University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh A STUDY OF EXTERNAL COMMUNICATION AND ITS EFFECTIVENESS IN PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS: A CASE OF THE NATIONAL COMMISSION FOR CIVIC EDUCATION (NCCE), GHANA BY RUTH BOAKYEWAH BOAMPONG (10181311) THIS DISSERTATION IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON, IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF A MASTER OF ARTS DEGREE IN COMMUNICATION STUDIES OCTOBER, 2017 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DECLARATION I, Ruth Boakyewah Boampong, hereby declare that except for references to other people’s work which have been duly acknowledged, this dissertation is the result of my own research conducted at the Department of Communication Studies, University of Ghana, Legon. The work was supervised by Dr. Margaret I. Amoakohene. ……………………………………… .……………………………… Dr. Margaret I. Amoakohene Ruth Boakyewah Boampong (Supervisor) (Student) Date: …………………………… Date: ……………………………. I University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DEDICATION I dedicate this work to the Almighty God for His grace and for seeing me through my studies. Also, to my precious daughter, Judy Kukua Andowaa Nyam and my husband Nana Kobina Nyam, I sincerely thank you for your enormous support during my year of study and for all the patience and endurance. I love you. II University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ACKNOWLEDGEMENT To my Supervisor, Dr. Margaret I. Amoakohene (Aunty Maggie), words cannot express my gratitude to you for all the knowledge you imparted to me. Thank you for the guidance, counseling and support during this study. God bless you Madam. I sincerely appreciate the support and encouragement from my father, Colonel Michael Boampong (Rtd.), my mum and siblings. Thank you all. I am indebted to Mrs. Rebecca Ofori, God richly bless you for your enormous support throughout this research. Your guidance and editing of my work was very helpful. Thank you. To Mr. Osei Tutu (OT) of the Department of Communication Studies, thank you very much for all the assistance with the SPSS tuition. God richly bless you. III University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION ............................................................................................................................. I DEDICATION ................................................................................................................................ II ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................................ III TABLE OF CONTENTS .............................................................................................................. IV LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................................ VI LIST OF FIGURES ..................................................................................................................... VII LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS .................................................................................................... VIII ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................. IX CHAPTER ONE ............................................................................................................................. 1 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Background ........................................................................................................................... 1 1.1.1 Civic Education .............................................................................................................. 7 1.1.2 Overview of the National Commission for Civic Education (NCCE) ........................... 9 1.2 Problem Statement .............................................................................................................. 11 1.3 Research Questions ............................................................................................................. 13 1.4 Significance of Study .......................................................................................................... 13 1.5 Summary of Chapter ........................................................................................................... 13 CHAPTER TWO .......................................................................................................................... 15 LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ............................................ 15 2.0 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 15 2.1.1 Schramm’s Communication Model .............................................................................. 15 Diagram Source: Croft (2014) ............................................................................................... 17 2.1.2 Media Richness Theory ................................................................................................ 25 2.2 Literature Review ................................................................................................................ 28 2.3 Summary of Chapter ........................................................................................................... 41 CHAPTER THREE ...................................................................................................................... 43 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY.................................................................................................. 43 3.0 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 43 3.1 Research Design and Procedure .......................................................................................... 43 3.2 Population and Sample Size ................................................................................................ 45 IV University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.3 Sampling Technique ............................................................................................................ 46 3.4 Data Collection Instrument ................................................................................................. 47 3.5 Data Analysis ...................................................................................................................... 48 CHAPTER FOUR ......................................................................................................................... 50 RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION ............................................................................ 50 4.0 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 50 4.1 Communication between the NCCE and Its Publics ........................................................... 50 4.1.1 Knowledge and Perception about the NCCE ................................................................... 50 4.1.2 Communication Channels ................................................................................................ 56 4.1.3 Channels for Accessing Information and Audiences Media Preference .......................... 58 4.1.4 Feedback Processes and Participation .............................................................................. 66 4.1.5 Dialogue and Communication Challenges ....................................................................... 69 4.1.6 Communication on a Recent Campaign and Its Effectiveness ........................................ 72 4.2 Demographics of Respondents ............................................................................................ 77 4.3 Summary of Chapter ........................................................................................................... 79 CHAPTER FIVE .......................................................................................................................... 80 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ................................................... 80 5.0 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 80 5.1 Summary of Findings .......................................................................................................... 80 5.2 Study Limitations and Future Directions ............................................................................ 82 5.3 Recommendations and Study Implications ......................................................................... 83 5.4 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 83 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................. 85 APPENDIX 1 ................................................................................................................................ 88 SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE ..................................................................................................... 88 V University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF TABLES Tables Page Number Table One………………………………………………………………………………………...53 Table Two…………………………………………………………………………………..........54 Table Three……………………………………………………………………………………....62 Table Four………………………………………………………………………………………..64 Table Five………………………………………………………………………………………..66 Table Six…………………………………………………………………………………………67 Table Seven………………………………………………………………………………………69 Table Eight……………………………………………………………………………………….72 Table Nine………………………………………………………………………………………..73 Table Ten………………………………………………………………………………………...75 Table Eleven……………………………………………………………………………………..77 Table Twelve…………………………………………………………………………………….77 Table Thirteen……………………………………………………………………………………78 Table Fourteen…………………………………………………………………………………...78 VI University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF FIGURES Figures Page Number Figure One……………………………………………………………………………………….51 Figure Two……………………………………………………………………………………….52 Figure Three……………………………………………………………………………………...56 Figure Four…………………………………………………………………………….................59 Figure Five……………………………………………………………………………………….60 Figure Six………………………………………………………………………………………...71 Figure Seven……………………………………………………………………………………..74 VII University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS Abbreviation Meaning IEA - Institute of Economic Affairs, Ghana CDD - Center for Democratic Development, Ghana IDEG - Institute of Democratic Governance, Ghana VIII University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ABSTRACT A well informed and responsible citizenry are assets to national development and must therefore be fully equipped with requisite knowledge to perform their duties and responsibilities. Effective communication between public institutions and their publics is one key way to accelerating development and engaging citizens. This study sought to investigate from the point of view of the public, communication channels used by public institutions in communicating with their external publics from the perspective of the National Commission for Civic Education (NCCE) of Ghana. The research, situated in Schramm’s communication model and the media richness theory, assessed publics’ knowledge of the work of the NCCE, their perception of the NCCE, channels used by the NCCE in its communication and feedback processes. A multi-stage sampling approach was employed to sample and administer survey questionnaires to a total of 150 respondents in Ga Central Municipal, specifically Sowutuom and Taborah localities and in Adentan Municipal, specifically New Adenta and Adjriganor localities. The research found that citizens mainly preferred visual communication, specifically, television and social media owing to several factors such as motion and the feel of reality where most sensory organs are active, followed by audio and text communication. The research also found that NCCE communicated using television, radio, outdoor media, social media, community engagements and print media from the publics’ perspective. However, although there was no significant difference in channel used in communicating and receiving information between NCCE and its publics, the research recommended that public institutions communicate through publics preferred media and use a media mix approach in communicating to segmented audiences based on intensive understanding of the communication process. IX University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background Communication can be described as an everyday action among most living beings, especially among human beings. It enhances how we relate and interact with each other thereby creating understanding mostly through symbols, speech, writing, reading, pictures, videos and listening. Croft (2014) explains communication activities could be conscious or unconscious, in the forms of expressions, gestures, “body language” and non-verbal sounds. Communication is usually said to have taken place when the sender of the message and the receiver have the same understanding of the symbol, sound, gesture or word being used. Thus, for instance, the colours of the traffic light are easily understood by both pedestrians and motorists, who are receivers of the symbol, set by traffic regulators (senders). This sign, therefore, informs all road users of the intended message being communicated at a particular time creating mutual understanding among them. The goal of a communication process, therefore, is to relay information or decisions to persuade, instruct, influence attitudes and attain mutual understanding among all stakeholders (Wilcox et al. 2000). According to Wilcox et al. (2000:164), an effective communicator is one who has the basic knowledge of what constitutes communication and how people receive or interpret messages; how these receivers process this information and change their perceptions and the kinds of media channels and communication tools appropriate for particular messages. Thus, effective communication is not simply disseminating a message to the masses through a channel with the hope of reaching intended audiences or targets; but rather when both communicator and 1 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh receiver deduce the same understanding from a well-crafted message sent through appropriate channels to generate the necessary effects. Warren Weaver, a co-propounder of the Mathematical Theory of Communication states that “the question to be studied in a communication system has to do with the amount of information, the capacity of the communication channel, the coding process that may be used to change the message into a signal and the effects of noise” (Cutlip, Center & Broom, 2006: 197). However, Schramm (1954) mentions the need for continuous dialogue and feedback (shared experience) between the sender and receiver in order to accelerate social change. According to a Project Management Institute White Paper (2013), “when the sender and receiver dialogue on a message, they build a relationship and the impact is effective.” If the communication process and its elements are not thoroughly considered, communication can fail. Akomeah (2015) observed, consequently, that communicators in public institutions whose work often involve the entire citizenry must employ appropriate skills in communicating to their target audience and apply these skills expeditiously. Cutlip, Center and Broom (2006:198-202) mention some elements of the communication process as: sender, message, channel, receiver, context of relationship, social environment, feedback and effects. A practitioner’s underestimation of any of these elements will lead to communication failure; as stated in the Project Management Institute White Paper (2013): “Ineffective communication is to blame for half of the projects that fail to meet business goals.” 2 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh On the other hand, communication is defined as “a reciprocal process of exchanging signals to inform, persuade, or instruct based on shared meanings and is conditioned by the communicators’ relationship and the social context” (Cutlip, Center & Broom, 2006: 197-198). This definition of communication is further explained in six steps by the authors: attracting attention to the communication; achieving acceptance of the message; having it interpreted as intended; getting the message stored for later use; stimulating active learning and practice; accepting change and yielding to the point of view of the sender. Cutlip, Center and Broom (2006) introduce some factors here which are different from that of Warren Weaver’s. The authors highlight the audience factor in the communication process, the reciprocal process of communication, the relationship between the communicators’ and the social context or environment of audiences. The explanation above also brings to bare the “obstinate audience”. Cutlip, Center and Broom (2006) reiterate the fierce competition for audiences’ attention on daily basis which ought not to be underestimated. Citing the United States as an example, the authors noted that: There are at least 150,000 magazines and periodicals, 13,476 radio stations, 12,000 daily and weekly newspapers and 1,300 television stations, ubiquitous signage and billboard advertising, internet pop-ups and new media technologies too numerous to count. Each competes for audience attention. Estimating how many messages each of us is exposed to each day by all these media has become a complex game of probabilities. No doubt each of us is exposed to hundreds, even thousands, of messages each day. (Cutlip, Center &Broom, 2006:196). 