4,118,966 (Manuh, 2006). Significantly, University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5 the United States is said to have the highest proportion of Ghanaian emigrants with most of these movements according to Dankyi (2010) having been fuelled by the Diversity Visa Programme of the United States Government. This indicates the extent to which the Diversity Visa Program contributes to migration from Ghana. Although the DV Lottery program comes with a very slim margin of success due to the vast number of applicants who seek the 50000 allocated slots of visa across the world, many Ghanaians continue to win the lottery annually and migrate to the USA. Various studies continue to put Ghana among the top sending countries of migrants to USA through the DV program (Martin and Midgley, 2003; Law, 2002). Persons participating in the DV program must fulfil the requirement of high school completion or work experience requiring at least two years training (U.S. Department of State, 1997). Combined with an application which takes place online, the DV program has almost become the preserve of the highly educated such as university students and other college graduates especially in the sub-Saharan Africa, where participation level is very high (Ngwainmbi, 2014; Rotimi, 2005). The reason for the high participation of Africans in the DV program, especially sub-Saharan Africans is attributed to the high unemployment rate of college graduates, economic instability and poor working conditions (Ngwainmbi, 2014). With the DV program being a means of migrating to the US, participation in the program is an indication of an intention to migrate. However, according to Kremer (2011), in Ghana, the DV program is particularly popular on university campuses. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6 1.2 Problem Statement Migration of the highly educated especially from developing countries to advanced countries continue to increase due to the growing gap between the rich and the poor countries. The Canadian census of 1991 to 2006 show a steady rise in number of new immigrants who have completed the university and are of the ages 25-54 years, from around 84,350 to 298,000 in Canada (Bonikowska, Hou and Picot, 2011). Between the same period in the US (1991 and 2006), the number of university educated new immigrants aged 25 to 54 also rose from 531,390 to 1,230,300 (a 132% increase). This, according to Kanbur and Rapoport (2003) is partly due to the quality human capital selective methods adopted by receiving countries. According to Adepoju (2010), 23000 University graduates leave sub-Saharan Africa annually. Some scholars have suggested that the migration of the highly educated and skilled labour may come as a benefit to the origin countries in a form of remittances, both social and financial (Lowell and Findlay, 2002; De Haas and Plug 2006; Gamlen 2006). However, despite continued migration from poorer to richer countries, and from poorer to richer areas within countries, spatial inequalities in income persist and have been evidently widening in the last two decades (Kanbur and Rapoport, 2003:1). Significantly, various studies continue to point to the USA as a major destination country for highly educated migrants (Carrington and Detragiache, 1998). Meanwhile the United States has been one of the most popular destination countries of Ghanaian migrants (Black, Tiemo et al, 2003). As mentioned by Anarfi (2003), 49,703 Ghanaians migrated to the USA between 1986 and 2001 however, by 2001, 104,000 Ghanaians were living in the USA. According to Dankyi (2010) most of these movements by Ghanaians to the USA have been fuelled by the Diversity Visa University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 7 lottery program. Various studies on immigration in the US put Ghana among the top sending countries to the USA through the DV program (Martin and Midgley, 2003; Law, 2002). From 2005 to 2014, 17265 Ghanaians have won the DV lottery (US Department of State, 2015). Interestingly, the DV program remains particularly popular on university campuses in Ghana (Kremer, 2011). This according to Kremer (2011:45) is because, university students have become the main “target” in Ghana by “Visa agents” who set up information desks on university campuses to enrol students into the DV Lottery, as explained by a US consular in Ghana. The possible interest of university students in a migration program like the Diversity Visa lottery by the USA could be an indication of their migration intention, specifically to the USA. Although research has been done on migration intentions of students in developing countries (also eligible to participate in the DV lottery program), no comprehensive study has been done on the migration intention of students with respect to the DV program. For instance, Nguyen and associates (2008) studied the migration intentions of Ugandan nursing students where 70% of participants had the intention to migrate from Uganda after their study with 59% and 49% choosing the US and the U.K. as their preferred destination country respectively. Habib (2009) also studied the migration intentions of engineering students in Cairo University, Akl et al (2008) studied Post-graduation migration intentions of Lebanese medical students, while Hallberg (forthcoming) studied migration aspirations among university students in Ghana. More so, Ngwainmbi (2014) has studied about the Diversity Visa Programme and emphasises that it is a popular programme especially in sun-Saharan Africa. As already stated, Kremer‟s University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 8 (2011) study on the DV programme also reveal that the DV program is particularly popular in Ghana on university campuses. Consequently, this study examines the migration intentions of University of Ghana students with respect to the US Diversity Visa lottery program. The study first finds out students‟ migration intention and its determining factors and consequently explores the factors that influence students‟ intention to participate in the Diversity Visa program. Even though students‟ intention to participate in the DV program, like their intention to migrate, cannot perfectly determine the number of students who actually migrate or stay, they, together offer important understanding into the determining factors that influence students‟ migration decision making. 1.3 Research Questions From the foregoing, the study would like to seek answers to the following research questions:  What are the migration intentions of university of Ghana students?  What explains the factors that influence their migration intentions?  What are the intentions of university of Ghana students with respect to participating in the Diversity Visa Lottery programme?  What accounts for their participation in the programme; thus their expectations or motivations to participate in the Diversity Visa programme? 1.4 Objectives of the Study The general objective of the study is to examine the migration intentions of University of Ghana students with respect to the DV programme. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 9 The specific objectives are;  To find out the migration intentions of University of Ghana students  To understand the factors that influence the migration intention of University of Ghana students  To examine the intention of students to participate in the Diversity Visa program  To understand the expectations or motivations behind students intention to migrate under or participate in the Diversity Visa Lottery program  To make recommendations for policy and research 1.5 Relevance of the Study Migration is an important feature of Ghana‟s population. Young people usually seek to migrate mostly to seek for jobs and economic opportunities to improve their standard of living. Although migration to the USA is a major destination for Ghanaian migrants, the Diversity Visa has been a key contributor to that (Dankyi, 2010; cf. New Africa, 2005). From 2005 to 2014, 17265 Ghanaians have won the DV lottery (US Department of State, 2015). Meanwhile according to Kremer, (2011) the DV is particularly popular on university campuses in Ghana. However, in the study of migration intention of students, no comprehensive study has been done with respect to university students‟ participation in the DV program in Ghana as means of better understanding the push and pull dynamics of migration between origin and host countries. The study will add to the existing literature on migration and offer a useful understanding of university students‟ migration decision making. It also highlights the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 10 DV program as a host country‟s migration program that has a direct effect on Ghana. Finally It will furnish policy makers with the needed information to address the migration of Ghanaian university students. 1.6 Definition of concepts This section presents a clarification of some concepts that will allow for measurements, understanding and comparisons within the framework of an empirical study. Migration intention: A plan or desire to migrate from Ghana Motivations: Determining factors that influence migration decision making Participation in the Visa lottery: Registering in the Diversity Visa programme/ an intention to migrate under the Diversity Visa Program. Intention to participate in the Diversity Visa lottery- A desire or a plan to register in the Diversity Visa program DV migrant: A person living in the USA upon winning the Diversity Visa lottery DV Agent: A person who works as a visa lottery registration aide and solicits for (qualified) clients to register DV Entrant: A principal applicant of the Diversity Visa lottery Derivatives: Family members registered with principal applicant of the Diversity Visa lottery 1.7 Organization of the Study The study is divided into six chapters. After this chapter, the second chapter consists of the review of relevant literature as well as the theoretical and conceptual framework of the study. Chapter three looks at the methodology employed in carrying University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 11 out the study. Chapters four and five present the analysis of data collected and the discussion of results. Finally, chapter six presents the summary of findings, conclusions and recommendations. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 12 CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORITICAL FRAMEWORK 2.0 Introduction This Chapter reviews the existing literature on the trend of migration in Ghana. It further reviews relevant literature on migration of the youth, students and also the determining factors of migration. It concludes with the theoretical and conceptual frameworks of the study. 2.1 History of Ghanaian Emigration Migration in Ghana has been an age-long phenomenon and according to Awumbila et al (2011), it pre-dates the colonial era. Initially, migration in Ghana was predominantly internal in nature which mostly involved movement of people of diverse ethnic groups (Boahen, 1975). Ghana became an attractive destination for migrants during the colonial and post-colonial period up to the late 1960s as a result of the introduction of economic development policies (Awumbila et al 2011). During this period, economic prosperity had endeared Ghana among its neighbouring West African migrants, mainly with the development of gold mines and cocoa farms in the southern parts of the country (Anarfi, 1982). This therefore led to a net immigration status for the country. According to Awumbila et al (2011), the trend of net immigration continued until the late 1970s when economic and political instability led to a reversal of migration trends and Ghana became a net exporter of migrants. Several scholars have attributed the causes of Ghana‟s emigration to various reasons. Kabki (2007) points to the effect of colonial ties in the destination choice of the Ghanaian migrants. Many Ghanaians migrated to the United Kingdom as well as other English speaking countries such as USA and Canada for greener pastures University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 13 (Owusu, 2000). More so, during the period under consideration, international movement from Ghana involved a relatively small number of people, most of whom were students and professionals and the majority of these movements were to the United Kingdom and other English-speaking countries due to colonial links (Anarfi, Awusabo-Asare et al. 2000). Again, migration was fuelled by the invitation from some African countries such as Botswana, Gambia, and Sierra Leone to serve in their public service and assist with their national development (Anarfi et al 2003). Furthermore, some Ghanaians have also migrated to neighbouring West African countries. Adepoju (2005) cites historical and cultural ties as factors for this development. For example, some Ghanaian ethnic groups share ethnic ties with neighbouring countries such as Togo, Burkina Faso and Cote d‟Ivoire and these have become major migration destinations for many Ghanaian migrants. It must be emphasised that, the initial emigration of Ghanaians according Anarfi, Awusabo- Asare et al (2000) began from 1965 and the trend continued due to “economic crisis of an unprecedented magnitude” (Anarfi, 2003 cf. Anarfi, Awusabo-Asare et al. 2000 : 6). Moreover, Fosu (1992) observes that political instability can also be blamed for the increase in Ghana‟s international out-migration in the late 1970s and early 1980s (Fosu 1992; cf. Anarfi et al., 2003). This was the period where emigration became intensified and on a large-scale in Ghana and several professionals as well as non- professionals trooped to neighbouring West African countries in search of employment (Anarfi,1982). This period of economic turmoil in Ghana in the mid- 1980s coincided with stringent economic measures by the IMF adopted by the PNDC junta known as the Structural Adjustment Program (SAP). This included staff redeployment and the withdrawal of subsidies on social services such as health, University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 14 transport and education. The unemployment and other hardships that occurred with the withdrawal of subsidies created conditions for emigration (Anarfi, 2003). Nigeria became a major destination for Ghanaian migrants and Twum-Baah (2005) attributes the share of a common colonial heritage thus official language, socio economic and political structures as a motivation for the choice of Nigeria as a destination for Ghanaian migrants. By December 1980 about 150,000 Ghanaians had registered with the Ghana High Commission in Lagos (Anarfi 2003). The nature of the migration was such that the country lost much of its trained personnel. For example in the early 1980s, about13 per cent of the 163 paid up members of the Ghana Institute of Architects had addresses in Nigeria. It was also estimated that about 50 per cent of the architects from the University of Science and Technology had migrated to Nigeria (Anarfi, 2003:7). Many Ghanaians also migrated to the Cote d‟Ivoire. In 1986, the number of Ghanaians in Côte d‟Ivoire was estimated to be between 500,000 and 800,000 (Anarfi, Awusabo-Asare et al. 2000). This goes to show the depth of emigration from Ghana and how economic instability can affect the nation especially with the loss of skilled and highly educated personnel. 2.2 Youth Migration Migration of University students to a large extent, constitute youth migration. According to the IOM (2013), migration of the youth from the global south to the global north is on the increase. These migrants in the global north are also seen as highly educated (IOM). OECD estimates highlight that, in the North, 24 per cent of all migrants have completed tertiary education, while only 15 per cent of migrants in the South have reached this level of education (IOM 2013; cf, Dumont et al., 2010). According to Anarfi (2003), migrants of the past ten years are predominantly young aged between 20-29 years and are well educated. Awumbila et al (2011) stresses on University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 15 the active involvement of the youth in migration and state the youth, of all age groups move most. Young men and women of all social, economic, educational and ethnic backgrounds cross community and national frontiers to seek jobs and economic opportunities to improve their standard of living and / or to escape from poverty and restraints imposed by rigid gendered norms (Awumbila et al, 2011; 7). This reason by Awumbila et al (2011) perhaps offers an insight into why the youth from developing countries may seek to migrate. However, while the youth from developing countries may seek to migrate to escape poverty and unemployment according to Awumbila et al. (2011), they therefore expect to secure such employment opportunities abroad to improve their living conditions. On the other breath is why receiving countries may need this labour force or be able to integrate them in their economy and society. Perhaps, the following extract by Awumbila et al (2011:36) again, may highlight the need for developed countries to have young migrants from developing countries. Many developed countries, in particular those with ageing populations, benefit from young migrants from developing countries who fill the lowest-paid jobs that no one else wants contributing to the crucial growth and development machinery that moves economies of countries, cities and communities. They provide manual labour in agriculture and construction; domestic work and service jobs in homes, hotels and restaurants. There is also growing demand for qualified workers in such areas as health care, communication technologies, and young talent in sports, which entice African youth to move abroad to better their lives” (Awumbila, et al, 2011: 36). From the above extract, two main factors could be attributed to the migration of the youth from developing countries; first the desire to have a better or improved life and secondly the demand for labour by developed countries to fill shortages. Therefore, there are both push and pull factors at play in the whole phenomenon. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 16 2.3Migration Intentions and motivations In the era of globalization, where mobility is fast-tracked and made easier through easy access to transportation and information, the motivations and expectations behind migration decisions or intentions and the very nature of these decisions grow more diverse. The literature often distinguishes between motivations that propel permanent (long-term) migration and those that drive temporary (short-term) moves (e.g., Goldstein, Goldstein, and Gu, 1993; Goldstein and Goldstein, 1996; Guilmoto, 1998; De Jong, 2000). However this distinction, according to Agadjanian et al (2008:635), should not confuse the fact that migration intended as temporary often morphs into permanent and, vice versa, the intended permanent/long-term relocations sometimes are cut short due to a variety of intervening factors both at the sending and receiving ends of the migration process. For instance a person migrating with the sole intention of furthering their education abroad may end up staying at the destination country after study and work. This is the fluid nature of migration intentions. With respect to motivation behind migration, the migration literature mostly define it with the “why” question, that is, “why do you want to migrate” question which seeks to bring out the reasons behind the decision of a person to migrate (De Jong and Gardner, 1981). These reasons or motivations are shaped by the personal characteristics of the individual, their present conditions at the origin, which are described as “push factors” as well as the perceived factors or conditions at the destination country which serve as attraction based on the information available to the individual. This is known as the “pull factors” (Lee, 1966). Another factor that influences migration intentions is the family and friends factor known in the migration literature as the social network or its benefit called the social capital which influences migration intentions (Massey,1990). Family and friends University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 17 serve as motivation to migration and this is demonstrated in the social network theory that explains that relatives and friends at the destination encourage migration by providing information to friends and relatives at the origin by increasing the awareness of conditions and opportunities there. Similarly the facilitating hypothesis (also known as the migration auspices) argues that having relatives and friends at a destination encourages migration by increasing the migrant‟s potential for adjustment through the availability of aid to relocate there (Findley, 1977). In a study by Crawford (1966) students with family encouragement to migrate are more likely to plan to migrate than those with no encouragement from family to migrate. Having relatives and/or friends living in places of potential destination may encourage migration by reducing its perceived costs and increasing its expected benefits (Fuller, Lightfoot, and Kaltnuansilpa, 1990; Massey, 1990; Menjívar, 2000). Individuals‟ intentions to migrate may also be influenced by their friends and acquaintances who have migrated before or intend to migrate (Epstein and Gang, 2006). More so, in recent times, governments of some developed countries have laid down programs that seek to attract the highly skilled and the educated migrants, especially from developing countries. Such programs include the Points Based Sytem practiced by countries such as Canada, Australia, New Zealand and the UK. The USA have the H1-B visa allocation program which attracts persons with a minimum of a Bachelor‟s degree qualification to work in their organisations (Martin and Midgley, 2003).The USA also have the DV lottery program which attracts 50,000 immigrants each year of which this thesis seeks to highlight due to its popularity among African countries (Ngwainmbi, 2014). These programs by host countries that seek to attract or recruit human resources from other countries also serve as pull factors of migration. According to Dovlo (2003), pull factors are those factors emanating from deliberate University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 18 and unintended policies and actions of recipient countries which attract people to migrate (Dovlo, 2003). The selective nature of migration is among the key determinants of migration decision-making according to the literature (Kanbur and Rapoport, 2003). The higher one‟s education, the more likely the person will migrate to utilize such human capital. This implies that the motivation to migrate by an educated person is higher than the non-educated. In looking at the personal characteristics of an individual as a motivation to migrate, age is also well addressed by the migration literature as a factor. Young people are more motivated or according to Goldscheider (1971:315), are twice likely to carry out their mobility plans and desires than older people. Goldscheider (1971) argues that older persons are more integrated into the community through family, friends and social organizations and through housing and economic investments. Therefore persons with stronger ties are less prone to break them by moving, and if they move, it is often within the same general community or neighbourhood (internal migration). 2.4 Migration of Students to Developed Countries Among the key reasons or factors responsible for students‟ migration intention is their desire to pursue higher education and also to utilize their skill abroad. Studies from other countries have shown a high number of students intending to train or study abroad as well as work there too. In a 2004 survey of 166 final year students of Indian medical schools, 59% thought of leaving India for further training with the top two destinations being the US (42%) and the UK (43%) (Rao et al 2006). Also in a survey of first-year house officers practicing in New Zealand, 65% of the 157 respondents intended to leave New Zealand within 3 years of graduating (Moore et al, 2006). In University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 19 another New Zealand survey of final year medical students as well as junior doctors in their first to fourth postgraduate year, 69% of respondents stated that they plan to work overseas (Zarkovic et al, 2006). It is estimated that half of graduates of South African medical schools emigrate (Dambisya, 2003). One study of Ugandan nursing students found that 70% of participants have the intention to migrate from Uganda after their study, and that within five years they would likely be working in the U.S. (59%) or the U.K. (49%) (Nguyen et al 2008). In a study conducted among Lebanese postgraduate students, 96% of the respondents intended to train abroad. Out of this, only 25.1% intended to return to Lebanon directly after finishing training (Akl et al, 2008). Advanced countries have opened up their educational institutions such as the Universities that encourage admission from other countries. The Institute of International Education (IIE) reports that a record 582,996 foreign students were enrolled in the US colleges and universities in the 2001-2002 academic year (IIE, 2002). The many skills and talents of the international students are analysed by Findlay (2010) as a resource for the host societies rather than for their communities of origin. According to the IIE report, foreign students contribute about $12 billion annually to the US economy. Findlay (2010) highlights that the developed countries see those movements as part of the migration of highly skilled individuals; those countries understand that they are the most talented and brightest minds of their communities of origin and, thus, try to attract them to develop their national economies based on knowledge. Human capital, knowledge, and creativity, rather than natural resources are the keys to economic development (Williams 2006). International competition in attracting talented students is one of the expressions of competition in globalizing world; hence University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 20 the search for authenticity, and excellence (Findlay and Tierney, 2010). Morawska (2007) therefore sees the migration of students as a deliberate policy by advanced countries to attract bright talents from other countries for their development. According to Morawska (2007:5) a form of brain-drain migration has emerged in the universities of advanced countries that train students from developing countries, who do not return to their origin. For example, out of about 500,000 migrant students in the United States in the year 2000, nearly one-half, most of them from the developing world, did not intend to return home after completing their studies (Morawska, 2007). There are numerous scholarship schemes instituted by many advanced countries meant for students from developing countries. Some of the common destination countries by Ghanaian students and graduates seeking to pursue their education abroad include Canada, Germany, United Kingdom, Australia, USA, Norway, (recently) Eastern European countries like Ukraine and Russia as well as China. For example, in his new year opening roundtable remarks, the US Ambassador to Ghana, Ambassador Cretz, disclosed that Ghanaian students benefited from about $8 million worth of scholarship to study in USA, an amount he says is a third of the entire money due the whole continent (Dec. 22, 2014). 