3 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The authors therefore highlight on the need for communicators of organisations to understand the crowded message environment in which they operate, understand the social context and environment of their audiences and know how to attract audiences attention to messages and subsequently their acceptance of the message, its interpretation, practice and finally having audiences yield to the point of view of senders. According to Croteau and Hoynes (2014), audiences or publics of organisations are living beings who wield the power to either accept or ignore a message and interpret it as they wish: “people cannot be told what to think or how to behave in any direct way because people are not nearly stupid, gullible or easy to dominate as they are perceived to be” (Croteau & Hoynes, 2014:261). Audiences backgrounds, their social status, literacy, social networks, environment, demographics among others ought to be considered by communicators before messages are prepared or crafted and sent to them (Tench & Yeomans, 2006). As emphasized by Akomeah (2015), a lot of work rests on public institutions to acquire all the necessary communication knowledge and skills before communicating with their target audiences and to receive their feedback and participation. In the context of this research, public institution or sector is defined as “the part of economy that serves the public and can consist of governmental entities of different levels. Their main source of income is taxes and other similar public funds belonging to central and local government” (Bogdat, 2011:8). Tench and Yeomans (2006:578) similarly explain that within a national democracy exist a central government, ministries, departments, local authorities, hospitals, schools, and other agencies that are legally and morally mandated to communicate with the population and the media on policy decisions and issues affecting the entire society through provision of public programmes, goods, or services. Using examples in the Ghanaian context 4 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh based on Tench and Yeomans (2006), issues such as the Ebola epidemic, cholera, HIV-AIDS, breast cancer, teenage pregnancy, drug abuse, anti-speeding and road accidents, child labour and trafficking, child marriages, human abuse, waste management, fire disasters and safety measures, flooding, illegal mining (galamsey) and felling of trees, voter apathy, election violence, corruption, among others, are wide range of social problems that can mainly be tackled, translated into actions and policies through effective communication campaigns and dialogue. There are other positive policies in Ghana such as the National Health Insurance Scheme (NHIS), Value Added Tax (VAT), National identity card, subsidized education, school feeding programme, paperless port system, among others that affect the public one way or the other and ought to be communicated or dialogued on with the public for understanding and implementation. Communicators of various public institutions that oversee or handle different sectors of the society ought to apply the requisite communication knowledge and skill in addressing these issues as well as accounting to the public on successes achieved. Bodgat (2011:9) mentioned some functions of government communication as informing, advocating or persuading for policies and reforms and engaging citizens and other stakeholders into processes regarding implementation of a policy. As mentioned by Tench and Yeoman (2006:579), public institutions apart from mass media channels ought to execute these function using effective two-way communication tools and approaches such as debates, public hearing, 5 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh community gatherings, stakeholder consultations, among others that will generate the necessary public involvement. The Government Communication Service report of the United Kingdom (2015) stated that government communication must be built around citizens, delivering information to them in the way they want and not to broadcast at them in the traditional model. Quoting a respondent, it made the following declarative statement: “go to where the audience is, because the audience, not the government chooses the communication tools.” Communicators in public institutions ought to consider who their audiences are in relation to specific campaigns in order to know the appropriate channel to use which will engender feedback and the needed understanding and involvement of receivers in relation to any policy (Ahn, 2012). Effective communication and citizen participation is one key to development. If institutions do not reach their publics with their messages, then communication loses its essence. Therefore, understanding the communication process and its application is critical. This research aims at studying how public institutions communicate with their publics and the National Commission for Civic Education (NCCE), a public institution has been selected to assess its communication processes. The NCCE is constitutionally enshrined and mandated to educate, sensitize and conscientize Ghanaians on their civic rights and responsibilities as well as upholding the nation’s democracy and constitutional rule (ACT 452 & Chapter 19 of Ghana’s 1992 Constitution). As such, this institution ought to apply all the needed communication skills to ensure continuous involvement, dialogue and feedback is received from the public on social issues to accelerate development and social change. Apart from the NCCE, other civil society organisations (CSOs) 6 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh and private organisations such as IEA, CDD and IDEG, etc. also run similar campaigns on different platforms. 1.1.1 Civic Education Branson (1998) explains civic education as an important component of education that encourages citizens to participate in democracy and governance by discharging their rights and responsibilities expeditiously with the necessary knowledge and skills. In quoting Alexis de Toqueville, Branson states, “each new generation is a new people that must acquire the knowledge, learn the skills, and develop the dispositions or traits of private and public character that undergird a constitutional democracy. Those dispositions must be fostered and nurtured by word and study and by the power of example. Democracy is not a "machine that would go of itself," but must be consciously reproduced, one generation after another” (Branson, 1998:2). Rietbergen-McCracken (2008:1) also defines civic education as “the provision of information and learning experiences to equip and empower citizens to participate in democratic processes which can take varied forms including; classroom-based learning, informal training, experiential learning and mass media campaigns.” Both definitions emphasize the need or essence of civic education for the advancement of true democracy, since well-informed citizens know what to do when necessary and how to do to it in fulfilling their civic responsibilities. Branson (1998:2) also states that “Americans should realize that civic education is essential to sustain our constitutional democracy, ….Democracies are sustained by informed, effective, and responsible citizenry who have the requisite knowledge, 7 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh skills, and dispositions.” Rietbergen-McCracken (2008) highlights three requisite elements of civic education, namely; civic knowledge, civic skills and civic disposition. These are explained as follows: Civic knowledge refers to citizens’ understanding of the workings of the political system and of their own political and civic rights and responsibilities (e.g. the rights to freedom of expression, right to vote and run for public office, and the responsibilities to respect the rule of law and the rights and interests of others). Civic skills refer to citizens’ ability to analyze, evaluate, take and defend positions on public issues, and to use their knowledge to participate in civic and political processes (e.g. to monitor government performance, or mobilize other citizens around particular issues). Civic dispositions are defined as citizen traits necessary for a democracy (e.g. tolerance, public spiritedness, civility, critical mindedness and willingness to listen, negotiate, and compromise). (Rietbergen-McCracken, 2008:1). It is therefore imperative for civic education institutions to employ the necessary communication skills and knowledge in applying appropriate channels to educate citizens on these civic rights and responsibilities to aid the fulfillment of the above mentioned roles. Researchers such as Branson (1998), Rietbergen-McCracken (2008) and Adu-Gyamfi and Yartey (2012) mention that civic education apart from using the mass media and other new communication technologies such as blogs and social media must be combined with other dialogue approaches such as capacity-building, seminars, workshops, focus group discussions, theatre or drama, durbars, simulations, role plays, among others to strengthen the ability of 8 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh citizens to organise themselves, interrelate, interact and make their voices heard by those in authority. 1.1.2 Overview of the National Commission for Civic Education (NCCE) Chapter one, clause one of the 1992 Constitution states that, “the Sovereignty of Ghana resides in the People of Ghana in whose name and for whose welfare the powers of government are to be exercised in the manner and within the limits laid down in the Constitution.” Clause two also states the supremacy of the Constitution as the fundamental law of Ghana. As stated earlier, true democracy can advance only when citizens exercise their civic rights and responsibilities and are involved in holding the government accountable. Informed citizens through civic education are able to engage in political discourse, participate in governance, exercise their franchise and contribute towards national development. “The advancement of major democracies across the globe has been as a result of constitutional and political education. Education primarily drives the growth of nations based on the training and most importantly the skills it offers to the citizenry of nations” (Adu-Gyamfi & Yartey, 2015:631). The National Commission for Civic Education therefore plays a significant role towards achieving this in Ghana. In Ghana, ACT 452 and Chapter 19, Article 233 of the 1992 Constitution states the functions of the NCCE as: (a) To create and sustain within the society the awareness of the principles and objectives of the Constitution as the fundamental law of the people of Ghana; 9 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (b) To educate and encourage the public to defend the Constitution at all times, against all forms of abuse and violation; (c) To formulate for the consideration of Government, from time to time, programmes at the national, regional and district levels aimed at realising the objectives of the Constitution; (d) To formulate, implement and oversee programmes intended to inculcate in the citizens of Ghana awareness of their civic responsibilities and an appreciation of their rights and obligations as free people; and (e) To assess for the information of Government, the limitations to the achievement of true democracy arising from the existing inequalities between different strata of the population and make recommendations for re-dressing these inequalities The NCCE is headed by a Chairman, two Deputy Chairmen and four Commission Members. At its head office are five departments, namely; Finance and Account, Human Resource and Administration, Programmes, Communications and Corporate Affairs and Research (with a Gender and Equality desk). These departments oversee NCCE’s activities and programmes carried out in its ten Regional and 216 Metropolitan, Municipal and District offices nationwide (www.nccegh.org). The Communication and Corporate Affairs Department sees to the public relations aspect and activities of the institution while the Programmes department sees to the mobilization and carrying out of all educational campaigns across its offices nationwide (NCCE, 2015 Annual report - www.nccegh.org). These two departments are in charge of the entire communication aspect of the NCCE nationwide and this research is related to the impact or effects of their work. 10 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.2 Problem Statement Studies have shown that most public institutions prefer one-way communications (mass media) since it aids in faster decision making processes and policy implementation (HM Government, 2015). For instance, Ansong (2013) in investigating how public institutions communicate with their publics from the perspective of the Commission of Human Rights and Administrative Justice (CHRAJ), identified that there was less interactivity or dialogue between the Commission and its stakeholders due to the use of mass media as their main source of communication. Also, in a similar study by Akomeah (2015) from the perspective of the Ghana Water Company Limited (GWCL), the research found that the utility provider also used one-way channels rather than dialogic approaches such as forums, community based programmes, websites and social media in its communication. Both studies concluded that communication between public institutions in Ghana and their publics was poor due to the use of dissemination channels compared to interactive channels which could have created greater relationships between the institutions and their publics leading to potentially improved corporate image for the institutions. Similarly, the NCCE is a public institution mandated to inculcate in citizens their civic rights and responsibilities, and to foster a sense of patriotism and democratic governance among the public. In order to effectively realize these outcomes, the NCCE ought to go beyond one-way communication and dissemination of information and constantly interact and engage with the citizenry. Effective communication is therefore required to effect social change, accelerate development, improve relationships with their publics and create a good corporate image. For instance, there seem to be increasing figures of rejected ballots since the inception of the Fourth Republic in the District Assembly, Presidential and Parliamentary elections 11 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (www.graphiconline.com). The NCCE is the institution mandated to educate citizens on voting processes and election related issues. However, the number of rejected ballots keeps on increasing with public agitation over what is actually the cause of this. Many have raised questions over whether enough education is done on voting processes, how they are done and if citizens understand these processes. Education on civic responsibilities such as patriotism, tolerance, tax payments, human rights issues, rule of law, sanitation and environmental issues are considered to be on low with less citizen participation. News of acts of vandalism and lawlessness across the country has often gotten the public criticizing the NCCE for some of these negative outcomes, since they are mandated to educate the public on their civic rights and responsibilities. This research therefore sought to find out if there was concordance in how the NCCE communicates with its public and how audiences received and acted on these messages. The study also assessed the effectiveness of the communication channels used by the NCCE. This was done by surveying the public on their knowledge of the work of the NCCE; their perception of the institution, channels used by the NCCE in communicating with their publics from the audiences’ perspective, the audiences preferred channels and if there are any communication challenges. Perhaps, the NCCE has underestimated the communication process. This study was underpinned by Schramm’s (1954) communication model and the Media Richness theory (1984). 12 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.3 Research Questions Given the problem stated above, the study sought to address the following questions: 1. What are publics’ knowledge of the work of the NCCE? 2. What channels of communication does the NCCE use in communicating with its external publics? 3. What are publics’ preferred media for communicating and how do they access information about the NCCE? 4. To what extent do these channels used in communicating provide feedback from the public and enhance participation? 5. What challenges do the NCCE and its publics face in their communication process? 1.4 Significance of Study This study will help in identifying some of the strengths and lapses in external communications in public institutions, specifically the NCCE and provide recommendations that will improve communications of the NCCE and other public institutions. It will also serve as reference for future studies on similar topics and contribute to existing literature in the public relations practice. 1.5 Summary of Chapter This chapter explained what communication is; mentioned some elements in the communication process and the need for communication practitioners to understand how to apply them 13 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh effectively. It also explained what civic education is and the role communication plays in creating awareness on civic roles and responsibilities. The chapter also introduced the NCCE, stated its mandate as well as the research problem, the research questions and finally the significance of the study. 14 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 2.0 Introduction This chapter relates the study within the context of Wilbur Schramm’s (1954) model of communication and the Media Richness theory. It also presents reviews of related studies and literature on how organisations communicate with their external publics and discuss their findings and gaps in relation with this study. 2.1 Theoretical Framework This study employs Wilbur Schramm’s (1954) communication model to discuss whether the various communication channels and processes used by the NCCE in its civic education programmes are effective in assisting it reach its target audience with its messages to generate the necessary feedback and effects based on the tenets of the model. The Media Richness theory will also be used to assess communication challenges facing the NCCE in terms of the richness of its media choices. 2.1.1 Schramm’s Communication Model Wilbur Schramm’s communication model was an adaptation of Shannon and Weaver’s (1948) communication model called the transmission model; which saw communication as a linear process where a sender sends a message through a channel to a receiver (SMCR). Schramm’s (1954) model however includes the following elements: sender, encoder, message, channel, 15 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh receiver, field of experience, feedback and noise. Schramm's communication model suggests that communication is a two way process based on relationships between two persons or between one person and many; where both sender and receiver take turns to send and receive a message. Thus, communication is a continuous process where a receiver of a message can give feedback to the sender and the sender will also respond to the feedback until there is a clear understanding and onward acceptance or action. Schramm (1954:19) mentions that from the point of view of the sender, the objectives of communication is to inform, persuade, teach, please and propose while the point of view of the receiver is to understand, learn, enjoy, decide, accept or discard. The propounder therefore admonished that in applying the communication process, one must understand how people relate with each other or else communication will be ineffective. Wilcox et al. (2000) also mention that although communication is an everyday human action, and could be seen as simple, it is actually difficult to understand and implement. Cutlip, Center and Broom (2006:197) also mention the untruth about the myth of communication which suggests that sending a message is the same as communicating a message; that is dissemination and communication are the same. These authors as well as Schramm (1954) confirm that the communication process is not a simple task; channels have limitations, messages could be distorted, the presence of noise, audiences’ capability to understand and the environment or context they find themselves could affect how messages are received and acted on. Therefore, communicators of organisations, specifically the NCCE ought to consider and understand what each element in the communication process entails and how each ought to be applied to achieve communication effectiveness. 16 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Again, Schramm (1954:11) highlights that most communicators over the years have been concerned about “getting the message through,” getting it accepted, getting it decoded or interpreted the same way the sender intended. Communicators of institutions therefore ought to understand that getting the message through, getting it accepted and interpreted as intended is the sole purpose of communicating; else messages will be misinterpreted leading to communication failure. Below is a diagram of Schramm’s communication model and its elements which ought to be critically examined by practitioners for communication effectiveness. Diagram Source: Croft (2014) The components or elements of Schramm’s communication model are explained as:  Sender (transmitter) –This is the person who sends the message and seeks to inform, teach, persuade and propose ideas. Adler and Towne (1978) state that communication originates as mental images within a person (sender) who desires to convey these images 17 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh to another (receiver). According to them, these mental images could include ideas, thoughts, objectives, intentions, attitudes, information, pictures, and emotions. These mental images ought to be translated into symbols that can easily be understood by the receiver or audience. Cutlip, Center and Broom (2006) mention that sometimes the sender’s characteristics or public perception of the sender affects initial acceptance of the message but has little effect on the message’s long term impact. In relation to this research, the “sender” element applies to the organisation under study, which is the NCCE. As the sender, NCCE ought to have set objectives, intentions or a purpose for which they are communicating a message. These objectives will therefore direct and influence how the achievements of communication targets are measured. Also, public perception about the NCCE could affect the initial acceptance of messages they send out. Therefore, as an organisation, the NCCE ought to work at preserving a good corporate image or public perception. This research will therefore assess public perception about the NCCE.  Encoder - This is the person who actually converts the mental images into codes or symbols or signs thereby creating the message. The symbols are often in the form of words but can also be in the form of pictures, sounds, videos, etc. In relation to this study, the “encoder” element applies to the public relations practitioners or the communication unit or any authority assigned by the organisation to see to the day to day interaction between the NCCE and its publics. These are the persons who actually convert the 18 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh “sender’s” or the organisation’s ideas, objectives or mental images into actual symbols and signs in the form of videos, words, pictures and sounds for its publics to understand.  Message - This is the idea or objective of the sender which has been translated into symbols or signs (videos, texts or sound) and sent out to receivers. The message is at the same time the information that the receiver gets to be interpreted and acted on. The sender wishes this message is received, understood, accepted and acted upon exactly with the intent with which it was sent. According to Wilcox et al. (2000), the encoder must check the message’s accuracy, timeliness, applicability, adequacy, relevance, appropriateness, clarity, etc. while preparing the message. Schramm’s “message” element highlights the need for encoders to consider some key factors in preparing messages. This include timeliness; which is when messages arrive in a favourable and useful time and is not in a reactive way after a foreseen situation has already occurred. Messages must also be accurate, that is correct in all details or factual and unambiguous to prevent different interpretation of content. Clarity in visuals, sound or text is also vital in preparing messages to facilitate easy understand of messages. If the encoder or communicator at the NCCE wants their publics to receive and interpret messages the same way it is intended, the “message” element ought to be critically understood.  Medium or Media - This is the channel used to send or communicate the message. Once a message has been encoded into a video, text or sound, the next step is to transmit the message through a medium or media to receivers. According to Jossey- 19 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Bass (1998), various media include: face-to-face verbal interaction such as seminars, conferences, durbar, workshops or other events; telephone conversation, print materials (letters, newspapers, magazines and brochures), visual media (television, computers, photographs, billboards, posters) and audio media (radio). Verbal, written, visual and audio media are examples of possible communication channels used to transmit messages between senders and receivers (Wilcox et al., 2000:239-240). Other transmission channels include touch and gestures. The choice and application of a medium or media require an understanding of media and media effects (Cutlip, Center & Broom, 2006). Therefore the choice of a medium depends on the format in which a communicator intends to depict a message and if them medium will reach intended audiences.  Receiver, Audience & Decoder - This is the person who receives or gets the message, decodes and interprets or converts the actual message into actual meaning or the language understandable to him or her. This person tries to understand and analyze the message and choose to dispose it or act on it and learn. According to Wilcox et al. (2000:233), “audiences are not monolithic whole but are complex intermingling groups with diverse cultural, ethnic, religious and economic attributes whose interests coincide and conflict at times.” Tench and Yeomans (2006:589) also mention two types of receivers or audiences; the passive and active audience. The passive audience accepts and responds to media content rather than engaging it intellectually and emotionally and may pay attention to a message because it is entertaining or diverse from the norm. The active audience on the other hand, interprets media products and messages to derive pleasure, comfort, excitement, 20 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh intellectual or emotional stimulation and therefore assigns meaning to different parts of the message which may sometimes correlate with the sender’s intention or not (Croteau & Hoynes, 2014). Wilcox et al. (2000:167 -168) therefore recommend communication strategies must be designed for two intended audiences or receivers; the passive audience who pays attention to a message because it is entertaining by using creative photos, catchy slogans, celebrities, radio and television advertisements and the active audience who is already interested in the message and pays keen attention to it by using communication tools like brochures, in-depth newspapers and magazines, speeches by key persons, symposiums, demonstrations, video presentations, among others. At any given time, a sender may be speaking to these two audiences, with varying backgrounds and therefore ought to segment them and use appropriate tools in reaching these receivers. This can be successfully achieved through research to identify specific audiences and their social context (Borden, 2006). In relation to this research, the communicator of the NCCE ought to understand the varying backgrounds of audiences, which includes language, religion, educational level and culture before communicating messages. Also, consideration of the two types of audiences ought to be analyzed in crafting messages; that is messages ought to be factual and detailed yet exciting and catchy to read. How does one reach different receivers with varying backgrounds with the same message? What medium is appropriate in reaching which target? 21 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh  Field of Experience – These are factors that influence how receivers receive messages based on the environment or context they find themselves. These factors include: level of education, social class, cultural background, nationality, religion, language, values, etc. which may also affect their understanding and acceptance of messages due to varying differences between communicators. According to Schramm (1954), since messages are directed towards receivers with varying backgrounds, senders of messages should consider using words or symbols common to the audience. An aspect of Schramm’s “field of experience” element has been explained in the “receiver or audience” element above. Receivers vary and how they accept messages also vary. Their preferences for media vary and therefore a careful consideration of their field of experience will help a communicator make the right choices in communicating a message. An example is, one cannot communicate with people of different nationalities in the same language; their environment varies.  Feedback – This is the process of responding to the message received from the sender. Feedback is a very important component as it lets the sender know if the receiver has received the message and interpreted it as it should. The message becomes useless and communication is said to have failed if the receiver does not understand the message or gives feedback. According to the Schramm (1954), feedback can be a continuous process until there is a final action on a concluded message accepted by both parties. This research will assess if the NCCE has feedback mechanisms in place to receive responses from audiences and if these feedbacks received are addressed. Also, channels used in receiving these feedbacks will be assessed. 22 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh  Noise -“It is defined as anything in the communication channel which the sender did not intentionally put there” (Schramm, 1954:26). It can also be defined as any interference and interruptions caused during the communication process. Noise makes the intended meaning of the message sent by the sender different from the meaning interpreted by the receiver. Types of noise as stated by Schramm (1954) and Jossey-Bass (1998) are:  Environmental Noise: This is noise that physically disrupts communication, such as loud music close to a lecture hall, a plane flying over an event or noise from a construction site next to a classroom which disrupts message delivery  Semantic Noise: This is when communicators apply different interpretations and meanings to words, symbols or signs in a message due to varying background knowledge, ambiguous sentences, wrong spelling of words, incorrect punctuations and bad grammar which make it difficult for the receiver to understand the message. An example is a sign post which reads “Entrance Only, Do not Enter”  Syntactical Noise: These are grammatical changes in tenses of words when making a sentence which can cause audiences to get confused about a message  Psychological Noise: This entails the mental state of audiences such as personal discomfort, stress, bad mood, emotions or attitudes such as anger or sadness which may cause someone to lose focus as a message is being presented  Cultural Noise: Cultural noise often arises when individuals in one social group have developed different norms, values, or behaviors to individuals different from another group. This often leads to difference in interest, knowledge, value, and tradition. Therefore, people of different cultures will experience these cultural 23 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh factors as communication barrier; stereotypical assumptions can cause misunderstandings in message delivery. For instance, the appearance or looks of a speaker or a gesture being used by speaker may mean differently in another context and can cause audiences to reject the message being delivered. The different types of noise mentioned above can affect how messages are prepared and eventually communicated to audiences. For instance, when messages are being prepared, semantic or syntactical noise can prevent clear meaning of a sentence or the entire message when wrong words, tenses and punctuations are used. A break in transmission or signal of a radio or television feed or poor signal strength in a telephone conversation can affect or interrupt the clear hearing and understanding of a message (environmental noise). Communicators therefore ought to know the different types of noise and try as much as possible to avoid them. This study will assess if there exist any communication challenges between the NCCE and its publics. The above mentioned authors, including Schramm (1954) in discussing the communication process and its elements argue that its primary aim is to ensure communication processes are not underestimated and all required elements and communication tools are carefully considered and applied to bring understanding, cooperation and enhance interactivity between organisations and their publics. This means that with a well-thought through communication strategy and understanding of each element in Schramm’s (1954) communication model, the National Commission for Civic Education (NCCE) should be able to reach its targets with their messages and keep citizens abreast on their activities. 24 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Schramm’s communication model is relevant to the study because it helps organisations know the most effective medium to use for a particular purpose or sending a specific message to intended targets, how to get audiences attention, involvement and feedback as well as how to avoid, remove or reduce communication barriers or noises when organisations are communicating with their publics. The model gives a clear understanding of who audiences are and the role they play in enhancing the work of organisations and their existence. The findings of this study will be assessed based on Schramm’s (1954) communication model. 2.1.2 Media Richness Theory The media richness theory, propounded by Richard L. Daft and Robert H. Lengel in 1984, is used to describe and evaluate selection of communication media within an organisation in terms of their effectiveness. The theory proposes that communication media have varying capacities for resolving ambiguity, negotiating varying interpretations and facilitating understanding and is concerned with determining the most appropriate communication medium for dealing with uncertainty and equivocality (Daft & Lengel, 1984). The theory is underpinned by two main assumptions:  First, the theory claims that people would have desire to avoid ambiguity and uncertainty in every organisation  Second, that in every organisation, different media work better than others in different tasks 25 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Daft and Lengel (1984), therefore use four criteria to present a media richness hierarchy or to determine the richness of a media. The first criterion looks at the availability of instant feedback that is, the immediacy of response to the information being communicated. The second criterion is the ability of a medium to transmit multiple signals or cues such as body language and voice tone at the same time and simultaneously to a number of users when a message is being communicated. The third criterion is the use of natural language or human language in general communication and finally the fourth criterion considers the personal focus of a media. That is, a media must focus on the recipient or receiver of the information and that would determine the richest media of communication to be used in reaching them. According to the proponents of the theory, when the four criteria were analyzed, it was found that the richest medium of communication was face-to-face encounters. This was followed by telephone, electronic mails, letters, notes, memos, special reports, fliers and bulletins in the hierarchy. Thus, the greater a medium’s ability to provide timely feedback, body cues or voice, natural language and audience focus, the richer it is. Since oral media can convey cues such as voice tone and body language, they are thus considered richer than written media. Also, the theory claims that media that facilitate shared meaning are different from those that facilitate the exchange of large amounts of data. Thus, the fundamental claim of the theory is that for effective communication, individuals should match media to the level of equivocality of a task. Media high in richness, such as face-to-face interaction and telephone calls, helps with 26 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh issues that demand negotiation, clarification, explanation and exchange of subjective views because feedback can easily be given. On the other hand, media low in richness, such as written media, although not appropriate for resolving equivocal issues and receiving feedback, are most appropriate for processing of large amounts of standard, accurate, objective and quantitative data. However, communication media appropriate for equivocality reduction or less feedback must also promote the ability to clarify or explain and possibly include some form of feedback mechanisms, rather than simply providing large amounts of data (Trevino, 1987). For instance, a press release from the NCCE or any organisation ought to explain details of the message or activity being communicated as well as include an email address or telephone number for correspondence and feedback if need be. If communicators are sensitive to the variations in media richness, organisations can deal with their dual information needs for uncertainty reduction and equivocality resolution by combining rich and low media considering its strengths. With the emergence of new media, video conferencing and voice mail have also been considered to be rich media. They allow instant feedback as well as avenue for communicators to hear each other’s voice and see body cues or facial gestures; especially in video conferencing (El-Shinnawy & Markus, 1997). In relation to this study, the Media Richness theory will help assess whether the various channels used by the NCCE in communicating with its external publics have helped to serve the organisation’s intended purpose of reaching audiences and enabled mutual understanding among them. Publics’ media preference will also be assessed with this theory. 