2.5 Labour Migration Programs of Some Developed Countries In an era when globalization makes it possible for easy movement of people, goods and services, from one point of the globe to another, migration of persons has become a common phenomenon. Developed countries that have become major points of attraction to economic migrants have therefore come up with migration policies and programs that often seek to maximize the economic benefits of migration while minimizing the cost to public funds. Some countries aim to fill perceived labour University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 21 shortages by selecting migrants to fill jobs in specific sectors (Hawthorne, 2014). Many governments are also now trying to choose immigrants on the basis of social cohesion or national security concerns (Murray, 2011). In developing immigration policies, policymakers target various goals that enhance development. A few policymakers are even discussing the possibility of using immigration from developing countries as a form of aid policy by admitting migrants from countries where remittances form an important part of economic development, such as the Philippines, while trying to discourage a „brain drain‟ (Murray, 2011:14). Due to this, targeted migration programmes are now common in advanced economies resulting to competitive immigration regimes. A United Nations report in 2005 revealed that the number of developed countries with policies designed to minimize migration had declined from 60 per cent in 1996 to 12 per cent in 2005. A more recent study by the UNDP (2009) which compared 14 countries found that all now favour highly skilled immigration. Economic migration system according to Papademetriou et al (2009) fall into two categories: those in which employers select economic migrants (demand led), and those where the government defines the selection process (supply led). According to Murray (2011 :17), the first approach, which is used for example in Sweden, is guided by the immediate needs of employers. That is, employers select individual immigrant workers to fill specific vacancies. However, the latter approach involves the governments designing policies to shape the workforce rather than benefit specific employers (Murray, 2011). All the Western European countries have resorted to a systematic recruitment of labour migrants, one way or another, at some point in time (Castles, 2006). In recent times, there is also the introduction of the Point Based System (PBS). Canada first introduced this system in the late 1960s and this approach University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 22 was subsequently adopted by Australia in 1989, New Zealand in 1991, the Czech Republic in 2003, and Singapore in 2004, (Hawthorne, 2014). However, for Africans, in the sub-Saharan region, it is the US Diversity Visa lottery program which is most popular and attracts high participation (Ngwainmbi, 2014). 2.6 The USA Diversity Visa Program The USA is generally regarded as the leading country of immigration and represents the idea of “free migration” (Castles and Miller, 2009:5). An estimated 54 million people entered between 1820 and 1987 (Borjas, 1990: 3). Mass migration is therefore viewed by some economic historians as an important feature of the 'greater Atlantic economy' (Hatton and Williamson, 1998). Until the 1880s, the USA had an open-border approach of migration: anyone who could afford the ocean passage could live in America. The largest immigrant groups from 1860 to 1920 according to Castle and Miller (2009) were Irish, Italians and Jews from Eastern Europe, but also according to them, there were people from almost every other European country, as well as from Mexico. However a landmark US Supreme Court decision of 1849 affirmed the “plenary power” of the federal government to regulate international migration, thereby thwarting attempts by Eastern seaboard municipalities to prevent the arrival of Irish migrants (Daniels, 2004). Mass migration to the USA developed later than in Western Europe, owing to the restrictive legislation enacted in the 1920s (Martin and Midgley, 2003). The 1965 amendments to the Immigration and Nationality Act were seen as part of the civil rights legislation of the period, designed to remove the discriminatory national-origins quota system. According to Borjas, (1990: 29-33) they were not intended to lead to large-scale non-European immigration. In fact, the amendments created a system of University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 23 worldwide immigration, in which the most important criterion for admission was kinship with US citizens or residents and the outcome was a dramatic rise in migration from Asia and Latin America (Castle and Miller 2009). It was therefore as result of the unintended consequence of this act, which led to the creation of the Diversity Visa program in 1991 to balance the age long discrimination against countries with no such kinship ties with US citizens. There are four major avenues to migrate to the U.S. legally: (a) by being family- sponsored; (b) through employment; (c) as refugees; and (d) the diversity visa (Ogletree 2000).The fourth major immigrant group is the diversity category, created to introduce more variety into the stream of immigrants to the United States (Martin and Midgley, 2003). The Diversity Immigrant Visa Program is a US congressionally mandated program which makes available 50,000 DV annually, drawn from random selection among all entries to persons who meet strict eligibility requirements from countries with low rates of immigration to the United States (U.S. Department of State, 1997). Persons participating in the DV program must fulfil the requirement of high school completion or work experience requiring at least two years training (U.S. Department of State, 1997). If anyone wins the lottery without fulfilling the educational or skill requirement, their application is nullified (Hailu et al, 2012). The program has four main stages leading to U.S citizenship: (1) application (2) selection and interviewing of winners; (3) maintaining residency or green cards; and (4) path to citizenship (Ngwainmbi, 2014). As part of its eligibility criteria is that applicants must come from countries that have sent fewer than 50,000 migrants to the U.S in the past five years. Therefore, often, University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 24 countries are not eligible to apply through DV program when they have exhausted their quota for sending their citizens to the U.S. For example the State Department has eliminated more than 20 countries that have exhausted their 50, 000 immigrants limit to the USA for 2014. Winners are granted visas and documents after satisfying interview requirements such as background checks of criminal records as well as passing HIV Aids test. After living in the US for at least 5 years, residents and their families, with their residency status or green card and having no criminal records, are qualified for U.S citizenship according to the State Department. After staying in the US for 5 years the DV winner would have made a contribution to the US economy through taxes and others. 2.6.1 The US DV Lottery Program And African Countries According to Martin and Midgley (2003:9), most diversity visas go to people from such African and European countries as Ghana, Nigeria, Poland, and Ukraine. As a result of the program‟s crucial role in facilitating African immigration, several members of the Congressional Black Caucus have taken a keen interest in defending it (Kremer, 2011). Although there have been differing opinions about the DV program and its effect especially on the origin countries, Ngwainmbi (2014:43) highlights that due to high unemployment, widespread poverty, weak governmental institutions, and corruption, the DV lottery offers a relief to developing countries to export labour to the USA. However, with the demand of skilled labour by developed countries (DCs), the importations of human capital from nations with weak political and economic structures and unstable financial markets have been adopted to fill their population shortfalls. It is therefore not surprising the US will import 50,000 immigrants every University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 25 year into a country with more than 300 million people, not including illegal immigrants from Mexico, the Caribbean and other Latin American countries, to share space and compete for jobs. While the programs by other countries do not offer direct citizenship to the migrants, the DV lottery provides direct citizenship to skilled people, which gives the US the capacity to retain and invest the knowledge resource for the long term. According to Ngwainmbi (2014) ninety-eight (98%) of Black African DV lottery winners who migrate to the US secure citizenship and remain in the US. Socio-culturally, the DV program provides the US the medium to create a multi- cultural society where persons from different cultural background interact, to bring forth mixed-culture. This is echoed by the late US senator, Edward Kennedy on the senate floor in 2006. The purpose of the diversity visa is not just to advance narrow economic interests, but, rather, to preserve our very heritage as a nation of immigrants, a true melting pot... The diversity program ensures that America continues to be a beacon to the entire world and not just to a dozen or so countries with high numbers of immigrants already living here. Major US cities like New York, Los Angeles and Chicago have become famous as global cities due to their unique multiculturalism and diversity. However the estimated investments made by the American government since the inception of the DV Lottery program can be identified not only in the increasing number of immigrants living in the US for creating a multi-cultural state but the large revenue they may be generating that is supporting the US economy (Ngwaimbi, 2014). Table 2.1 shows the distribution of winning chances of various regions per year, per legitimate entry, DV-2007 through DV-2012. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 26 Table 2.1: Winning chances per year, per continent, per legitimate entry, DV- 2007 through DV-2012 Region DV- 2007 DV- 2008 DV- 2009 DV- 2010 DV- 2011 DV- 2012 DV- 2013 Africa except “special countries” 1.31% 2.40% 2.30% 2.19% 2.06% 1.69% 1.84% Asia 0.48% 0.63% 0.64% 0.61% 0.68% 0.84% 0.93% Europe except “special countries” 1.26% 1.85% 1.94% 2.10% 1.75% 1.63% 1.31% North America 0.61% 0.64% 0.38% 0.69% 0.47% 0.4% 0.5% Oceania 4.13% 4.57% 4.62% 5.49% 4.63% 5.28% 6.22% South America and Central America and the Caribbean 0.65% 0.84% 1.05% 1.69% 1.07% 1.08% 1.05% Source: Ngwainmbi (2014) 2.6.2 Participation in the Diversity Visa Program In the era when developing countries are struggling to meet the socio-economic demands of their citizens, when graduates complete the university and find it difficult securing jobs and when they have one, cannot have job satisfaction due to poor working conditions, migration becomes their greatest route of escape from their discontent at their origin. However with all the stringent criteria and the difficulty one must go through before securing a visa to the advanced countries, it is no wonder that the US DVLP is one of the most popularly participated programs in Ghana and many other countries (Ketefe, 2013). The high participation in the program by Africans could be attributed to the weakening economy resulting in high unemployment rates University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 27 for college and university graduates who find the US as a safe haven. With the US projected as the country where dreams come true, Africans who participate in the program have high hopes and expectations of making a better living for themselves and their family. Indeed many of the African immigrants in the US through the DV program are able to make savings that they remit and invest back at home (Kremer, 2011). However other studies reveal negative effects of assimilation, particularly acculturation, on certain outcomes for young immigrants. This results to identity crisis that emerge when the young migrant comes in contact with different cultures with sharp contrasts and are unable to either adjust or hold on to their origin culture. In a study about experiences encountered by lottery winners living in the US, Hailu et al ( 2012:15) have found that participants encountered so many problems when they migrated to the U.S. during the first few months to a point where they felt frustrated and caused them to regret migrating. Other DVLP winners also experience difficulties with having access to learning and training opportunities (Hailu et al, 2012). The immigrants‟ education is discounted in the U.S. and other countries, affecting their opportunity to get jobs they are qualified for that would offer them the satisfaction in job quality, and, consequently, receive a salary commensurate with their qualification. All these influence their morale and overall life condition (Arthur, 2008; Mahalingham, 2006; Rotimi, 2005). As a result some prefer to return to their country of origin, due to nostalgia and their inability to cope with the demands of American capitalism and socio-cultural differences (Kremer, 2011). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 28 2.6.3 Effect of the DVLP on African Countries The DV program contributes to the origin countries through remittances as immigrants help their families, build better homes for their relatives and themselves. This financial advantage DV lottery migrants have over the locals at the origin is aided by the exchange rate of the US dollar (Hailu et al 2012). Developing countries invest from external sources, especially the US whose currency exchange rates are usually better than the local currencies that cannot be exchanged in the US. However, while the (DV) program has given many persons in some of the world‟s poorest and politically distraught countries the opportunity for a better life, it is feared that continued implementation of the program could have a backlash on the development aspirations of the least developed countries (Rotimi, 2005). With Africa being the highest participants and winners out of the almost 1 million immigrants the DVLP has brought to the United States (including the relatives and friends of lottery winners with US citizenship status) since 1991 to 2014, much focus is given to the effect this could have on African countries being the biggest contributors and especially Sub Saharan Africa, with Ghana and Nigeria being among the top sending countries. Critics of the lottery say the DVLP is another medium of brain drain in Africa as it aims to feed the socio-political and economic interests of the American private sector by draining the brains of Africa‟s intellectuals (Rotimi, 2005). This is because it recruits Africa‟s intellectuals by making a high school diploma a condition for eligibility (Ketefe, 2013). Several calls have been made for the a modification of the program that will benefit both the US and African countries (Kothari, 2012) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 29 In all, there seem to be back and forth in argument over the real effect of the DVLP on African countries. Some opponents view it as a loss of human capital and brain drain in Africa (Rotimi, 2005). However there is also the view that it is rather the African countries instead of the U.S who are the real beneficiaries of the DVLP. These migrants have so far transferred millions of dollars to their families back in Africa through Money Gram, Western Union, Nedbank and other financial markets. According to Ngwainmbi (2005), if the US were to review the more than $500,000 wired to Africa on a regular basis and the number of new businesses being set up there by African immigrants particularly DV Lottery winners, the US State Department might start rethinking continuance of the program. 2.6.4 Participation of Ghanaians in the Diversity Visa Programme Statistics from the US Department of state on the Diversity Visa program show that, Ghana is among the countries with high participation in the DV program. Table 2.2, show the distribution of Ghanaian entrants in the DV programme in the last five years (2010-2015). As observed (from Table 2.2), entries and their derivatives (family members registered with principal applicant) increased from a total of 523,448, in 2010 to close to two million people in 2015 (1,729,979). This represents an over 300% increase in participation of Ghanaians within this period. The steady rise in the number of DV entrants from Ghana therefore shows a continuous interest in the programme in Ghana. As already mentioned, Ghana is ranked among the top sending countries of migrants to the US through the DV programme (Martin and Midgley, 2003; Law, 2002; Dankyi, 2010). Official statistics on the DV programme show that from 2005 to 2014, 17265 Ghanaians have won the DV lottery (US Department of State, 2015). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 30 Table: 2.2 DV lottery entrants from Ghana, 2010-2015 Year Entrants Derivatives Total 2010 393,555 129,893 523,448 2011 482,730 127,194 609,924 2012 641,777 132,780 774,557 2013 908,910 147,122 1,056,032 2014 1,085,742 132,146 1,217,888 2015 1,537,292 192,687 1,729,979 Source: US Department of State, Visas, 2015 2.7 THEORETICAL AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORKS Owing to the diverse and multifaceted nature of migration there is no single theory that can adequately be used to explain it (King, 2012). More so, according to Massey et al (1993), at present, there is no single, coherent theory of international migration, and that, only a fragmented set of theories that have developed largely in isolation from one another, sometimes but not always segmented by disciplinary boundaries. Current patterns and trends in immigration, however, suggest that a full understanding of contemporary migratory processes will not be achieved by relying on the tools of one discipline alone, or by focusing on a single level of analysis. Rather, their complex, multifaceted nature requires a sophisticated theory that incorporates a variety of perspectives, levels, and assumptions. Moreover, it has been frequently argued that it is possible to combine and integrate different theoretical perspectives on migration, which are not necessarily mutually exclusive (Massey et al 1993). Therefore due to the shortfalls associated with various migration theories, a triangulation of migration theories is employed (both micro-level and macro-level University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 31 theories) in explaining the factors that influence students‟ migration intentions and their participation in the DV program. 2.7.1 The Human Capital Theory The human capital theory, is a micro-economic model that views the likelihood of international migration to be determined by standard components of individual (human) capital such as age, gender, education, skill, experience, marital status, as well as on personality features such as ambition to succeed and “entrepreneurial spirit”, or a willingness to take risks by changing language, culture, and social environment (Morawska, 2007:) The human capital theory therefore holds international migration to be selective, drawing out people with certain socio- demographic and personal characteristics. The basis of their emigration is the lack of income-earning and socio-economic advancement at the origin (King, 2012). Therefore, this theory dwells more on the “push” factors of migration. It follows that some people will tend to go to the destination where a higher net return is expected after pondering over all the available alternatives with respect to their individual capital. In so far as it implies returns from one‟s labour, migration constitutes a form of investment in human capital (Sjaastad, 2004: 18). This theory is useful in the study of migration intentions of university students in a developing country like Ghana. By emphasising on the socio-economic conditions in poor regions as a cause for migration, of persons with selective characteristics, it is consistent with Anarfi (2003) and Awumbila et al (2011) that migration in Ghana stems from the need to escape poverty or as a livelihood strategy. According to Bookman (2002) when a country cannot meet the economic needs of its people, particularly in terms of University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 32 employment and income, people may emigrate in search of sustainability. At the same time, if better opportunities for employment and income in other countries or regions exist, then these opportunities may attract people looking to increase their individual potential for financial and emotional security. Similarly, university students in Ghana are likely to have the intention to migrate. 2.7.1.0 Limitations of the Human Capital Theory This theory suggests that the selectivity nature of migration leads to “brain drain” at the origin country. This assumption serves as a limitation to the theory. Practically, not all highly educated people at the origin country such as graduates from the university in Ghana could gain employment and be productive to the economy. Lowell and Fidlay (2002) point to the benefit origin countries may stand to benefit from migration, through remittance and return migration. The case of Asian country like the Philippines who train more skilled personnel such as nurses than they may need and therefore export these excess labour does not necessarily become victims of brain drain (de Haas, 2005). In the same way, although the government of Ghana is not officially into exporting skilled and highly educated labour, the country is faced with unemployment challenges for many of its highly educated and skilled personnel. Their migration may therefore not necessarily constitute a brain drain to the country. Also this theory fails to acknowledge that migration decision making may not always be an individual‟s decision but may be made within the context of the household or as a family decision. Moreover it dwells too much on the push factors of migration at the origin country and neglects other variables such as the role of social network (Massey et al, 1993). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 33 2.7.2 Dual Labour Market theory The dual labour market theory sets its sights away from decisions made by individuals and argues that international migration stems from the intrinsic labour demands of modern industrial societies (Massey et al 1993). Piore (1979) argues that international migration is caused by a permanent demand for immigrant labour that is needed by developed nations. According to Piore (1979), in his “Birds of Passage” book, he argues that international labour migration is primarily driven by pull, not push factors. It is the structural power of demand for certain types of cheap and flexible labour that is the dominant force. This is linked to the presence in advanced industrialized countries of a dual labour market: a primary labour market of secure, well-paid jobs for native workers; and a secondary labour market of low-skilled, low-wage, insecure and generally unpleasant jobs in factories and the service sector, filled mainly by migrant workers. According to King (2013: 16), indeed, the very presence of migrant workers reinforces the undesirability of these secondary-sector jobs for the local labour force, which enables employers to drive down wages and working conditions even more. The USA Diversity Visa program could be viewed as one of such means to fill labour needs of the US society. While the basic educational qualification as college graduate is argued by people like Senator Judd Gregg, a US senator (in the debate over his 2006 amendment) as low, the work demand or the shortage that needs to be filled may not demand an advanced graduate degree or a highly skilled qualification. Senator Gregg argued that: “We should be going across the world and saying: give us your best and your brightest; come here and participate in the American dream and raise the waters so that all the boats float higher. This lottery system to the extent that it makes sense, should be built around that concept. It should not be built around the concept if you happen to have a high school education…. You have some University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 34 right to participate in a lottery to get into the United States. That makes no sense to us as a nation” (see Kremer, 2011:29). Perhaps that is why despite calls by a Senator of the US to reform the program; it still maintains its original criteria. The kinds of job that winners mostly occupy in the US according to Ngwainmbi (2014) constitute the secondary labour market that Piore (1979) describes. Massey et al (1993: 444), explain that dual labour market theory comes with some implications, of which the DV Lottery program can be situated in those contexts. These include: 1. International labour migration is largely demand-based and is initiated by recruitment on the part of employers in developed societies, or by governments acting on their behalf. Example of such labour recruitment by government or state could therefore be the US Diversity visa Program, which aims at recruiting 50000 people each year from participating countries. 