27 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The media richness theory will assesses the actual media choice used by the NCCE in communicating with its publics while Schramm’s communication model on the other hand will consider the actual process of communication from crafting of messages to feedback process and action on messages communicated. Although there are some similarities between the two theories such as feedback and selection of target audience in relation to media choice, the research will apply both based on their tenets. 2.2 Literature Review How organisations communicate with their publics is critical to enhancing their corporate image and maintaining mutual relations with their audiences and stakeholders. Public institutions in Ghana are no exception to this. Ansong (2013) conducted a research on how public institutions communicate with their publics from the perspective of the Commission of Human Rights and Administrative Justice (CHRAJ) in Ghana. He found that traditional media, specifically radio and television were dominantly used by the institution to communicate with its publics. With a survey of 150 respondents, comprising 100 persons from Ministries, Departments and Agencies (MDAs) and 50 complainants of CHRAJ in Accra, 55 (36.7 %), 48 (32 %) and 22 (14.7 %) of the respondents preferred radio, television and newspaper respectively as the main media through which CHRAJ should communicate to them. The findings corresponded with the channels used by the institution in their communication, that is, publics of the institution also preferred mass media channels. 28 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh However, 21 (14%) respondents representing the ages of 20 – 29 years preferred the internet as the medium through which they should be communicated with. This creates the view that a particular segment or age group of the public preferred new media to the traditional media which had low interactive features. The research therefore recommended that CHRAJ explore the potentials of the internet in reaching the youth. The research also advised CHRAJ to regularly update its website since it was static and upload information on current issues on the website as well as create a Facebook and other social media presence to engage more Ghanaians in this new media age. This is because such platforms have features that enabled instant feedback, face-to- face interactions, voice recordings and text, allowing communicators to see body cues, maintain eye contacts and use of natural language establishing the richness of this medium based on the theory underpinning the study. By CHRAJ exploring the potentials of new media the youth will be reached specifically the research concluded. These findings highlights the essence of considering specific audiences and their media habits before sending messages and the limitations of traditional media where feedback is concerned. It also affirms the influence and impact of mass media in reaching wider audiences despite its feedback limitation. This research being in the Ghanaian context will inform this study if there are improvements in how public institutions communicate, especially where feedback is concerned since there seemed to be little dialogue between CHRAJ and its publics. Also, the research will assess if there is a match in how public institutions communicate and publics preferred media. 29 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Ansong (2013) also found that CHRAJ did not have a communication policy therefore communication activities were not effective, coordinated, had no goals and did not meet the needs of their publics. It therefore admonished the need for a communication policy to help CHRAJ have a road map to achieving it mandates effectively. Similarly, the African Development Bank’s (2009) Tunis report outlined the need for a communication policy in organisations to help improve their communication and attain their objectives. The bank through its research also realized that it could not attain its goals because it lacked an appropriate communication programme; that is communication could not be effective without a plan. The organisation realised its communication was more reactive and one-way, with staff who oversee communication responsibilities lacking the requisite knowledge and skills. The bank therefore tasked its External Relations and Communication Unit (ERCU) to draft a medium term communication strategy which included the following;  The bank was to set aside special funds towards increasing the bank’s visibility through all platforms  Upgrading its website with interactive features through communication tools such as discussion forums, online and video conferencing and instant feedback mechanisms  The ERCU was to actively manage media relations as well as create a contact database of mainstream journalists, editors, TV networks and radio producers to build networks  The bank was to have a team set in place and trained with the requisite communication skills to handle crisis and respond to negative and inaccurate reports about the organisation 30 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh  Staff of the communication unit was to be trained with requisite knowledge and skill to manage the Bank’s external and media relations. Training in areas such as speech writing and editing skills were imperative  The unit was to intensify and publicize events such as annual meetings, economic conferences, seminars and major events to further communication goals as well as enhance the bank’s visibility  The unit was to oversee other publications of the bank regarding graphic design; posters, books, brochures, magazines, news bulletins, annual reports, electronic newsletters and other print work which should exceed 100 per annum  They were to handle all promotions, advertising and sponsorship, among others The example above gives an idea of a communication policy. Organisations who want to communicate effectively must have a roadmap that directs their entire communications informing present and future staff of their visions and goals (Ansong, 2013). Gonzalez, Lopez and Garcia (2008) also highlight the need for a communication policy in organisations to help in attaining their overall objective. In their study on Supreme Audit Institutions (SAIs) and their communication policies or strategies, the research analysed communication policies developed by the European Union SAIs. The research was of the view that the absence of a communication policy created an image of a dull institution that lacked efficiency, credibility, transparency and esteem. This situation, the research believes, may lead to unnecessary leaks about the organization and half-truths from other sources which create misunderstanding between organisations and their publics. 31 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Gonzalez et al. (2008) similar to the African Development Bank (2009) Tunis report specified that a good communication policy should factor in: objectives, audiences, products, channels of communication, communication tools, budget, the message being carried across and timelines, which ought to be updated from time to time depending on achievements or failures. In reviewing websites of some EU SAIs for instance, Gonzalez et al. (2008) realized that some websites had in-built features that made certain documents and publications easily accessible to visitors of the site and journalists. For instance, Norway’s SAI had a press statements’ file on its website for visitors to read and Italy’s website had a registration column which made visitors to the site register in order to receive subsequent press statements and newsletters by email. The research was also of the view that SAIs needed to build relationships with journalists that will prevent unnecessary leaks and scandals related to information about audit reports and other major activities which was also emphasized by the African Development Bank (2009) Tunis report. The research finally recommended that SAIs weighted the importance of a message or information to be communicated and decide whether to have a press conference or simply issue a press statement or the appropriate medium to use. Ansong (2013), African Development Bank (2009) Tunis report and Gonzalez et al. (2008) all emphasized that it was imperative for organisations either public or private to have outlined communication policies specifying their objectives for short, medium and long term and to update these policies from time to time. As said earlier, the authors were of the view that communication can only be effective when properly planned. This study is also of the view that aside planning communication, the process and elements under them must also be considered. 32 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh This is what this study seeks to address. In the Ghanaian context, Ansong’s (2013) research, found that CHRAJ did not have a communication policy. However, this does not form part of the objectives of this study, but the NCCE ought to consider details outlined in the communication policies above to guide its entire communication plan towards achieving its goals. Akomeah (2015) also in a research conducted on how public institutions communicate with their publics from the perspective of Ghana Water Company Limited (GWCL) found that although GWCL routinely communicated to diverse publics with carefully crafted messages, using specific channels such as letters, emails, corporate website and the mass media, these channels were inadequate because most of the channels lacked feedback mechanisms. For instance, with their regulator Public Utility Regulatory Commission (PURC), they usually communicated via telephone and letters while in communities, they used the mass media due to its wide reach. Also, a toll –free line set to receive feedback from the public was not functioning effectively and their website was static with little or no information. Therefore their publics were of the view that communication from GWCL was either absent or delayed and often by the promptings of their regulator PURC with the general public having little or no idea of the work of the institution which affected their corporate image. The research based on the findings from focus group discussions and Kent and Taylor’s (2002) dialogic theory recommended that GWCL established community offices to serve as first point of contact for consumers as well as organise stakeholder forums, face-to-face interactions and 33 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh educational sessions with their stakeholders to discuss and explain pertinent issues with them. Also, GWCL was to use alternative channels apart from the mass media such as announcement vans, bulk text messaging and an active website with useful information and interactive features (email address, contact lines, social media portals, etc.) to reach segmented publics based on their media preferences. The research also recommended that communication personnel of the GWCL be trained with the requisite skill to effectively handle the role of building strong interpersonal relations between the organisation and its publics. Ansong (2013) and Akomeah (2015) both highlight the need for using different media for different publics. In identifying publics’ media preferences, message’s penetration and audiences’ acceptance, Akomeah (2015) advised the need for intermittent research (surveys, focus groups, etc.) to know the effect of messages being communicated during and after a campaign. Borden (2006) similarly advised on the need for research in the communication process and for assessing communication effectiveness. In a research about target audience and communication channels of lighten up (weight loss) programmes, Borden (2006) sought to discover who the target audiences of these “lighten up” (weight loss) programmes were and channels used in reaching them towards persuading them into losing weight. The research being guided by the principles of social marketing framework and the diffusion of innovations theory, conducted in- depth interviews of Executive Directors and high-ranking persons in-charge of lighten up programmes across the USA. Findings of the research were that audiences of educational weight- losing campaigns were not segmented according to demographics, psychographics or behavioural profiling due to budgetary constraints with most respondents using interpersonal and 34 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh group communication than mass media and other channels for their education. Audiences or participants therefore had little or no knowledge of messages being communicated and could not benefit from the campaign being run. The research therefore recommended that for effective running of campaigns or sending of messages that will make the needed impact, respondents needed to incorporate research, specifically focus group discussions and surveys in their communication process. The research was of the view that intensive research (focus groups) should be carried out before messages are prepared for each segment of audiences to answer questions like; who the target should be, what are they like and their habits, what is the most effective channel to reach them and what image should be sent across these channels, etc. Surveys could be carried out again after these questions are answered and messages are sent out to assess the impact of the campaign and amend where necessary. Research must be carried out finally after the campaign to test the success of the campaign, channels used, feedback and set objectives for future reference. According to Alcalay and Bell (2000) as cited by Borden (2006) “even if the message is the same, such as losing weight through eating healthier and exercising more, this message should be designed and placed according to each audience segment.” Akomeah (2015) and Borden (2006) therefore highlight the need for organisations to understand their audiences, segment them and know appropriate channels in reaching each group as well as assessing the effectiveness of messages communicated through research; surveys and focus 35 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh group discussions. Public institutions in their communication with their publics are not exempted from communicating effectively and implementing policies. As Schramm’s (1954) “receiver” and “field of experience “elements explain that audiences’ demographics and their environment affects how they receive and act on messages. Therefore, effective communication requires research to understand how to apply some elements of the communication process. Falade and Adeyemi (2015) similarly mention one effective medium which targets a segment of the population, specifically, the youth. In their research on civic education in Nigeria’s one hundred years of existence, the research found that there was low level of acquisition and demonstration of civic norms by Nigerians due to little emphasis placed on civic education in the country. The research was of the view that if civic concepts such as citizenship, democracy, civic rights and responsibilities were incorporated in curriculums of schools at all levels; the youth will be reached with key messages that will inform them on how to become critical, patriotic and selfless citizens. Rietbergen-McCracken (2008:2) in discussing civic education also emphasized that the most effective application of civic education is in formal education and as such civics taught as part of regular curriculum in primary and secondary schools around the world helps in development. Falade and Adeyemi (2015) therefore recommended that civic education be made a subject at all levels in Nigeria’s schools. Also, teachers in charge of teaching civic education must be trained with the requisite knowledge to handle the responsibility. The research also recommended that grass-root and community based informal civic training be undertaken across Nigeria in forms of patriotic clubs. Whether civic education is a school subject in Ghana does not form part of the objectives of this study, the research however highlights that education as a 36 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh school subject is a medium through which younger generations can be reached with civic messages to become responsible citizens as emphasized earlier by Rietbergen-McCracken (2008). On the whole, communication technologies have improved the way communication is done worldwide. Alternative communication channels have emerged due to new technologies. According to Ahn (2012), the emergence of internet has changed the way humans produce information, search for news, disseminate information and communicate. For instance, radio in its traditional form has transformed due to technology. In his research on effective public policy delivery system in the Age of information overload, the research explored the potential link between the changing information environment, changing human information processing behavior and their implications on communication of public policies. The research found that as communication environment keeps changing and publics are adapting to new communication techniques, government’s communication however remains unchanged therefore creating a mismatch. The research underpinned by David and Olson’s (1985) information processor model, found that the way human senses receive information or messages, process them in the brain and decide whether to act on it or not has changed due to audiences selective nature and limited time used in processing information. For instance, the research states the difference in audiences analyzing text communication where words are translated into mental images before information is processed compared to visual communication which present messages in a direct manner with action and sound. The research therefore identified that publics preferred short, concise and easy 37 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh to understand messages in forms of short text using twitter for example; pictures, using posters and billboards; videos, using YouTube and television and audio using radio compared to press releases, reports, public announcements and publications in newspapers which demand much reading attention. The research recommended that public institutions adapt to the current changes in communication and shift its media choices else it may become increasingly difficult to reach citizens to facilitate their compliance and participation to policies and may lead to government communication failure. Have public institutions in Ghana adapted to new media as recommended by Ansong (2013) and Akomeah (2015)? This research seeks to answer this question by finding out if the NCCE uses new media in its communication with its publics. Picazo-Vela et al. (2012) similarly mention that social media such as blogs and other electronic social networks (Facebook, twitter and YouTube) can transform the way in which public institutions communicate with their publics. Using a survey of 250 public servants from Central Mexico, the research sought to identify how respondents applied social media in their work, their perceptions of risks, benefits and strategic guidelines about social media. The research found that Government institutions were gradually adopting social media and using it to communicate with their publics, and identified it as a powerful tool to rebrand government–citizen relationships. It also found that governments' participation in social media may improve citizen participation and make government transparent, accountable and efficient. It also found that respondents were worried that with the use of social media, there was the need for good implementation strategy to 38 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh avoid risks such as loss of control on such platforms since citizens can voice out their grievances anytime and in anyway. The research therefore recommended that there be occasional update of laws and regulations that protect organisations from such risks which will promote good government culture and organisational practices. Linders (2012) on the other hand refers to citizens in the social media age as co-producers and partners to public institutions. In his research evolution of citizen coproduction in the age of social media, the research identified that citizens in the new media age performed the role of partners rather than customers in the delivery of public services. Audiences discuss and communicate with each other via social media about institutions, their products, goods and services irrespective of the organisations presence on social media. Findings highlighted that despite the rising concerns of credibility and risks on social media platforms, they enabled or empowered citizens to play an active role in the functioning of their government by discussing issues on wider platforms and generating interest among other citizens and the Government. The research therefore recommended that ICT-empowered citizens are assets to development and governments must therefore adapt to these changes in the media environment as well as combine other mass media channels in their work. He recommended that institutions be proactive in putting measures in place to maintain valid and credible social media platforms to enhance effective communication. According Linders (2012), Picazo-Vela et al. (2012) and Ahn (2012), social media are used to generate content, share opinions, enhance feedback processes, give insights, experiences and 39 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh perspectives of publics and usually include blogs, intranets, podcasts, video sharing, photo sharing, gaming sites, micro-blogging, videoconferencing and instant messaging, citing examples such as Facebook, YouTube, LinkedIn and twitter which allow instant dialoguing and interaction between organisations and their stakeholders as well as enable organisations to became creators and owners of their own messages. Ahn (2012), Picazo-Vela (2012) and Linders (2012) highlight the need for organisations to incorporate social media in their work. These studies however did not discuss into detail the disadvantages of new media, which is rather worrying. However, this study as stated earlier will find out if the NCCE has adopted these platforms towards engaging their publics. Comparable to this current study, Adu-Gyamfi and Yartey (2015) studied the role of the NCCE in educating citizens before, during and after the 2012 elections to ascertain the effectiveness of NCCE’s communication process towards ensuring participation in the elections. The research using document analysis, in-depth interviews and survey of 1,000 respondents across the country found that the NCCE had performed its mandate in educating citizens, promoting and encouraging peace before, during and after the 2012 elections, and had been consistent in its effort towards achieving its goals. However, respondents were not enthused about the general visibility and performance of the NCCE in their communities. According to the research, the impact of the NCCE at community level was very low because of the absence of forums and / or lack of participation of community members in such gatherings. Therefore, citizens lacked requisite knowledge to fully carry out their roles and responsibilities. The research also found 40 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh that the NCCE communicated more using one-way channels; television (43.6%), radio (18.9%), newspaper (18.4%) and internet (4.2%). The research therefore recommended the NCCE continue to use mass media channels, despite being one-way to reach audiences compared to forums, community durbars and stakeholder meetings which had little or no participation due to one reason or the other. This study seeks to assess if NCCE’s communication had improved since Adu-Gyamfi and Yartey’s study in 2015 where the institution mainly disseminated information compared to using dialogic approaches. Also, publics’ current perception about the institution and their media preferences will be assessed in this study. 2.3 Summary of Chapter This chapter expanded on the main elements in Schramm’s communication process and how they are to be applied for effective communication. The chapter also reviewed ten related articles on communication processes between some public and private organisations and their publics and the need for the former to move from one-way to two-way communication practices which includes constant dialoguing and feedback. The related literature also added that there was the need for practitioners to have in-built communication policies and adapt to changes in audiences media preference by embracing social media techniques as well as intensive audience analysis through research (focus groups & surveys). 41 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Based on Ansong (2013) findings on effects of mass media, benefits of new media in communication and the need for communication policies to direct how campaigns and communication objectives of organisations are carried out, as was emphasized by the African Development Bank (2009) Tunis report and Gonzalez et al. (2008); Akomeah (2015) and Borden (2006) analysis of audiences and the need for research in helping understand and segment audiences as well as draft public-specific messages through appropriate channels; Falade and Adeyemi’s (2015) example of civic education as a subject in schools (medium) to reach young adults specifically; Ahn (2012), Picazo-Vela et al. (2012) and Linders (2012) highlighting on the need for public institutions to adapt to changes in the current communication environment and use social media techniques in addition to other media forms in enhancing their communication processes to achieve effectiveness and Adu-Gyamfi and Yarety’s (2015) assessment of NCCE’s communication process in Ghana’s 2012 elections, this current study will incorporate and discuss these findings in relation to what will be discovered from the survey. 42 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER THREE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 3.0 Introduction This chapter describes the research methodology covering the research design, sources of data for the study, population and sample size, sampling technique, data collection method, how the data was analyzed and ultimately interpreted to produce empirical findings. Therefore, this chapter explains the road map used by the researcher to gather information on the phenomenon the study sought to understand and explain. 3.1 Research Design and Procedure The purpose of this study was to examine the communication processes between public institutions and their external publics; specifically from the perspective of the NCCE. The researcher employed a quantitative methodology towards arriving at this goal. According to Reinard (2011), as cited by Ansong (2013), quantitative research seeks to measure and describe the distribution and characteristics of a population in its current setting concerning a particular phenomenon at a period of time to be able to draw measurable conclusions. This study adopted the quantitative research methodology using the survey method for data collection. Surveys, according to Barbie (2008) may be used for descriptive, explanatory and exploratory purposes and are chiefly used in studies that have individual people as the units of analysis. Wimmer and Dominick (2011) said that surveys allow researchers to collect a large amount of data with relative ease from a variety of people and gives original data for describing a 43 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh population too large to observe directly. The survey method therefore made it easier for this study to describe, explain and infer its findings in relation to the population used for the research. Under the sampling methods, the research used a probability sampling technique which uses randomization and takes steps to ensure all members of a population have an equal chance of being selected. The researcher adopted a multi-stage random sampling frame in selecting a population for the study as well as in distributing survey questionnaire to respondents. Multi- stage sampling can be explained as a form of cluster sampling where there is more than one level of sampling; for instance using random sampling after preceding random sampling of a population. Multi-stage random sampling therefore combines one or more sampling techniques under probability sampling method. This research combined the simple random sampling and systematic sampling in multi-stages in order to collect data. Simple random sampling is a type of sampling where each sample has an equal probability of being chosen while systematic sampling is a sampling method where members of a larger population are selected according to a random starting point with a fixed periodic interval by dividing the population size by the desired sample size. The researcher initially used simple random sampling to obtain the two main municipal assemblies for the study from among 16 Metropolitan, Municipal and District assemblies in the Greater Accra region. Out of these two municipalities, the simple random sampling method was again used to obtain two localities from each municipal assembly. The systematic sampling approach was then employed to distribute questionnaires from the first randomly selected household and subsequently, every fifth household in order to cover a large number of residents or households in these four localities. th However, the researcher will like to note that the 5 number was randomly selected because 44 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh efforts to find statistics on the total number of households or population in these four localities proved futile. Therefore, the sample population could not be divided by the actual sample size to obtain a periodic number to distribute questionnaires systematically. 3.2 Population and Sample Size Since the work of the NCCE extends to the entire nation, the study sought to have a nationwide representation of publics for the survey, this could however not be realized due to time constraints and cost. The population for this research therefore was the Greater Accra region which is made up of 16 Metropolitan, Municipal and District assemblies (MMDAs). Out of these 16 MMDAs, two Municipal assemblies were simple randomly selected for the study. The two are: the Ga Central Municipal made up of nine electoral areas or localities, namely; Taborah, Santa Maria, Sowutuom, Anyaa, Chantan, Lomnava, Awoshie, Kwashiebu and Ablekuma/Olebu and the Adentan Municipality made up of twelve electoral areas or localities, namely; Adjriganor, New Adenta, New Legon, Omarjo and its environs. The study simple randomly sampled two localities from the Ga Central municipality which are, Sowutuom and Taborah. From the Adentan Municipality, Adjriganor and New Adenta were also sampled randomly for the research. These four localities therefore served as the sample size for the study. Ga Central Municipal Assembly (GCMA) lies within latitudes 5º 48´ north and within longitudes 0º 8´ east and 0º 3´ west of the Greater Accra region. It was carved from the Ga South Municipal Assembly and inaugurated on June 28, 2012. The Assembly was established by Legislative instrument 2135 (2012) with its capital at Sowutuom. The National Population and Housing 45 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Census put the Municipality’s estimated population as of 2013 at about 154,437. There are about 52 communities in the municipality. The population is concentrated mainly along the urban and peri-urban areas of the municipality. The dominant tribe in the Municipality is Ga followed by the Akan, Ewe and of course a mixture of other tribes who have migrated to the municipality to either trade, farm and to do other menial jobs. Christianity is the main religion of the people in the municipality followed by Islam. (www.gacentralmunicipalassembly.com). The Adentan Municipality lies 10 kilometres to the North- east of Accra, specifically located on latitude 5’43’ North and longitude 0’09’ west. It was carved out of Tema Metropolitan Assembly in February 2008 by LI 1888 and shares boundaries with Ashaiman Municipalities in the East, Madina / LaNkwatanang Municipality in the West, Kpone-Katamanso in the North and Ledzokuku Krowor Municipalities in the south. According to the 2010 Population and Housing Census, the estimated population is 78,215. About 62.5% of the population resides in urban and 37.5% in rural areas. (www.adentanmunicipalassembly.com). 3.3 Sampling Technique A probability sampling method; multi-stage random sampling was adopted in carrying out the study. The multi-stage random sampling started with a simple random sampling of the Greater Accra region from ten regions of Ghana. Two Municipalities in the Greater Accra region, Ga Central Municipal and Adentan Municipal Assembly, were then simple randomly sampled from the 16 Metropolitan, Municipal and District Assemblies (MMDAs) in the Greater Accra region. Under the Ga Central Municipal, two localities were simple randomly sampled and similarly, 46 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh two localities were simple random sampled in Adentan Municipal assembly. A total of 150 respondents were used for this study. The month of September was used to collect data for the study. The researcher visited Sowutuom and Taborah localities in Ga Central municipality, and Adjriganor and New Adenta localities in Adentan municipality to collect data for the study. A systematic random sampling method was then used to sample households where the researcher got respondents from every fifth household. From an initial random selection of a household as the starting point, every other fifth household was sampled for the research. As stated earlier under the research design section, finding details to statistics on total number of residents or households or population in these four localities proved futile. Therefore, the researcher randomly selected the fifth number in order to systematically cover a large number of households in these localities. The researcher used a screener question “do you know the National Commission for Civic Education” to select respondents in these households. If no person knew about the NCCE in a household, that household was skipped and the next fifth house was sampled. This was because, the research sought for publics who knew about the institution being surveyed in order to assess their perception about the organsisation. A total of 88 males and 62 females between the ages of 20 and 60 participated in the survey. 3.4 Data Collection Instrument The research depended on a questionnaire (Appendix 1) as its data collection instrument in order to make generalizable inferences about the population. The questionnaires were used to elicit 47 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh information from external publics of the NCCE in the Ga Central and Adentan Municipal Assemblies both in Greater Accra region. One hundred questionnaires were distributed in the two communities in Ga Central Municipal (Sowutuom and Taborah) and 50 were distributed in the two communities in Adentan Municipal (Adjriganor and New Adenta) based on the size of the population of each municipality as stated above in section 3.2, that is, Ga Central Municipal is almost double the size of Adentan Municipal. The five-part questionnaire included areas covering: knowledge of the NCCE, channels of communication, feedback processes and communication challenges, communication on NCCE’s recent campaign and demographic data of respondents. Seven out of the 22 questions were open ended and the rest were close ended. The researcher spent between five to ten minutes with each respondent as they filled the questionnaire and retrieved it immediately they completed. Of the total number of respondents used for the survey, 19 (12.7%) had received secondary education while 131 (87.3%) had tertiary education. 3.5 Data Analysis The research used the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS), a computer assisted programme, in analyzing the data collected. The data was screened and coded into the SPSS software for analysis and data was presented in tables, figures, charts and graphs. These tables and charts enabled the researcher summarize data collected using the calculations of cross- tabulation and frequencies. Discussion of the findings was done in relation to the literature reviewed and the theory underpinning this research 48 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.6 Summary of Chapter This chapter described the roadmap to this research. It described the population, sample selections and size, how data was collected, the data collection instrument used and how respondents were sampled. It also explained how data was presented and analyzed. 