2. Since the demand for immigrant workers grows out of the structural needs of the economy and is expressed through recruitment practices rather than wage offers, international wage differentials are neither a necessary nor a sufficient condition for labour migration to occur. Indeed, employers have incentives to recruit workers while holding wages constant. In this case immigrant recruitment remains a cheap source of labour. 2.7.2.0 Strength and Weakness of the Dual Labour Theory This theory is useful to this study since it highlights the role played by receiving countries in the migration of labour from developing countries such as Ghana to a rich country like the USA. In the context of the Diversity Visa programme by the USA which seeks to recruit labour from participating countries like Ghana, the theory is therefore relevant. However the theory overemphasises on the pull factors of migration and attributes migration of labour to developed countries as mainly caused by the advanced countries and their need for labour. It therefore fails to address other factors at the origin countries that cause migration, such as unemployment, poverty and social considerations. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 35 2.7.3 The Push-Pull Theory of Migration A very popular theoretical perspective in the migration literature that can be used to explain the migration intentions of university graduates is the push-pull theory of migration. The factors contributing to migration of persons like university graduates are multifaceted. These factors or motivations underlying their intentions to migrate and expression of such strong intentions to migrate by participating in the US Diversity Visa Program, can be identified as “push” and “pull” factors. Push factors according to the theory (Lee, 1966) are those factors that occur within the country of origin, motivating persons based on their personal characteristics to migrate, while the pull factors on the other hand are those factors emanating from deliberate and unintended policies and actions of recipient countries which serve as allurements for professionals to migrate (Dovlo, 2003). In this instance the Visa lottery program, serves as the deliberate policy of recipient country like USA which serves as allurement for even the university graduate or student to participate, in order to secure the opportunity to migrate to the USA. 2.7.3.1 The Push and Pull Factors Push factors according to Lee (1966) are the prevailing conditions at the origin that prompt a person to migrate. In Ghana some of these factors that can affect students migration intentions include, graduate unemployment, low remuneration, limited and unattractive postgraduate educational opportunities, poor working environment and low job satisfaction, low social security and benefits, high occupational risk and poor governance among others. As echoed by Ngwainmbi (2014) that high poverty levels as well as high unemployment rate of college graduates following the implementation of the World Bank‟s structural adjustment programs and other unattractive conditions University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 36 are the cause for the high participation of Africans in the DVLP, with the ultimate intention of migrating. The pull factors on the other hand are the conditions at the destination country that attract or motivate a person to migrate owing to the available information to the person. According to Dovlo (2003) these pull factors include deliberate or intended programmes or actions by host countries to attract migrants from developing countries. The demand for labour capital by developed countries to fill their labour shortages, lead to various labour recruitment programs and policies by receiving countries to attract skilled personnel especially from developing countries. This serves as a major pull factor. such programs include the Point Based system by Australia, Canada and UK as discussed in the literature review; the attraction of higher educational institutions (HEIs) that afford graduates of the University to further their education, institution of scholarship schemes for students from developing countries like Ghana all serve as pull factors for university students and graduates. The USA Diversity Visa program becomes an attractive programme to students since winning it may qualify them to have a permanent residency status (green card) while they can work or school in the United States (Kremer, 2011). Other pull factors for university students may include the availability of employment opportunities for winners and the opportunity to further education in the US. 2.8 Conceptual Framework Considering the objectives of this study and also with the information available in the reviewed literature such as the selective nature of migration with respect to socio- economic and demographic characteristics of an individual, it is conceptualized that the intention to migrate by people varies based on a person‟s socio-economic and demographic characteristics. The socio-economic and demographic variables University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 37 therefore constitute the independent variables of this study. The various considerations that could also influence migration intention, such as economic considerations, educational considerations and social networks as well as the Diversity Visa Program, constitute the intermediate variables and the intention to migrate is the dependent variable. Figure 1.1 illustrates the relationship between the Socio-Economic and demographic characteristics as independent variables, the push and pull factors as intermediate variables and migration intentions as dependent variables. Figure 2.1: Conceptual framework showing the Pathway to the migration intentions of University students Independent Variables Intermediate variables Dependent Variables Source: Author’s Construct based on Lee’s (1966) Push-Pull Framework. Background Characteristics Sex Age Religion Level of study Program of study Marital Push and Pull/Motivating Factors Economic Considerations eg. Employent/Job assurance after Study, Wage differentials Educational Considerations eg. Intention to study abroad Scholarships and educational opportunities abroad Migration Intentions Intention to migrate Intention not to migrate Not sure University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 38 2.8.1 Background Characteristics Migrants do not constitute a representative sample of their origin country‟s population but tend to self-select according to specific characteristics (Kanbur and Rapoport, 2003). The background characteristics the study considered based on relevant literature include the age, education level, employment status, gender, religion, marital status. In general, younger people have stronger intentions to migrate due to a combination of human capital and life course hypothesis (Piracha and Saraogi, 2013). As their level of human capital is generally higher than migrants from older cohorts and because the payback period for the loans incurred to fund migration is longer, the net benefits of migration are more likely to be positive (Piracha and Saraogi, 2013). As well, their stock of local social capital is lower of which makes them less bound by family ties and social environments that reduces the psychological risks and costs associated with migrating. These factors therefore make younger people more likely to migrate or have a stronger migration intention than the older people. According to the theory of self-selection, increased years of education are associated with greater intentions to migrate, as the expected returns in the host country are higher. Existing research (Liebig and Sousa-Pozo 2004; Fourage and Ester; 2008) identify education level to be a strong determinant of migration intentions. In their analysis of the 1990 US census, Carrington and Detragiache (1998) identified that migrants to the United States tend to be better educated than the average person at their origin country. It was found that migrants with high education were proportionally high while those with no more than primary education were small. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 39 Employment status of students is also considered. According to the migration literature, this can influence migration intention. According to the migration literature the unemployed are more likely to have migration intention than the employed as the need to migrate is relatively lower for the latter. However, it does not imply that only the unemployed migrate i.e. unemployment is not a necessary condition. This can be demonstrated by the high level of migration of health professionals from many developing countries to the rich countries (Dovlo, 2003; Anarfi, 2006). This means that having employment alone does not preclude people from migrating or having the intention to migrate. Indeed, the cost involved in financing migration (international migration) is so high that it demands a resourceful person to actually embark on migration (Awumbila, 2011). This makes the employed be in an economically stronger position, to actualise their migration intentions. However, as the employed already have a secure economic position, the need to migrate is relatively lower, hence the weaker intentions (Fourage and Ester, 2007). Besides, as Van Dalen et al (2005b) note, migration offers the unemployed a route to secure employment, therefore, they are associated with stronger intentions. In their study of migration intentions in Moldova, Piracha and Saraogi (2013) identified that stronger migration intentions are held by the unemployed as compared to the employed. While many students studying full-time programs are not likely to be engaged in a full-time job concurrently, their confidence to gain employment after their study could affect their migration intentions. There are other students who work and study at the same time. Again, sex differences and its associated gender roles ascribed to by society may cause migration disparity between males and females. In most cases, fewer women than men report intentions to migrate to another country (Piracha and Saraogi, 2013). However the growth of the care industry in developed countries, opening up more University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 40 opportunities for females is changing the trend of sex disparity in migration which used to be strongly male dominated (Castle and Miller 2006). Also, the migration literature considers marital status and childbearing to be a determinant in migration decision making. It is often said that single people with no children ever born are more inclined to labor migration (Yang, 2000). From the migration decision-making perspective, studies typically posit that childbearing dampens the intention to migrate and, accordingly, individuals intent on migration, postpone childbearing until after they reach their migration destinations (Jacobsen and Levin, 2000). Finally, previous migration experience of students is also considered as a characteristic that can affect migration intention. Persons with previous migration experience are more likely to migrate than those with no migration experience according to the migration literature. They could be because they have migrated and may know or understand the risks involved as well as direct benefit in migration. More so, having migration experience (international travel experience) is perceived to be a boost to the chances of one in securing visa to migrate again. 2.8.2 Push and Pull factors (Motivating Factors) Push factors refer to the prevailing conditions at the origin that prompt a person to migrate whereas pull factors are those factors emanating from deliberate and unintended policies and actions of recipient countries which serve as allurements for persons to migrate (Lee 1966, Dovlo, 2003). These factors serve as the intermediate variables of the study. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 41 Economic considerations are attributed to be the main cause of migration from developing countries to developed regions according to the migration literature (Awumbila et al, 201). These include employment opportunities abroad, wage differentials between Ghana and developed countries such as the USA. However, since the study is conducted among students who may be predominantly unemployed due to their study, the study uses job assurance of students upon completion of study as among the factors under economic consideration. According to Awumbila et al (2011) young people migrate mainly to seek job opportunities and improve their living condition. Among the push and pull factors is educational consideration. This refers to the intention of students to pursue higher education abroad. This may be due to educational opportunities such as scholarships abroad. According to Alberts and Hazen (2005) many students migrate especially to the USA due to educational opportunities. However Morawaska (2007) sees the migration of students as a deliberate policy by advanced countries to attract bright talent from other countries for their development through their universities and colleges where they are offered admission and scholarship opportunities. The study also considers social network, both home and abroad as factor that could influence migration intention according to the migration literature. This includes family members and friends who may encourage a person to migrate. According to Crawford (1966) students with family encouragement to migrate are more likely to plan to migrate than those with no encouragement from family to migrate. More so, University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 42 the social network abroad offer information to members and facilitate their migration to reduce risks and maximize benefit (Massey,1993). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 43 CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY 3.1 Introduction This chapter outlines the methodology adopted in undertaking the study. The research design used for the study, the sampling techniques employed and the data collection techniques used in gathering relevant data for the study have also been outlined. The study area where the research was carried out as well as the limitations of the study is also discussed in this chapter. 3.2 The Study Area The study was carried out at university of Ghana, Legon campus in the Greater Accra Region. The University of Ghana is the oldest and largest university in Ghana. The University College of the Gold Coast as it was formerly called was founded by Ordinance on August 11, 1948 for the purpose of providing for and promoting university education, learning and research. The University College looked up to two separate institutions in Great Britain: to the Inter Universities Council for guidance on its broad policy, and to the University of London for approval and control of details of degree regulations. The University College benefitted greatly from this arrangement which certainly helped to maintain its high academic standards. It was duly recognised as a university in the year 1961 and given the power to award its own degrees. The university currently has a student population of about 42,692 (representing male/female ratio of about 3:2). The University of Ghana has four colleges, namely college of Health Sciences, College of Basic and Applied Sciences, College of Humanities and College of University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 44 Education. Each has several schools and departments. All the colleges offer programmes for both undergraduate and graduate studies. The University has also established academic and research links with several Universities and Research Institutions worldwide 3.2.1 Hall of residence The University provides residential facilities for students. There are sixteen Halls of Residence for under-graduate and post-graduate students on campus. They include five traditional Halls and hostels. With the exception of Commonwealth and Volta Halls which accommodate respectively, males and females only, Legon Hall, Akuafo Hall and Mensah Sarbah Hall accommodate both males and females. There are also Postgraduate Hostel and Valco Trust Annex Hostel for postgraduate students only, International Students‟ Hostel, mainly for International Students. SSNIT Hostels and Jubilee Hostel (males and females) 3.3 Research Design The study was a descriptive study, which used the triangulation of methods approach by combining both qualitative and quantitative methods of research. This approach was used to complement each method and to bring out a more detailed understanding of the study (Teye, 2012; Cameron, 2011). This (mixed) method of research was also used to ensure completeness, such that the gaps in one method will be filled by the other (Bryman, 2012:637). In other words it was to enhance the depth as well as the breadth of the study (Teye, 2012; Johnson, Onwuegbuzie, and Turner (2007). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 45 3.4 Sources of Data The study relied on the use of both primary and secondary sources of data. Primary sources included interviews while the secondary sources included published articles, reports, books and internet sources. An attempt was made to collect data on Ghanaian participants of the DV program and those that have won the Lottery since its inception. However, the researcher was directed to the US official website which has these details. The instruments used in collecting data in this study included both structured and unstructured questionnaires. The structured questionnaires were used as a survey instrument to collect quantitative data while the unstructured questionnaire (interview guide) was used to collect qualitative data. Two unstructured questionnaire were used to collect data from participants in Ghana and (DV migrants) in the USA. 3.5 Sample Size A target population of one-hundred and twenty five (125) students from the University of Ghana and two participants in the USA making a total sample size of one-hundred and twenty seven (127) took part in the research. University of Ghana students, both male and female, across different levels of study, both undergraduate and postgraduates were randomly selected at the time of the study to respond to the study questionnaire. A total of seven (7) in-depth interviews were conducted; Five (5) university of Ghana students (3 males and 2 females) who took part in the survey questionnaire and indicated their intention to migrate, volunteered to take part in an in-depth interview of the study. They included four students, from the four undergraduate levels and a post graduate student. The two in-depth interview participants of the study form the USA were once students of the University of Ghana University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 46 who migrated to the USA after winning the Visa lottery. Their interview was carried out via Skype (video call) and recorded. 3.6 Population and Sampling Procedure In this study, a multistage sampling technique was used. According to Gagliardi and Ciampalini (2009), this technique saves time, energy and cost. At the initial stage, a simple random sampling method was used in selecting the halls of residence of respondents whereas at the second stage, a systematic random sampling technique was used in selecting the respondents for the questionnaire survey. Out of the fifteen halls of residence, (excluding International Student‟s Hostel) on the University of Ghana campus, the study randomly selected three (3), namely, the Mensah Sarbah hall, Africa Union Hall (Pentagon) and Jeane Nelson Aka Hall, through balloting. The names of the halls of residence were written on pieces of papers and put together in a box. A colleague graduate student assisted in selecting the three from the pool of fifteen. The choice of three halls out of the fifteen was because of time and resource constraints. The systematic random sampling technique was also used to select 125 respondents. The sample size of 125 was nearly evenly distributed across the three halls of residence, that is; Mensah Sarbah Hall (41), African Union Hall (42) and Jeane Nelson Aka Hall (42). In each hall of residence, respondents were sampled by systematic sampling technique. At the entrance of the halls of residence, the researcher selected every third person for inclusion in the study. This was continually done until the appropriate sample size of each hall was reached. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 47 For the in-depth interviews, a total of seven were carried out. They comprised five university of Ghana students, four from the four undergraduate levels and one graduate student. These participants were selected based on the advice by Kvale and Brinkmann (2009) that for a researcher to decide on the number of subject for interviews, factors such as time, quality, quantity and money must be considered. In support of this, Davies (2007) suggests a small sample seize between 5 and 15 for a qualitative research. Again, the sampling process in this study was also guided by the principle of saturation (Schutt, 1999). The study employed the purposive and snowball sample techniques to recruit participants. Purposive sampling was used to select the five (5) participants from the University of Ghana. According to Hammiche and Maiza (2006), one major advantage of purposive sampling is that it allows the researcher to collect data from individuals who are willing to be part of the study. These students were picked from the 125 respondents of the survey questionnaire after volunteering to be interviewed on the subject of the study having already indicated their migration intention and good knowledge about the Diversity Visa Program. The snowball sampling technique was also employed to recruit two (2) participants (DV winners), resident in the United States. According to Vogt (1999), the snowball approach is a technique for finding research subjects, as one subject recommends another subject, who in turn refers another subject and so on. This approach was adopted owing to the difficulty in assessing the research subjects in the USA. According to Bryman (2004: 102), where there is difficulty in accessing sampling frame for the sample to be taken, snowballing is a feasible approach. A respondent who answered in the affirmative that he knows of a university student who won the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 48 DV lottery volunteered to introduce the researcher to the DV winner in the USA. Following the initial contact by the respondent to explain the purpose of the study to the DV migrant, he volunteered to participate in the research. He subsequently introduced the researcher to two other participants who were his mates at the University of Ghana and had also won the DV, and were living in the same state with him. However, one declined to participate. 3.7 Data Analysis The analysis is done in two major steps (quantitative and qualitative analysis) depending on the type of data collected. 3.7.1 Quantitative Data and Analysis Quantitative method was used in order to obtain and analyse statistical data useful for generalization (Creswell, 2009). A survey questionnaire was used to collect the quantitative data such as the socio-demographic data, migration history, migration intentions and motivations of respondents. It also collected data on their knowledge and opinion on the USA Diversity Visa program as well as their participation or their intention to participate in the program and its motivations. The questionnaire comprised closed ended questions with open ended options. The open ended option was to give students the opportunity to explain their reasons behind some of their choices in the close ended questions. The last section of the survey questionnaire also provided for opinions of students on the DV program and international migration of University students from Ghana. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 49 The quantitative data was analysed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) data analysis software version 16. Results of the analysis were then illustrated using charts and graphs. A logistic regression analysis was performed through SPSS Binary logistic to assess prediction of migration intention of students as a function of sex, age, level of study, marital status, job assurance after studies, ever migrated and social network abroad. 