49 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FOUR RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION 4.0 Introduction This chapter is a presentation of the data, analysis, interpretation and discussion of findings of this study in line with the research questions, theories and literature reviewed. It also presents the views of the various respondents; their experiences and expectations as far as communication between them and the NCCE is concerned. 4.1 Communication between the NCCE and Its Publics According to Akomeah (2015), effective communication is important to an organsation’s overall success. In order to determine how the NCCE communicated with its publics, the research sought to explore publics’ knowledge of the work of the NCCE and their perception about the institution, channels used by the institution in its communication, publics preferred communication channels, feedback processes, communication challenges between NCCE and its publics and views from publics on how NCCE can improve on its communication. 4.1.1 Knowledge and Perception about the NCCE The first section of the research sought to find publics knowledge and perception about the NCCE and its works. As stated earlier by Schramm’s “sender” element, audiences’ perception about an organisation sometimes affects the initial acceptance of a message although it has little impact in the long term. Although all 150 respondents indicated they knew about the NCCE, the 50 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh research further inquired based on functions and mandate of the NCCE outlined in Chapter 19 of the 1992 Constitution for respondents to select what they thought the work of the organisation was. Respondents were asked to choose from eight responses what the works of the NCCE was. Multiple responses were allowed. Figure 1: Works of the NCCE Education on Good Citizenship 126 Education on Sanitation and… 60 Education on Taxes 26 Education on Human Rights 114 Education on Health 29 Education on Democracy & Elections 126 Education on the Constitution 129 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 As figure 1 indicates above, because respondents were asked to select multiple responses, about 70 % of respondents said the work of the NCCE included: education on the Constitution 129 (21.1%); education on good citizenship 126 (20.7%) and education on democracy and elections 126 (20.7%). Over 60% of respondents also knew the work of the NCCE as education on human rights 114. Less than 50% of respondents also thought the NCCE educated on sanitation and environmental issues 60 (9.8%), health 29 (4.8%) and taxes 26 (4.3%). This shows that respondents had general knowledge about the core mandate, functions or work of the NCCE. 51 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The research also sought to find out respondents attitude towards the NCCE or their perception about the NCCE and how they execute their work in general. As Schramm’s “sender” element explains, receivers’ perception must not be underestimated. The findings on respondents’ perception about the NCCE are illustrated in the chart below. Figure 2: Do you have any likes or dislikes about the NCCE? Perception about the NCCE Indifference Like 32% 28% Dislike 40% 52 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The chart above indicates that public perception about the NCCE is generally negative, with 60 (40%) respondents disliking or having a negative perception about the institution. One-third of respondents, 48 (32%) felt indifferent about the NCCE, while 42 (28%) respondents on the other hand, had a positive perception about the NCCE. Respondents were further asked to give reasons for these perceptions. Details are in the table below. Table 1: Reasons why you Dislike the NCCE, please state Negative perception about NCCE Frequency Percent % Only hear about the NCCE during Elections 12 20.0 % Their messages come late after crisis so they 22 36.7 % are not proactive in their work The NCCE is ignored by Government and not 2 3.3 % funded to perform effectively The NCCE does poor publicity about their 20 33.3 % work and lack citizens engagement They only use some radio and television 4 6.7 % stations for their work As the table above indicates, over 50% of respondents disliked or had a bad perception about the NCCE because they thought their communication was more reactive than proactive and they had poor publicity with low citizens’ engagement. Twelve 12 (20%) respondents were of the view that the NCCE communicated often during elections, which creates the picture that in-between Presidential and Parliamentary elections or District Assembly elections, the NCCE is dormant in its work. Some respondents 4 (6.7%), thought the NCCE mostly used selected radio and television 53 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh stations which had low listenership and viewership and 2 (3.3%) respondents thought the NCCE was ignored by Government and not well funded to perform effectively. As indicated in Figure 2 earlier, 42 (28%) respondents had a positive perception about the NCCE. Reasons given for this perception are in the table below. Table 2: Reasons why you like the NCCE, please state Positive perception about NCCE Frequency Percent % They promote Peace 1 2.4 % They provide good education on civic rights and 17 40.5 % responsibilities They teach on human rights and equality 6 14.3 % They explain the election process and make it easy to 12 28.6 % understand They use local languages in their work to reach everyone 1 2.4 % They do not politicize their work and are neutral 3 7.1 % They do good education on sanitation and environmental 2 4.7 % issues Table 2 indicates that 17 (40.5%) respondents thought the NCCE provided good education on civic rights and responsibilities, 12 (28.6%) respondents thought the NCCE’s education on election processes made it easy for them to understand and vote. Six (14.3%) respondents thought NCCE’s education on human rights and equality was good, 3 (7.1%) thought the NCCE 54 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh did not politicize its work and was neutral, 2 (4.7%) respondents thought NCCE provided good education on sanitation and environmental issues, 1 (2.4%) respondent thought the NCCE promoted peace and 1 (2.4%) respondent also thought the NCCE’s use of local languages in its education helped citizens understand their messages easily. This highlights the media richness criterion on use of natural language in determining the richness of a medium. These findings in comparison to reasons given for why some respondents disliked the NCCE shows that the organisation was unbiased in its work and delivered good civic education with adequate understanding in elections processes, human rights issues and sanitation issues. However, the orgainsation ought to be proactive and engage more citizens in its programmes as well as work on its visibility or corporate image. Adu Gyamfi and Yartey (2015) also made a similar recommendation in their research, that citizens were not enthused about the general performance of the NCCE. On the other hand, the findings also indicate that publics of the NCCE know the core work or mandate of the NCCE and can identify messages that come from the NCCE. This shows that encoding process of transferring mental images into symbols easily understandable by respondents might have been considered by the institution. Also, majority of respondents had negative perception about the institution which may likely affect their general attitude towards them. Also, Schramm’s “message” element discusses that messages must be timely, relevant, appropriate, accurate and applicable and clear. The research identified that some respondents felt messages from the NCCE were not timely and most had lost their relevance by the time they are 55 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh received. Other respondents thought there was clarity in some of their messages, especially voting processes. Other respondents were of the view that the NCCE selection of medium for its education was poor since specific radio and television stations with low listenership and viewership were selected for their work. 4.1.2 Communication Channels The second question of the research was to assess communication channels used by the NCCE in communicating with its external publics and if these channels engender feedback from the public. This was from the point of view of the public. The research question asked respondents through which channel they heard about the NCCE. Figure 3: NCCE communication channels Other 5.3 % Internet / Social Media 4.7 % Outreach (Neighborhood / PA Sysytem /… 3.3 % Outdoor (Fliers / Posters / Billboards) 6 % Newspaper 4.7 % Television 42.7 % Radio 33.3 % 0 20 40 60 80 56 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 3 indicates that 64 (42.7%) respondents heard about the NCCE through television while 50 (33.3%) heard about the NCCE through radio. Other respondents 9 (6%) heard about the NCCE through outdoor media such as posters and billboards, 7 (4.7%) respondent heard about the NCCE through newspaper and 7 (4.7%) respondents heard about the institution through the internet mostly through social media platforms. A total of 5 (3.3%) respondents heard about the NCCE through outreaches such as announcement vans, community durbars, seminars, workshops, etc. and 8 (5.3%) respondents heard about the NCCE through other sources such as friends, family and colleagues. This indicates that the NCCE uses more of traditional media (television and radio) as its communication channels as reflected by number of respondent 114 (76%) in total. These channels in relation to the media richness theory are somehow rich media since they enable multiple signals such as body cues, sound and facial expressions and also allow use of natural language. However, they do not have all the criteria that define a rich media; such as instant or timely feedback and are not audience focus since their main aim is to broadcast and reach the masses. Nevertheless, findings also show that the NCCE uses different types of media (media mix) in its communication with external publics. This therefore shows that the institution uses more of disseminating channels compared to interactive channels or probably uses different media to reach varied audiences. Per the media richness theory criteria, only 5.3% of respondents had heard about the NCCE through face-to-face interactions which the theory considers as the richest media. 57 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The other part of the research question was to asses if the media used by the NCCE in its communication engendered feedback. Based on Schramm’s communication model, mass media channels do not give enough room to receive feedback from audiences and therefore there is no assurance that messages if received by audiences will be accepted and acted on. Nevertheless, out of the 150 respondents, 7 (4.7%) heard about the NCCE through new media platforms. This shows that the NCCE has adopted new communication technologies as emphasized by Ahn (2012), Picazo-Vela (2012) and Linders (2012) who recommended that as communication environment keeps changing and audiences selective nature of media, government communication must adapt to these new communication techniques else they will be left behind. These findings also show an improvement in government communication from mass media only to incorporating other social media in relation to Ansong (2013) and Akomeah (2015) undertook their research on public institutions. 4.1.3 Channels for Accessing Information and Audiences Media Preference The third research question of this research was to investigate how respondents accessed information about the NCCE and their media preferences. When respondents were asked if they accessed information from the NCCE, 38 (25.3%) answered yes and 112 (74.7%) answered no. Of the 38 respondents who answered yes, the research sought to find out channels used in accessing information from the NCCE. The internet was mainly used in accessing information about the NCCE. Details are in the chart below. 58 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 4: From which channel did you access information about the NCCE? CHANNELS FOR ACCESSING INFORMATION From their Social Media platforms From NCCE 18.4 % Staff 34.2 % Through their website 47.4 % Figure 4 indicates that most respondents accessed information about the NCCE mainly through their website 18 (47.4%), others from NCCE Staff 13 (34.2%) and the rest through their social media platforms 7 (18.4%). Other media as listed in the questionnaire for respondents to choose from included; letters, text message and visits to the NCCE office, which all recorded nil. The findings above indicate that the organisation had in place, rich media for citizens to access information from them. Per the Media Richness theory, websites, social media and face-to-face interactions with NCCE staff are media that will provide respondents with immediate response to their queries. The second aspect of the third research question was to find out if publics preferred media corresponded or matched channels used by the NCCE in its communication. First, publics preferred media are illustrated in the figure below with reasons for the preferred media in the subsequent table. 59 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 5: Of all the channels listed, which do you prefer? Publics Preferred Meduim Text Message 3 Internet / Social Media 49 Outreach (Neighborhood / PA System / Vans) 3 Outdoor (Fliers / Posters / Billboards) 6 Newspaper 3 Television 55 Radio 31 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 Figure 5 indicates that 55 (36%) respondents preferred to hear from the NCCE through television while 49 (33%) preferred to hear from them through the internet or social media channels. The findings show that majority of respondents preferred to hear from the NCCE through visual / video communications (television and social media). Thirty-one (21%) respondents preferred to hear from the NCCE through radio and 6 (4.0%) preferred to hear from them through outdoor media (posters, billboards, etc.). Other respondents, 3 (2.0%) preferred to hear from the NCCE through outreaches (announcement vans, community meetings, etc.), 3 (2.0%) preferred to hear from them through newspapers and 3 (2.0%) also preferred to hear from the institution through text messages. According to Ahn (2012), the way human senses receive information or messages, process them in the brain and decide whether to act on them or not has changed due to audiences selective nature and limited time for information processing. Therefore, the time one audience will 60 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh analyze text communication, translate words into mental images before understanding, another audience will analyze visual or audio communication in a direct or faster manner. Per the findings above, respondents confirmed this by the numbers who preferred one particular media to the other. Visual communication was the highest, followed by audio communication (radio), then text communication through newspapers, outdoor / billboards or text messages then face-to face or verbal interactions (outreaches). Although face-to-face is the richest media, most respondents did not choose that as their preferred media probably due to unavailability to attend such gatherings; time constraints or work schedules. Also, in relation to Adu-Gyamfi and Yartey (2015), television is still the leading medium of communication for the NCCE as well as its publics. However, per earlier finding on how respondents heard about the NCCE, which television was the highest followed by radio, audiences rather preferred radio as the third medium of communication after social media. This shows that although there was no mismatch in channels used by the NCCE in its communication and publics preferred media, a critical study of the findings indicate that the second preferred medium for respondents was social media as compared to radio which was the second most used media by the NCCE as stated above earlier. Below is a cross tabulation comparing media used by the NCCE in communicating with its publics and respondents preferred media. This will give a clearer interpretation to findings. 61 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 3: Cross Tabulation of Channels used by the NCCE to communicate and Publics Preferred Media Of all the channels listed above, which do you prefer as your main source of information Outdoor Outreach (Fliers / (Neighborhood Internet / Posters / / PA System / Social Text Radio Television Newspaper Billboards) Vans) Media Message Total Through Radio 21 13 2 0 0 14 0 50 what Television 4 37 0 1 3 16 3 64 medium Newspaper 1 3 1 0 0 2 0 7 did you first hear Outdoor about the (Fliers / 0 1 0 5 0 3 0 9 NCCE Posters / Billboards) Outreach (Neighborho 2 0 0 0 0 3 0 5 od / PA System / Vans) Internet / 0 1 0 0 0 6 0 7 Social Media Other 3 0 0 0 0 5 0 8 Total 31 55 3 6 3 49 3 150 The table above indicates that of the 50 respondents who heard of the NCCE through radio, 21 (42.0%) still preferred to hear from the organisation through radio; 13 (26%) preferred to hear from the NCCE through television; 2 (4%) preferred to hear from the NCCE through newspapers while 14 (28%) preferred to hear from the NCCE through the internet or social media. The other 62 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh media; outdoor media, outreaches and text message recorded nil. Of the 64 respondents who heard of the NCCE through television, 4 (6.2%) preferred to hear from the organisation through radio; 37 (57.8%) preferred to hear from the NCCE through television, 1 (1.6%) preferred outdoor media; 3 (4.75) preferred outreaches; 16 (25%) preferred to hear from the NCCE through the internet or social media and 3 (4.7%) preferred text messages while newspaper recorded nil. Similar to these findings, the table above illustrates clearly the other communication channels used by the NCCE in its communication compared to respondents preferred media. Of the 8 respondents who heard of the NCCE through “other” media such as friends, colleagues and family, they rather preferred to hear from the organisation through radio 3 (37.5%) and the internet 5 (62.5%). In summary, the findings indicate that the three leading communication channels of the NCCE are: television (64 respondents), radio (50 respondents) and outdoor media (9 respondents) while the three leading channels respondents preferred the organisation to communicate to them through are: television (55 respondents), internet or social media (49 respondents) and radio (31 respondents). One major finding here is, the NCCE communicates less through internet or social media compared to other forms of media. However, social media is the second most preferred media of their publics and this ought to be seriously considered by the organisaition in sending out their messages, else their messages will not reach their publics. The findings in relation to Ahn (2012), Picazo-Vela (2012) and Linders (2012) show that although the NCCE has created social media platforms and have adapted to the current 63 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh environment, they need to communicate more through social media compared to other one-way channels. This is because social media provides room for dialogue between them and their publics, instant feedback and multiple signals; thus a rich media. One other finding is that, publics of the NCCE did not prefer text communication or newspapers as well as outreaches as stated earlier. The NCCE therefore ought to communicate with audiences through the media the public chooses in order to reach them with their messages (Akomeah 2015 & Borden 2006). The research further inquired from respondents why their preference for specific media. Table 4: Why is this your most preferred channel? Why is this your preferred medium Frequency Percent % Radio is cheap, mobile and accessible to 31 20.7 % everyone anywhere Television has motion and video which 52 34.7 % makes education relatable Outreach helps reach the grass root and is 3 2.0 % personal Social Media is the order of the day and 50 33.3 % easily accessible Posters and Billboards are seen everywhere 6 4.0 % and simple to understand Text Message reaches us anywhere 3 2.0 % Passion to sit and read newspapers and can 5 3.3 % easily refer to again 64 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4 indicates reasons given by respondents when asked why they preferred the medium they chose. Some preferred a mobile and easy to carry medium, others wanted a medium easily accessible while some preferred a medium they could always refer to later. This shows the varied media habits of respondents and the richness of the various media types, that is, those that provide personal interaction and instant feedback against the other less rich media. The NCCE therefore, ought to understand what Schramm’s “media” element entails and how it ought to be applied. Also, the media richness theory indicates that media that facilitate shared meaning and allow interactivity are different from those that allow exchange of large content and data or simple dissemination of information. Therefore the selection of a right medium for the right message to reach the right audience is therefore vital to successful communication (Akomeah, 2015 & Borden, 2006). On the other hand, 3 (2.0%) respondents preferred outreaches or meetings as their communication because it was more personal (rich media). This corroborates with Adu-Gyamfi and Yartey’s (2015) findings, that although outreach is a two-way channel, it has little effects due to availability of publics to attend such programmes or there was limited publicity about such programmes. Therefore, it contradicts Akomeah’s (2015) recommendation for use of more face-to-face interactions and gatherings by public institutions, since publics’ inability to attend or low citizen participation can lead to communication ineffectiveness. It also brings to fore that there will be some audiences who will prefer face-to-face interaction over all other media, therefore a media–mix approach in communicating messages must always be considered to reach all segmented audiences (Ansong 2013). 65 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Borden’s (2006) recommendation relates to findings from this research, that audience segmentation and their media preferences are necessary in educating publics about social or attitudinal change issues. Therefore, the NCCE ought to use different media channels in reaching segmented audiences with varying media preferences and social context. Also, Schramm’s “field of experience” element mentions different audience criteria and environment such as social class, social context, level of education, etc. which ought to be considered in preparing messages and selecting communication tools and channels. Media richness’s criterion on audience or person focus of a media also comes to play here. 4.1.4 Feedback Processes and Participation In relation to feedback processes, the research found that only 8 (5.3 %) respondents had given feedback to the NCCE. Table 5: Have you ever given feedback to NCCE? Feedback Processes Frequency Percent % Yes 8 5.3 % No 142 94.7 % Table 5 indicates that feedback avenues or mechanisms are set by the NCCE to receive opinions and responses from its publics. This is one of the key questions this research sought to answer. However, over 90% of respondents, 142 (94.7%) of them were either not interested in giving feedback to the NCCE or did not know there were any feedback mechanisms in place. 66 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The research also sought to find out channels used in giving feedback to the NCCE from respondents who answered yes. Their responses were: Table 6: Through which medium did you give the feedback? Channel used for Feedback Frequency Percent % Television (phone-in) 1 12.5% Internet / Social Media 6 75.0% Outreaches (Community 1 12.5% Durbar) Letters - 0.0 % Visits to NCCE Office - 0.0 % Newspaper - 0.0 % Other - 0.0 % Table 6 indicates that although the NCCE communicates often through traditional media, feedback is mainly received through two-way channels. From the table above, 6 (75 %) respondents use the internet (email) or social media channels in giving feedback to the NCCE, one respondent gave feedback at a community durbar and the other respondent gave feedback through television phone-in. The other channels recorded nil since no respondents used them as communication media. Respondents were also asked to give topics on which they gave feedback. These included; clarification on issues related to the 1992 Constitution 3 (37.5%), election 67 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh related issues 2 (25%), public education on Child marriage 2 (25%) and duties and responsibilities of citizens 1 (12.5%). However, five respondents out of the eight had their feedback answered by the NCCE and the other three were not responded to. This shows that Schramm’s “feedback” element is not really practiced by the institution but is available. This also answers the research question if there are communication challenges between the NCCE and its publics. The findings show that yes, there are challenges because the NCCE does not always respond to its feedback. Schramm’s communication model indicates that communication is a continuous process where senders and receivers exchange feedbacks until there is clear understanding and acceptance of message. Since feedback of some respondents were not responded to, messages were not clarified or explained to aid in understanding, making communication a failure based on Schramm’s model. On the other hand, the findings indicate improvement in how public institutions communicate with their publics based on Ansong’s (2013) research where he recommended that CHRAJ uses different types of media (media mix) in its communication as well as have social media presence and avenues for giving feedback. However, Akomeah’s (2015) recommendation for public institutions to use more interactive channels such as outreaches through seminars, workshops and community durbars was on the low as findings indicate, although that is the richest media per the criteria of the Media Richness theory. 68 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.1.5 Dialogue and Communication Challenges The fourth research question sought to investigate whether NCCE and its publics dialogue and face any communication challenges. The research indicated that 23 (15.3%) out of 150 respondents had communication challenges with the NCCE. These challenges are in the table below. Table 7: What are the communication challenges between you and the NCCE? Please specify Communication Challenges Frequency Percent % It takes long for inquires to be responded to 4 17.4 % Their offices are not easily located 3 13.0 % They do not respond to inquiries at all 3 13.0 % They do not engage citizens in their 11 48 % programmes They do not use interactive channels 2 8.6 % The responses above show that there are communication challenges between the NCCE and their publics as stated earlier. This ought to be addressed immediately owing to its gravity. For instance, difficulty in locating NCCE offices and long periods it takes for inquiries to be responded to, both have short and long term effects on NCCE’s corporate image. The research further asked respondents how they thought these challenges could be resolved. Four (17.4%) respondents were of the view that NCCE should be active and interactive on their 69 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh social media platforms as well as assign specific staff to manage and respond to emails, questions and inquiries on their social media platforms to resolve communication challenges. Three (13.0%) respondents were of the view that NCCE should make their offices in communities more visible to enable publics visit there for information. Two (8.8%) respondents were of the view that the NCCE should be more resourced to use more interactive channels. Eleven (47.8%) respondents felt the NCCE was not engaging citizens enough in their activities and therefore needed to improve on citizen participation. Three (13.0%) respondents claimed that the NCCE did not respond to inquiries at all. These findings corroborate with the African Development Bank (2009) Tunis report and findings from Gonzalez et al. (2008) research, which recommends that organisations should have communication policies in place which outlines or directs communication objectives and goals and prevents unforeseen communication challenges. For instance, specific staff ought to be assigned to specific tasks and coordinate activities to improve communication and enhance feedback processes. The use of more rich media was also suggested by respondents to enhance interactivity between them and the NCCE. Final observation made from these suggestions is the need for more funds to aid in communication processes of the NCCE. This was also recommended by the African Development Bank Tunis report (2009) as well as Borden (2006) who stressed on the need for finances to help in research before and after communication campaigns for audience segmentation or profiling and choice of media to reach each target group. Borden (2006) emphasized that without the proper audience profiling and research to identity target’s needs, as Schramm’s “receiver” element explains, most communication campaigns fail and messages are not received. Also, researches after communication campaigns help assess their effectiveness. 70 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Therefore the NCCE needs to be resourced in order to use more interactive channels and communicate more effectively and efficiently as suggested by 2 (8.8%). Respondents were asked to rate NCCE’s communication. Figure 6: How will you rate NCCE’s communication? Bad 15.3 % Satisfactory 39.3 % Good 37 % Very Good 8.7 % 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 Figure 6 indicates that 13 (8.7 %) respondents thought NCCE’s communication was very good, 23 (15.3%) respondents thought their communication was bad, 59 (39.3%) thought their communication was satisfactory and 55 (37%) rated NCCE’s communication as good. This shows that NCCE’s overall communication was rated satisfactory which is not a good rating and needs to improve. However, in another view, almost 45% of respondents thought the NCCE’s communication was good. Nevertheless, Schramm’s (1954) “noise” element ought to be critically analyzed by the NCCE to reduce any communication interference or barriers to aid in effective communication. 71 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.1.6 Communication on a Recent Campaign and Its Effectiveness To test the effectiveness of NCCE’s communication on a recent campaign, the research sought to ask respondents if they heard any message in the months of July and August, 2017. Of the 150 respondents, only 27 (18%) heard messages from the NCCE within the stated timeframe. Table 8: What message (s) did you hear from the NCCE in the months of July and August, 2017 Frequency Percent % Education on rights and responsibilities of Citizens 5 18.5 % Education on Human Rights 2 7.4 % Education on Illegal Mining (Galamsey) 3 11.1 % Education on Anti - Mob Action 2 7.4 % Education to Eliminate Child Marriage 3 11.1 % Education on Elections and rights of Voters 7 26 % Education on the Constitution 5 18.5 % Table 8 indicates messages heard by respondents from the NCCE during the stated timeframe. The table shows that publics heard varying messages from the institution, meaning that the NCCE was carrying out mulitple campaigns within this period. The most heard message was on elections and rights of voters, which was heard by 7 (26 %) respondents. The research asked respondents through which channel they heard the messages stated above. The details are in the table below. 72 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 9: Through what channel did you hear these messages? Channels for Recent Communication Frequency Percent % Radio 4 14.8% Television 11 40.7 % Outdoor (Fliers / Posters / Billboards) 4 14.8 % Outreach (Neighborhood / Announcement 1 3.7 % Vans, etc.) Internet / Social Media 7 26.0 % Table 9 indicates that most respondents heard these messages through television 11 (40.7%), 7 (26%) respondents heard their messages from the internet or social media platforms, 4 (14.8%) respondents heard from radio, while 4 (14.8%) other respondents also heard through outdoor media. One respondent (3.7%) heard the message through outreach. The channels listed here also indicates that more respondents (66.7%) heard their messages through visual communication channels The final part of the research question, sought to solicit the views of respondents’ on how often they would want to hear from the NCCE as well as how they think the NCCE can improve on its communication. Responses are in the figure and subsequent table below. 73 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 7: Frequency of Communication How often do you want to hear from the NCCE ? Monthly 60 Weekly 64 Daily 26 Figure 7 indicates that almost half of the respondents, 64 (42.7%) want to hear from the NCCE on a weekly basis. Sixty (40%) respondents want to hear from the NCCE on monthly basis and 26 (17.3%) respondent want to hear from the NCCE on daily basis. Therefore, the NCCE ought to communicate with Ghanaians on weekly basis using varied media to reached fragmented audiences. Respondents were also asked to suggest how they think the NCCE can improve on its communication; their responses are listed in the table below. 74 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 10: How do you think the NCCE can improve on its communication Frequency Percent % NCCE must use all types of media in 32 21.3 % educating citizens NCCE should use outreaches to reach citizens in every community through meetings, 41 27.3 % announcement vans, etc. NCCE should use more social media 27 18.0 % NCCE needs extra resources from Government 16 10.7 % and partners to communicate effectively Establish more offices across the nation to 8 5.3 % make NCCE accessible to everyone NCCE needs to restructure its work and 7 4.7 % communication approach to make it more effective Civic Education must be taught in Schools to 19 12.7 % make it effective Table 10 indicates that most respondents 41 (27.3%) suggested that the NCCE can improve on its communication through grass-root or community level education across the country. Thirty- two (21.3%) respondents suggested a media mix approach will improve NCCE’s communication. Twenty-seven (18%) respondents advised that the NCCE uses more social media to improve on its communication. Eight (5.3%) respondents thought NCCE’s communication will improve if they established more offices nationwide which can be easily 75 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh located and easily accessible while 7 (4.7%) respondents suggested that the NCCE restructured its communication approach for effective communication. The responses show that the NCCE ought to understand the communication process and its elements and understand their publics since audiences cannot be predicted. Also, in relation to page 55 of this research, where respondent selected visual communication media (television and social media) as channels the NCCE should communicated with them, the table above tells a different story. Forty-one (27.3%) respondents suggested the NCCE uses face-to-face meetings or outreaches in educating citizens; which is the richest media per the criteria of the media richness theory. Also, a media- mix approach was the second highest recommended medium to reach all segmented audiences and avoid overlooking others based on their specific media needs. This therefore highlights the essence and need for communicators to critically understand the elements of Schramm’s communication model such as who audiences are, their fields of experience, the media that suites them and how to respond to their specific feedback. The criteria for selecting a rich medium also ought to be considered when using a media-mix approach in audience profiling. The need for extra resources from Government was also mentioned here by respondents. Also, civic education as a subject in schools is one medium mentioned by respondents as a way through which NCCE can communicate effectively 19 (12.7%). This is similarly emphasized by Falade and Adeyemi (2015) in their study on the impact of civic education as a formal subject in schools at all levels to ensure all students grow with the understanding of civics, their responsibilities as citizens and rights guaranteed them. This ought to be considered by the NCCE. 76 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.2 Demographics of Respondents The table below is a presentation of the age range of respondents who undertook this research. Table 11: Age Range Frequency Percentage % Below 20 5 3.3 20 - 29 76 50.7 30 - 39 49 32.7 40 - 49 17 11.3 50 - 59 2 1.3 60+ 1 .7 Data from table 11 indicates that over 50% of respondents where youth, between the ages of 20 – 29 years. The second highest category of respondents fell between the age brackets of 30 – 39 years. The findings can therefore inform the NCCE on its media choice and its message creation for specific target or age group; since over 80% of respondents are youth. Table 12: Level of Education Frequency Percentage % Secondary 19 12.7 Tertiary 131 87.3 The data above depicts that majority of respondents had tertiary education 131 (87.3%) with the second highest being secondary 19 (12.7%). Although it shows that respondents are educated, it also indicates that audiences’ media preferences and recommendations are for the literacy point of view. Thus, findings here cannot be generalized to the entire populace of Ghana where the 77 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh literacy rate stands a little over 75% (www.paajaf.org). Media preferences of other persons, about 25% of Ghanaians with little or no basic education cannot be clearly known based on this research. Table 13: Gender Frequency Percent Male 88 58.7 Female 62 41.3 The findings show that over 50% of respondents were male with 41.3% being female. This finding does not really affect findings in anyway. However, it communicates the different gender involved in this study. Below is also a cross tabulation of the age groups and gender who participated in this research. Table 14 : Gender and Age Range of Respondents Age Range Below 20 20 - 29 30 - 39 40 - 49 50 - 59 60+ Gender Male 2 46 29 8 2 1 Female 3 30 20 9 0 0 The table above similarly indicates that majority of respondents that participated in the research were youth between the ages of 20 and 39 years of age 78 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.3 Summary of Chapter This chapter presented data gathered from a survey conducted on communication between the NCCE and its publics. The data presented was discussed in relation with Schramm’s communication model, the media richness theory and the literature reviewed in chapter 2 of this research. Findings of five research questions were presented and discussed in this chapter; publics knowledge of the works and perception of the NCCE, NCCE communication channels audiences channels for accessing information and media preference, feedback process in NCCE communication, dialogue or participation and communication challenges and audience assessment of NCCE communication on recent campaign. 79 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FIVE SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 5.0 Introduction This research sought to investigate how public institutions effectively communicated with their external publics using the National Commission for Civic Education as a point of reference. This chapter presents a summary of the findings and implication to the theory and literature reviewed in chapter two. The chapter will also draw conclusions to the research, state limitations of the study and future directions of future studies. It will also make recommendations on how communications in public institutions, specifically the NCCE could be improved based on the findings. 5.1 Summary of Findings In summary, major findings of this study include the following:  Publics have knowledge about the NCCE and its works as education on good citizenship, education on elections and democracy and education on the Constitution. Few respondents know their work as education on health related issues and taxes  On the whole, public perception about the NCCE and its work is negative  Per respondents perspective, channels used by the NCCE in its communication include: television, radio, newspaper, internet and social media, outdoor media (posters and billboards), outreaches (announcement vans and meetings) 80 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh  Publics of the NCCE mainly use the website of the organisation to access information about them, followed by social media platforms and dialogue with staff of the institution  Publics preferred visual communication through television and social media as their communication channels, followed by audio, text, verbal (face-to-face) communication channel  Publics used television (phone-in sections), social media and community durbars as channels to give and receive feedback from the NCCE  NCCE’s communication with its publics was rated as satisfactory. However, respondents wanted to hear from them on weekly basis  There are communication challenges between the NCCE and its publics, some feedback are not responded  Respondents recommended that NCCE combines all types of media in communicating with its public to enhance its effectiveness  Publics of the NCCE dialogued with the institution although there were some communication challenges such as low publicity of its programmes, unresponsiveness to enquiries and little or no interaction on their social media platforms  Respondents were of the view that grass root education in communities as well as use of all types of media in their communication will enhance the work of the NCCE and make its communication more effective 81 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5.2 Study Limitations and Future Directions Time allocated for this research was very limited. Thus, data for this research was collected in one month and analysis and reporting was also done in one month. The outcome of this study cannot therefore depict the national or regional representation of publics’ perception of the NCCE and their media habits. For future research within this area, it would be interesting to investigate this in a deeper study by having a national or regional representation of publics’ media preferences and communication channels in reaching the populace. As stated earlier in this research, communicators are to “go to where the audience is, because the audience, not the government who chooses the communication tool.” Also, due to limited study on communication in public institutions in the Ghanaian context, the research could only compare its findings to a limited number of studies carried out in similar socio-cultural background; Ansong (2014), Akomeah (2015) and Adu-Gyamfi and Yartey (2015). Also, findings cannot be generalized to the entire country or even the population in the Greater Accra region due to the sampling technique and sample size of 150 respondents used. As stated earlier, future research should consider a wider population and include literacy and language criteria in its objectives so as to include all citizens. Future studies could also do a comparative study of how other public institutions communicate with their publics; perhaps communication in each sector of government differs from the other depending on their core mandate. Finally, the perspective of the NCCE could be sought in future research to get a clear picture on how the institution communicates aside publics knowledge of how they communicate, which this research did not cover. 82 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5.3 Recommendations and Study Implications The research recommends that:  The NCCE ought to improve and be effective in its communication by taking steps to understand the elements of the communication process and the richness of available media for specific purpose or messages and audiences before selecting them  Enough resources be allocated to the institution to aid the NCCE fulfill its mandate  The NCCE should use different types of media to reach segmented audiences using appealing messages that will generate public interest, feedback, attention and action  The NCCE takes its feedback process seriously and endeavour to respond to inquiries on time  The NCCE has in place a communication strategy to direct its communication processes to avoid communication failure  The NCCE takes its social media platforms seriously to enhance interactivity between them and their publics as well as its website 5.4 Conclusion The research found that publics of the NCCE know its work and core mandate and want to dialogue often with the institution. The research also found that there was no mismatch between channels used by the NCCE and publics in communicating and receiving information. However, to prevent neglect of other segments of the populace as mentioned by Akomeah (2015) and Borden (2006), public institutions must adopt varied media platforms in communicating with their audiences to enhance communication effectiveness. Also, the communication process ought 83 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh not to be underestimated but rather understood and applied appropriately. The research concludes that, communicators ought not to underestimate the essence of effective communication. What is the purpose of sending a message if it does not reach intended targets? Understanding the communication process, audiences’ media habits and backgrounds as well as the richness of various media is one key way to secure communication success. 84 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh REFERENCES Adentan Municipal Profile retrieved fromwww.adma.gov.gh/index.php/about-us/adma-profile accessed on October 11, 2017 Adu-Gyamfi, S.& Yartey, H. T. (2015).The Role of the National Commission for Civic Education in Citizenship Education during and After Elections: A Focus on the 2012 Elections in Ghana. International Journal Social Science& Education 2015. Vol.5 Issue 4, ISSN: 2223-4934 E and 2227-393X Print Adler, R.& Towne, N. (1978). Looking out/looking in (2nd Ed.). New York: Holt, African Development Bank (2009). Communication and External Relations Medium Term Strategy. Tunis Report. Agree, W. K., Ault, P. H., Cameroon, G. T. & Wilcox, D. L. (2000). Public Relations: Strategies and Tactics (6th Ed.). 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Journal of Emerging Trends in Educational Research and Policy Studies (JETERAPS) 6(1):113-118 (ISSN:2141-6990) GA Central municipal profile retrieved from http://www.gcma.gov.gh/our_profile.php - accessed on October 11, 2017 Ghanaweb.com. retrieved https://mobile.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/NCCE- is-totally-ineffective-in-doing-its-work-Sam-Okudzeto-456082) accessed on October 3, 2017 Ghana Statistical Service. (2014). 2010 Population and housing census: District Analytical report Adentan Municipality, Accra: Ghana Statistical Service. Ghana Statistical Service. (2014). 2010 Population and housing census: District Analytical report GA Central Municipality, Accra: Ghana Statistical Service. González, B., Lopez, A. and Garcia, R. (2008). Supreme Audit Institutions and their Communication Strategies: International Review of Administrative Sciences. IIAS, SAGE Publications (Los Angeles, London, New Delhi and Singapore).Vol.74 (3): 435–461 [DOI:10.1177/0020852308095312] Google.com. retrieved https://www.paajaf.org/peischool/illiteracy/ accessed on October 3, 2017 Government Communication Services (2015).The Future of Public Service Communications: Report and Findings Jossey-Bass/Pfeiffer (1998). The Pfeiffer Library Volume 25, 2nd Edition. Copyright © 1998 Kidwell, F. L. (2013). Civic Education for a Global World. Education Consultant/Curriculum Specialist2, 1 - 21 Linders, D. (2012). From E-Government to We-Government: Defining a Typology for Citizen Coproduction in the Age of Social Media. Volume 29, Issue 4, 446 - 454 Overwhelming number of rejected ballots (http://www.ahomkafm.com/?p=1860) retrieved October 3, 2017 Picazo-Vela, S., Gutiérrez-Martinez, I., Luna-Reyes, F.L. (2012).Understanding risks, benefits, and strategic alternatives of social media applications in the public sector. Government Information Quarterly 29: 504-511 86 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Project Management Institute (2013). Pulse of the Profession In-Depth Report: The High Cost of Low Performance: The Essential Role of Communications. PMI.org/Pulse retrieved on September 20, 2017 Rietbergen-McCracken, Jennifer (2008). Civic Education. Education and Deliberation Schramm, W. (1954). How Communication Works in the process and effects of mass communication. Urbana, Illinois: University of Illinois Press, pp. 1-26 Singhal, A. (1987). Wilbur Schramm: Portrait of a Development Communication Pioneer. Volume XXII, No. 1 - 4 Skinner, C. E., Mersham, L. M. & Malcolm, G. (2004). Handbook of Public Relations (7th Edition). Cape Town: Oxford University Press. South Africa st Tench, R. & Yeomans, L. (2006). Exploring Public Relations (1 Ed.). Edinburg Gate: Person Education Limited. England Trevino, L. K., Lengel, R. H. and Daft, R. L. (1987). Media Symbolism, media richness and Media choice in organizations: A symbolic Interactionist perspective. Communications Research, 14:553--‐574 Wimmer, R. D. and Dominick, J. R. (2011). Mass Media Research: An Introduction (9th Ed.). USA: Boston, MA 02210. Wadsworth, Cengage Learning publishers. ISBN-13: 978-1- 4390-8274-4 87 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDIX 1 SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE Please, my name is Ruth Boakyewah Boampong, a Masters student of the Department of Communications Studies, University of Ghana. I am conducting a research on the topic “A Study of External Communication and its Effectiveness in Public Institutions: A Study of the National Commission for Civic Education (NCCE),” as part of requirements for my course. The research is about NCCE’s communication processes and the extent to which its publics are informed about the institution’s policies, operations and services. You have been identified to be part of this survey. This study is purely for academic purposes, and I assure you that the information given will be used specifically for this purpose and is confidential. Thank You I. KNOWLEDGE ABOUT THE NCCE 1. Have you heard about the National Commission for Civic Education (NCCE)? Yes [ ] No [ ] 2. Do you know the work of the NCCE? Yes [ ] No [ ] 3. Which of these do you know are the works of the NCCE? (Tick as many as are applicable to you and specify other if necessary) a. Education on the Constitution [ ] b. Education on Democracy & Elections [ ] c. Education on Health [ ] 88 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh d. Education on Human Rights [ ] e. Education on Taxes [ ] f. Education on Sanitation and Environmental Issues [ ] g. Education on Good Citizenship [ ] h. Other (specify)[ ] ___________________________________ 4. Have you ever heard the NCCE embarking on any of the above mentioned programmes? Yes [ ] No [ ] 4b. Which of the above, please specify? _______________________________ 5. Do you have any likes or dislikes about the NCCE? Likes [ ] Dislikes [ ] Indifferent [ ] 5b. Please stateLike__________________________________________________________ 5c. Please state Dislike ________________________________________________________ II. CHANNELS OF COMMUNICATION 6. Through what medium did you first here about the NCCE? Please tick only ONE. Radio [ ] Outdoor (Fliers / Posters / Billboards) [ ] Television [ ] Outreach (Neighborhood / PA system) [ ] Newspaper [ ] Internet / Social Media (which type) [ ] ________ Other (specify) ______________________ 89 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 7. What channels do you generally receive information from? Tick many as are applicable. Radio [ ] Outdoor (Fliers / Posters / Billboards) [ ] Television [ ] Outreach (Neighborhood / PA system) [ ] Newspaper [ ] Internet / Social Media (which type) [ ] ________ Other (specify) ______________________ 8. Of all the channels listed, which one do you find appropriate or prefer as your main source of information? Please choose only ONE. Radio [ ] Outdoor (Fliers / Posters / Billboards) [ ] Television [ ] Outreach (Neighborhood / PA system) [ ] Newspaper [ ] Internet / Social Media (which type) [ ]_________ Text Message [ ] Other (specify) ______________________ 8b. Why is this medium your most preferred channel? __________________________ 9. Have you ever accessed information from the NCCE? Yes [ ] No [ ] 9b. If yes, through which channel did you access the information? Please choose only ONE Letter [ ] NCCE Website [ ] Visit to NCCE Offices [ ] NCCE Social Media Accounts [ ] From NCCE Staff [ ] Through Text Message [ ] 90 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh III. GIVING FEEDBACK AND COMMUNICATION CHALLENGES 10. Have you ever given feedback to NCCE? Yes [ ] No [ ] 10b. If Yes, through which medium? Tick many as are applicable Radio (phone-in) [ ] Letters [ ] Television (phone-in) [ ] Outreach (Neighborhood) [ ] Newspaper [ ] Internet / Social Media (which type) [ ] ________ Other [ ] ______________________ 11. What was the feedback about? Subject ________________________ 12. Do you always give feedback through the medium / media above? If not, which is your preferred medium for giving feedback? Choose only ONE Radio (phone-in) [ ] Letters [ ] Television (phone-in) [ ] Outreach (Neighborhood) [ ] Newspaper [ ] Internet / Social Media (which type) [ ] _________ Other [ ] ______________________ 13. Was the feedback answered? Yes [ ] No [ ] 14. Are there any communication challenges between you and the NCCE? Yes [ ] No [ ] 91 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 14b. If yes please specify, ___________________________________________________ 14c. How can this challenge be resolved? ________________________________________ 15. How will you rate NCCE’s communication? Excellent [ ] Very Good [ ] Good [ ] Satisfactory [ ] Bad [ ] 16. How often do you want to hear from the NCCE? Daily [ ] Weekly [ ] Monthly [ ] 17. How do you think the NCCE can improve on its communication? ……………………… IV. COMMUNICATION ON RECENT CAMPAIGN(S) 18. Did you hear any educational message from the NCCE in the months of July and August, 2017? Yes [ ] No [ ] 18b. If yes, what was the message (s) about?____________________________________ 19. Through what channel did you hear this message(s)? Radio [ ] Outdoor (Fliers / Posters / Billboards) [ ] Television [ ] Outreach (Neighborhood / PA system / Vans) [ ] Other [ ] ______________________ 92 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh V. DEMOGRAPHIC DATA 20. Gender Male [ ] Female [ ] 21. Age Range Below 20 [ ] 20 – 29 [ ] 30 – 39 [ ] 40 – 49 [ ] 50 – 59 [ ] 60+ [ ] 22. Level of Education Basic [ ] Secondary [ ] Tertiary [ ] 93