3.7.2 Qualitative Data and Analysis Qualitative method of research was used in order to obtain in-depth understanding and direct information from respondents on their knowledge, perceptions, opinions, feelings or experiences about the subject (Patton, 2002). Two separate unstructured questionnaires were used to collect data from participants in Ghana and (DV migrants) in the USA. The interview guide which was used to collect data from participants at the University of Ghana captured the reasons and explanations behind some of the questions in the survey instrument. This included the reasons behind their migration intentions, whether economic, educational and other social reasons and thematic areas which the survey questionnaire identified. More so, the interview guide used to collect data from the migrants in the USA was to capture or offer explanation to their motivation in participating in the DV program and their decision to migrate. It also sought to capture their experiences as migrants in the USA under the DV program. This included their challenges, opportunities, remittances to family and friends in Ghana and return migration intentions. A thematic analysis approach was used to analyse the qualitative data using Microsoft Excel 2010. Attride-Stirling‟s (2001) thematic network was used to develop the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 50 themes under the study. The instruments used at this level included a coding frequency table, coding frame, a descriptive statistics of the respondents and a thematic network diagram. Basic themes (also known as codes) were developed after close reading of the text from each of the transcripts. Each of the codes is described and sample quotes from the transcripts are provided. Afterwards, similar or related codes are grouped under a common organizing theme such as the theme of economic reasons for migration intentions. Finally, all the organizing themes are grouped under one theme known as the global theme, for instance, reasons for migration intention. These themes were then used to form the thematic network. The results and discussions are presented according to themes. 3.8 Ethical Considerations In carrying out a research, ethical considerations are very important at every stage of the research. A researcher must adhere to the ethics of research from the identification of the research problem, the process of data collection, data analysis and interpretation to the dissemination of the research report (Cresswell, 2009; Tanko and Dandago, 2006). In view of this, the researcher took a great deal of precaution before, during and after the research to ensure the protection of participants. The researcher initially sought for the informed consent of the participants by making them aware of the purpose of the study, its risks and benefits. Their privacy and confidentiality was ensured at every stage of the study. In order to protect the identity and anonymity of the participants of the study, pseudo names were used in all notes and records, including tape recording. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 51 3.9 Challenges and Limitations of the Study Every research has some limitations (Marshall and Rossman, 1999). Research challenges usually run through the whole research process (Adepoju and Adeyanju, 2006). Since migration is a sensitive issue, some respondents were uncomfortable giving personal information. I had to constantly reassure them that I would maintain confidentiality and privacy by using their information strictly for academic purposes. Since the researcher could not travel to the United states to interview participants and be able to observe in detail their body language and environment, due to resource constraints, he had to rely on Skype call to interview participants in the USA. The challenge faced by using this medium was that, the internet connection could cut in the middle of interview. This sometimes affected the flow of the interview. More so, participants in the USA were reluctant to disclose certain information such as remittance, therefore the researcher had to assure them of utmost confidentiality. In the case of a participant in the USA (Andy), it took the researcher one week to complete the in-depth interview with him. This participant combined schooling and work; therefore he could not have time to fully address all the questions at one sitting. He had to break to either go to work all attend lectures. The time zone difference between Ghana and the USA also posed a challenge to the researcher. Interviews were conducted mostly at dawn (around 2 am Ghana Time). The last limitation had to do with statistical representation. To obtain representative research findings, a researcher needs a large sample size. However, due to resource constraints, the sample size for this research was 127. While this sample size is able to address the objectives of the study, there is no doubt that a larger sample size would have been more useful. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 52 CHAPTER FOUR BACKGROUND CHARATERISTICS AND MIGRATION INTENTIONS OF STUDENTS 4.1 Introduction This chapter initially presents a descriptive statistics on socio-demographic and economic variables such as age, marital status, and employment status of the respondents and presents some findings in the form of tables, graphs or charts. The chapter further discusses the migration intentions of University of Ghana students and the determining factors that influence migration intentions. It analyses the reasons for migration intentions of students (push and pull factors) and the relationship between some variables of the study and migration using statistical test such as using logistic regression. The chapter also presents specific quotes from participants from in-depth interviews and secondary data sources. 4.2 Socio-Demographic and Economic Characteristics This section presents the findings of the socio-demographic characteristics of respondents of the study. Table 4.1 presents summary of some socio-demographic characteristics of respondents such as age, sex, religion and source of funding of university education. Other characteristics such as marital status, children ever born, level of study, and employment status of respondents are also presented in respective Figures. 4.2.1 Age of Respondents Age is a factor that can influence migration intentions. The youth are more likely to migrate than the elderly (Piracha and Saraogi, 2013). From Table 4.1, the age range of University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 53 the respondents was between 18 years to 44 years. Majority of the students interviewed were of ages 20-24 years which represented 63%. This is so because it represents the main age for attending the university at the undergraduate level who constitute 86% of the respondents. 4.2.2 Sex Distribution of Respondents Sex is perhaps the most important form of social differentiation that influences migration decisions (Haan, 2000). Out of the sample population of one hundred and twenty five, 61.6% were males while 38.4% were females (see table 4.1). The disparity between males and females can be attributed to the fact that males form the majority of students in the University of Ghana. 4.2.3 Religious affiliation of respondents Religious differences may influence migration intentions due to different orientation, behaviour and practices of persons belonging to a particular religious group. Such practices may be common or accepted at a particular destination country or totally frowned upon. Hence religious affiliation may influence a person‟s destination of choice. For instance, it may either prevent or enable a Christian to migrate to Arab countries or a Muslim migrating to a Christian dominated country. As shown in the Table 4.1, 86% of the respondents were Christians whereas 8% were Muslims. Only one respondent (0.8%) indicated traditional religion and 4.8% did not indicate any type of religion. The result is indicative of the dominance of the two main religions in Ghana, Christianity and Islam, with Christians constituting a great majority of respondents. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 54 4.2.4 Source of Funding of University Education According to the study, parents were the main financiers of the cost of university education of students. Others were financed by other relatives while some of them financed their own education. Very few were on scholarship. The result (from table 4.1) shows that majority of students (84%) were financed by their parents, 8% self- financed their university education cost, and 6% relied on other relatives while only 2% were on scholarship. Since the findings of the study showed that majority of students were unemployed (see figure 4.4), it is not surprising that similarly, majority of students were financed by parents or other sources other than themselves. With family members investing in the education of students, the decision to migrate by students may be influenced by the family according to the new economics of labour theory (Massey et al, 1993). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 55 Table 4.1: Summary of Socio-Demographic Characteristics of Respondents. (Age, Sex, Religion and Source of funding of University Study) Socio-demographic variable and Economic characteristics Frequency Percent Age < 20 years 15 12.0 20-24 years 79 63.2 25-29 years 13 10.4 30-34years 2 1.6 35-39 years 4 3.2 40-44years 4 3.2 Not answered 8 6.4 Total 125 100.0 Sex Male 77 61.6 Female 48 38.4 Total 125 100 Religion Christian 108 86.4 Islam 10 8.0 Traditional 1 .8 Not answered 6 4.8 Total 125 100.0 University Funding Self 10 8.0 Parent(s) 105 84.0 Other relative(s) 8 6.4 Scholarship 2 1.6 Total 125 100.0 Source: Field Data, 2015 4.2.5 Marital status of respondents Marital status tends to affect migration intentions. Single persons are more likely to migrate than the married (Jacobsen and Levin, 2000). As shown in figure 4.1, an overwhelming majority of 93.6% of students had never married while only 6.4% were married. The outcome can be attributed to the ages of the students, as most of them were young and not prepared to marry or would want to complete their study at University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 56 the university before they marry. Indeed, out of the 8 students who had married, 3 were in level 400 while 5 were graduate students. Source: Field data, 2015 Figure 4.1: Marital status of respondents 4.2.6 Children ever born of respondents According to the migration literature, childbearing dampens the proclivity of having migration intention (Yang, 2000). As observed from figure 4.2, about 95% of respondents did not have children while about 5% had children. Therefore, majority of respondents never had children. This complements the marital status of respondents as majority of them are not married and are mostly likely not to have children once they are not married. Hence, the outcome is not surprising. Never Married Married 93.6% 6.4% University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 57 Figure 4.2: Children ever born Source: Field data Those with children were further asked the number of children they have. Out of that, 3 respondents indicated that they have 2 children, while 2 respondents had 4 children and 1 respondent indicated 1 child. 4.2.7 Level of Study of Respondents Educational background is a determinant for migration intention. According to the literature, people with high education are more open to migration in order to utilize their human capital. Out of the students who took part in the studies, 76.4% were offering undergraduate programs, from level 100 to level 400 while 13.6% offered postgraduate programs (see Figure 4.3). The highest proportion of students who took part in the study were in level 400, constituting 47.2% of the respondents with level 100 and 200 being the minimum, comprising 12.8% each. With regards to the respondents who studied postgraduate programs, nine (9) studied Master‟s Degree programs and three (3) were PhD students. Yes No 4.8 95.2 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 58 Figure 4.3: Level of University Study Source: Field data 2015 4.2.8 Employment status Employment is a key determinant of migration decision making. One of the main reasons for migration is to escape unemployment and to look for better employment opportunities (IOM, 2008). In this study, respondents were asked their employment status. From Figure 4.4, it is observed that 85% of students did not have employment while 15% were employed. This implies that majority of students were unemployed. This disparity is expected as majority of students would want to concentrate fully on their university education before seeking employment. Level 100 Level 200 Level 300 Level 400 Post Graduate 12.8 12.8 13.6 47.2 13.6 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 59 Figure 4.4: Employment Status Field Data, 2015 4.3 Job Assurance After Study Since employment is a key determinant of migration intentions and majority of university students are known to be unemployed due to their studies, respondents were asked if they were sure of gaining employment after study. From the study, 63% of students indicated they were sure of securing a job after study while 37% said they were not sure of securing a job (see figure 4.5). Therefore majority of students were optimistic of securing a job. Employed Unemployed 85% 15% University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 60 Figure 4.5: Job Assurance of Students After Completion of Studies Field Data, 2015 4.4 Migration intentions of students This section presents the findings and discussions of migration intentions of students. Quotes from In-depth interviews of participants and relevant literature are used to support the quantitative findings. Figure 4.6: Migration Intention of University of Ghana Students Source: Field data, 2015 Very Sure Not Sure 63% 37% No 14% Yes 71% Not sure 15% University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 61 Figure 4.6 shows the migration intentions of respondents. When asked if they have an intention to migrate from Ghana, 71% of respondents indicated they have the intention to migrate, while 14% did not have any intention to migrate from Ghana. However, 15% were not sure whether they would want to migrate or not. This shows that, majority of students have migration intentions. The result is supported by an interview with a participant who said: I really want to migrate and I know I‟m not alone in this, if today, I‟m offered a US, UK or Germany visa, I won‟t even wait to complete school…. and who cares about school when you can‟t get a job after you complete? (Priscilla, a 21-year old level 200 student) This result is not surprising as it supports the migration literature that young and highly educated people are more likely to migrate than people with no or little education as well as the elderly cohorts (Kanbur and Rapoport, 2003; Carrington and Detragiache, 1998). More so, other personal characteristics such as the majority of the respondents being single with no children ever born make it easier for them to migrate. According to Goldscheider (1971:315) young people are more likely to carry out their migration intentions and desires than older people as the latter are more integrated into the community through family, friends and social organizations and through housing and economic investments. This strong tie mostly held by the elderly is referred to as location specific social capital and according to scholars, this tends to prevent migration. However push and pull factors can be used to explain the migration intentions of the students (Dovlo, 2003). These refer to the prevailing conditions in the country that influence migration intention in comparison with the perceived attractive conditions at a destination country. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 62 Asked, when they intend to carry out their migration intentions, 35% of respondents who have migration intentions indicated that, they would migrate immediately they get the opportunity, 26% indicated they would migrate within the next 2-3 years, 15% indicated that they plan to migrate after their study, 9% said they would migrate later in life, while 3% were not sure of a specific time to migrate and 2% did not respond to the question. In finding out since when they had had the intention to migrate, it was interesting to identify that, out of the 89 respondents who indicated their intention to migrate, 52% noted they had the intention to migrate since childhood, 38% said they had migration intention since entering the University, 7% indicated since adulthood and 3% did not respond. While respondents did not specify the time or period of having the intention to migrate, it was instructive to identify that majority of respondents, had migration intention since childhood. This therefore neglects the rational choice factors that an individual calculates before having the intention to migrate according to the neoclassical theory. To have intentions to migrate since childhood may have its roots in the society where migration could be viewed as a culture that the child is socialized into (Cohen, 2004). However other contemporary studies have identified the child as an independent actor in making migration decisions based on their aspirations and wishes (Thorsen, 2007; Kwankye et al, 2009). One participant of the in-depth interview confirmed that: I have had the intention to live in the Scandinavian countries since I was a child. I had a pen-pal in Sweden at the age of 10, who wrote letters to me and included in it, pictures of himself in snow. My pen-pal described to me many other beautiful places in Sweden. It was that and the joy of travelling in an aeroplane that always made me think of leaving Ghana to stay abroad. (Sulleyman a 28-year old graduate student) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 63 Sulleyman‟s migration intention also identifies the role of social network at the destination in influencing migration intentions. In Sulleyman‟s case, his pen-pal had been key to his intention to live in the Scandinavia. When asked if they would quit the University and migrate to their preferred country of destination should the opportunity come, 39% of students with intention to migrate answered yes while 45% said they would not and 16% indicated they were not sure whether they would migrate or not. 4.5. Factors influencing students’ migration intentions This section discusses the factors that influence migration intention of university students in line with the objective of the study. It first presents the determinants of Migration intention using a logistic regression analysis and then discusses the findings of students‟ reasons intending to migrate. 4.5.1 Determinants of Migration Intention Using A Logistic Regression Analysis A logistic regression analysis was performed through SPSS Binary logistic to assess prediction of migration intention of students as a function of sex, age, level of study, marital status, job assurance after studies, ever migrated and social network abroad. According to the human capital theory, these personal characteristics influence migration intentions of individuals. The result of the logistic regression analysis is presented in Table 4.2. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 64 Table 4.2: Summary of the Results of the Logistic Regression Analysis on Determinants of Students’ Migration Intention Independent Variables Wald Df Sig Odd ratios Sex Male Female (Base category) 0.242 0.202 1 0.653 1.274 1.000 Age 18-24 years 25 years and above (Base Category) 2.197 1.552 1 0.213 9.000 1.000 Level at the University Undergraduate students Post Graduate students (Base Category) 0.893 2.286 1 0.131 2.443 1.000 Marital status Never married Married (Base Category) 0.081 0.006 1 0.940 1.085 1.000 Job assurance after study Very sure Not sure (Base Category) -1.570 0.674 1 0.020 0.208*** 1.000 Ever Migrated Yes No (Base Category) -0.863 2.356 1 0.125 0.422 1.000 Social network abroad Yes No (Base Category) -1.112 0.969 1 0.251 0.329 1.000 Constant 1.715 1.381 1 0.214 5.557 Source: Author’s Construct, 2015 Note: A Variable with *** attached to the odd ratios indicates a significant predictor of migration intention From Table 4.2, the result shows that only students‟ perception of Job assurance after study here in Ghana is a significant predictor of migration intention of students at the University of Ghana (p < 0.05). The negative regression coefficients associated with University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 65 Job assurance in Ghana after study being -1.570 means that it decreases the likelihood of migration intention of University of Ghana students. That is, if a student is assured of getting a job here in Ghana upon completion of University education then it is less likely that the student will intend to migrate abroad. The odd ratios show that, students who are not sure of getting jobs upon completion of their studies are more likely to intend to migrate relative to those who are sure of getting jobs to do here in Ghana when they complete their studies. A simple cross tabulation of test between job assurance after completion of university education and migration intention showed that whereas 62% of students who were sure of securing jobs after completion of their study had the intention to migrate, 87% of students who were not sure of getting a job after study had the intention to migrate. This therefore implies that students who are certain of securing a job upon completing their university are less likely to have migration intention as compared to those who are not sure. This is shown in the table 4.3. Table 4.3: A Cross tabulation of students’ job certainty after study and migration intention Intention to migrate Total No Yes Not sure Job certainty after study Very sure 18% 62% 20% 100% Not sure 6.5% 87% 6.5% 100% Total (Frequency) 17 89 19 125 Source: Field Data, 2015 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 66 The result supports the migration literature that employment is a key determinant of migration intention. Among the youth, Awumbila et al (2011) mentioned that the need to secure employment is a deciding factor for migrating. Ngwainmbi (2014) also cited unemployment among graduates in developing countries as a cause of migration. According to Goldscheider (1983), the main motivation for youth migration is to seek jobs and other economic opportunities. A twenty-two year old Bachelor of Arts female student said: “I want to migrate in order to avoid being part of the growing number of unemployed graduates in the system.… if we could all have a good job that can secure our future, no one will be thinking of going anywhere to struggle in the cold weather abroad. University education in Ghana is becoming a joke; graduates are being produced every year with no jobs. Sometimes I regret not opting for nursing training school instead of this. My only hope is in my brother in the US, who is planning to take me. It is frustrating to complete the University and stay at home without job. I pray that my brother can work things out for me so that I can avoid all that” (Linda, a level 100 student) Interestingly however, despite their certainty of securing jobs after study, 62% of the students (from table 4.3) still indicated their intention to migrate. This finding reveals that although employment is a strong factor for migration among students as supported by the literature (Awumbila et al, 2011; Nwaimbe, 2014; Goldscheider, 1983), there are other factors that explain migration of students other than the search for employment. Dovlo (2003) mentioned lack of job satisfaction stemming from poor conditions of service and wage differentials in Ghana in comparison to developed countries abroad as causes of the migration of health professionals. These factors cited by Dovlo (2003) coupled with the students personal characteristics (Lee, 1966) such as their young age and single marital status as the socio-demographic characteristics of the study describes majority of the students to be, are likely to make them have the intention to migrate despite their certainty of securing jobs after completing their university study. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 67 The result supports the migration literature that employment is a key determinant of migration intention. Among the youth, Awumbila et al., (2011) mentioned that the need to secure employment is a deciding factor for migrating. Ngwainmbi (2014) also cited unemployment among graduates in developing countries as a cause of migration. According to Goldscheider (1983), the main motivation for youth migration is to seek jobs and other economic opportunities. In an in-depth interview, a 22 year old Bachelor of Arts female student said: I want to migrate in order to avoid being part of the growing number of unemployed graduates in the system.… if we could all have a good job that can secure our future, no one will be thinking of going anywhere to struggle in the cold weather abroad. University education in Ghana is becoming a joke; graduates are being produced every year with no jobs. Sometimes I regret not opting for nursing training school instead of this. My only hope is in my brother in the US, who is planning to take me. It is frustrating to complete the University and stay at home without job. I pray that my brother can work things out for me so that I can avoid all that. (Linda, a level 100 student) Also, although marital status is not a significant predictor of migration intention of students, the odd ratios show that those who are married are less likely to intend to migrate as compared to those who are not married (see Table 4.2). This is consistent with the migration literature that individuals in marital relationships may be less likely to migrate as compared to persons who are single (Jacobsen and Levin, 2000; Yang, 2000). According to Agadjanian et al., (2008) the presence of child bearing in marital relationships also reduces the likelihood of persons to plan to migrate. Furthermore, the odd ratios show that students who are from 18 to 24 years old are nine times as likely to intend to migrate as those who are 25 years and above. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 68 Similarly according to the odd ratios, students who are in levels 100 to 400 (undergraduates) are twice as likely to intend to migrate as those who are in levels 600 and 700 (Postgraduates). These two variables are similar in results or support each other. This is because majority of students between the ages of 18 and 24 were undergraduate students while majority of postgraduate students were within the category of 25 years of age and above. The finding that students in the younger category (18-24) are more likely to have migration intention as compared to persons in the older cohort is not surprising and consistent with the migration literature. According to Awumbila et al., (2011), young people of ages between 15 and 24 years constitute the largest proportion of migrants (2011:34). As mentioned by Piracha and Saraogi (2013), younger people have stronger intentions to migrate than their older counterparts and this is because their stock of local social capital is lower, which makes them less bound by family ties and social environments. This reduces their psychological risks and costs associated with migrating by younger people which, tends to have a favourable impact on their migration intentions. Indeed the study showed that all students who were married belonged to the age group 25 years and above. However the test result was not significant perhaps because the older group were still youthful with a mean age of 33 years. Again, students who were married were less likely to migrate as compared to those who were not married. This is not surprising, and it supports the migration literature that marriage and child bearing reduces the likelihood of persons having the intention to migrate (Agadjanian et al, 2008; Jacobsen and Levin, 2000; Yang, 2000). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 69 In addition, the result of the study from Table 4.2 shows that sex is not a significant predictor of migration intentions among university students. The odd ratios however show that, male students are more likely to migrate than their female counterparts. A cross tabulation of association between sex and migration intention of students further revealed that 73% of males indicated their intention to migrate while 68% of females have intention to migrate. This is also not surprising as it backs the migration literature (Castle, 2009). Again result of the regression analysis (from Table 4.2), shows that having migration experience is not a significant determinant of migration intentions of students. Instead, students who had no migration experience were more likely to have migration intention than those who had ever migrated. Finally, the result from Table 4.2 also shows that having social network abroad is not a significant predictor of migration intentions of students. Interestingly, the study revealed that students with social network abroad were less likely to migrate than students who did not have social network abroad. This is surprising and contradicts the migration literature that persons with social network are more likely to have migration intentions (Massey et al, 1998; Coleman 1990; Bauer et al, 2002). This, according to them, reduces the risk of travelling and increases benefits. More so, persons with access to social network at the destination countries get information that will help their travel and inform their decisions better. It is therefore quite surprising that students in this study differed from it. This may likely be because their relatives abroad send remittances to them to cater for themselves and hence may not have the same motivation to migrate as those who have no such social network. This could be supported by the New Economics of Labour Migration (NELM) approach, according University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 70 to which, remittances should reduce future emigration because they help households overcome credit constraints and provide insurance against negative income shocks (Taylor, 2002). As a result, students with no social network abroad may be eager to blaze the trail for their family and help diversify their families‟ sources of income. In conclusion, the result shows that job assurance after study is a significant determining factor of students‟ intention to migrate. However, although the regression analysis shows that socio-demographic characteristics such as age, sex, marital status, and social network are not significant predictors of migration students‟ migration intentions it still establishes a relationship between these variables and migration intention. The likelihood of these personal characteristics such as young age, and single (marital) status influencing migration intentions can be explained within the context of the human capital theory of migration which considers the personal characteristics of individuals as relevant to migration decision making. 4.5.2 Students‟ reasons for intending to migrate According to the push and pull framework, migration decisions are made based on factors both at the origin and at the destination countries (Lee, 1966). The push factors refer to prevailing conditions at the origin that influence a person to migrate while the pull factors are those at the destination that attract a person to migrate. In the context of this study, push and pull factors are the factors, both in Ghana and abroad that influence university students to migrate. The human capital theory also explains that these prevailing conditions at the origin (push factors) may influence their migration intention, taking into consideration the personal characteristics of the individual (student). This section discusses these factors that influence students‟ migration University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 71 intention. These factors as mentioned by the students have been categorised by the study into economic considerations, educational considerations, family or social network considerations and any other considerations. According to the literature, the search for employment and the desire to improve living standards are the main reasons responsible for the migration of young men and women from Ghana (Awumbila et al, 2011; Anarfi 2003). The study showed that majority of students (67%) intended to migrate due to economic reasons (see Table 4.4). Significantly, many students mentioned the need for employment, while others said higher wages abroad and poor economic conditions in Ghana as their main reasons for their intention to migrate. In an in-depth interview with Kofi, a 23-year old level 400 student, he explained: Life after completing the university is very frustrating in Ghana. You get to level 400 and you start panicking because you are thinking of how you will survive after school. You spend a whole four years at the university and you can‟t get a job after you finish. … even those who have jobs too complain of poor salary because the cedi value is always depreciating while prices of goods keep on increasing. So for someone like me, there is no point in staying in Ghana if I get the opportunity to travel abroad (Kofi, University of Ghana) Kofi‟s intention to migrate (like Linda‟s case) is because there are limited job opportunities for him as a graduate after completing the university. His intention to migrate is as well driven by his need to utilize his human capital as a university graduate upon completion of his education. This can be situated within the context of human capital theory. This is where he considers his level of education (personal characteristic) and the uncertainty of gaining employment after study in Ghana as a reason to migrate. He perceives that with his level of education, he can gain employment abroad, hence, his intention to migrate. It is also consistent with the conceptual framework of the study (see Fig. 2.1) which considers such personal University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 72 characteristic as education level of an individual as likely to influence one‟s migration intentions (Lee, 1966). There were also 16% of students whose migration intention was mainly as a result of educational pursuit abroad. Some mentioned that the educational system in Ghana is not attractive as compared to the advanced countries while others said there are limited (scholarship) opportunities in Ghana to further their education. This point was echoed by Sulleyman, a 28-year old graduate student: I want to migrate from Ghana to go and pursue a PhD program in Norway or the US. Doing it here in Ghana is not easy; the cost is high with no scholarship funding and to top it up, there are a lot of frustrations in the system. Sulleyman‟s desire to migrate and pursue a PhD program like other students who intend to migrate for educational reasons can also be situated within the human capital theory. Their pursuit of education is an investment into their human capital (Sjaastad, 1962). The study again showed that 5% of students intended to migrate due to family reasons. Some mentioned reasons such as family reunion and the influence of family members (home and abroad) to migrate. This is consistent with the social network theory. Studies have shown that family and friends abroad can influence migration decisions as well as facilitate migration (Adepoju, 2005). Also it goes to support the new economics of labour theory that migration decisions are not solely individual decisions but are taken jointly within the ambit of the household and for different family members (Taylor 1999; Stark and Bloom 1985). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 73 Finally, 6% of students mentioned some other reasons as why they intend to migrate from Ghana. These reasons included poor electricity supply in the country (referred to as “dumsor” in the akan language), corruption and bad governance. In all, both economic and social considerations accounted for the factors responsible for migration intention of university of Ghana students. The result is shown in Table 4.4. Table 4.4: Distribution of the reasons behind the intention to migrate abroad Reason Frequency Percentage Economic considerations 60 67% Educational Considerations 14 16% Family Considerations/ Social Network 5 6% Other reasons No response 6 4 7% 4% Total 89 100 % Source: Field Work, 2015 4.5.3 Preferred country of destination Respondents were asked to identify their most preferred country of destination, should they migrate from Ghana. Majority of students preferred the USA with the UK following. From the study 59% of respondents preferred the USA, while 23% chose the United Kingdom (see Figure 4.7). Interestingly no student preferred any African country. This represents a shift from the trend of Ghanaian emigration between the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 74 late 1970s and 1980s according to the literature (Anarfi, 2003) where Ghanaian university graduates, teachers and other professionals preferred to migrate to neighbouring West African and other African countries. Figure 4.7: Preferred destination countries of students Source: Field Data, 2015 4.5.3.1 Factors that influence choice of destination The results indicate that majority of students preferred the USA as their destination country. This is not surprising because it supports the migration literature that recently the US has been a major destination country for Ghanaian migrants (Adepoju, 2010; Anarfi, 2003). Adepoju (2010) mentions the US, Germany, Italy and Nigeria as four major destination countries for Ghanaian migrants. Interestingly, no student chose any African country as their preferred destination country. On what mainly motivates their choice of destination, three of the participant‟s choices of destination country were Germany USA UK Canada Australia China Other EU and Asian countries 1% 59% 23% 3.5% 3.5% 1% 9% University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 75 influenced by the allure of the availability of job opportunity. For example a participant said: Germany and London attract me very much but I would like to go there only for a short period like a holiday. The country I prefer to stay and live my life is the US. It is a place you can freely live your life and mix with them as a black person and the important aspect is that finding a job there I‟m told is not as difficult as other countries in Europe. Besides, I have relatives and friends there who would help me to settle easily. (Kofi, level 400 student) However a participant‟s choice of destination country was mainly motivated by education and other social factors. He explained: The US and the UK are my most favourite countries… but I would go to the UK because I would like to pursue my Master‟s degree program there. I like their educational system and London is one beautiful city I would like to live. More so the attraction of the English Premier league too, as you can see my shirt (he wears a Chelsea replica jersey), a chance to live in a city where I can go to the Stamford Bridge (Stadium) to watch Chelsea matches is a great opportunity. (Divine, a level 300 student) There was also the role of social networks abroad in influencing the choice of destination country. In the words of Linda: The USA for sure…. I have my senior brother there who wants me to join him. Had it not been visa issues we had, I would have gone last year when I completed the SHS (Senior High School) (Linda, a 20 year old level 100 student) Linda‟s case can also be situated within the context of the new economics of labour theory where the family encourages some members to migrate as a household strategy to diversify their source of income against economic shocks. In all, the USA was the most preferred destination country by respondents followed by the UK. Students‟ choices of preferred destination country were motivated by factors such as employment availability, educational pursuit and social network abroad. These factors at the destination countries that serve as attraction to the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 76 students can be explained as pull factors in the context of push and pull theory. They are therefore consistent with the conceptual framework of the study (see fig. 2.1). 4.6 Challenges to Students’ Intention to Migrate Although majority of students had intention to migrate, the study identified that they were hindered or delayed from carrying out their migration intention. When asked about what mainly prevented them from migrating, majority of respondents (53%) with migration intention said the difficulty in securing travelling visa was their main challenge while 25% and 21% pointed to their desire to complete their current university education and the money to travel respectively (see Table 4.5). Only 1% of the respondents mentioned their attachment to family and loved ones as the reason that prevented them from migrating. The result therefore shows that although students had migration intention, their inability to secure visa was the main reason that prevented majority of them from migrating. This is not surprising because according to Adamson (2011), developed countries, in the wake of globalization and mass mobility hold it a priority to manage international migration flows in order to ensure the security and socio-economic protection of their citizens. As a result, students with migration intention are likely to explore possible avenues of migrating. This may explain why students the US diversity Visa lottery program is popular among university students in Ghana according to Kremer (2011). Also other factors such as their desire to complete their university education and money to travel also accounted for their inability to carry out their migration intention. The latter reason is not surprising because (as already mentioned in the discussion of the conceptual framework) according to Awumbila University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 77 (2011) the cost of migration is so high that it demands resourceful persons to carry out. Also only 1% of respondents citing their tie with family and loved ones as the main migration obstacle is as well not surprising because according to the migration literature (as also mentioned in the discussion of the conceptual framework), young people who are single and do not have children are less likely to be tied down to their family and social environment because they have a lower local social capital ((Piracha and Saraogi; 2013, Goldscheider 1971). From the description of the socio- demographic characteristics of respondents of the study, majority of students are young (from 18-24), single and have no children. This finding is consistent with Anarfi‟s (2006) study among nursing students in Ghana that, the inability to get visas, financial difficulties as well as the desire to complete their programme of study are factors that delayed nursing students in Ghana from carrying out their migration intention. Table: 4.5 Challenges to students’ migration intention Migration obstacle Number Percent University education 22 25 Difficulty in securing Visa 47 53 Family & Loved ones 1 1 Money to travel 19 21 Total 89 100.0 Source: Field Data, 2015 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 78 4.7 Summary This chapter has discussed the migration intentions of University of Ghana students. It also examined the factors that influence the migration intentions of students. It has identified employment opportunity after school as a significant determinant of migration intentions of students and has identified economic reason and the pursuit of education as among the key push and pull factors responsible for students‟ intention to migrate. The chapter also revealed the USA as the most preferred migration destination of students. Finally, the chapter assessed that although majority of students have the intention to migrate, their current university study as well as the difficulty in securing visa served as a delay or an obstacle in carrying out their migration intentions. The next chapter presents the migration intention of students under the DV lottery program. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 79 CHAPTER FIVE EXAMINING THE KNOWLEDGE AND PARTICIPATION OF DV PROGRAMME BY STUDENTS 5.1 Introduction A desk review of the literature on the Diversity Visa program highlight African countries as major participants of the program. As revealed by Kremer (2011), in Ghana, agents of the DV program specifically target and enrol University students on campuses. This chapter assesses the migration intention of university of Ghana students under the DV program and explores the motivating factors that influence this intention, in line with the objective of the study. An in-depth interview of DV winners in the USA, from the University of Ghana is presented to offer a deeper understanding of students‟ migration intention and their participation in the DV lottery program. 5.2 Students’ knowledge about the Diversity Visa program In order to be able to assess the migration intentions of students under the DV program and have an informed opinion of students about the program, the study first sought to find out the knowledge of respondents about the program. Hence, only respondents who knew about the program, out of the total sample population, were eligible to answer questions about the DV program. As observed from Table 5.1, 89% of total respondents indicated that they had knowledge about the DV program while 11% did not know about the DV program. The analysis therefore shows that an overwhelming majority of respondents knew University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 80 about the program. The result is supportive of the finding that the DV program is known to majority of university students. This is also supportive of Kremer‟s (2011) study that the DV program is particularly popular among Ghanaian university students. Table: 5.1 Distribution of the Knowledge of respondents about the DV Program Knowledge of DV Program Number Percent I do know about it 111 88.8 I don’t know about it 14 11.2 Total 125 100.0 Source: Field data, 2015 5.3 Sources of Students’ Knowledge about the DV Program Figure 5.1 presents the sources of students‟ knowledge about the DV program. Out of the students who knew about the DV program, 36% said they were introduced to the program by colleagues on campus, 21% of students said they knew about it through the internet, 19% said on a banner or flier on campus; 16% knew it through a registration agent on campus and 8% through a family member. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 81 Figure: 5.1 Sources of Knowledge about the DV Program Source: Field Data, 2015 The result shows that the DV program is known by students through diverse sources. Significantly, the mentioning of registration agents as well as the presence of banners, and fliers on the university campus supports Kremer‟s (2011) study that in Ghana DV agents target university students on campus. In an interview with a 26 year old winner of the DV lottery, he said: I was in level 100, when one day I went to the library to study and overhead a group of guys talking about the visa lottery. I saw them opening the site which caught my attention so I also opened the site. We went through the process and how everything goes and I told myself I will try it. I wanted to try it there but I had to pay some fee and I didn‟t have money on me to pay. So one day I was studying and some people came in, saying they are registering people for the American lottery so I can register. I asked them how I will know if I won, and they said they would call. I was okay with that since they told me I wouldn‟t pay anything; all that was required was for me to take a picture and they would do everything for me. I said let me give it a try after all I didn‟t pay anything and if I lost I don‟t lose anything so I filled in my details on a form they gave to me. Then one day, three years after, I had a missed call Colleagues on campus The Internet Banner or Flier on campus Registration Agent on Campus Family 36% 21% 19% 16% 8% University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 82 when I was at the lecture hall, in level 300. After the lecture I called and a guy said I had won the US visa lottery. So I asked them where they are and they directed me to the place. They showed me the paper works, gave it to me and then I started processing for the visa. (Prince, DV winner, USA). The case of Prince confirms the presence of DV agents on campus who enrol university students into the program. Interestingly, these agents can even keep the details of students and register them in subsequent years. Again, from Figure 5.1, the relatively high proportion of students (36%) who were introduced to the DV program by their colleagues on campus shows that the program is known to students on campus. On the other hand it identifies the role of social network in influencing migration intentions of students. Also the role of family members in encouraging the participation of students in the DV program as mentioned by 8% of the students, supports the new household economics theory that the family is an influential factor in migration decision making. Linda said: I got to know about the DV program through my brother in the US. Although he is making efforts to come and take me, he asked me and my other brother to register for the program because according to him, people who are in the US through the lottery don‟t have problems with paper issues. (Linda, Level 100, University of Ghana, Feb. 2015) Linda‟s case also confirms the finding of this study about the role of social networks abroad in influencing migration decision and facilitating migration (Adepoju, 2005). It also supports the conceptual framework of the study that social network abroad can act as pull factors in their role of facilitating migration. 5.4 Intentions of Students to Participate In the DV Programme From Table 5.2, out of the one-hundred and eleven (111) respondents who knew about the DV program, 65% of them indicated their intention to participate in the DV program while 30% said they had no such intention to participate in the program, 5% University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 83 did not respond. Therefore majority of students have the intention to migrate to the USA through the DV program. Table: 5.2 Distribution of students’ intention to migrate under the DV Program Intention to migrate under DV Number Percent Yes 72 65 No 33 35 Not Response 6 5 Total 111 100.0 Source: Field Data, 2015 Interestingly also, of those who had the intention to participate in the DV program, when asked if they have ever registered in it before, majority of them (64%) responded in the affirmative. In an interview with Divine a level 300 student (mentioned in chapter 4) he expressed his intention to participate in the DV program, and said: The Visa lottery is a program I know that it has given opportunities to many people to go to the USA including a cousin of mine. I am yet to register for the program because I missed out of it last year… My roommate reminded me to register only on the last day of the registration but we couldn‟t do it because all my passport pictures were rejected by the system. They didn‟t meet the standard pixels and we gave up, out of frustration. At first I didn‟t care to register because I thought my chances of winning was too slim looking at the large number of applicants that take part. However, since my cousin won it and went to the USA last year, I have completely changed my mind about it and I will try again this year. Who knows? Anything is possible. (Divine, University of Ghana, February 2015) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 84 From Divine‟s quote, although he is yet to register for the DV program, he has a strong intention to participate in it with the hope of winning it and migrating to the USA like his cousin. In another participant‟s case, (Kofi) his intention to migrate under the DV program however means that he is a “regular customer” of the program according to him. He said: Yes, I have registered before, not once but three times. I even remember my dad registered me under him when I was in class five… I have done it for myself since level 100, so you can see that I am a regular customer of the program. They are yet to release the result of the last one we did. I hope I will win or any of my friends will win it. (Kofi level 400, University of Ghana, February 2015) This is not surprising since majority of students in the study indicated their intention to migrate from Ghana. More so, the study showed that majority of university of Ghana students preferred the USA as destination country, due to factors such as economic and social reasons (already discussed in previous chapter). The DV lottery could therefore serve as a means of carrying out their migration intention. A cross tabulation of association between migration intention and the intention to migrate through the DV lottery showed that 76% of students who have intention to migrate also had intention to participate in the program. This is not surprising because respondents who have the intention to migrate are likely to explore the available options to migrate. Also, with majority of students with migration intention having the difficulty of securing visa as their main challenge according to the study, it is not surprising that majority of students who have migration intention have the intention to participate in the DV program especially when the study also identifies the United States as students most preferred destination country. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 85 As observed from Table 5.2, out of the students who knew about the DV program, 35% did not have any intention to participate in the DV program. While majority of these could be students who had no migration intention but knew about the DV program, there were students who did not have any interest in participating in the DV program, yet, had migration intention. Sulleyman, (a 28-year old graduate student of the University of Ghana) was one of such students who have the intention to migrate but have no intention to participate in the DV program. He explained: I am not interested in the DV program… first of all, as a Muslim it does not conform to my religious beliefs to participate in a lottery. No matter how you view it, it is lotto. It is my own personal belief which may not apply to other people, but I do not want to participate in that. Secondly, I have my own plans of migrating to further my education and I‟m confident of gaining admission in a university in Norway. So I don‟t need to go through all those registration processes to submit my personal information to the USA government. (Sulleyman, University of Ghana. Feb. 2015) From Sulleyman‟s case, it explains that although some students may have the intention to migrate, they did not intend to participate in the DV lottery due to various such as that of Sullleyman‟s. Moreover, security reasons, religious beliefs as well as the likelihood of having their own means or plans of migrating other than using the DV program. 5.5 Expectations for intending to participate in the DV Program According to Anarfi (2006) the perceived benefits individuals expect to gain at the destination country influence their migration decision making. According to Piore (1979) these (perceived) benefits at the destination (the pull factors) are stronger than the conditions at the origin (push factors), in the migration decision making of individuals. Students‟ intention to participate in the DV program may be shaped by their expected gains in migrating to the USA under the DV program. In this regard, the Diversity Visa program and its expected opportunities that students perceive to University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 86 gain may serve as a motivation to their intention to participate in the program. Such expectation or motivation in participating in the DV program was explained by Linda that: (my brother) he asked me and my other brother to register for the program because according to him, people who are in the US through the lottery don‟t have problems with paper issues. (Linda, level 100, University of Ghana This section of the study therefore explores the expectations of students in participating in the DV program. (see Table 5.3). Table: 5.3 Distribution of students’ migration expectations/motivations under the DVLP Expectations/Motivations Number Percent Employment 32 44 Educational Opportunities 24 33 Permanent US Residency Status 12 17 Migrate with Family 4 6 Total 72 100.0 Source: Field Data, 2015 Students‟ intentions to participate in the DV program were mainly motivated by economic and social considerations. From Table 5.3, out of the students who intend to participate in the DV program, 33% were mainly motivated by their expectation of securing educational opportunities in the USA where 44% were motivated by employment opportunities, 17% expect to secure the permanent residency status in the USA, 6% said they would be able to migrate with family to the USA. These reasons University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 87 therefore underscore the motivation behind students‟ intention to participate in the DV program. On her motivation to participate in the DV program, Priscilla said: “I understand when you win the lottery you can even become a US citizen and also be able take your family with you. It happened with a nurse in our neighbourhood who they say won it. She went to the USA with the husband and two kids. So you can imagine, winning the lottery can transform the fortunes of an entire family in a fortnight…” (Priscilla, 22-year old level 200 student) The expectation of winning the lottery and obtaining a US citizenship status after that was a motivation for Priscilla‟s participation in the DV program. This is not surprising because according to Ngwainmbi (2014: 45), 98% of Black African DV lottery winners in the US trade their citizenship for that of the US. She also makes reference to a nurse who she perceives won the lottery and migrated to the US with the family which can also influence her intention to participate in the DV program. A participant confirmed the participation in the DV program is driven by his expectation of gaining employment in the USA after winning the lottery. He Said: My experience in registering in the visa lottery has taught me that, you cannot bank your hopes of migrating in it, because chances of winning are very slim, but I never rule myself out of it because people still win. An opportunity to go to the USA to even go and be a cleaner is worth more than staying in Ghana and doing nothing as an unemployed graduate. Look, as I sit here, if I go to the USA for just one year or two years, I can make it big… (Kofi, level 400 student) Kofi‟s motivation in participating in the visa lottery is generally underscored by economic considerations which also support the reason behind respondents‟ intention to migrate in this study as discussed in the previous chapter. The expectation of gaining educational opportunities in the US which was mentioned by 33% of respondents (as observed from Table 5.3) was shared by a participant. He explained: If I win the visa lottery, living in the US will become easy for me because I can do a part time job without having paper issues and be able to concentrate University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 88 on furthering my education…(Divine, level 300 student, University of Ghana). In all, respondents‟ intentions to migrate to the USA through the participation of the DV program were mostly driven by their expectations of securing employment opportunity, followed by educational opportunities (see Table 5.3). This is consistent with the push pull and human capital theories which have been discussed in chapter two. Moreover, with the highest proportion of students (44%) being motivated by the prospect of gaining employment opportunity in the USA, it also supports the finding of the study (see table 4.1) that employment or the assurance of job after study is a significant predictor of migration intention of university students. 5.6 In-Depth Interview Of Former University of Ghana Students in the USA, through the Diversity Visa Programme This section presents an in-depth interview of two participants of the study (Prince and Andy) who are currently in the USA through the DV program. It presents their migration decision and motivation including their experiences after migrating to the USA under the DV program. This is also to confirm the information and various expectations held by the students in Ghana about the DV program and the opportunities in the USA that motivate them to migrate. Prince is a twenty-seven (27) year old winner of the Visa lottery program. He registered for the program on campus through a DV lottery agent in the University of Ghana. He won the DV whiles in level 300 of his study in 2012 and discontinued his study and migrated to the USA. The second participant of the study is Andy, a 28 year old winner of the DV who migrated to the USA in 2012 after completing his Bachelor‟s degree in engineering. Andy University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 89 registered in the program through a friend on campus who served as a DV agent and won the lottery Visa at level 400 of his study in the University of Ghana. 5.6.1 Participation in the DV Programme and Motivation The reasons behind students‟ intention to migrate have been fully explored by this study. With a myriad of reasons involved although majority is based on economic consideration and a chance to further education. With the DV program offering a chance to acquire the US visa, underscore the real reasons or motivation for participating in DV program from the two respondents, Prince and Andy (winners of the program in the US). When asked what occasioned his participation in a migration programme like the DV when at the University in Ghana, Prince explained: I had the mind set of traveling one day , the plan was maybe after school or somewhere near in the future go abroad and do my masters or doctorate. I didn‟t have the intention of right now migrating, no. My plan was I knew one day I would travel and do one or two things like continuing with my school but it wasn‟t at that time. When I heard him (visa lottery agent on campus) talking of it, I wanted to give it a try…. But my mind wasn‟t set on it that yes I am going to travel so I have to win it and travel, no. I just gave it a try and I won. (Prince, DVLP winner, USA) Prince‟s participation in the DVLP was motivated by his intention to migrate from Ghana to study abroad. His intention to migrate supports the finding of the study about university of Ghana students who have intention to migrate to pursue higher education abroad (see Table 4.4). It is also consistent with students who intend to participate in the DV program with the expectation of gaining educational opportunity in the USA. (see table 5.3). This can therefore be situated within the human capital theory context. According to Sjaastad (1979) individuals decide to migrate to improve their human capital in order to boost their future income. Also similar to earlier findings of the study on reasons for students‟ migration intention (see Table 5.3), Andy, on why he participated in the DV program said: University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 90 I thought I had to register. In the first place I had seen and read a lot about graduates who had completed their college and were not getting jobs in Ghana. The number of graduates who were not getting jobs was increasing and I thought in order to prevent myself from passing through those heckles I would have to do something like leaving the shores of the county. So actually it was the problem that comes with graduate unemployment and the fear that I would also have to pass through it that motivated me to apply for the visa lottery. Andy‟s participation in the DV program was motivated by his intention to migrate in order to escape “graduate unemployment” in Ghana as he says. It confirms Awumbila et al‟s (2011) study that young people from developing countries migrate to advanced countries in search for employment as well as to escape poverty. This further supports economic consideration as a push factors that influence students intention to migrate. It also corroborates the result of the study as shown in Table 10 where 44% of respondents who intend to participate in the DV program are motivated by the (perceived) availability of employment opportunities in the US. Consequently, it is consistent with the conceptual framework of the study (see, Figure 2.1). 5.6.2 The Decision to Migrate After Winning the DV Although this study reveal that majority of students (71%) have the intention to migrate from Ghana (page 59), only 39% of these students would quit the university and migrate should they have the opportunity (page 62). Prince‟s decision to discontinue his university education in Ghana and migrate to the USA after winning the DV program therefore falls among the 39% of university of Ghana students with migration intention. The study therefore sought to find the reasons behind the decision to migrate after winning the DV at the expense of his university education in Ghana. Prince explained: My plan was to one day do my masters or PhD outside the country that was the reason why I participated in the lottery. Because I knew that winning the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 91 lottery can offer me that opportunity to travel to the USA which has the best schools in the world. So when that opportunity came I was like, okay, let me go to the USA and get the papers, come back and finish my bachelor‟s degree in Ghana and then go and do my Masters and PhD. I saw it as a nice opportunity without me paying anything or struggling to get over here (USA). So I had the mind set of coming here and returning to Ghana to complete my Bachelor‟s degree before finally coming back to do my masters or PhD. But when I came here things changed………... When I came I realized coming back to Ghana to complete the university would be difficult. The problem is when you come here with an immigrant visa they give you a permanent resident card and with the card you are eligible to stay here permanently but after five years you can apply for a citizenship. You do a test and when you qualify you go for an interview and then they give you a permanent resident card. The card wouldn‟t allow you to stay outside of USA for more than six (6) months. You will need to get an extension note from United States immigration and that one is a long process on its own. They told me that I cannot come over to Ghana for more than 6 months, which means when I come over, after 4 months or 5 months, I have to fly back to the States to stay over for a couple of days before I can come back again. I checked and saw that the fare and other costs involved were expensive. I had to buy plain tickets to move back and forth for about three times before I could complete the university and that is really expensive. So I sat down and analysed the cost and benefit and I made a decision that it would be wise if I forgo my Bachelors‟s degree programme in Ghana and start a new life career over here. (Prince, DVLP winner, USA) Prince‟s expectation of coming back to complete his Bachelor‟s degree could not materialise due to immigration restrictions in the US and the cost involved. 5.6.3 The Motivation of Employment opportunity in the USA As observed from Table 5.3, out of the respondents who intend to participate in the DV program, 44% are motivated by the expectation of employment opportunity in the US. After migrating to the USA with similar expectations, Prince confirmed: When I came here, I worked in one of the malls here called Wal-Mart. I was an overnight stocker. I did that for about five months and then I decided to join the security service… It (the military) is not that bad. I enjoy it because it helps me to get money to pay my bills and send some home. However, if you ask me if that is the job I want to do forever I will say no. In the US, if you are in the military you sign a contract. What they do is, you retire in the military or you finish your term of contract and get out. It is a government job that is done on contract basis. They don‟t have retirement age in the military, what University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 92 they have is retirement year. The only way you can retire in the military is when you serve for 20 years. Most of the recruits come in very young around 17 years so by the time they get out, the person will be about 37 years. (Prince, DV winner, USA) Prince confirms the availability of employment opportunities in the USA. However his first employment as an overnight stocker in a super market and also significantly, his recruitment in the US military can be explained within the context of the dual- labour theory as discussed in chapter two of the study. According to Piore (1979) this is where the state recruits labour that can fill the secondary labour market of mostly low skilled, low wage, insecure and unpleasant factory jobs and the service sector. According to Ngwainmbi (2014:45) most DV migrants handle low paying jobs and eventually become part of the lower-middle and middle class, thereby contributing to the sustenance of the US economy. In effect, in the study of migration, it is important to also highlight on the labour needs of host countries that contribute to the flow of migrants from poor regions to rich countries through actions and programs such as the DVLP. According to Piore (1979), the actions by receiving countries in attracting immigrant labour, which serve as pull factors, are stronger than the push factors, within the push and pull context of migration. Andy also talks about his employment opportunities in the USA. He said: I started my work with amazon which is an online company. I left amazon for DHL and I worked with them for some time and left that company for one other company called Mogbia. Later I went to work in a hospital as a patient care associate and I left that place too. I had to work in a pharmacy as a pharmacy technician and i did that for some time and I went back to amazon again. I worked with them for some time and I left to a perfume producing company called Laurel and I left that company to work with another hospital and I worked there as a patient care associate. My current job is a company that produces hospital equipment; it is a biochemical company, called Big Man. (Andy, DV winner, USA). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 93 Andy‟s multiple employment opportunities the US where he has worked with about eight organizations, again confirms the availability of employment opportunities in the USA, per his expectations before migrating which is as well, similar to 44% of students who intend to participate in the DV program (see Table 5.3). On the other hand, his ability to secure these employment opportunities and fill the necessary vacancies in those organisations at the host country with the required skill or knowledge underlines the need for his labour and therefore the relevance of the DVLP to the host country. This also supports the dual-labour market theory of migration employed by this study in chapter two. According to Piore (1979), a proponent of this theoretical view point, international migration is underlined primarily by pull factors of developed countries (see chapter two, section 2.7.3), that is the permanent demand of immigrant labour that is inherent to the economic structure of developed countries (Massey et al 1993: 440). 5.6.4 The Motivation of Educational opportunities in the USA Also from Table 5.3, out of the students who intend to participate in the DV programme, 33% are motivated by educational opportunities in the USA. According to Alberts and Hazen (2005) the good education system and generous funding of graduate studies makes the United States a major destination for international students. Participants of the study in the USA explained how their expectation of having educational opportunity has been met upon their arrival. I had in mind of continuing my education here so when I won the DV and came here, I had everything planned out. The only thing that changed was my program I did in Ghana (Engineering) and what I‟m doing here in the US (Medical science). I found out in the US that the medical field was better than the engineering field because medical doctors take almost two or more what engineers get here. So financially I was motivated to divert from furthering my studies in engineering and taking up medicine. Also here was someone who even had a better passion towards medicine than towards engineering but didn‟t get the opportunity in Ghana. So everything just encouraged me to drop University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 94 my engineering and go for the medical field. So I am a medical student here. (Andy, DV winner, USA) Andy‟s educational opportunity in the US after winning the DV lottery confirms the educational opportunity university of Ghana students expect to have in the US that influence their intention to participate in the DV programme. Prince also spoke about his educational opportunities in the US in spite of his current work as a military personnel. He said: I have even started, with the US general courses. Any person who hasn‟t had previous education here will have to enrol in their specified course called general course which includes psychology, American history, mathematics and others. That is what is mostly called SAT. You are required to do it before going to college. So as I am in the military I am learning and by the time I complete my military contract I would be done with those required courses. Then when I leave the service, I would start the pre requisite for the course I want to specifically do to become a nuclear physician. Over here, education is very expensive, so after my term expires in the service, I will use the scholarship that would be offered to me to pursue my studies. (Prince, DVLP winner, USA) From the responses of the participants, their expectations of furthering their education are being met in the USA after migrating through to the USA. Andy has fulfilled his “passion” of studying medicine while Prince has concrete plans of studying nuclear physics using a scholarship he could obtain for serving in the military service. 5.6.5 Remittance from DV Migrants in the USA Whereas migration of the young and educated from developing countries is regarded as a loss (Kanbur, Rapoport, 2003), the flow of remittance is deemed as an important development support to origin countries (Lowell and Findlay, 2002; De Haas and Plug, 2006). Arguments over the benefits of remittances as against the loss of human resources to developed countries continue in the migration and development discourse University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 95 (Quartey and Blankson, 2004). Remittances to Ghana have been estimated to be more than the official development assistance since 1990 (Awumbila et al, 2011). On remittance to family and friends at home, Andy said: That is a difficult question; my family is an educated family. All my siblings at least have graduate school experience so each of them have their own jobs; my mum is a teacher, so I don‟t really send money home. However, I send to friends a few times especially those who are finding it difficult to pay their school fees and to friends who apply to schools outside Ghana. I try to send them money but it is not often. I have sent a couple of mobile phones and computer at times and I have also sent clothing. All my investment as at now is into my education and I think about investing in Ghana when am done with my education and start a serious job. (Andy, DVLP winner, USA) Andy‟s reason for not remitting to his family because the mum and other siblings are not in need of it, is interesting and offers a different perspective on the flow of remittance to the origin as a balance to the loss of labour according to migration optimists (de Haas,2008). It shows that migrants may remit or not based on the economic background of their family at the origin. However he plans to invest in Ghana later on after he secures a “serious job”. Nevertheless, he offers financial support to some of his friends in Ghana. In Price‟s case, he said: I support some of my friends and family with money. I send money back home almost every month… Since I came here in 2012 I have sent about $12000 home for different purposes, including money to friends and sometimes church activities. I have started a building project in our hometown so that one also takes a big part of the money I send home. I have decided to bring my young nephew here so that all the family pressure will not be on me. Prince‟s remittance is high mostly because of his family in Ghana who rely on him for fund as well as his friends. It supports the new economics of labour theory that migration is a household economic strategy to diversify sources of family income. More so, his work as a military personnel earns him a considerably high wages (than University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 96 Andy) that puts him in a stronger position to remit and invest in a housing project in Ghana. Prince‟s intention of facilitating the migration of his nephew to the USA as a form of investment that will diversify the family‟s source of income and relieve him of “the family pressure” supports the new economics of labour theory where migration decisions are made within the context of the household as an income diversification strategy of the household (Taylor 1999). It also underlines the role of social networks abroad in facilitating migration of their networks at their origin (Massey, 1998). 5.6.6 Challenges Faced by the DV Migrants in the USA According to Hailu et al (2012), DV migrants experience challenges in the US, with some experiencing cultural shock. Participants were asked about challenges they faced in the US. Prince confirmed that: …life over here is so much different, language, culture, character everything is different. Here they lay more emphasis on individualism. Everything is you and yourself nobody cares about yourself unlike Ghana where we mostly do things together. Sometimes dealing with people in the work place becomes difficult because of how they were brought up. Something you might think it‟s not offensive can become very offensive to them, especially they think you are invading in their privacy. The language barrier makes it difficult at the initial stage when you come. Mostly the black Americans slang a lot. The English language being spoken differs to some extent from one state to another and it makes life quite difficult when you come here. (Prince, DVLP winner, USA) There is also the challenge that emanates from the origin according to Prince. He said: You know the kind of perception our fellow Ghanaians have about migrants. They think all is well over here but they forget that we the migrants also have a life. We also have ourselves to develop. Especially when you come from a poor family you become the bread winner which comes with so many responsibilities. Sometime you will even wish to forfeit your USA stay. And when you have friends who don‟t understand things they are always asking for money. A couple of months ago a friend called me and said he wanted 10 dollars; it wasn‟t that I couldn‟t give him 10 dollars but going to send 10 dollars is economically not wise. I would have to buy gas than pay a charge of 10 dollars to send 10 dollars which doesn‟t make any sense. Then they start University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 97 giving all those comments about me not helping them after I have been successful over here. Some of them also expect you to be chatting with them on Facebook and all those social networks. After sometime when the conversation isn‟t flowing they begin to say I have forgotten them after getting to the USA. They won‟t even bother to ask why you have not been replying consistently and will start sending all sorts of provocative comments. It is very disturbing sometime. 5.6.7 Return Migration intention Return migration is one of the benefits sending countries get from migration (de Haas, 2005). The migration discourse on brain gain as against brain drain is supported by return migration and remittance. When asked about their return migration intention, Andy said: I will be very frank here; I am not trying to talk for patriotism. After my study, I would like to stay here and work, because working here means you will be working in a very good hospital. Your experience as a medical doctor is very vast and great. You get to work in the best hospitals, you get to work with the best companies, you get to work with very intelligent people and you also you get paid very well. It is not like Ghana where you would have to embark on strike before you are given your peanuts. You know, the motivation here is very great and everyone will like to work here. I would not like to be a hypocrite, I will work here. Perhaps I would not mind working in Ghana but that will be after some years in my life. I think that will happen when the ground is fertile, when some of us see things a bit improved, as in, if government pays workers what they are due. Let‟s not be hypocrites about patriotism. The politicians take their perdiem people get into politics people who didn‟t have work experience get to be ministers and we see them driving in huge cars. So let‟s not talk about patriotism , let‟s talk about what is due the people and if that is the case some of us will come back when we see that politicians are serious enough to give to people what is due to them” (Andy). Andy‟s intention not to return to Ghana to practice his medical profession after study is mainly based on wage differentials and the poor working condition in Ghana as compared to the US. This supports the push and pull factors that affect health professionals migration intention according to Dovlo (2003). Ghana would have benefited from his services as a medical doctor owing to the doctor-patient ratio in the country. While this may be regarded as a drain on the country, he could not have University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 98 become a doctor if he did not win the DV and migrate to the US to study, thereby supporting Hein de Haas‟ (2005) argument on brain drain in his “myths and facts” of international migration that not every migration invariably leads to brain drain. Prince on the other hand said: There are two things I am considering at the moment. Initially I had made up my mind not to come to Ghana again. When you grow old and you need access to health care, access to road and other things that will make life easier, in Ghana it is difficult to have access to some of these things. So when you get to your old age and come to Ghana, the things that will make your life a little bit easy will be difficult for you to access. Based on that, I decided not to come back to Ghana, because here, they have good doctors and facilities. In case you get sick they can take care of you adequately. If it is a surgery you have undergo, they have great facilities to take cater for you. When you go to the hospital you don‟t have to be in a queue, you just have to go online and schedule an appointment. By the time you get to the hospital, the doctor is ready to see you at the appointed time. Everything is scheduled to make life easier, especially for the old men and women. But the other thing is that, the field I want to major in is a new field that has recently emerged… nuclear physics, it is a new field that has emerged. And I‟m very sure there is none in Ghana. And even if some are there, they are not common. This is because the equipment they use is based on radiation and technology, and Ghana hasn‟t gotten to that extent. So if I am able to build my career and get that certificate, I will come to Ghana and open my hospital. I am sure apart from the Korle Bu and Komfo Anokye hospitals they don‟t have any recognized chemotherapy hospital for cancer patients. This is a new way of treating cancer, they use radiation like isotopes. So I‟m very sure that Ghana does not have many of those Centres. After securing my certificate, I will come down to Ghana and open my office or even attach myself to some of the government hospitals as Dr. Frimpong Boateng has done. I am sure I am not the only one who has this idea. I will definitely meet others and find a way to establish a Centre like that in Ghana. So if I would want to come and stay in Ghana, then it is because of this idea, aside that I would prefer to stay in the US permanently. (Prince, DVLP winner, USA) Prince‟s intention of returning to Ghana to set up a centre and practice his profession as a nuclear physician supports the brain gain argument by Lowell and Findlay (2002) that in the medium to long term origin countries benefit from remittances and the expertise of return migrants. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 99 5.7 Suggestions and opinions of students Participants of the study did not see migration of university graduates as detrimental to Ghana‟s development. Priscilla said: I see nothing negative about university graduates or anybody migrating from Ghana. What benefit does it serve the nation if we all remain in Ghana and cannot find employment or where my next meal will come from? I think the country rather stands to benefit if some of us migrate. (Priscilla, University of Ghana) Respondents offered suggestions that government and policymakers could undertake that could help to retain university students in Ghana and minimise students‟ intention to migrate. These suggestions are presented in Table 5.4. Table: 5.4 Respondents’ suggestions of the role of government to retain university graduates in Ghana Role Of Gov‟t In Retaining University Graduates In Ghana Number Percent Creation of employment opportunities by government 73 58.4 Creation of a better living condition in Ghana 4 3.2 Improvement in educational structure and system 12 9.6 Wage increment 20 16 Other suggestions 7 5.6 Not answered 9 7.2 Total 125 100 Source: Field Data, 2015 The result as shown in Table 5.4 suggests that majority of students (58.4%) are of the opinion that the creation of employment opportunities could minimise students intention to migrate. This also supports the findings of the study that job assurance upon completion of university study in Ghana is a predictor of migration intention of University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 100 students (see Table 4.2). Five out of the seven participant of the in-depth interview shared this opinion. Kofi said: The government must help to create employment opportunities that graduates from the universities can assess. The public sector alone cannot employ all the graduates in the country and that is why it behoves on the government to expand the economy to attract investors who can set up more businesses. As an economics student, the little I know is that, the private sector is supposed to be the engine of growth for every country. If the government is able to focus on this, they won‟t need to even buy free uniforms for pupils or free sandals or free everything they use to win votes. So if the country is really serious about retaining its university graduates then the government must help create employment by supporting the private sector initiatives and empowering the youth. Other than that, we are all on the move. (Kofi, University of Ghana) This was followed by 16% of students who suggested that wage increment can contribute to reducing the number of students who intend to migrate from Ghana. This also supports and underlines economic considerations as constituting the main reason for migration intention among young people (Goldscheider,1983). More so, 9.6% of students suggested that an improvement in the educational system and structure in Ghana can help minimise the number of students with the intention to migrate. Such improvement in the education mentioned by students included scholarship opportunities in Ghana for students to be able to pursue their study in Ghana as well as making university education more practical. Sulleyman, said: Teaching and learning here in the universities must be practical and less stressful. It is all about memorising for exams and forgetting after that. So the products of the universities have difficulty adapting to the practicality of the outside world especially at the job market. Also there should be enough scholarships available for brilliant but needy students who intend to further their university education here in Ghana. I cannot confine myself to Ghana if I‟m getting no opportunity to further my education when I could have one, abroad. The best way to go about this is to improve the educational system and offer educational opportunities to persons who deserve. (Sulleyman, University of Ghana) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 101 5.7 Summary This chapter has presented the findings and discussions of the intention of university of Ghana students to migrate under the Diversity Visa lottery program. It has analysed the factors that influence students‟ intention to participate in the DV program. The chapter explored the expectations and motivations behind students‟ intention to migrate under the Visa lottery. It was found out that an overwhelming majority of respondents (89%) knew about the DV program. Out of the students who knew about the DV program, 65% intend to participate or register in the DV program. The chapter also found that, students who intend to participate in the DV program are motivated by the expectation of gaining employment and educational opportunities in the US among others (see Table 5.3). The chapter finally presented an in-depth interview of former university of Ghana students who are currently in the USA after winning the DV programme. In the interview, it was understood that, their participation in the DV programme was a means to “escape unemployment after study” and also to further their study abroad. Upon arrival in the USA, their expectation of gaining employment and opportunities to further their study was a real one. It was found that whiles they contribute to the socio-economic sustenance of the host country (USA) through their much needed labour support (Piore, 1979), they are also able to remit to their family and friends at the origin which as well contribute to the socio-economic sustenance of Ghana. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 102 CHAPTER SIX SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 6.0 Introduction The study sought to examine the migration intentions of university of Ghana students with respect to the Diversity Visa Lottery Program. The study also sought to understand the migration intentions of students and the factors that influence these migration intentions. The study again sought to find out the intention of students to participate in the DV program. Finally the study sought to understand the expectations or motivations behind students‟ participation in the Diversity Visa program. This chapter presents a summary of the findings, the conclusions and some recommendations arising from the study. 6.1 Summary of findings In terms of socio-demographic characteristics, the study shows that majority (61.6 %) of the students were males whilst an overwhelming proportion (85.6 %) were from 18 years to 29 years old. Also, a great proportion (93%) of the students was never married. On their employment status, a great proportion of students (84%) did not have employment. In terms of financing the cost of their university education, the study found that majority, representing of students (84%) were financed by their parents. On the migration intentions of students, the study found that a majority of 71% of students intends to migrate from Ghana, while 14% had no intention to migrate and 15% were not sure of their intention to migrate. It was found that 67% of students University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 103 intend to migrate mainly because of economic considerations such as employment opportunities and higher wages. Interestingly students‟ assurance of getting a job here in Ghana upon completion of their study was a significant predictor of migration intention of students (p < 0.05). That is, if a student is assured of getting a job here in Ghana upon completion of their University education, then it is less likely that the student will intend to migrate abroad. Also there were students (16%) whose intention to migrate was mainly as result of their intention to pursue education abroad. The study also found that majority of students‟ most preferred destination country was the United States of America (59%) followed by the United Kingdom (23%). However although students had the intention to migrate from Ghana, majority (53%) of them were restrained from migrating due to the difficulty in securing visa. On their intention to migrate under the DV lottery, the study found out that a great majority of respondents (89%) knew about the DV program where a large proportion of students identified various sources on campus as where they knew about the program. This confirmed Kremer‟s (2011) study that the DV program is predominantly known on university campuses in Ghana. Out of the students who knew about the DV, majority of them (65%) indicated their intention to migrate under the DV program while 30% had no intention to participate in the program, and 5% did not respond. It was also found out that, out of the students who intend to participate in the DV program, more than half (64%) had ever registered to participate in the program. It also emerged that 76% of students who have intention to migrate have intention to participate in the DV program. This was explained that students who have intention to migrate are likely to explore the available means to migrate. It was also explained that the difficulty in securing visa which was identified by the study as the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 104 major challenge to students‟ migration intention accounted for students‟ intention to migrate under the visa lottery as supported by a participant of the study (Linda a level 100 student). On their motivation and expectation of participating in the DV, the study found that students are motivated by their expectations in the USA such as employment opportunities, educational opportunities a chance to secure permit residency status and others (see Table 5.3). An in-depth interview of former university of Ghana students, currently in the USA through the DV program supported these migration expectations of students under the DV program. It emerged that these migrants have employment and educational opportunities in the USA and are able send remittances to their family and friends in Ghana. in the case of a participant, (Prince) he plans to return to Ghana to set up a Chemotherapy centre after he completes his study as a nuclear physician. This therefore supported the brain gain argument by a section of the migration literature (Lowell and Findlay, 2002; De Haas and Plug, 2006). Finally majority of students suggested that creation of employment opportunities and wage increment in Ghana by the government would help retain university graduates in the country. 6.2 Conclusions In the study of migration intentions of students in the migration literature, this study has highlighted the US Diversity Visa Program as a means of examining students‟ intention to migrate. The study has shown that job assurance after study here in Ghana is a significant predictor of migration intention of students. Consequently, students resort to the participation in the DV lottery is mainly motivated by their expectation of University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 105 securing employment as well as educational opportunities in the USA. This is consistent with the push-pull migration theory and the human capital theory of migration as discussed in chapter two of the study. The DV program therefore serves as a pull factor hence consistent with the conceptual framework of the study. Also, although sections of the migration literature describe the migration of highly educated as a brain drain to sending countries, especially developing countries, the study found out that majority of university students‟ intention to migrate is a survival strategy to mainly escape unemployment and also better their life including the pursuit of higher education abroad. (This reflects the human capital theory of the study). Majority of students who hitherto may not have secured employment in Ghana and made the needed contribution to the development of the country could have employment and educational opportunity by migrating and therefore be able to meaningfully contribute to development through social and financial remittance. Example of this is the case of Andy who won the DV lottery and migrated to the USA due to the lack of employment opportunity in Ghana for university graduates. Andy secured multiple employment opportunities in the USA as well as also gaining educational opportunity of studying medicine. In the case of Prince (mentioned in the study) who also won the DV, he has remitted $12,000 to the family in Ghana within his three-year stay in the US. Prince also plans to set up a chemotherapy centre in Ghana after he completes a study in nuclear physics. This supports Kremer‟s study that many of the African immigrants in the US through the DV program are able to make savings that they remit and invest back at home (Kremer, 2011). In effect, until the country makes the necessary provisions to address the socio-economic considerations cited by students as responsible for their migration intention and University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 106 participation the DV program, such as ensuring that university students are job secured upon completion of their education with better wages and educational opportunities, majority of students would continue to harbour the intention to emigrate through available means, basically as a survival strategy. 6.3 Recommendations On the basis of the findings, of the study the following recommendations are made: University education should be tailored to the specific labour needs of the country and be more entrepreneurial oriented so that graduates from the University can be absorbed in the economy or can create employment opportunities for themselves. The government, in collaboration with the universities in Ghana and other private organizations, (both local and international) should provide scholarship opportunities for students to further their studies in areas that are relevant to these organizations in Ghana. Students who complete their study under these scholarship schemes can be absorbed or be employed by the organizations. Government must create employment opportunities for university graduates. It must engage students, right from the university, by encouraging and supporting their entrepreneurial initiatives. Since the economy of Ghana cannot absorb all university graduates, creating a backlog of unemployed graduates in the country, policymakers should facilitate the migration of these excess labour to developed countries that can absorb them into their economy. Government of Ghana can therefore liaise with the USA and other developed countries such as Canada, Australia and Norway that may need the labour of these people. Migrants under this program can therefore contribute meaningfully to University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 107 Ghana‟s development and support their family through remittance rather than remaining unemployed in the country. 6.3.1 Emerging issue for further research This study examines the migration intention of university students with respect to the Diversity Visa lottery program in Ghana. One possible area for further research is to investigate the contribution of the USA Diversity Visa lottery program to the development of Ghana since its inception. This can be undertaken from the perspective of the stakeholders: the host government (the USA), the government of Ghana, DV lottery migrants in the USA, their families and networks in Ghana, and the private sector and international development organizations such as banks. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 108 REFERENCES Abdulai, A. 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You are assured that any information provided will be treated as confidential and used for academic purposes only. Socio-Demographic and Economic Background 1. Sex 1. Male [ ] 2. Female [ ] 2. Age ………………… 3. Religious affiliation………………………………………………………………………….. 4. Nationality 1. Ghanaian [ ] 2. Other (Specify)……………………………………………………………….. 5. Which level are you? 1. 100[ ] 2.200 [ ] 3. 300. [ ] 4. 400. [ ] 5. Post Graduate [ ] 6. Program of Study 1.BA [ ] 2. BSc [ ] 3. LLB [ ] 4. MA [ ] 5. MSc [ ] 6. MBA [ ] 7.MPhil [ ] 8.PhD [ ] (ii) Specify course(s) of study …………………………………………………………………………………….................. ................................................................................................................................................ 7. Please specify any educational qualification you have (if you do)…………………………………………………….. 8. Marital Status 1. Never Married 2.Married [ ] 3.Divorced [ ] 4. Other …………………………………………………………………………………………. 9. Number of children, if any ……………………………………. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 121 10. Please specify the number of any other dependents of yours, if any ……………………………………………….. 11. Who is sponsoring your education? 1.Self [ ] 2. Parent(s) [ ] 3. Other relative(s) [ ] 4. Friend(s) [ ] 5. Scholarship [ ] 6. Other (Specify)………………………………………….. 12(i). Do you have any income earning activity while a student? 1. Yes [ ] 2. No [ ] 12(ii). If yes, please specify ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… 13. What is your preferred career choice?............................................................................................... 14. Does the program you are offering in school now, qualify/ assure you with the required expertise and/or certificate to enter into your preferred career choice after school? 1. Yes [ ] 2. No [ ] 3. Not Sure [ ] 15. How sure are you of securing a job after your study? 1.Very Sure [ ] 2. Not Sure [ ] 3. Don‟t know [ ] 16(i). Do you think University education in Ghana today is rewarding enough? 1. Yes [ ] 2. No [ ] 3. Not sure [ ] (ii). If yes why……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………….. ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… (iii). If NO why……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………….. ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………. Migration History 17. Have you travelled or migrated outside the country before? 1. Yes [ ] 2. No [ ] 18. If Yes to which country(ies)? ………………………………………………………………………………….............. 19. For how long did you stay in that country? (Please state the longest length of time you have been abroad) ………………………………………………………................. 20. How did you finance your travel? 1. Self [ ] 2. Family [ ] 3. Friends [ ] 4.Other(Specify)………………………………………………………………………………… University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 122 21. By what means did you travel? 1. Air [ ] 2.Land [ ] 3. Sea [ ] 22. What was the purpose of travel? ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………....................................................... ...................................................................................................................................................... 23. Do you intend to travel again? 1. Yes [ ] 2. No [ ] 24. If yes, when? ...................................................................................................................................... 25. For how long do you intend to stay? ....................................................................................................................................................... ................................................................................................................................................... II. General Migration Intentions and Motivations 26. Do you have any intention of migrating from Ghana to live abroad? 1. No [ ] 2. Yes [ ] 3. Not Sure [ ] (i) If NO, please why don‟t you have such intentions to migrate from Ghana? ………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………… (If no please Skip to question 43) (iI) If yes, why or for what reason do you intend to migrate from Ghana? ………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………… (iii) Since when have you had the intention to migrate abroad? 1. Since childhood [ ] 2. Since Adulthood [ ] 3. Since entering into the University [ ] 3. In just recent times [ ] 4. Specify any other ………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………….. 27. When do you intend to move from Ghana? 1. Within the next 6 months [ ] 2. Within the next 1 year [ ] 3. Within the next 2-3 years [ ] 4. Should any opportunity present itself NOW I will move [ ] 5. As soon as I complete my current studies I will try to move [ ] 6. I will move later on in my life [ ] 7.AnyOther…………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 123 28. (i) Would you opt to migrate to your preferred country of destination should the opportunity avail itself while you are still pursuing your studies? 1. Yes [ ] 2. No [ ] 3. Not sure [ ] (ii)if Yes why will you take such a decision?...................................................................................................................... ………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………..……………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………….. 29. Which of these factors would you generally attribute your intention to migrate from Ghana to? (Multiple answers allowed) 0. Lack of employment after study [ ] 5. Low salary and wages [ ] 1. General economic hardship and instability [ ] 6. Family pressure [ ] 2. Poor electricity supply ( dumsor) [ ] 7. Poor healthcare system [ ] 3. Lack of peace in the country [ ] 8. Poor educational system [ ] 4. Poor means of transportation and communication [ ] 9. Other reason(s) (Specify) ................................................................................................................................................... ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ii. Which, one of the factor(s) you have chosen above is your strongest/Main consideration to migrate from Ghana? 0. [ ] 1. [ ] 2.[ ] 3.[ ] 4. [ ] 5. [ ] 6. [ ] 7. [ ] 8. [ ] 9. [ ] 30. What is your MOST preferred country of destination? 1. Germany [ ] 2. USA [ ] 3. UK [ ] 4. Canada [ ] 5. Australia [ ] 6. China [ ] 7. South Africa [ ] 8. Any other specify…………………………………….................... 31. Which of these at your preferred destination country MOTIVATE you to migrate? (multiple answers allowed) 1. Employment opportunity [ ] 2. Education opportunity [ ] 3. Higher wages and salary [ ] 6. Family and friends reunification [ ] 5. A more peaceful country [ ] 7. Other (please specify)………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. ii. Which one of the reasons you have identified above at your preferred destination country attracts you the most to migrate? 1. [ ] 2.[ ] 3. [ ] 4. [ ] 5. [ ] 6. [ ] 7. [ ] 32. What will you do upon arrival at your destination country? 1. Secure myself a job and Work [ ] 2. School only [ ] 3. Work and school at the same time [ ] 4. Any other …………………………………………………………………………………….. ………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………….. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 124 33. Do you have a travelling passport? 1. Yes [ ] 2. No [ ] 34. What are the factors that serve as obstacles to your intention to migrate 1. My university education now [ ] 3. My friends and loved one[ ] 2. Difficulty in securing Visa [ ] 5. Money to travel [ ] 3. My family & loved ones 4. Other……………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………... Migration and Return 35. Do you intend to return to Ghana to settle finally, after travelling to your preferred country of destination? 1. Yes [ ] 2. No [ ] 3. I am not sure [ ] 36. How long do you intend to stay at your preferred country of destination before returning to Ghana to settle? (Specify length of time) eg. 2yrs 1. ……………………………yr(s) 2. Not Sure [ ] 37. Would you like to visit Ghana while you are at your country of destination? 1. Yes [ ] 2. No [ ] 3. I am not sure [ ] 38. How often will you like to visit Ghana while you are at your destination country? 1. Annually [ ] 2. Every 2-3 years [ ] 3. 4-5 years [ ] 4.Other……………………………………… 39. What will be your main motivation to visit Ghana? 1. To visit family and friends [ ] 2. To supervise my projects 3. To relax in a form of holiday [ ] 4. To partake in general elections [ ] 5. To be part of community fund raising festivals [ ] 6. To attend funerals of relatives or friends [ ] 7. Specify any other reasons ………………………………………………………………………………………… …………….…………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… 40. (i) Will you send money or any other items home in a form of remittance while you are at your destination country? 1. Yes [ ] 2. No [ ] (ii) If YES for what purpose………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………...…………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………… (iii) If No why .……………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………….. 41. (i) Do you have any special project you will want to undertake in Ghana while abroad? University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 125 1. Yes [ ] 2. No [ ] (ii) If yes what project is that? 1. Building of house [ ] 3. Setting up a scholarship fund in my community [ ] 2. Setting up a business [ ] 4. Specify any other [ ] .………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………….. ………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… 42. What will you do for a living upon returning to Ghana to settle completely ………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… Social Network 43. Do you have relatives or close friends in the USA? 1. Yes [ ] 2. No [ ] 44. What about any other country? 1. Yes [ ] 2. No [ ] (ii) If yes, please specify the other country or countries of their destination ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... (iii) How are you related to the person(s) in USA? eg. Mother or friend ....................................................................................................................................................... ...................................................................................................................................................... (iv) How about the other country? ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 45. (i) Are you encouraged or motivated in any way, directly or indirectly, to join them at their destination countries? 1. Yes [ ] 2. No [ ] (ii) If yes, how do they motivate you? (You can choose multiple answers) 1. They encourage me to pursue my education there [ ] 2. They tell me there are better job opportunities there for me [ ] 3. I am motivated by their ability to support family in Ghana [ ] 4. I believe they will help me to settle when I join them [ ] 5. They are willing to send me an invite [ ] 6. Any other way (please specify) ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 46. Have any of your relatives or friends in Ghana prompted you or suggested to you to register for the USA Visa Lottery? 1. Yes [ ] 2. No [ ] 47. How about those abroad? 1. Yes [ ] 2. No [ ] (ii) If yes please state the destination country of that relative ………………………………………………….......................................................... University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 126 III. The USA Visa Lottery Programme 48. Do you know about the American Visa lottery programme? 1. Yes [ ] 2. No [ ] (If no skip to question 71) 49. (i) How well do you know of the American Visa lottery programme? 1. Very well [ ] 2. Well [ ] 3. Fairly Well [ ] 4. Not at all [ ] (ii) How did you get to know of it? 1. Through colleagues on campus [ ] 2. Through a Family member [ ] 3. On a banner/ flier on campus [ ] 4. Through the internet [ ] 5. Through a registration agent on campus [ ] 6. Any other……………………………………………………………………… 50. Do you know someone who has registered for the Visa lottery program before? 1. Yes [ ] 2. No [ ] 51. Do you know of anyone who has won it before? 1. Yes [ ] 2. No [ ] 52. If yes what is your relation to that person? ......................................................................................................................................... 53. Has the person migrated to USA? 1. Yes [ ] 2. No [ ] 54. If No why has the person not migrated to USA? ………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………..................... ............................................................................................................... 55. If yes, do you know the kind of work the person does over there? 1. Yes [ ] 2. No [ ] (ii) Please Specify If yes ………………………………………….……………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… 56. Have you come in contact with any registration point for the American lotteries anywhere on campus? 1. Yes [ ] 2. No [ ] 57. Do you know of any student who has registered to participate in it before? 1. Yes [ ] 2. No [ ] 58. Do you know of any University student who has won it before? 1. Yes [ ] 2. No [ ] 59. Do you intend to participate in the visa lottery program? 60. 1. Yes [ ] 2. No [ ] i. If yes why do you intend to participate in the program (What motivates you)?................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................ ............................................................................................................................ ............................................................................................................................ ........................................................................................................................... ii. If no, why don‟t you have intention to participate in the program?............................................................................................................. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 127 ............................................................................................................................ ............................................................................................................................ ............................................................................................................................ ....................................................................... ……………………………….. 61. Have you participated in/registered for the Programme before? 1. Yes [ ] 2. No [ ] 62. If YES, when did you take part in the Visa programme? ......................................................................................................................................... ......................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................... 63. If NO, why have you not participated in it? ......................................................................................................................................... ......................................................................................................................................... ......................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................ 64. If you have ever participated in it, WHO motivated you to participate in it? ......................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................ 65. What was the registration process or requirements? Please specify ………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………….. 66. What are some of the opportunities you expect to have should you migrate to USA through the Visa lottery? 1. Educational opportunities [ ] 2. Employment opportunities [ ] 3. USA Green Card (permanent stay status) [ ] 4. A chance to migrate with your partner or family member [ ] 5. A chance to join your family member(s) / friend(s) in USA [ ] 6. A chance to be able to invite your family member or partner to USA [ ] 7. Specify any other………………………………………………………….. Suggestions and Opinions 1: ( About the DV Program) 67. (i) Do you think the USA Visa Lottery Programme can enhance the development of the individual or the family that wins it? 1. Yes [ ] 2. No [ ] (ii) How does it enhance their development (If yes)? ………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………..…………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………….. 68. Do you think it supports development of Ghana? 1. Yes [ ] 2. No [ ] 69. How, does it support development of Ghana (if yes)? ......................................................................................................................................... ......................................................................................................................................... University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 128 ......................................................................................................................................... ......................................................................................................................................... ................................................................................ 70. How does it NOT support development in Ghana (if no)? ......................................................................................................................................... ......................................................................................................................................... ......................................................................................................................................... ......................................................................................................................................... ................................................................................ Suggestions and Opinions 2: (About emigration of university graduates) 71. What should be done to make sure that University students or graduates stay in the country to support development rather than to migrate or harbour the intention to migrate? ……………………………………………………………………… University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 129 APPENDIX B INTERVIEW GUIDE The aim of this interview guide is to have an interaction that is as close as possible to a naturally occurring conversation that will last approximately an hour. I am more interested with experiences, observations and specific details rather general statements/responses. Therefore as much possible, I will probe respondents for an in- depth understanding. My name is Seth Aborah Adusei, a student at the Centre for migration studies, University of Ghana. I am undertaking a research project for my thesis as part of the requirements for my MPhil in Migration Studies. The research aims at investigating the migration intentions of students with respect to the Diversity Visa program. I humbly request you to grant me an interview lasting about an hour. Your participation is very important for the success of this project. If at any point in the interview, you need clarifications, please let me know. This interview will be treated confidentially; none of the information you give will be passed on to a third party, and the information will be used only for purposes of this research. Socio-demographic and economic characteristics 1. Can you please give a brief background about yourself? i. Sex ii. Age iii. Marital status. iv. Number of children ever born. Probe age(s) of child(ren) 2. Educational Background:  Program of Study.  Level of study in the University University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 130  Probe for course of study,  Probe for other educational qualifications eg. Diploma, technical training etc. 3. Source of funding of university education cost 4. Occupation. Probe for any income earning activity 5. Career choice after study 6. How does the program you are studying in school now qualify you with the required expertise and/certificate to enter into your preferred career after study? 7. How sure are you of securing a job upon completion of your study? 8. What is your perception of university education in Ghana? Do you think it is rewarding/ or does it meet your expectation of choosing to pursue it in Ghana? Migration History 9. Have you travelled outside the country before? Probe for length of stay outside Ghana 10. Purpose of travel. Probe for source of funding of travel 11. By what means did you travel? Migration Intentions 12. Why do you intend to migrate from Ghana? Probe for reasons for intention to migrate from Ghana 13. Do you have friends or relatives abroad? How do they influence your intention to migrate? 14. What is your preferred destination country? 15. Explain reason for choice of destination. Probe for specific motivating factors for the choice of destination country University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 131 16. What do you intend to do at the destination country? (specific purpose of travel) 17. Why have you not carried out your migration intention? Probe for main challenge that prevents or delays participant from migrating The Diversity Vis a Lottery Programme 18. What do you know about the DV programme? Probe for how participant knew about it 19. What is your personal experience with the Diversity Visa programme? Probe for their participation in the DV programme. Probe for relatives or friends that have ever participated in the program or have won it. 20. Have you ever participated in the DV program? Probe for time of participation 21. Do you have any intention to participate in the DV programme? 22. What accounts for this intention? Probe for reasons for intending to participate in the DV programme or not. 23. What do you expect to have or achieve in the USA that motivate you to participate in the DV programme? Return migration intentions and remittances 24. Do you intend to return to Ghana to settle, after migrating? Probe for reasons behind decision. Probe for length of stay at the destination country before return. i. Do you plan to do any project in Ghana after you have migrated? 25. Would you want to visit Ghana while you are at your country of destination? Probe for reasons behind decision University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 132 26. Would you send money or any other item home while you are at your destination country? Probe for reason for decision and the beneficiaries of the remittance if any Suggestions and opinions  What is your opinion on migration of university graduates from Ghana?  How does it impact on the development of the country?  What is your opinion about the US Diversity Visa program? Do you think it is helpful to Ghana‟s development?  What do you think can be done to retain university students in Ghana?  Do you have any other suggestions or opinions concerning the study? University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 133 APPENDIX C INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR DV MIGRANTS IN THE USA My name is Seth Aborah Adusei, a student of the University of Ghana. I am undertaking a research on the topic „Migrating Under the Diversity Visa Program: Intentions and Motivations of University of Ghana Students‟ in partial fulfillment of the requirements for MPhil degree in Migration Studies. I plead that you will grant me an interview which would last for about 50 minutes. Your participation is very important for this study. If there is any thing you do not understand, please let me know. All information would be treated confidentially. Than you. Background Characteristics 1. Can you please give a brief background about yourself? i. Religion ii. Marital status (before and after migration) iii. Children (before and after migration) iv. Age (Age before migration and current age) v. Hometown/Region. where you stay in Ghana vi. Occupation (before and after migration) vii. Any dependents? (Probe dependents before and after migration) Education 2. Give a brief educational background about yourself up to SHS i. What course did you do at SHS? ii. Why did you choose that course? 3. From a young age, what has been your career plan? 4. Do you still hold on to this plan? University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 134 5. Why did you choose to pursue University education? Perhaps you could have done something different or taken a different path. 6. What course were you offered? i. Were you satisfied with the course you were offered at the University? Did you see it as relevant to your preferred career choice after your study? 7. If you had the chance to choose a course in the University will you have opted for the course you were offered? Why 8. Do you hold any other tertiary education qualification apart from the University‟s 9. What was your level of education before migrating? 10. What is your current level of education? 11. Have you obtained any educational qualification after migrating? (If yes specify) Migration History 12. Did you have any travel experience out of Ghana before embarking on this migration? 13. If yes, where and when did you travel? 14. What was the reason for the travel? 15. Which year did you travel to the USA? 16. How long have you been in the USA? University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 135 The Diversity Visa Lottery Program 17. How did you get to know about it? 18. Where did you register it, on campus or at home? 19. Did you register on your own or somebody like an “agent” facilitated the registration 20. What were the requirements (e.g. passport size photograph, any payment or registration fee) 21. What motivated you/ pushed you to register? 22. Which level of your studies were you when you registered? 23. When did you win the lottery? 24. When did you migrate? 25. If you won when you were a student of the University, did you truncate your University education in Ghana and migrate or you completed before you travelled? i. When you got to know you have won what was your reaction? ii. What was the reaction of your family too? 26. If you truncated your University education and migrated, how difficult was that decision for you to make? i. Why did you make the decision to migrate? 27. Were you supported by the family in taking the decision to migrate? How did they support you? 28. How did you arrange to go, financially who footed the travelling costs? 29. What were you expecting to achieve or do in the USA that motivated you to travel? University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 136 30. Since being in the USA, are things going according to your expectations? How? Employment 31. What are employment opportunities in the USA after migrating? i. What are the jobs you have done since migrating to the USA ii. Where do you work currently? 32. As a winner of the lotteries are you supported by the US state in getting a job after you migrate to the USA? 33. Do you feel satisfied with your current employment (If any)? 34. Do you have any other plans for yourself or you intend to retire in your current job? Education 35. Do you plan furthering your study in the US? 36. Are there educational opportunities in the USA that you could have or you already have? Explain such educational opportunity you have (if any). Remittances 37. Do you send remittance to family or friends in Ghana? Probe for any other form of remittances sent home apart from money i. If no probe for reasons for not sending remittance ii. If yes, why do you send remittance home? ii. Which people have benefitted from your remittance since moving? iii. How regularly do you send remittances home? iv. On the average, how much do you remit in a year? University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 137 v. Have you established any project (housing, business, etc.) in Ghana since migrating to the USA? Network 38. Do you have relatives or friends in the USA who received you upon arrival? i. How were you supported by any such person who received you? ii. How did they help your stay? iii. Do you have any plan of bringing somebody to the USA? Who and why? Return 39. Would you like to live your life permanently in the USA or you will finally return to Ghana to settle? Probe for reasons behind decision. i. Have you visited Ghana since you left? ii. How many times have you visited Ghana and why? iii. Year or period you visited? iv. Length of stay v. For what purpose did you visit Ghana? vi. Do you have any intention of visiting Ghana? Probe for reasons to visit or not to Visit Ghana? Suggestions and Opinion 40. Do you have any other comments, suggestions or any input relating to our conversation University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh