University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh UNIVERSITY OF GHANA BUSINESS SCHOOL WORK-FAMILY CONFLICT AND SATISFACTION AMONG FEMALE POLICE OFFICERS. THE MODERATING ROLE OF SOCIAL SUPPORT. BY AMANKWAH, NANA YAA (10598382) THIS THESIS IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF MPHIL ORGANISATION AND HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT DEGREE. MAY, 2018 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DECLARATION I hereby declare that this work is the result of my own research and has not been presented by anyone for any academic award in this or any other university. All references used in the work have been fully acknowledged. I bear sole responsibility for any shortcomings. ………………………….. ………..……………….. NANA YAA AMANKWAH DATE STUDENT (10598382) i University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CERTIFICATION I hereby certify that this thesis was supervised in accordance with procedures laid down by the University. ………………………………... ………………………….. DR. JAMES BABA ABUGRE DATE (SUPERVISOR) ii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DEDICATION I dedicate this work to my selfless and thoughtful husband, Michael Amankwah; my daughter, Yesuakasa and my son, Akyedepa whom I had in the course of my MPhil program. iii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ACKNOWLEDGEMENT My deepest appreciation goes to God for holding me up through the toughest moments and fiercest storms. Am grateful to Him for crowning my effort with dumbfounding victory. He has been my ever-present help in times of need and the strength of my life. I am nothing without Him. Indisputably, I would not have come this far without the guidance and constant support of Dr. James Baba Abugre (my supervisor) hence, I am sincerely grateful to him. Also, I appreciate all the lecturers in the Department of Organisation and Human Resource Management for their cherished comments and inputs during seminars. Additionally, much appreciation is extended to Mr. David Asante-Apeatu (Inspector General of Police) and DSP Sheilla Abayie-Buckman (Director of Public Affairs) for granting me the permission to conduct my study with the Ghana Police Service. Again, I appreciate all officers who helped me in administering my questionnaires. Likewise, I am grateful to all my respondents. Furthermore, I am extremely appreciative of the assistance given by Dr. Emmanuel G. Lanz, Alhassan Moro and David Nasere; not forgetting friends like Kwame, Beckham, Aduobe, Loretta and Fafa who always encouraged me. In addition, I am most grateful to Elma, Dr. Albe, Doreen, Grace and Vic for helping out with my baby whenever the need arose in the course of my research. To end with, words are not enough to show how grateful I am to the man who truly loves me and believes in me always, Michael Amankwah. I will forever remain indebted to him. Again, am thankful to my daughter and son for their love. Also, my whole-hearted appreciation goes the best mum ever (Maa Gloria). Am most grateful to my loving siblings (Lovia, Abigail, Queensta, Mira and Daring) for their support, encouragement and prayers throughout my studies. God richly bless you all. iv University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh TABLE OF CONTENT DECLARATION............................................................................................................................ i CERTIFICATION ........................................................................................................................ ii DEDICATION.............................................................................................................................. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ........................................................................................................... iv TABLE OF CONTENT ................................................................................................................ v LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................................ x LIST OF FIGURES ..................................................................................................................... xi LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS .................................................................................................... xii ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................ xiii CHAPTER ONE ........................................................................................................................... 1 INTRODUCTION......................................................................................................................... 1 1.0 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Background of the Study ....................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Problem Statement ................................................................................................................ 3 1.3 Purpose of the Study ............................................................................................................. 4 1.4 Research Objectives .............................................................................................................. 5 1.5 Research Questions ............................................................................................................... 5 1.6 Significance of the Study ...................................................................................................... 5 1.7 Scope and Delimitations of the Study ................................................................................... 6 1.8 Chapter Disposition ............................................................................................................... 6 CHAPTER TWO .......................................................................................................................... 8 LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................................ 8 2.0 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 8 2.1 The Concept of Work-Family Conflict (WFC) ..................................................................... 8 2.1.1 The Nature of Work-Family Conflict (WFC) .................................................................... 9 v University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.1.2 Dimensions of Work-Family Conflict.............................................................................. 10 2.1.2.1 Time-Based Conflict ..................................................................................................... 10 2.1.2.2 Strain-Based Conflict .................................................................................................... 10 2.1.2.3 Behaviour-Based Conflict ............................................................................................. 10 2.1.3 Antecedents of Work-Family Conflict ............................................................................. 11 2.1.3.1 Work Domain Variables ............................................................................................... 11 2.1.3.2 Non-work Domain Variables ........................................................................................ 12 2.1.3.3 Demographic/Individual Variables ............................................................................... 12 2.1.4 Work-Family Conflict and Culture .................................................................................. 13 2.1.4.1 Individualism/Collectivism ........................................................................................... 14 2.1.4.2 Gender Egalitarianism (GE) .......................................................................................... 16 2.1.5 Consequences of Work-Family Conflict .......................................................................... 18 2.2 Defining Satisfaction ........................................................................................................... 19 2.2.1 Job Satisfaction ................................................................................................................ 19 2.2.2 Family Satisfaction ........................................................................................................... 20 2.2.3 Life Satisfaction ............................................................................................................... 21 2.3 Social Support ..................................................................................................................... 23 2.3.1 Categories of Social Support ............................................................................................ 24 2.3.1.1 Emotional Support......................................................................................................... 24 2.3.1.2 Appraisal Support .......................................................................................................... 24 2.3.1.3 Instrumental Support ..................................................................................................... 25 2.3.1.4 Informational Support ................................................................................................... 25 2.3.2 Sources of Social support ................................................................................................. 25 2.3.2.1 Work-related Sources .................................................................................................... 25 2.3.2.2 Non-work-related Sources............................................................................................. 27 2.3.3 Social Support and Gender ............................................................................................... 27 2.3.4 Social Support and Culture .............................................................................................. 28 2.4 Theoretical Framework ....................................................................................................... 29 2.4.1 Spill-over Theory ............................................................................................................. 29 2.5 Empirical Literature Review ............................................................................................... 30 2.5.1 Work-family Conflict ....................................................................................................... 30 vi University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.5.2 Work-family conflict and Job Satisfaction....................................................................... 31 2.5.3 Work-family Conflict and Family Satisfaction ................................................................ 34 2.5.4 Work-family Conflict and Life Satisfaction..................................................................... 35 2.5.5 Interaction Effect of Social Support on Work-family Conflict and Satisfaction ............. 36 CHAPTER THREE .................................................................................................................... 38 METHODOLOGY ..................................................................................................................... 38 3.0 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 38 3.1 Research Design .................................................................................................................. 38 3.2 Research Paradigm .............................................................................................................. 38 3.3 Research Setting .................................................................................................................. 39 3.4 Population............................................................................................................................ 40 3.5 Sampling Techniques .......................................................................................................... 41 3.6 Sample Size ......................................................................................................................... 42 3.6.1 Estimating the Sample Size .............................................................................................. 42 3.7 Sources of Data ................................................................................................................... 43 3.8 Measurement and Instrumentation ...................................................................................... 43 3.9 Data Collection Procedure .................................................................................................. 46 3.10 Data Analysis .................................................................................................................... 47 3.10.1 Validity and Reliability Analyses for (CFA) Measurement Model ............................... 49 3.11 Ethical Considerations....................................................................................................... 50 CHAPTER FOUR ....................................................................................................................... 52 PRESENTATION OF RESULTS, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSIONS .................................. 52 4.0 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 52 4.1 Demographics of Respondents ............................................................................................ 52 4.2 Data Screening and Examination ........................................................................................ 54 4.2.1 Missing Value Analysis ................................................................................................... 54 4.2.2 Investigation of Outliers ................................................................................................... 55 4.2.3 Test of Data Normality ..................................................................................................... 55 4.3 Exploratory Factor Analysis................................................................................................ 56 4.4. Structural Equation Modelling Results .............................................................................. 57 vii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.4.1 Measurement Model Assessment ..................................................................................... 57 4.4.2 Validation Test of the Measurement Model ..................................................................... 58 4.5 Correlational Analysis ......................................................................................................... 60 4.6 Tests of Hypothesised Relationships................................................................................... 62 4.6 Path Analysis of the Hypothesised Relationships ............................................................... 63 4.4.2 Validation of Test of the Structural Model ...................................................................... 65 4.6.4 The Moderating Role of Social Support .......................................................................... 66 4.6 Analysis of Linear Regression Results................................................................................ 68 4.6.1 Job Satisfaction ................................................................................................................ 68 4.6.2 Family Satisfaction ........................................................................................................... 69 4.6.3 Life Satisfaction ............................................................................................................... 70 4.7 Discussions of Research Findings ....................................................................................... 70 4.7.1 Work-family conflict and Satisfaction ............................................................................. 70 CHAPTER FIVE ........................................................................................................................ 75 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION ................................................. 75 5.0 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 75 5.1 Summary of Research Findings .......................................................................................... 75 5.1.1 Research Objective One ................................................................................................... 75 5.1.2 Research Objective Two .................................................................................................. 76 5.2 Contributions of the Study .................................................................................................. 76 5. 3 Conclusion .......................................................................................................................... 76 5.4 Recommendations ............................................................................................................... 77 5.4.1 Recommendations for Policy ........................................................................................... 77 5.4.2 Recommendations for Future Research ........................................................................... 77 5.4.3 Recommendations for Practice......................................................................................... 78 5.5 Limitations .......................................................................................................................... 78 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................ 80 APPENDICES ........................................................................................................................... 115 Appendix A: Research Questionnaire ..................................................................................... 115 Appendix B: UGBS Introductory Letter to Ghana Police Service.......................................... 120 viii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Appendix C: Permission Letter from Ghana Police Service ................................................... 121 Appendix D: Results for Skewness and Kurtosis ................................................................... 122 Appendix E: Figure 4.1: The Initial Measurement Model (CFA) showing (Unstandardised) Loadings .................................................................................................................................. 123 Appendix F: Results after Missing Values were computed using EM Method ...................... 124 ix University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF TABLES Table 3. 1: Reported Reliability Values ........................................................................................ 46 Table 3. 2: Reliability Values for Pilot Study ............................................................................... 47 Table 3. 3: Validity and Reliability Analyses for (CFA) Measurement Model............................ 50 Table 3. 4: Fornell-Larcker Procedure for Discriminant Validity ................................................ 50 Table 4. 1: Profile of the Research Participants ............................................................................ 53 Table 4. 2: Results for Test of Normality ..................................................................................... 56 Table 4. 3: Summary of Results Showing Factor Analysis of the Study Variables ..................... 57 Table 4. 4: Goodness-of-Fit Indices for Measurement Model ...................................................... 59 Table 4. 5: Factor Loadings for (CFA) Measurement Model ....................................................... 60 Table 4. 6: Pearson’s Correlation Matrix of the Study’s Variables .............................................. 61 Table 4. 7: Path Relationships for the Hypothesised Relationships ............................................. 62 Table 4. 8: Goodness-of-Fit Indices for Structural Model ............................................................ 66 Table 4. 9: The Results of Linear Regression Analysis for the Moderation Effect of Social Support on the Relationship between Work-Family Conflict and Job Satisfaction ..................... 68 Table 4. 10: The Results of Linear Regression Analysis for the moderation effect of Social Support on the Relationship between Work-Family Conflict and Family Satisfaction................ 69 Table 4. 11: The Results of Linear Regression Analysis for the Moderation Effect of Social Support on the Relationship between Work-Family Conflict and Life Satisfaction .................... 70 x University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2. 1: Conceptual Framework ............................................................................................. 37 Figure 4. 2: Initial Structural Model ............................................................................................. 64 Figure 4. 3: Final Structural Model............................................................................................... 65 Figure 4. 4: Interaction Effect of Social Support on Work-family Conflict and Satisfaction ...... 67 xi University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS WFC Work-family Conflict SEM Structural Equation Modelling JS Job Satisfaction PSS Perceived Social Support FS Family Satisfaction LS Life Satisfaction POS Perceived Organisational Support LXM Leader member Exchange UGBS University of Ghana Business School xii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ABSTRACT Globally, conflict between work and family has gained the attention of researchers. This heightened interest can be attributed to the effects of work-family conflict on individuals and organisations. Hence, this study sought to ascertain the relationship that exists between work- family conflict and satisfaction while examining whether social support can have an effect on the relationship between them. In order to achieve the objectives of the study, the study made use of quantitative research approach. The study, which adopted cross-sectional survey design sampled female police officers in the Greater Accra Region of Ghana. The Work-family Conflict Scale, Index of Satisfaction, Satisfaction with Life Scale and Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support were employed to gather data on the study variables. In total, 311 valid questionnaires were retrieved for analysis. Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) was the analytical technique employed to test the hypotheses for the study. Also, regression was done to confirm the SEM results. It was revealed in the study that work-family conflict is significantly related to job satisfaction. However, the relationship between work-family conflict and family satisfaction is not significant. Again, work-family conflict has no significant relationship with life satisfaction of female police officers. The study also found that social support does not influence the relationship between work-family conflict and satisfaction. Based on these findings, the study recommends that the leadership of the Ghana Police Service should train female police officers on how to deal with work-family conflict to help reduce its prevalence. Again, workable measures should be put in place by government to reduce work-family conflict. The study concludes that work-family conflict is moderately prevalent among females in Ghana Police Service. It therefore predicts their satisfaction on the job. However, it is not a predictor of their family satisfaction and life satisfaction. xiii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.0 Introduction This chapter discusses the background of the study, problem statement, research purpose, research objectives, research questions and significance of the study. It also presents an outline of the work. 1.1 Background of the Study Adult life is characterised by several components. However, family and work are the key components (Neerpal & Barath, 2013; Nordenmark, 2017; Simunic & Gregov, 2012). According to the World Health Organisation (WHO, 2017), 60- 70% and 30-60% of adult males and females respectively constitute the officially registered working population of the world. Globally, over the last five years, managing work and family has become more difficult for one-third of full-time workers (Ernst & Young, 2015). Hence, work-family conflict is a phenomenon which is regarded to be of great importance in recent times (Burke & El-Kot, 2010). Almutairi (2017) made an assertion that striking an equilibrium between family and work roles is a huge task for employed adults who endeavour to achieve success in their jobs and take care of their families simultaneously. According to some studies conducted in different countries across the globe, individuals and organisations are affected by the serious consequences of work-family conflict (Ghayyur & Jamal, 2012; Howard, Donofrio, & Boles, 2004; Lu et al.¸ 2010). However, due to differences in cultures, various countries have slightly varying opinions of the phenomenon (Neerpal & Barath, 2013). Asians and Africans are typically noted to be more particular about fulfilling family and social roles since they are in collectivist societies. This is contrary to the case of Americans, Europeans and Russians who live in individualistic societies 1 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh and as such place more emphasis on work (Hofstede, 2001; Nurnazirah, Samsiah, Zurwina, & Fauziah, 2015). A cross-national comparative study carried out by Spector et al (2004) across three regions that are culturally distinct: Anglo (Canada, Australia, England, US and New Zealand); China (Taiwan, Hong Kong and People’s Republic of China) and Latin America (Ecuador, Peru, Uruguay, Argentina, Brazil, Mexico and Colombia) confirmed the fact that work-family conflict is viewed differently across cultures. It was indicated that Anglos rather than Latin Americans and Chinese exhibit a stronger positive relation between work hours and work-family stressors. Nonetheless, it is accepted globally that dealing with these two domains of work and family has been noted to result in inter-role conflict typically known as work-family conflict (Greenhaus & Beutell, 1985; Mugunthan, 2013). Work-family conflict occurs when family and work demands are incompatible. (Greenhaus & Parasuraman, 1999; Nadeem & Metcalf, 2007; Simunic & Gregov, 2012). Theoretical and empirical studies indicate that work-family conflict functions in a bi-directional manner: work-to-family (WIF) and family-to-work conflict (FIW) (Frone, 2003; Matthews, Kath & Barnes-Farrell, 2010; Netemeyer, Boles & McMurrian, 1996). When roles that relate to a person’s job interfere with roles of the family, it is termed as WIF. On the contrary, FIW arises when family activities interfere with job roles. Several researches attest to the fact that the clash between family and work roles has an undesirable effect on the well-being and health of individuals. (Almutairi, 2017; Ádám, Györffy, & Susánszky, 2008). By virtue of the significance of family and work, a person’s job, family and life satisfaction to an extent are hinged on how the balance is struck between the two domains (Robbins, 2005). As a major outcome of work-family conflict, satisfaction can be measured from three angles that is job, family and life (Aryee, Fields & Luk, 1999). These variables have gained the attention of many researchers (Howard et al, 2004; Karatepe & Uludag, 2007; Lu, Kao, Chang, Wu, & Cooper, 2008; 2 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Namasivayam & Zhao, 2007; O’Driscoll, Brough, & Kalliath, 2004; Thanacoody, Bartram, & Casimir, 2009). Job satisfaction is defined by Locke (1976) as a pleasurable or positive emotional state which is a function of the perceived relationship between what one wants from a job and what one perceives it is offering. The degree of pleasure a person has with regards to his or her family life or situation is also known as family satisfaction (Neerpal & Barath, 2013). According to Adriel (2013), the degree to which the experiences of a person’s life satisfy that individual’s wants and needs, both physically and psychologically is also known as life satisfaction. Aryee (1992) stated that work- family conflict contributed to reduced satisfaction. Even so, Van Daalen, Willemsen, and Sanders (2006) posit that social support has been found to be a significant resource in work-family conflict hence it has been researched into widely”. By giving social support which is a resource, the recipient is expected to benefit. It could be instrumental support, emotional support, appraisal support or informational support (Cinamon, 2009). The influence of work-family conflict on satisfaction may be reduced when social support is offered to individuals (Neerpal & Barath, 2013). 1.2 Problem Statement Even though work-family conflict and its related consequences are not exclusive to females, some researchers have shown that the career development of females is unduly influenced by work- family conflict (Ametorwo, 2016, Drew & Murtagh, 2005; Greenhaus & Parasuraman, 1993; Mugunthan, 2013; Adam, Gyorffy, & Susanszky, 2008). Gender has over the years been the index for demarcating family and work roles in most communities. Hence, males were typically expected to fend for the family by working outside of the home while females also took care of all domestic 3 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh affairs. A study conducted by the Food and Agricultural Organisation (2012) specified that 89 percent of females as opposed to 65 percent of males spend 10 hours per week on domestic chores. Nonetheless, women have joined the corporate world in recent times hence finding it difficult to meet the high demands of their jobs which include sitting in long meetings and travelling on assignments (Ametorwo, 2016). Globally, some work-family conflict researches have been conducted among women who are entrepreneurs, managers, teachers, doctors, and lawyers (Ádám et al., 2008; Ametorwo, 2016; Bedu-Addo, 2010; Neerpal & Barath, 2013, Simunic & Gregov, 2012). Unfortunately, aside the fact that research on female police officers is relatively scanty and still at the exploratory stage in Ghana (Aning, 2006), no attention has been paid to them with regards to work-family conflict. According to Anshel (2000), the job of police officers is related to strain. This is demonstrated by the severe physiological and psychological problems encountered by the police which includes emotional exhaustion, marital problems, alcohol and drug abuse and heart disease. Finally, Lambert, Qureshi, Frank, Keena, and Hogan (2017) opined that the outcomes of work- family conflict cannot simply be universalised but instead contextualised across cultures. There is a great need for more empirical research on work-family conflict in developing countries. (Karatepe & Badar, 2006; Karatepe, Kilic & Isiksel, 2008; Poelmans, O’Driscoll & Beham, 2005). Hence, to fully uncover possible variances and outcomes of work-family conflict, more research from different nations, especially non-western countries like Ghana is very necessary. 1.3 Purpose of the Study The main purpose of the study is to examine the relationship that exists between work-family conflict and satisfaction. It further examines the influence of social support on the relationship. 4 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.4 Research Objectives The objectives of the study are; a) to examine the relationship between work-family conflict and satisfaction (job, family and life). b) to ascertain whether social support can moderate the relationship between work-family conflict and satisfaction. 1.5 Research Questions a) What is the relationship between work-family conflict and satisfaction (job, family and life)? b) Will social support moderate the relationship between work-family conflict and satisfaction? 1.6 Significance of the Study This study is significant in three major areas which are policy, practice and research. Findings of the present study can push government as well as the entire leadership of the Ghana Police Service to put workable measures in place to ensure a balance between work and family for female police officers. The study can provide more enlightenment to female police officers on the repercussions of interference between their work and family demands on their lives. This will help them to find ways of dealing with work-family conflict when necessary. Finally, the study will contribute to literature as far as discourse on work-family conflict in Ghana is concerned and provide direction for future researchers. 5 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.7 Scope and Delimitations of the Study This study is limited to female police officers in the Greater Accra Region of the Republic of Ghana which covers Accra and Tema. In all, the 56 districts in the region were included in the study. 1.8 Chapter Disposition The study comprises of five major chapters; introduction, literature review, methodology, presentation of results, analysis and discussions, and summary, conclusion and recommendations. Each chapter is thoroughly explained as follows: Chapter one is an introduction to the whole study. It discusses the background to the study which sets the tone for the study. The problem statement also brings the gaps the study intends to fill to light. Again, objectives of the study and research questions are also stated in this chapter. The significance of the study scope and delimitations of the study as well as the chapter disposition are also in this chapter. Chapter two of the study contains a thorough review of literature on Work-Family Conflict, Satisfaction and Social Support. Particularly, it presents a detailed discussion on the variables which includes clarification of concepts and review of empirical literature. The theoretical framework for the research is also discussed. On the bases of the literature reviewed, hypotheses are stated. The study further proposes a conceptual model. Chapter three presents the methodology that is employed in the data collection and analyses. It includes the research design adopted, research paradigm, research setting, population of the study, 6 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh sample size, sampling techniques, detailed data collection procedure, analytical techniques, instrumentation, validity and reliability, and finally, discusses ethical procedures for the study. Chapter four covers the presentation of results and interpretation of the data analyses. It includes a summary of the demographic information of the respondents, preliminary analyses of the adopted analytical procedure, an examination of the model used and the hypothesised relationships. The results of the study are further discussed. Lastly, chapter five presents the summary, conclusion and recommendations of the study. Also, the implications of the study for the Ghana Police Service and government are discussed in this chapter. 7 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.0 Introduction This chapter discusses related literature on work-family conflict and satisfaction. It covers discussions on important concepts related to the variables under study, the theoretical framework, empirical literature review, conceptual framework, and hypotheses. 2.1 The Concept of Work-Family Conflict (WFC) Work-family conflict (WFC) continues to be a phenomenon of considerable interest to researchers and practitioners across the world (Allen, French, Dumani, & Shockley, 2015). The concept of WFC was proposed by Kahn, Wolfe, Quinn, Snoek, and Rosenthal (1964, p. 471) who defined it as “the pressure coming from the roles in family and work, and being unable to fulfill the demands of both roles”. This means that the involvement in either family or work roles makes it difficult to achieve all the demands of the other. The term was further defined by Greenhaus & Beutell, (1985) as a form of interrole conflict in which the role pressures from the work and family domains are mutually incompatible in some respect whereby participation in the work (family) role is made more difficult by virtue of participation in the family (work) role. Kossek, Pichler, Bodner and Hammer (2011) also simply defined the term work-family conflict as when the domains of work and home spillover into one another, causing conflict. This suggests that it is unfeasible to expect work or family issues not to affect each other. Due to the fact that dual-career families are increasing in number, greater conflict between family and work roles is likely to arise (Livingston & Judge, 2008; Major, Fletcher, Davis, & Germano, 2008). It is possible for working women to 8 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh experience more conflict between family and work domains by virtue of the combined demands of the two spheres (Aslam, Shumiala, Azhar, & Sadaquat, 2011; Davidson & Burke, 2004). 2.1.1 The Nature of Work-Family Conflict (WFC) According to Frone, Russell and Cooper (1992), it is important to note that WFC is a bi-directional concept. It could either be work-to-family (WIF) or family-to-work (FIW). WIF occurs when work interferes with family life while FIW means family life interfering with work. Similar studies (Geurts, Kompier, Roxburgh, & Houtman, 2003; French et al., 2017) constantly suggest that employees often perceive work-to-family conflict than family-to-work conflict. Frone et al. (1992) found that WIF was more recurrent than FIW for both men and women with either partners and/or with children. According to Gutek, Searle, and Klepa (1991), this may be due to the fact that employees can easily quantify their job roles or possibly because their evaluation is affected by what they perceive as expected of them at the workplace. For instance, thinking about family issues and allowing them to disrupt work may be regarded by employees as unacceptable behaviour a good employee must put up. However, to them, allowing work-related issues to interfere with family activities is a tolerable. It was indicated by Frone et al. (1992) that the borders of family and work are asymmetrically permeable. This means that uncompleted duties at the workplace will interfere with family responsibilities when the latter interfere with job tasks. In the same vein, when family responsibilities interfere with the execution of job tasks, job demands will, in return, interfere with family life (AlAzzam, AbuAlRub, & Nazzal, 2017). Mesmer-Magnus and Viswesvaran (2005) posited that WIF and FIW are distinct but mutually interrelated. 9 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.1.2 Dimensions of Work-Family Conflict Typically, work-family conflict has been divided into three categories which are time-based conflict, strain-based conflict and behaviour-based conflict (Ghislieri, Gatti, Molino & Cortese, 2017; Turliuca & Bulig, 2014; Zhang & Liu, 2011). 2.1.2.1 Time-Based Conflict Conflict is likely to arise when the needed time for a particular role (either family or work role) hinders a person from devoting adequate time to other duties an individual undertakes in the family or work (Greenhaus & Beutell, 1985, Kalliath, Kalliath & Chan, 2017). Even though the individual is likely to apportion his time, there will possibly be a reduction in the time for other roles if too much time is assigned to a single role. Two main aspects are considered under time-based conflict: the fulfillment of the demand of a role may be prevented by time strain in another role; and the time strain in a particular role may affect or delay a person from fulfilling of the responsibilities of another role. 2.1.2.2 Strain-Based Conflict The tensions of two roles produce the second dimension of work-family conflict. Anxiety or fatigue are the root causes of strain-based conflict. In other words, the execution of responsibilities in one domain may be impeded by another domain’s anxiety (Pleck, Staines, & Lang, 1980; Zhang & Liu, 2011). Work-family conflict will therefore be produced by any pressure which result from roles at home or work. 2.1.2.3 Behaviour-Based Conflict The incompatibility between role-specific behaviours result in behaviour-based conflict. Role- specific behaviours of one role make it difficult to fulfill the requirements of another. While it may 10 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh be required of an individual to be firm at work, his/her family may expect warm and emotional interaction from the person (Kalliath et al., 2017, 370). Conflict arises in an event of failure to fulfil the expectations of the roles (Kossek & Ozeki, 1999). 2.1.3 Antecedents of Work-Family Conflict Since the introduction of work-family conflict construct, several researchers have examined its causes. (Allen, Herst, Bruck, & Sutton, 2000; Adriel, 2013). An enormous number of possible antecedents of WFC. These influential factors can be elaborated from three levels that is work domain, non-work domain, and individual/demographic variables (Ahmad, 1996; Byron, 2005; Zhang & Liu, 2011). 2.1.3.1 Work Domain Variables These variables include workplace factors such as work stress, work character, family-friendly policies/programs and exceedingly committed systems of work. The role theory can support the effect of work character on work-family conflict. This is because the particular behaviour mode of a specific role may not be in coordination variables in work character include working hours, working initiative and profession character. Frone (2000) found working hours to be positively related to work-family conflict. French et al. (2017) alluded to the fact that people’s management mode on parameters of family and work is partially influenced by profession. Research shows that work stress strongly correlates to work-family conflict (Adriel, 2013; Grzywacz & Marks, 2000; Wayne, Musisca, & Fleeson, 2004).). Employees in organisations that do not have family-friendly programs like telecommuting to increase flexibility may have a higher chance of experiencing work-family conflict. Carnicer et al. (2004) found that with males, working flexibility is positively correlated to work-family conflict. There are however some disagreements on the impact of 11 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh telecommuting on WFC (Zhang & Liu, 2011). Perry-Smith and Blum (2000) alluded that due to the bundle nature of family-friendly programs, a single policy cannot serve the full purpose that the whole package is supposed to serve. 2.1.3.2 Non-work Domain Variables All the factors that deal with the family demands and other non-work factors make up these variables. Family demand and stress, childcare responsibilities, and spousal influence are examples of such variables. One of the reasons why demands from family affect WFC is that satisfying those demands produces several stressors, such as role overload related to family role involvement, role vagueness and role conflict. This can further lead to family-to-work conflict. A study conducted in China by Luk and Shaffer (2005) indicated that the more children an employee has, the greater the reduction in time and energy dedicated to work. The perception of one’s spouse about work can also influence WFC (Zhang & Liu, 2011). 2.1.3.3 Demographic/Individual Variables These variables include gender, lifetime employment status, marital status, level of education and child status. Most of WFC researches have come down to gender differences. According to Duxbury and Higgins (1991), the relationship between WFC and outcome variables varies between females and males. Some researchers have claimed that females rather than males experience more family-to-work conflict since they take up most; if not all domestic responsibilities. (Carnicer et al., 2004). On the contrary, Perkins, Wesley and DeMeis, (1996) found work-to-family conflict to be higher with females than males. Furthermore, income and work-family conflict have been found to have no significant correlation (Frone, Yardley, & Markel, 1997). However, Frone (2000) identified a positive correlation between income and work-to-family conflict. This may be 12 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh attributed to the fact that as income increases, task may also increase. With lifelong employment status coupled with amassed experience in firms, the probability that workers feel conflict will reduce. Workers who experience high conflict may possibly opt out of the organisation (Netemeyer et al, 1996). According to Cantwell and Sanik (1993), WFC and level of education have a relationship probably because the level of education can increase the behaviour of alienating family and joining organisations. The more educated workers may gain more opportunities for promotion or expatriate assignments, which can increase the likelihood of work-to-family conflict (Adams & Jex, 1999). 2.1.4 Work-Family Conflict and Culture Hofstede, (1984) defined culture as the beliefs, values and assumptions common to the people in a particular nation. Another popular definition of culture frequently cited in cross-cultural studies is that of Kluckhohn (1951) which stated that “culture consists of patterned ways of thinking, feeling and reacting, acquired and transmitted mainly by symbols, constituting the distinctive achievements of human groups, including their embodiments in artifacts; the essential core of culture consists of traditional (i.e., historically derived and selected) ideas and especially their attached values” (p. 86). Powell, Francesco and Ling (2009) opined that cultural norms and values influence the work-family interface. Irrespective of the national context, individuals can struggle with balancing work and family demands (Trefalt, Drnovšek, Svetina-Nabergoj, & Adlešič, 2013). Hence, cross-nationally, it is critical to recognise the dissimilarities in WFC. The ignorance of the impacts of local culture on work-family conflict has been referred to as “an elephant in our field” (Ollier-Malaterre, Valcour, den Dulk, & Kossek, 2013, p. 434). Few researchers have considered cultural differences and their effect on WFC (eg. Yang, Chen, Choi & Zou, 2000; Trefalt et al., 2013). Two cultural factures that have gained attention from researchers in work-family conflict 13 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh literature are individualism/collectivism and gender egalitarianism (eg. Lyness & Kropf, 2005; Spector et al, 2007; Yang et al., 2000). One of the well-known work-family interface studies was conducted by Spector et al. (2004). Out of the eighteen (18) countries that participated in the study, Taiwan, Hong Kong and Portugal reported the highest levels of work-family pressure. However, Australia, UK, and Ukraine reported the lowest. Again, Simon, Kümmerling and Hasselhorn (2004) found out in their comparative study of eight (8) European countries that WIF was higher than FIW in all the countries. Even so, men experienced greater WIF as compared to women in Italy. The reverse was the case for Netherlands. Moreover, Yang et al. (2000) reported that men experienced higher levels of work-family conflict than women in a study which compared China and USA. However, no gender differences existed in the US sample. 2.1.4.1 Individualism/Collectivism One dimension of culture that has received the greatest attention as a predictor of cultural variation is individualism or collectivism (Brewer & Chen, 2007). Ramamoorthy and Flood (2002) indicated that one of the powerful moderator of employee cross-cultural studies is this dimension. This has been confirmed in several work-family studies including that of Spector et al. (2007). Triandis (2018) made an assertion that individualism or collectivism reveals whether people regard themselves as independent or a closely knit group. An individualistic society is one in which people regard themselves as relatively independent of one another. Anglo and West European countries are mostly individualistic. Likewise, America has an individualistic culture (Spector et al., 2004; Yang et al., 2000). In contrast, a collectivistic society is one in which individuals are closely linked. As per the findings of some authors, Asian, African, Latin American and East European societies are mainly collectivistic (Friedrich, Mesquita, & Hatum, 2006; Hofstede, 1984; Oyserman, Coon, & Kemmelmeier, 2002; Spector et al, 2007). According to House, Hanges, 14 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Javidan, Dorfman, and Gupta (2004, p.30), in-group collectivism is defined as “the degree to which individuals express pride, loyalty, and cohesiveness in their organisations or families”. Hence, personal interest is prioritised as against common goals in individualistic societies. Excessive efforts spent in fulfillment of job task are regarded as neglecting the family and as devotion to the self. By virtue of the fact that job demands and family roles are viewed as distinct from each other, individualists are prone to experience distress or dissatisfaction when conflict arises between the two most important life domains. In contrast, in collectivistic cultures, people prioritise common goals including family ones over personal interests. Work is seen as a means of supporting family rather than enhancing self. Collectivists work to live (Lu et al, 2010). Markus and Kitayama (1998) explicated that people in collectivistic cultures focus on interconnectedness with others. One is said to be serving the in-group needs by engaging in job roles rather than meeting the individual’s interest. Putting in extra effort into one’s job is regarded as sacrificing for the in-group which includes family hence, one can enjoy the family’s support. To add to that, Kagitçibasi (2005) indicated that exploring the need for belonging is highly encouraged in collectivist societies. This is consistent with Falicov’s (2001) assertion that collectivists prioritise family connectedness over individual interest. Literature shows that in collectivistic culture as compared to those in individualistic cultures, work-family conflict has less harmful effects on people (Lu, Gilmour, Kao & Huang, 2006; Lu et al., 2010; Spector et. al., 2007; Yang et al., 2000). In the opinion of Lu et al. (2008), this can be attributed to the fact that collectivist societies have less rigid demarcation of the work and family boundary and relatively greater tolerance for spillover between the two life domains. 15 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.1.4.2 Gender Egalitarianism (GE) Furthermore, GE is another dimension that is considered by researchers. The way individuals in a society determine social roles on the bases of biological sex is referred to as gender egalitarianism (Emrich, Denmark, & Den Hartog, 2004). According to House et al., (2002), low gender egalitarianism connotes a male-dominant culture while high gender egalitarianism is indicative of a community that regards males and females as equal in terms of societal roles including roles related to work and family. Both males and females may less possibly perceive work and family roles as in competition with each other in higher gender egalitarian cultures since social roles are not determined by biological sex. Furthermore, females and males are likely to partake in duties that relate to family and work domains equally. To a great extent, communication and cooperation which hinders responsibilities from devastating any one partner can be promoted by this equal sharing thereby lessening the WFC occurrence. Contrarily, in low gender egalitarian cultures, consideration is given to biological sex of individuals in terms of social roles (Klenke, 1999). In Africa, especially in the Sub-Saharan countries like Ghana, the prevalence of low gender egalitarian culture can make it challenging for a woman to balance work and family life. Cultural expectation is one factor that determines what constitutes or does not constitute a woman’s work (Ampofo, 2001; Akotia & Anum, 2012). As pointed out by Okpara (2006), women are typically thought of to be those in charge of domestic and childcare responsibilities without any consideration given to their occupational status. Sahoo and Lenka (2016) confirmed this by stating that women are seen to be suitable for roles such as caregivers and homemakers. To them, this deeply-rooted stereotypical mindset is difficult to erase. This may increase the possibility of WFC in career women (Aryee, Srinivas, & Tan, 2005). An assertion was made by Von Hippel, Issa, Ma, & Stokes (2012) that reduced job satisfaction is mostly experienced by female employees who 16 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh experience stereotype threats at the workplace. To Li Kusterer, Lindholm and Montgomery (2013), the implications of culture on gender gap cannot be overemphasised. They found out in their research that an autonomous culture may support gender equality while conservatism may perpetuate the gender gap. Traditionally, girls are trained to focus on being good wives and mothers (Sossou, 2011). The dissimilarities come as a result of role differentiation which characterises most cultures where housekeeping is the woman’s sole mandate. This confirms the allusion by Treasurer, Adelman and Cohn (2013) that there are cultural beliefs about gender structures. Hence, Ridgeway and England (2007) said that most scholars regard cultural belief as the basis for discrimination against women in the workplace. Society favours men in the corporate world as opposed to women. This is evident in the way working outside the home and providing for financial needs of the household are reserved for men and considered more important than domestic duties undertaking by women (Ampofo, 2001; Helgeson, 2016). Unfortunately, even those women who decide to go against the norm and work outside the home are still not valued as compared to their male counterparts. This long-lasting situation is common in many cultures (Bergeron, Block & Echtenkamp, 2006; Grimshaw & Rubery, 2007). Due to the collective nature of the people in Sub-Saharan countries including Ghana, strong attachment to one’s family is essential. Sossou (2011) discovered that culturally, whether women are in the workforce or not, it is still expected of them to perform their family responsibilities fully which includes taking care of children, spouse, elderly parents and other relatives. However, Ghana is gradually dealing with negative stereotypes against women by getting more women into public life (Asuako, 2017). Adams, Scherpereel and Jacob (2016) made an assertion that the presence of women in political and public life is being driven by certain essential forces which include international regulations, the Constitution of Ghana and pressure groups. A number of women have achieved legacies of 17 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh occupying high offices. For instance, according to a report by Ghana Statistical Service (2014, p.13), Ms. Eva Lokko was appointed as the first woman to hold the position of Director-General of Ghana Broadcasting Corporation (GBC) in 2002. Again, Dr. Grace Bediako was appointed as the first female Government Statistician in 2004 and Mrs. Elizabeth Mills-Robertson became the first woman Deputy Inspector General of Police in 2005. 2.1.5 Consequences of Work-Family Conflict The outcomes of work-family conflict are numerous. Literature suggests that work-family conflict has consequences for both the individual and the organisation. To organisations, high levels of job dissatisfaction that come with work-family conflict results in problems such as high job turnover and poor interpersonal, low motivation, absenteeism, negative affective conditions and eventual withdrawal intentions and less enthusiasm for the work (Darmody & Smyth, 2016; Karatepe & Tekinkus, 2006; Yildirim & Aycan, 2008). These can possibly negate organisational performance in the long run (Zhang & Liu, 2011). Occupational stress can also affect other domain of work. Increased occupational stress can beget family problems, increases risk of having personal health problems, low morale, among others (Greenhaus & Beutell, 1985). Akotia and Anum (2012) suggested that most often, women absent themselves or are not punctual at the workplace or at worst exit the organisation when work-life imbalance is high in order to attend to their family duties. The results of such attitudes on the organisation is an increase in cost of recruitment and retention, decrease in profits and eventually, productivity will fall. In an article titled Family Issues and Work-Life Balance, several health implications of work-life conflict and their negative consequences on individuals were identified by the European Agency for Safety and Health at Work (2009). A worker’s performance at home and at work can be 18 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh influenced by these health implications. Moreover, one study by Frone, Russell and Barnes (1996) to investigate the relationship between WIF/FIW on health outcomes was highlighted by the report. As per the findings, both WIF and FIW are related to heavy alcohol use, depression and poor physical health (European Agency for Safety and Health at Work, 2009). From that study, it was revealed that women had a higher chance of experiencing job dissatisfaction and had the strongest relationship between work-to-family conflict and health outcomes. 2.2 Defining Satisfaction According to Oliver (2014), satisfaction is the pleasurable fulfilment of one’s expectations or needs. Satisfaction is derived from two Latin words: satis (enough) and facere (to do or make). Researchers have studied satisfaction from different angles. Bruck, Allen & Spector (2002) and Abugre (2014) looked at job satisfaction. Turliuc and Buliga (2014) and Adriel, (2013) also looked at satisfaction in terms of job and family satisfaction. Other domains of satisfaction that have been researched into include career satisfaction, life satisfaction, marital satisfaction, employee satisfaction, and family satisfaction. (Martins, Eddleston & Veiga, 2002; Oh et al., 2014) However, the present study has adopted the perspective of Aryee, Fields and Luk (1999) who measured satisfaction from three dimensions namely: job satisfaction, family satisfaction and life satisfaction. 2.2.1 Job Satisfaction Over the years, job satisfaction has gained the attention of researchers globally. It is one of the most frequently investigated outcomes of WFC. The focus of most of such studies has been to discuss the variables that influence employees’ job satisfaction which affects organisational outcomes. (Simunic & Gregov, 2012; Lee, Lee & Li, 2012). The term has been defined in many 19 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh different ways. Locke (1969) first defined it as a pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one’s job or job experiences. This means that it is only the individual who can tell whether or not he/she is satisfied. Abugre (2014) also defined job satisfaction as an individual’s subjective feeling that reflects the extent to which his or her needs are met by the job. This is in line with the definition of satisfaction given by Oliver (2014) stated above which talks about needs and expectations. According to Zhao, Qu, and Ghiselli (2011), the degree to which workers of an organisation have a positive attitude towards their job is termed as job satisfaction. They indicated that the level of satisfaction which is determined by the level of job complexity and job importance differs from one individual to another. They noticed that job satisfaction is directly linked to working conditions. Again, job satisfaction is affected by the attitude and personality of workers. According to Abugre (2014), employees who have low levels of job satisfaction may desire to pull out from their organisation if they are not empowered to vary their job characteristics. Lee et al. (2012) made an assertion that job satisfaction is directly connected to employee performance and the overall organisational performance. Job satisfaction has two dimensions which are affective reaction and cognitive appraisal. 2.2.2 Family Satisfaction Bedeian, Burke and Moffett (1988) defined the term family satisfaction as the satisfaction gained by a person by being with the family and engaged in tasks attached to the family. The term ‘family’ in this present study includes parents, siblings and other relatives and not restricted to children, spouses or partners only. In order to differentiate respondents’ family lives from their work lives, this terminology was used. The relationships between family and job satisfaction and the wellbeing 20 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh of individuals have been recognised by many studies (Brough, O'Driscoll, & Kalliath, 2005; Frone et al., 1992). Nonetheless, research on family satisfaction is scanty. Hill (2005) believes that the role family satisfaction plays in individuals’ wellbeing is essential hence, likely to influence the job performance of employees. It is due to the fact that family and work lives are the most important domains in everyone’s life (Clark, 2000). Family and work satisfaction are positively related (Frone et al., 1992). Hence, as argued by Hill (2005), organisational commitment, higher levels of job satisfaction and improved productivity can result from higher levels of family satisfaction. 2.2.3 Life Satisfaction Literature indicates that life satisfaction has been investigated by a plethora of research in different disciplines since it plays a critical role in the subjective well-being of a person. ( Lee Siew Kim & Seow Ling, 2001; Zhang & Liu, 2011; Achour, Grine, & Nor, 2014). The term ‘life satisfaction’ became popular when Neugarten, Havighurst and Tobin (1961) started writings on it. They described life satisfaction as “an operational definition of successful aging.” A positive appraisal of one’s conditions of life measured against predetermined expectations of the individual is termed life satisfaction (Cribb, 2000). It is important to note that these standards are not externally imposed but rather self-imposed. Meeberg (1993) further described life satisfaction as a predominant criterion or ultimate result of human experience. Wang and Peng (2017) suggested that life satisfaction is a complete assessment of feelings and attitudes about an individual’s life at a specific time ranging from negative to positive. Diener, Emmons, Larsen, and Griffen (1985) considered the term as an individual’s cognitive judgment about comparisons based on the compatibility of their own living conditions with the standards. They espoused that even though these criteria include health and successful relationships, they may be weighted differently by each 21 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh individual. This means that the judgments of satisfaction are based on a comparison of a person’s actual situation with what he claims to be his ideal standard. As per the view of Shin and Johnson (1978), the judgmental process where by people evaluate their lives based on their own predetermined standards is termed life satisfaction. Life satisfaction has antecedents in the work domain, family domain, and personality characteristics. Veenhoven, Ehrhardt, Ho, & de Vries (1993) has best summarised life satisfaction as the degree to which a person positively evaluates the overall quality of his/her life as a whole. According to Diener, Suh, Lucas, and Smith (1999), indicators of life satisfaction include desire to improve on one’s life; satisfaction with past; satisfaction with future; and the opinion of one’s significant other about his or her life. Hence, Cribb (2000) indicated that it is termed as a total valuation of the conditions of a person’s life in comparison with personally set standards. An assertion made by Diener, Oishi, and Lucas (2003) was that when few variations are identified between the desires of a person and his actual accomplishments, he or she will be more satisfied with life. Life satisfaction is considered as the extent to which positive emotions are experienced by a person (Simsek, 2011). Consistent with others, Lippman, Moore and McIntosh (2011) indicated that life satisfaction deals with the conviction a person has about how good the track on which his or her life is going is and being happy with one’s own life. It is very important to note that the influence of social contacts and family on life satisfaction is greater than that of job, daily activities or income (Kapteyn, Smith, & Soest, 2009, Afzal & Farooqi, 2014). Aryee et al. (1999) established that life satisfaction is a function of job satisfaction and family satisfaction. A meta- analytic path analysis by Michel, Clark & Jaramillo (2011) confirmed this by revealing that both job satisfaction and family satisfaction are strong predictors of life satisfaction. Aycan and 22 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Erarslan-Baskurt (2017) also indicated that there is a positive relationship between family satisfaction and life satisfaction. 2.3 Social Support Social support is a multidimensional concept that was proposed by Cobb (1976). Several researchers have used the term in referring to a wide variety of phenomenon that characterise the social environment or the people in an individual’s network (Feeney & Collins, 2015; Helgeson, 2003; Trepte, Dienlin & Reinecke, 2015). Literature shows that social support does not have a single accepted definition (Van Daalen, Sanders, & Willemsen, 2005; Zang, Guida, Sun, & Liu, 2014). A statement made by Gottlieb (1983, p. 50) was that “with each new study, a new definition of support surfaces” indicated the proliferation of social support definitions. According to Cobb (1976), social support is a perception of the individual that he/she is loved, esteemed and belongs to a network of mutual obligation. Thus, be it from partner, family, friends, coworkers or organisations, this support which is a form of resource offers emotional support to the individual. The concept is studied across a variety of disciplines such as public health, psychology, sociology, medicine, nursing and social work. The relevance of social support in society is evidenced by the popularity of research on its nature and role in the lives of people. Extremely engaged employees with manifold duties try to meet numerous expectations by resorting to seeking support from individuals in their social networks. Considering the increasing number of dual-career families, it is not surprising the level of conflict of domains has also intensified. However, in collectivistic societies, soliciting assistance from family and friends is the expected approach for dealing with these conflicting roles (Ayman & Antani, 2008). 23 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Bolger and Amarel (2007) are of the conviction that even though enormous positive effects on mental and physical health have been attributed to social support, it is not constantly advantageous. It is essential to note that different people have preferences for a particular type or a combination of few types of support. In providing support, the matching hypotheses indicates that the support given must be in accordance with the individual’s desired support. Undoubtedly, offering the wrong type of support at any point to an individual in a situation can be detrimental (Brock & Lawrence, 2009). 2.3.1 Categories of Social Support There are several way by which social support can be categorised. One of such is by taking into consideration the functions of the support provided. Four common functions of social support are emotional, appraisal, instrumental and informational support (House, 1981; Trepte et al., 2015). 2.3.1.1 Emotional Support This has to do with the provision of empathy, affection, encouragement, concern, love, trust, acceptance, and intimacy (Hobfoll, 2009). It depicts the nurturance and warmth offered by people in one’s social network. This is also called ‘companionship support’ because it is the type of support that gives someone a sense of social belonging. This can be seen as the presence of companions to engage in shared social activities. Behaviours that depicts sympathy and care for others are part of emotional support (Ayman & Antani, 2008). 2.3.1.2 Appraisal Support This is also called esteem support. The expression of confidence and encouragement fall under this type of support. Here, the recipient of the support is reminded and also made to believe in his capabilities and strengths that can be used to handle any given situation (Feeney & Collins, 2015). 24 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Providing this type of support is essential because it can give the individual an assurance of how valuable he or she is. 2.3.1.3 Instrumental Support McInnis, McQuaid, Matheson and Anisman (2017) opined that offering a person material goods and services, or financial assistance are all included in instrumental support. This form of support can also be referred to as ‘tangible support’. It incorporates the concrete, direct ways people assist others individuals. 2.3.1.4 Informational Support This comes in the form of counsel, guidance, or valuable information to other people. Recipients can solve certain problem they encounter with this type of information given (Siedlecki, Salthouse, Shigehiro, & Jeswani, 2014). 2.3.2 Sources of Social support The source of support to any individual is as important as the type being provided (Brock & Lawrence, 2009, Procidano & Heller, 1983). It is well established that employed individuals can get social support from a variety of sources which may be broadly categorised as work-related and non-work related sources (Adams, King & King 1996, Brock & Lawrence, 2014). 2.3.2.1 Work-related Sources The association between stress and social support received from work-related sources, including superior and co-worker has been contradictory in most researches (Ayman & Antani, 2008; McCanlies, Gu, Andrew, & Violanti, 2018; Kim, Hur, Moon, & Jun, 2017). Support can be offered by co-workers by playing the role of confidants and providing information and give advice about 25 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh stressful work situations (Kossek et al., 2011). In recent studies, the relevance of support from co- workers in the work-family interface has been investigated. In some studies, work-family conflict has been found to be significantly affected by co-worker support. On a contrary, some did not find any direct impact (Warner et al., 2011). The manner in which co-worker support has been measured could be a possible reason for the varied results. There is specifically no prevailing measure of perceived co-worker support particularly for work and family matters. Studies linked to perceived organisational support (POS) have mostly focused on perceived social support in an organisation. Workers’ perception of instrumental support of an organisation is measured by this construct in terms of their progress and welfare (Kirkland, Eisenberger, Lewis, & Wen, 2017). According to Kurtessis et al., 2017, a measure of perceived supervisory support which is different from POS was developed which describes the universal opinion of workers with respect to the value their superiors place on the workers’ contributions and how concerned they are about their welfare. Likewise, leader member exchange (LMX) is a ration of leadership supportive behaviour. Graen and Uhl-Bien (1995) opined that LMX denotes the value of the exchange in a leader-employee relationship grounded on emotional support and the exchange of cherished resources. The loyalty and instrumental support of the leader as perceived by the subordinate is the terms on which it is measured. Despite the fact that the supervisor acts as the firm’s agent, both are not similar (Kim, Eisenberger, & Baik, 2016). Hence, in measuring supervisor support, this distinction between the organisation and the supervisor should be clear to the worker. According to Hutchinson et al. (1997), a uni-dimensional concept which is different from PSS was made available by the perceived organisational support measure. He further indicated that PSS made available an exclusive impact on outcome measures which is different from POS measures. Likewise, it was confirmed by Yoon and Lim (1999) that supervisor support 26 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh was different from organisational support through factor analysis. There exists an association between supervisor support and POS (Rhoades & Eisenberger, 2002). 2.3.2.2 Non-work-related Sources Literature has revealed that social support from non-work related sources has gained less popularity with researchers. Non-work support sources have been considered as a joint reference to “friends and family” and have been particular about stress that pertains to the family in several studies (Adams et al., 1996; Feeney & Collins, 2015). Bernas and Major (2000) made an assertion that social support from friends and family has been moderately related with work-related strains and strongly related to health and well-being. The results of a study by Phillips-Miller, Campbell and Morrison, (2000) indicated that family social support reduced the frequency of stress in the individual’s family sphere which includes marital stress. According to Siedlecki et al. (2014), emotional support from friends and family had significant relationships with job satisfaction, boredom, and depression. There is a great opportunity for members of an individual’s family to offer instrumental and emotional support to the individual away from the work setting (Feeney & Collins, 2015). 2.3.3 Social Support and Gender Gender variations have been discovered in social support research. According to Thoits (1995), there is evidence that women are relatively more involved in their social networks and offer better support to other people. Additionally, it is easier for women to request for support, most especially from their spouses, in dealing with stress. On the contrary, Day & Livingstone (2003) argued that with regards to informational, appraisal and instrumental support, no substantial difference exists in the amount that both males and females seek. The variation is rather in how emotional support 27 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh is sought for (Tamres, Janicki, Helgeson, 2002). These gender differences may stem from the biological differences between males and females in terms of their response to stress. (Taylor et al., 2000). According to Malek (2000), in general, women are prosocial-active with more regard for how their coping affects people around them. On the contrary, the behaviours of men are more antisocial, with less consideration to the influence their coping may have upon others. The fact that males possibly experience negative psychological problems like anxiety and depression depending on how stressors are received and processed is explained by this. Generally, males usually regard situations less stressful than females. How males and females seek and make use of social support differ at equal perceived stress level (Osman et al., 2014). 2.3.4 Social Support and Culture Social support is thought of as a universal resource. Nevertheless, Gurung (2006) is of the conviction that cultural dissimilarities exist in social support. For instance, individuals are seen as a collective unit in Asian and African societies. However, individualism is common with Western cultures hence, social support is conceptualised as a transaction in which people seek help from one another (Zang et al., 2014). People are motivated to solicit others’ assistance in relatively interdependent Eastern cultures. For instance, during stressful moments Asian Americans or Asians easily seek support from the social networks as compared to European Americans. Moreover, Europeans and Americans believe social support to be less beneficial than Asian Americans (Zang et al., 2014). Differences in cultural philosophies about social networks may be the reason for the variations in social support. These variations are weaker in instrumental support than emotional support. Additionally, Sagrestano et al. (1999) found some ethnic differences in support from friends and family. 28 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.4 Theoretical Framework This study is underpinned by the spill-over theory which is discussed below. 2.4.1 Spill-over Theory Hill (2005) opined that the spill-over theory defines the conditions that result in positive or negative satisfaction spill from either work or family onto the other. According to the spill-over theory, satisfaction in a domain of a person’s life is likely to affect the satisfaction in other areas (Martinez-Corts, Demerouti, Bakker, & Boz, 2015). For instance, satisfaction in one’s job may affect satisfaction in other life domains such as financial, family, social, leisure, health (Leiter & Durup, 1996). Horizontal spill-over is most applicable to this work even though there are two types which are vertical and horizontal spill-over. Horizontal spill-over is the influence of affect in one life domain on a neighbouring domain. For example, job satisfaction may influence feelings of satisfaction in the family life domain and vice versa (Almutairi, 2017). The spill-over theory relates directly to work-family conflict hence, to understand work and family interactions, the dominant paradigm used is the spill-over theory (Piszczek, Pichler, Turel, & Greenhaus, 2016). Domain specific affective experiences, skills, attitudes, and behaviours are all part of spill-over issues. (Almutairi, 2017). For instance, at the close of a frustrating day at the workplace, a person’s mood at home can be influenced by emotions from the workplace. Typically, work-family spill-over is regarded as negative but it can be positive. For instance, job satisfaction and self-efficacy can be enhanced due to feelings of satisfaction in one’s family. Braunerhjelm, Ding and Thulin (2018) was of the view that the consequence of spilling over the satisfaction of one (work or family) unto another can affect the person in a positive or negate manner. Other researchers are of the opinion that there must be flexibility in terms of spilling over especially with regards to the negative spill over because this can have long term negative impact on one’s life (Derks, Bakker, Peters, & 29 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Wingerden, 2016). Martinez-Corts, Demerouti, Bakker and Boz, (2015) also emphasised that the beliefs, interests and values that a person has about his or her work as well as the person’s family matters usually inform where spill-over effect will be positive or negative but in the end there must be a balance as to how the individual perceives this relationship. The spill-over theory directly underpins this work because most studies have found that work-family conflict mostly leads to negative spill-over which affects the satisfaction of the individual. 2.5 Empirical Literature Review Studies have been conducted by other researchers on all the variables understudy. Below is a review of some of such works across the world: 2.5.1 Work-family Conflict Research on work-family conflict has proliferated over the last two decades. There is an increase in frequency of studies stemming from different part of the world due to heighten interest in WFC issues globally (Poelman, Greenhaus, & Maestro, 2013). This buttresses the point made by Allen et al. (2015) that the handling of family and work roles simultaneously affects employees universally. Work-family conflict debates have largely focused on the experiences of women in balancing their work and family roles due to the fact that more women are joining the paid workforce while remaining responsible for catering for the family (Kalliath & Kalliath, 2013). Some studies that have investigated the phenomenon among both genders have produced mixed results (Drummond et al., 2017; Korabik et al., 2008). For instance, Powell and Greenhaus (2010) found that more men experienced work-family conflict than women. In contradiction to that, others found that women experienced work-family conflict than men (e.g. Carlson et al., 2000; Brough & Kelling, 2002, Eby et al., 2005). However, Byron’s (2005) meta-analyses of sixty-one (61) 30 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh studies indicated that no mean gender differences existed in the experiences of work-family conflict. There is evidence that male and female priorities have seen changes lately. Many women are placing a high priority on their paid jobs while some men are having more engagement in the family domain (Brough & O’Driscoll, 2015). Majority of work-family conflict literature has emanated from Western samples including United States (Byron, 2005; Aycan, 2008; Hassan et al., 2014). This is a major limitation in the work-family conflict literature (Lu et al., 2010; Ernst & Ozeki, 1998; Gamor, Amissah, & Boakye, 2014).). In developing countries, work and family issues are beginning to gain attention from researchers. 2.5.2 Work-family conflict and Job Satisfaction Work-family conflict influences a number of work-related attitudes (Ergeneli, Ilsev, & Karapınar, 2010). Review from literature shows that one of the most critical work attitudes related to WFC is job satisfaction (Martins, Eddleston, & Veiga, 2002). Many theories have been proposed with regards to job satisfaction. It is postulated by one of such theories that individual characteristics (e.g. dispositions and personality) and a job situation can result in job satisfaction (Kim, 2005). Based on the interactive theories, it can be said that the level of WFC that individuals experience and the extent to which their job is appraised as either satisfying or dissatisfying by virtue of that conflict may depend on their evaluation of the situation (Ergeneli et al., 2010; Grandey, Cordeiro, & Crouter, 2005). Several researchers across the globe have thoroughly examined the relationship between work-family conflict and job satisfaction (Almutairi, 2017; Kim, Choi, & Seong, 2012; Dartey-Baah, 2015; Rathi & Barath, 2013; Baral, 2016, Kinnunen, Feldt, Geurts, & Pulkkinen, 2006). These researches have been conducted on several professions including accountants (Bedeian et al., 1988; Pasewark & Viator, 2006), restaurant employees (Boles and Babin, 1996), 31 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh health workers (Thomas & Ganster, 1995), elementary high school teachers and administrators, dual-career professionals (Duxbury & Higgins, 1991). Some other studies relate to working adults (Adams & Jex, 1999), married professional women (Ahmad, 1996; Aryee, 1992; Noor, 2003) and working mothers (Cardenas, Major, & Bernas, 2004). Some of such studies found diverse results. For instance, Bedeian et al. (1988) conducted a study that revealed that WIF was positively associated with job satisfaction for married female accountants but negative for male counterparts. Again, a slightly weak but positive correlation was found between FIW and job satisfaction by O’Driscoll, Ilgen, and Hildreth (1992). Others also found no significant correlation between WFC and job satisfaction (e.g. Aryee et al., 1999; Carlson & Kacmar, 2000; Thompson & Blau, 1993). On the contrary, most of the results from such studies across different countries, cultures and occupations have shown that job satisfaction may be detrimentally affected by work-family conflict. For example, in the United States of America, Namasivayam and Mount (2004) examined the relationships between work-family conflict, family-work conflict and job satisfaction with a primarily (91%) Hispanic workforce in South Texas. The results of their study indicated that employees who experienced work-to-family conflict had lower job satisfaction. Mathis and Brown III (2008) also studied the relationship between work-family conflict and job satisfaction with job-focused self- efficacy as a mediator. The results showed that WFC was negatively related to job satisfaction. Again, the findings of a research by Armstrong, Atkin-Plunk and Wells (2015) on correctional officers indicated that strain and behaviour-based work-family conflict and family- work conflict were significantly related to job satisfaction. Again, Wolpin, Burke and Greenglass (1991) found that work-family conflict had a negative relationship with work-life of an employee. In the Middle East, AlAzzam et al. (2017) also conducted a study on Jordanian nurses seeking to examine the prevalence of WFC and the relationship between WFC and job satisfaction. The 32 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh results of the study revealed that nurses were prone to experiencing work family conflict. Again, there was a negative and significant relationship between work family conflict and job satisfaction. A similar study was conducted by Anafarta (2011) in Turkey which had its results indicating that work to family conflict had a negative relationship with job satisfaction while family-to-work conflict had no relationship with job satisfaction. Still in Turkey, the influence that interpretive habits and gender has on the relationship between work-family conflict and job satisfaction among academic personnel was examined by Ergeneli et al. (2010). It was revealed that WFC had a negative association with job satisfaction for stress-predisposed male employees. On the other hand, WFC and job satisfaction were not related for males with low concentration on deficiency and stress-resilient interpretive habits. Furthermore, even though there was a negative relation between WFC and job satisfaction for employees who were females, those who were stress- resilient had the relationship being much stronger. In Europe, Turliuc and Buliga (2014) conducted a study to find the mediating effect of cognitions on the relationship between work-family conflict and job satisfaction. Results from the research showed that cognitions did not mediate the relationship between the direction of the conflict and job satisfaction. Research in Asia on the relationship between work-family conflict and job satisfaction include a study by Afzal and Farooqi (2014) on university employees in Pakistan which, like others mentioned above, indicated that there was a negative relationship between work-family conflict and job satisfaction. Baral (2016) also conducted a study in India on a sample of managerial and professional women. The findings indicated that work-family conflict resulted in reduced job satisfaction. A similar study by Rathi and Barath (2013) on police personnel in India also revealed that work-family conflict negatively correlated with job satisfaction. In China, Zhao et al., (2011) examined the relationship of WFC and measures of satisfaction. It was revealed both work 33 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh interfering with family (WIF) and family interfering with work (FIW) had a significant negative association with an individual’s affective reaction and cognitive appraisal. To a large extent, studies in Africa, specifically Ghana have been consistent with literature from the rest of the world. For instance, Dartey-Baah (2015) found out in a research conducted with a sample of corporate leaders in Ghana on work-family conflict, demographic characteristics and job satisfaction that leaders who experience a higher level of either of the two sub-types of work- family conflict tend to have less job satisfaction. A recent cross-national comparative study by Burchell and Annor (2018) in Ghana and the United Kingdom also revealed that there was a negative relationship between work-family conflict and job satisfaction. H1a: Work-family conflict will be negatively related to job satisfaction. 2.5.3 Work-family Conflict and Family Satisfaction Most frequently, research on family domain have centered on work-family conflict and family satisfaction. The results of majority of these studies have discovered that work-family conflict had a negative relationship with family satisfaction (Kinnunen, Geurts, & Mauno, 2004; Rathi & Barath, 2013). Several meta-analyses of work-family conflict have found a negative relationship between family satisfaction and WFC. For example, in the meta-analyses of Ford et al. (2007) involving 120 studies, a considerable variability in family satisfaction was reported by virtue of WFC. Likewise, the results of a meta-analytic review by Allen et al. (2000) which comprised of sixty-seven (67) studies with a variety of employee groups disclosed a negative association between WFC and family satisfaction. Recently, Amstad et al. (2011) confirmed in a meta-analysis of ninety-eight (98) researches that there was a significant negative relationship between WFC and family satisfaction. Consistent with literature, Boyar and Mosely (2007) found out that family 34 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh satisfaction was inversely related to WFC among nursing home employees. In India, Rathi and Barath (2013) also conducted a study with police personnel and reported a significant negative relationship between WFC and family satisfaction of respondents. According to Voydanoff (2004), when WFC negatively affects family satisfaction, a shift in homeostasis can occur which can further impact on the well-being of workers. On the contrary, some studies found out that there is no relationship between the two (Parasuraman, Greenhaus, & Granrose, 1992; Parasuraman, Purohit, Godshalk, & Beutell, 1996). Similarly, in a study of Chinese dual-earner couples, it was indicated by Aryee et al. (1999) that WFC and family satisfaction had no relationship between them. In a recent study by Kalliath et al. (2017), it was revealed that unlike the Australian social workers, time-based WFC and family satisfaction had a positive association for the Indian social workers. This could be due to differences in culture of the two countries. H1b: Work-family conflict will be negatively related to family satisfaction. 2.5.4 Work-family Conflict and Life Satisfaction Work-family conflict has been associated with myriad individual outcomes including life satisfaction. In their quest to examine the impact of work-family conflict on job and life satisfaction in a public sector university in Pakistan, Afzal and Farooqi (2014) found out that there is a relationship between life satisfaction and work-family conflict. However, the relationship was negative. A number of researchers have also done similar studies in other countries. A study conducted on Croatian nurses working in different shift systems by Šimunić and Gregov (2012) revealed the life satisfaction was negatively related to work-family conflict for nurses doing irregular and backward rotation shifts. A slightly similar study conducted by Aryee, Luk, Leung, and Lo (1999) on Hong Kong Chinese employed parents confirmed the fact that family-to-work 35 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh conflict (a subtype of WFC) related negatively to life satisfaction. In the view of Lee Siew Kim and Seow Ling (2001), life satisfaction results from satisfaction in major aspects of a person’s life like one’s family and job. H1c: Work-family conflict will be negatively related to life satisfaction. 2.5.5 Interaction Effect of Social Support on Work-family Conflict and Satisfaction A number of studies to ascertain the influence of social support on the relationship between work- family conflict and satisfaction have been conducted. Some researchers looked into supervisory support (Hsu et al., 2011; Karatepe & Kilic, 2007; Lu et al, 2010). Meanwhile, others also focused on co-worker support as the moderator (Ng & Sorensen, 2008; O’Driscoll et al, 2004; Rathi & Barath, 2013). According to Hsu (2011), social support moderates the relationship between work- family conflict and satisfaction by interacting with work-family conflict. Results of most studies across the world indicate that social support is a vital resource in dealing with work-family conflict (French et al., 2017; Frone, 2003; Van Daalen, Willemsen, & Sanders, 2006). It is commonly regarded as an effective coping strategy that significantly reduces the effects of stressors in models of work-to-family interface (Feeney, Jordan, & McCarron, 2013; Van Daalen et al.,2006; Wallace, 2005). In an earlier study, Burley (1995) reported that for both genders, the relationship between work-to-family conflict and marital adjustment was partially mediated by spousal support. Also, another work by Adams et al. (1996) indicated that WIF had negative associations with expressive family support and instrumental support. However, the two had positive relationships with life satisfaction but negatively related to FIW. Thus, the effects of work-to-family conflict on life satisfaction is not reduced by family support. However, with regards to FIW, family support is a preventive resource (Adams et al., 1996, Michel et al, 2011). In addition, Parasuraman et al. (1992) indicated that the relationships between work-to-family conflict and job satisfaction is not 36 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh influenced by informational and emotional support from one’s spouse. The relationship between support from spouse, friends and relatives, colleagues and supervisor and time and strain-based work-to-family and family-to-work conflict was examined by Van Daalen et al. (2006) among 444 dual-earners and found that spousal support and support from colleagues related positively to family-to-work conflict, while none of the sources of social support were related negatively to work-to-family conflict. The above researchers however concluded that social support was especially important in reducing family-to-work conflict. These findings are consistent with literature from different contexts (eg. Kossek et al., 2011; Michel, Clark, & Jaramillo, 2011). H2: Social support will moderate the relationship between work-family conflict and satisfaction. Figure 2. 1: Conceptual Framework SOCIAL SUPPORT JOB SATISFACTION WORK-FAMILY FAMILY CONFLICT SATISFACTION LIFE SATISFACTION Source: Author (2018) 37 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY 3.0 Introduction This chapter discusses the methodological approach that was used in order to meet the objectives of the study. It focuses on the systematic process involved in the data collection and analyses of the study. It entails the research setting, research paradigm, research design, sampling technique and sample size, measuring instruments, psychometric properties of the instruments, procedure for data collection, data analysis, and ethical considerations. 3.1 Research Design The study employs the cross-sectional survey design which permits the collection of data at one point in time about a given population and within a specified short duration (Oslen & George, 2004). The research design is basically described as a plan that explains the overall framework for selecting the research setting and respondents, as well as procedure for data collection and analysis so as to meet the objectives of a study (Leedy, 1997; MacMillan & Schumacher, 2001). The study is quantitative in nature hence, it allowed for the data collection from a large number of respondents. 3.2 Research Paradigm Myers and Avison (2002) defined research paradigm as a set of beliefs and valued techniques which constitute the rudimentary philosophical assumptions which underpin a study. A research paradigm can also be defined as a set of fundamental assumptions and beliefs depicting how the world is perceived by a researcher which serves as a thinking framework that guides his behaviour (Jonker & Pennink, 2010). 38 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh There are different paradigms and each has its own ontological, epistemological and methodological assumption which serves as a base to explain and draw the differences between them (Creswell, 2007). The major paradigms include positivism, interpretive, realism, relativism and critical realism/post positivism (Boateng, 2015). Ontology refers to how a researcher perceives the nature of social reality whilst epistemology deals with how to study and acquire knowledge. It is the belief in how to generate, understand and use knowledge that are seen to be valid and acceptable. Methodology is a framework used to conduct research within a context of a paradigm (Wahyuni, 2012). The paradigm selected for this quantitative study is the positivism paradigm. According to Creswell (2007), the ontology for positivism tells that reality is objective, tangible and single. With epistemology, positivism holds that knowledge of reality is objective and independent of context. Moreover for methodology under positivism, social phenomenon can be understood by testing hypotheses to determine patterns of association. Therefore, using quantitative data is necessary in order to reveal reality (Boateng, 2016). 3.3 Research Setting The setting for the present study was the Greater Accra Region of the Republic of Ghana. Contrary to what is known typically in Ghana, the Ghana Police Service considers Accra and Tema as separate regions. However, the present study treated the Greater Accra Region as comprising of two sub-regions that is Accra Region and Tema Region. Out of 51 Divisions, 179 Districts and 651 Stations and Posts nationwide, Accra and Tema have a sum of 20 Divisions (39.2%), 56 Districts (31.3%) and 140 stations and posts (21.5%). In view of these indications, the researcher deemed Greater Accra Region as the most suitable setting for the study. 39 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.4 Population Creswell (2012) defined population as the sum of all specific units with comparable significant characteristics that are of interest to a researcher. The present study had female police officers in the Ghana Police Service as its population. About Ghana Police Service (GPS) The Ghana Police Service is one of many organisations under the Ministry of the Interior which is part of the executive arm of government. It is a unified unit organised on national basis with an integrated command under the leadership of the Inspector General of Police (IGP) who oversees its administration and operations subject to directives from the Police Council. (Ghana Police Service, 2017). The mandate of the service is to protect and preserve internal security in Ghana through law enforcement. Its functions include the protection of life and property, prevention and detection of crime, apprehension and prosecution of offenders, preservation of peace and good order, enforcement of all laws, acts, decrees and other regulations with which it is directly charged. GPS operates in twelve major divisions with 10 across the various regions of Ghana, 1 specially allotted to the industrial hub and seaport in Tema, and the last is the Railways, Ports and Harbours Division. All the regional divisions, with the exception of the National Police Headquarters, have subdivisions. In total, there are 51 divisions nationwide which have been subdivided into 179 districts and 651 stations. Also, all the regional divisions have specified police units which include Motor Transport and Traffic Unit (MTTU), National Protection Unit (NPU), Highway Patrol Unit (HPU), Research, Planning & ICT Offices, Public Affairs Directorate (PAD), Courts and Prosecution, Ghana Crime Unit, Mobile Force Unit (MFU), Domestic Violence and Victim Support Unit (DOVVSU), Arms 40 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh and Ammunition, Crime Offices, Rapid Deployment Force (RDF), Serious Fraud Unit (SFU), Finance Offices, Audit Offices, Marine Police Unit. Ghana Police Service has a membership of about 32,684 which consists of 25,863 men and 6,821 women across the country. This implies that GPS is male dominated. 3.5 Sampling Techniques According to Boateng (2015), sampling is the process of selecting a group of respondents from a larger population for a study. Gravetter and Forzano (2009) suggested that to increase the probability of obtaining a representative sample, and hence, the generalisability of research findings, there are several sampling techniques of which one or more may be employed. In this study, the purposive sampling technique was used in selecting the specific region in which the police women are. The reason for using the purposive sampling technique is that it allowed the use of the researcher‘s own judgment regarding the selection of the region (Cochran, 1977). The cost and time effectiveness of the purposive sampling technique also influenced the decision to employ it in the present research. Lastly, the convenient sampling technique was used to select respondents who were available and willing to participate in the study. This technique was employed due to the fact that: firstly, female police officers are generally difficult to access because of their busy schedules. Secondly, some respondents possibly might refuse or not cooperate to fill the questionnaires. Therefore, the researcher adopted convenience sampling technique to sample respondents from the selected region. Though probability sampling gives greater accuracy in terms of the confidence level of inferences of the study, the obvious and practical difficulties in completely executing probability sampling due to the above stated limitations made the researcher to resort to purposive and 41 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh convenience sampling in order to overcome such complications. These respondents commenced with the study only after they had each read and understood an Informed Consent Statement. 3.6 Sample Size Sample size is the research term that refers to the relatively small number of respondents that is studied in order to gain knowledge about a relatively large population (Banerjee & Chaudhury, 2010). Gravetter and Forzano (2009) suggested that in order to increase the chance of high generalisability of research findings, it is important to have a representative sample size. To estimate the sample size in a given study, there are different formulae that can be used. The present study made use of the Miller and Brewer (2003) sample selection formula. 3.6.1 Estimating the Sample Size The Miller and Brewer (2003) sample size determination formula is given as; n= N/ [1+N (α)²] Where; N = population size = 6, 821 police women (estimated figure from GPS, 2017) n= sample size and α= significance level = 0.05 n= 6821/ [1+6821 (0.05)²] Therefore n=377.84 (rounded to two decimal places). From the above calculation, the sample size used for the study was approximately three hundred and seventy eight (378) women in the Ghana Police Service. For this reason, a total of four hundred (400) questionnaires were self-administered in police stations in Accra and Tema. Nonetheless, 42 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh only three hundred and eleven (311) of the distributed questionnaires were retrieved. This represents a response rate of 77.75%. 3.7 Sources of Data Predominantly, primary source of data made up of first-hand responses from respondents was used for the analyses in this study. Data was gathered through carefully fabricated instruments. Information from research reports and academic articles was also used. According to Sarantakos (2012), these research reports, academic articles and professional papers constitute secondary sources; researchers do consult these documents to frame problems for their studies and support or dispute others’ conclusions (Booth, Colomb and Williams, 2008). 3.8 Measurement and Instrumentation As indicated by Denzin and Lincoln (2005), instrument is a generic term in research used to refer to the measuring device(s) used in a study. In the present study the major instrument used was a self-reported questionnaire which consisted of six (6) sections- A, B, C, D, E and F. These sections are discussed below. Section A: Demographics This section consisted of items that investigated the demographic characteristics of respondents which included age, academic qualification, rank, number of years in the service, marital status and number of children. Since the demographic variables relate to the present study, they are sought for in order to determine and control the relationships among them. This information gave the researcher a deeper understanding about the respondents in study. 43 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh SECTION B: Work-Family Conflict Scale (WAFCS) In measuring the work-family conflict construct, Netemeyer, Boles and McMurrain’s (1996) Work-Family Conflict Scale was used. This scale investigates the experience of work-family conflict among workers (Colombo & Ghislieri, 2008). It consists of ten (10) items. The first five (5) items measured work-to-family conflict. A sample item is “the demands of my work interfere with my home and family life”. The last five (5) items on the scale measured family-to-work conflict. A sample item is “the demands of my family or spouse/partner interfere with work-related activities. Respondents were required to respond on a seven (7) point likert scale ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree. Responses were scored from 1 to 7 (1 = Strongly Disagree, 2 = Moderately Disagree, 3 = Disagree, 4 = Neutral, 5 = Agree, 6 = Moderately Agree, 7 = Strongly Agree). It is reported by Shukri, Jones, & Conner (2017) to have a reliability coefficient (Cronbach’s alpha) of 0.90 for WFC and 0.91 for FWC. SECTION C: An Index of Satisfaction Job Satisfaction was measured with an abbreviated 9-item version of the Index of Satisfaction originally developed by Brayfield & Rothe (1951). The items were measured on a seven (7) point Likert Scale ranging from 1 to 7 (1 = Strongly Disagree, 2 = Slightly Disagree, 3 = Disagree, 4 = Neutral, 5 = Agree, 6 = Slightly Agree, 7 = Strongly Agree). It has been reported to have a Cronbach’s alpha of .90 (Lee et al., 2012). Sample items are “I consider my job pleasant” and “Most days, I am enthusiastic about my work”. However, by way of making the items more understandable to the respondents for the present study, the word “enthusiastic” in this item was changed to “excited”. 44 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Section D: Family Satisfaction Scale This section contained the Family Satisfaction Scale. It is a 5-item version of Brayfield and Rothe’s (1951) job satisfaction scale by using the word “job” in lieu of “family life.” The practice of replacing “job” with “family life” in measures of family satisfaction is well established in research on the work–family interface (Parasuraman et al., 1992; Kopelman, Greenhaus, & Connolly, 1983). The responses ranged from (1) “strongly disagree” to (7) “strongly agree.” Sample items are “I feel fairly well satisfied with my family life and “Most days, I am enthusiastic about my family life.” However, items 3 and 5 are reversed scored, where, (7) “strongly disagree” and (1) “strongly agree.” Aryee, Luk, Leung and Lo (1999) reported the scale’s Cronbach’s alpha as 0.86. Section E: Satisfaction with Life Scale In measuring life satisfaction, a 5-item scale originally developed by Diener, Emmons, Larsen, and Griffin (1985) was used. The items were measured on a seven (7) point Likert Scale ranging from 1 to 7 (1 = Strongly Disagree, 2 = Slightly Disagree, 3 = Disagree, 4 = Neutral, 5 = Agree, 6 = Slightly Agree, 7 = Strongly Agree). Sample items are “So far I have gotten the important things I want in my life” and “In most ways, my life is close to ideal.” The scale’s alpha reliability was reported by Hofmann (2014) as 0.87. Section F: Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support (MSPSS) Social Support was measured with the MSPSS by Zimet, Dahlem, Zimet and Farley (1988). It is a twelve (12) item scale with responses ranging from 1 (Strongly disagree) to 7 (Strongly agree) designed to specifically measure the respondent’s perception of the adequacy of the social support one receives. Three (3) main sources of the social support the individual can receive are reflected in the factor groups in the scale (Canty-Mitchell & Zimet, 2000). These sources are family, friends 45 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh or significant other. Hence each of the three (3) sources is represented by four (4) items. Sample items include; “My family really tries to help me” and “There is a special person who is around when I am in need.” Stewart, Umar, Tomenson and Creed (2014) reported the scale’s alpha reliability as 0.88. Table 3. 1: Reported Reliability Values Scale Cronbach’s Alpha Author(s) WAFCS 0.90 (WFC) and 0.91 (FWC) Shukri et al. (2017) An Index of Satisfaction 0.90 Lee et al., (2012) FSS 0.86 Aryee et al. (1999) SWLS 0.87 Hofmann (2014) MSPSS 0.88. Stewart et al. (2014) 3.9 Data Collection Procedure An introductory letter was first obtained from the department and served to the Director of Public Affairs of the Ghana Police Service. The main purpose of the letter was to obtain permission to engage female police officers in the study. An official approval letter was further issued by the Public Affairs Directorate at the National Headquarters and forwarded to the Accra and Tema Regional Headquarters. Upon obtaining permission, respondents who agreed to participate in the present study were first made to read and sign an Informed Consent form introducing the purpose of the study and assuring them of the confidentiality, anonymity and encouraging them voluntarily participate. Participants were given a 48-item questionnaire to complete. Respondents were allowed to ask questions where they needed assistance to understand an item on the questionnaire. The researcher went to pick the questionnaires after three (3) days. Data was collected between the periods of February, 2018 through to April, 2018. 46 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.10 Pilot Study and Reliability Even though reliability values for the various scales have been given by other researchers, it was necessary to conduct a pilot study in order to ascertain the reliability values of the scales with respect to this study. This was essential because while some of the scales were adopted directly from other researchers, others were modified slightly. Hence, the researcher pre-tested the instrument by administering it to 20 female police officers randomly selected. The responses gave the researcher assurance that the items were clearly understood. Cronbach’s alpha was used as a measure of reliability. All the reliability coefficients were above 0.70. Table 3.2 below captures the reliability values from the pilot study. Table 3. 2: Reliability Values for Pilot Study Scale Number of Items Cronbach’s Alpha WAFCS 10 0.90 Index of Satisfaction 9 0.87 Family Satisfaction Scale 5 0.80 SWLS 5 0.78 MSPSS 12 0.85 Source: Field Data, 2018. 3.10 Data Analysis The Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 23.0 and Covariance-Based Structural Equation Modeling AMOS (CB-SEM AMOS) version 23.0 were used to generate results from the data collected for the analyses. The data was initially entered into SPSS where several tests such as test for normality, outliers and missing values were done. It was indicated that some data values were missing in a non-random pattern (MNAR). Hair et al., (2006) suggested that when more than ten (10%) percent of the overall data is missing in a non-random pattern (MNAR), it must be 47 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh addressed. Hence, as per the recommendation of Gold and Bentler (2000), the values were estimated using expectation maximisation (EM). Demographic information was analysed by the use of frequency tables where numerical distribution and the percentages regarding age, academic qualification, rank, years of employment, marital status and number of children were given. Furthermore, exploratory factor analysis was conducted on the variables. Here, item retention was determined by executing exploratory component analysis with varimax rotation. Items which had loadings greater than or equal to 0.50 on each construct were retained. Afterwards, the data was exported to CB-SEM AMOS for further analysis. Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) is the technique used to assist in analysing the data. First, confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was conducted. SEM can be described as a combination of exploratory factor analysis and multiple regression (Ullman, 2001). Hence, SEM can be thought of more as a confirmatory technique but can be used for exploratory purposes. Schreiber et al. (2006) asserted that with SEM, the number of observed variables can be reduced into few latent variables by probing the covariation among the observed variables. The results were presented in the form of descriptive statistics such as means and standard deviations. The model fit is another critical issue. According to Schreiber et al. (2006), researchers use various goodness-of-fit indicators to assess the fitness of a model. These indicators include Goodness-of-fit (GFI), Adjusted Goodness-of-fit (AGFI), Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA), Chi- square goodness-of-fit (CMIN), Comparative Fit Index (CFI), and PCLOSE (Henseler & Sarstedt, 2013; Hu and Bentler, 1999; Schreiber et al., 2006). The relationship between variables is specified in SEM by using two main equations: measurement and structural equation (Schreiber et al., 2006). According to Byrne (2010) while the accuracy of measurement proposed through the assessment of relationships between latent variables and their corresponding indicators is tested by the 48 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh measurement equation, the structural equation assesses the hypothesised relationships between the latent variables and allows hypotheses to be tested statistically. Additionally, Savalei and Bentler, (2010) stated that SEM allows modelling of correlated error terms, interactions, and measurement error. In explaining the relationships between the variables in the present study, CB-SEM AMOS was used. 3.10.1 Validity and Reliability Analyses for (CFA) Measurement Model In order to ensure that the instrument used in the present research can serve their rightful purposes, the content and face validity of the questionnaires were carefully examined by the supervisor of this work. Convergent validity was determined by an Average Value Extracted (AVE) in which a value of at least 0.5 indicated sufficient convergent validity. The average variance extracted (AVE) of all the latent Constructs were greater than the recommended cutoff point of 0.50 (Fornell & Larcker, 1981). This indicated that there is adequate convergent validity suggesting that the constructs which were supposed to be related actually were. Discriminant validity was also examined by ensuring that the AVE of each latent variable was greater than the squared correlations with all the other latent variables. This indicates that the constructs have sufficient discriminant validity. It also means that the constructs which are not supposed to be related are actually not related. Tables 3.3 and 3.4 represent the above. 49 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 3. 3: Validity and Reliability Analyses for (CFA) Measurement Model Variables Cronbach’s CR AVE Work Family Conflict 0.830 0.902 0.651 Job Satisfaction 0.757 0.601 0.533 Family Satisfaction 0.735 0.703 0.541 Life Satisfaction 0.750 0.802 0.585 Social Support 0.858 0.906 0.661 Source: Field Data, 2018. Note: CR: Composite Reliability, AVE: Average Variance Extracted Table 3. 4: Fornell-Larcker Procedure for Discriminant Validity Variables 1 2 3 4 5 Work Family Conflict 0.521 Job Satisfaction 0.453 0.807 Family Satisfaction 0.557 0.022 0.656 Life Satisfaction -0.239 -0.080 0.006 0.765 Social Support -0.190 0.143 -0.210 0.198 0.813 Source: Fieldwork, 2018. Note: Bolded elements are the square roots of AVE and other elements represent the squared correlation estimation between construct items. 3.11 Ethical Considerations In research, ethics depict tolerable rules that guide the conduct of acceptable research which helps researchers to maintain high standards in the conduct of research (Dodd, 2003). Hence, in adhering to ethical considerations, respondents participate in the study on their own volition and personal willingness without the researcher applying coercion or offering inducement of any form. Since 50 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh participation was absolutely voluntary, participants had the opportunity to opt to withdraw in the course of the study. Anonymity and confidentiality was assured. In view of this, no part of the study required names or signatures of respondents. 51 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FOUR PRESENTATION OF RESULTS, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSIONS 4.0 Introduction The present study seeks to find the relationship between work family conflict and three dimensions of satisfaction. It also investigates the moderating role of social support in the relationship. The data which was obtained from 311 female police officers was fed into SPSS version 23.0 for analyses. The analysis consists of the demographic profile of the research participants, tests of normality and outliers, exploratory factor analysis (EFA), structural equation modelling results (measurement and structural models), and the hypothesis results. Subsequently, the results are discussed. 4.1 Demographics of Respondents The table below presents the demographic information of research respondents with regards to age, academic qualification, rank, number of years of employment, marital status and number of children. 52 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4. 1: Profile of the Research Participants Detail Frequency Percent (%) Age: 20-29 57 18.3 30-39 115 37.0 40-49 82 26.4 50-59 49 15.8 60+ 8 2.6 Academic Qualification: SSSCE/WASSCE 116 37.2 Diploma 45 14.5 First Degree 97 31 Post Graduate 3 1 10.1 Professional 22 7.2 Rank Subordinate 270 86.8 Superior 41 13.2 Years of Employment 1-5 58 18.6 6-10 78 25.1 11-15 65 20.9 16-20 50 16.1 21-25 30 9.65 26-30 30 9.65 Marital Status Single 126 40.5 Married 185 59.5 Number of Children None 56 18 One 73 23.5 More than one 182 58.5 Sample size (N) = 311 Source: Field Data, 2018 From the table above, 18.3% of the respondents were between the ages of 20-29, majority (37%) of them were 30-39 years. 26.4% and 15.8% were between the ages of 40-49 and 50-59 years respectively. However, just 2.6% of them were 60 years or more. In terms of academic qualification, 37.2% had SSSCE/WASSCE representing majority, 14.5% of them had Diploma, First Degree holders made up 31% of the respondents while 10.1% had gained Postgraduate Degree. Only 22 of the respondents (7.2%) had professional certificates. The 15 ranks in the Ghana 53 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Police Service were categorised into two: Subordinate and Superior officers. The data revealed that out of the 311 respondents, a great majority (86.8%) of them were Subordinate officers while only 13.2% were Superior officers. With the number of years of employment, 18.6% of the officers had been in the Police Service for a period of 1-5 years. Most of the respondents (25.1%) had been working for 6-10 years. Also, 20.9% and 16.1% had been police officers for 11-15 years and 16- 20 years respectively. In all, 9.65% each had worked as officers for both 21-25 years and 26-30 years respectively. With regards to marital status, 59.5% were married while 40.5% were single. Lastly, in terms of the number of children, 18% of the respondents had no children. Out of the total, 23.5% of them had one child while 58.5% of the officers had more than one child. 4.2 Data Screening and Examination Data screening/cleaning is usually discussed in terms of missing value analysis, outliers and normality. 4.2.1 Missing Value Analysis The occurrence of missing values in a data set can drastically decrease the sample size for a study which can further affect the accuracy of confidence levels, reduce statistical power and make estimation of the parameter bias (Pigott, 2001). According to Soley-Bori (2013), missing data can be managed by estimating the degree to which it can affect the inference the researcher seeks to make. Investigating why and how data is missing can assist in dealing with missing data values. Data can be missing completely at random (MCAR), missing at random (MAR) or missing not at random (MNAR). Hair et al. (2006) opined that when data is missing at random or missing completely at random, it can be ignored. However, when more than ten (10%) of the overall data is missing not at random, it must be addressed. According to Schumacker and Lomax (2010), there 54 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh are several options of dealing with missing data values which include deletion method whereby the researcher deletes subjects which have missing value or replacing the missing data values. However, Gold and Bentler (2000) were of the conviction that the expected maximisation (EM) method is preferred over others, irrespective of issues like size, proportion of the data values missing and distributional characteristics of the data. In view of this, the researcher employed the EM method in in the estimation of missing values in the data set (see Appendix F). 4.2.2 Investigation of Outliers Generally, outliers are considered to be either a univariate outlier or multivariate outlier. Univariate outlier is when an observation point is distant from other observations whilst multivariate outlier is when a blend of scores from several variables represent an outlier compared to other combinations. According to Savalei and Bentler (2010), to conduct EFA and SEM analysis, the data must be normally distributed which means that there must not be outliers in the data. Hence, outliers were examined in the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 23.0 software. Univariate outliers was examined. Stem and leaf was used to examine univariate outliers. No outliers were identified’. 4.2.3 Test of Data Normality Normality, according to Fields (2009), is tested to determine the extent to which data is normally distributed. To check whether the data was normally distributed, skewness and kurtosis were tested in the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 23.0 software. The acceptable range for skewness and kurtosis is between -2 and +2 (Mallery & George, 2000). The results, as presented below in table 4.2 indicate that they were all within the acceptable range. 55 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4. 2: Results for Test of Normality Variable Min Max Skewness Kurtosis WFC 1.00 7.00 -0.613 -0.221 JS 1.00 7.00 0.180 -0.501 FS 1.00 7.00 0.796 0.346 LS 1.00 7.00 -0.201 0.670 SS 1.60 7.00 0.009 -0.393 Note: WFC = Work Family Conflict; JS = Job Satisfaction; FS = Family Satisfaction; LS = Life Satisfaction; SS = Social Support. 4.3 Exploratory Factor Analysis The researcher performed exploratory factor analysis (EFA) on the entire data set in order to gather information about the relationship between constructs. The purpose of the EFA was to ensure that items that had high correlation with their respective variables were retained. The Kaiser-Meyer- Olkin (KMO) Sampling Adequacy test, Bartlett’s test of Sphericity (p-value) and Cumulative Variance Explained (CVE) were used. The acceptable thresholds for KMO value must be greater than five (> 0.5), CVE should also be greater than fifty percent (> 50%) and Bartlett’s test value should significant at 5% confidence level. The results of the EFA as represented in table 4.2 below shows that the data is sufficient or adequate for factor analysis. 56 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4. 3: Summary of Results Showing Factor Analysis of the Study Variables Variables CVE (%) KMO Bartlett’s test No. of items WFC 61.101 0.824 0.000 10 JS 55.955 0.826 0.000 9 FS 70.966 0.715 0.000 5 LS 52.860 0.747 0.000 5 SS 71.315 0.866 0.000 12 Source: Fieldwork, 2018. Note: WFC = Work Family Conflict; JS = Job Satisfaction; FS = Family Satisfaction; LS = Life Satisfaction; SS = Social Support. 4.4. Structural Equation Modelling Results The relationship between the variables was specified in SEM by using two main equations: measurement and structural equation (Schreiber et al., 2006). The measurement model and the structural model are discussed below 4.4.1 Measurement Model Assessment The measurement model was tested using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). This is a statistical procedure used to ensure that items with high loadings on their constructs which meet the acceptable thresholds are retained (Kenny, 2016). In the measurement model, work family conflict was represented by WFC, job satisfaction was represented by JS, family satisfaction by FS, life satisfaction was represented by LS and social support was represented by SS. The results were examined and reexamined severally with the purpose of getting the data to fit the measurement model. Hair, Black, Balin and Anderson (2010) advised that items which do not perform well must be deleted to get the model fit the data. In light of this, 24 items were deleted in the process based on the fact that that their factor loadings did not meet the threshold. For SEM analysis, a minimum 57 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh of (two) 2 items to a variable can be used (Kenny, 2016). The initial unstandardised measurement model is shown in Appendix F. 4.4.2 Validation Test of the Measurement Model The measurement model was validated by using various fit indices. The cut-off criteria required by the measurement model were met indicating that the model fits the data. The model showed sufficient fit consistent with the popularly used fit indices (e.g. Hu & Bentler, 1999; Hair et al., 2010). The Chi-square to the degree of freedom CMIN/df for the study model was 2.112. This is within the threshold of between 1 and 3 suggested by Hu and Bentler (1999). Next, the Comparative Fit Index (CFI) was 0.955 met the cut-off points recommended by Schreiber et al. (2006). The Root Mean Square Error Approximation (RMSEA) of the model for this study was 0.060 which is acceptable as per the recommended cutoff point (< 0.06) suggested by Hu and Bentler (1999) and Hair et al., (2010). The Pclose (0.080), Standardised Root Mean Square of Residuals (SRMR) (0.053) Goodness-of-fit (GFI) (0.934), Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI) (0.934) Incremental Fit Index (IFI) (0.956) and Adjusted Goodness-of-fit (AGFI) (0.924) also met the cut- off points recommended by Hu and Bentler (1999). All these values as shown in table 4.3 signify that the hypothesised model fits the data. 58 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4. 4: Goodness-of-Fit Indices for Measurement Model Measurement Estimate Threshold Interpretation CMIN 196.457 --- --- df 93 --- --- CMIN/df 2.112 Between 1 and 3 Excellent C.F.I 0.955 ≥ 0 .95 Excellent G.F.I 0.934 ≥ 0.95 Acceptable RMSEA 0.060 < 0.06 Acceptable PClose 0.080 >0.05 Excellent SRMR 0.053 <0.08 Excellent AGFI 0.924 ≥ 0.90 Excellent TLI 0.934 >0.95 Acceptable IFI 0.956 >0.95 Excellent Source: Field Survey (2018) Also, factor loadings of all the individual items, as presented in table 4.5, were significant (p- values < 0.01) and their factor loadings were above 0.5. 59 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4. 5: Factor Loadings for (CFA) Measurement Model Variables Indicators Loading T- value Work Family Conflict WFC1 0.879*** 8.231 WFC2 0.766*** 7.139 WFC3 0.904*** 10.783 WFC4 0.781*** 6.559 WFC5 0.683 Job Satisfaction JS4 0.589*** 4.862 JS9 0.443 Family Satisfaction FS3 0.689*** 4.496 FS5 0.621 Life Satisfaction LS2 0.941*** 8.070 LS3 0.741*** 4.331 LS4 0.566 Social Support SS1 0.875*** 5.634 SS2 0.932*** 6.341 SS4 0.748*** 4.744 SS5 0.688*** 5.322 SS10 0.798 Source: Field Data (2018). Note: *** Standardised factor loading is significant at 0.1% (0.001) 4.5 Correlational Analysis The correlation matrix representing the linear relationship among the variables understudy is shown below. The results show that work-family conflict (WFC) and job satisfaction (JS) work- family conflict (WFC) have a significant positive relationship (r = 0.273, P < 0.01). Moreover, family satisfaction (FS) has a positive relationship with WFC (r =0.017). On the other hand, life satisfaction (LS) has a negative relationship with WFC (r = -0.089). Also, the demographic variables such as age, academic qualification, number of years in service and number of children 60 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh had significant and positive relationships with WFC (r = 0.015, P < 0.01), (r =0. 121, p < 0.05), (r =0. 126, p < 0.05) and (r =0. 203, p < 0.01) respectively. Table 4. 6: Pearson’s Correlation Matrix of the Study’s Variables 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 1. JS 1 2. FS .293** 1 3. LS -.104 .002 1 4. WFC .273** .017 -.089 1 5. SS -.148** -.167** .186** .148** 1 6. Age -.043 -.007 .022 .0158** -.084 1 7. Qual .058 .013 -.048 .121* -.077 .600** 1 8. Rank -.058 .023 .025 .077 -.079 .371** .220** 1 9. YearsinServ -.029 -.006 -.012 .126* -.050 .798** 540* .277** 1 10. MaritalStatus -.027 .013 .029 .064 -.015 .492** .224** .218** .485 1 11. NumofChild .023 .018 064 .203** .025 .455** .300* .111 .445** 360** 1 Source: Field Survey (2018) **Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). *Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). 61 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.6 Tests of Hypothesised Relationships Table 4. 7: Path Relationships for the Hypothesised Relationships Path Model Relationship Estimates S.E CR P ZWFC ------> ZJS 0.311 0.054 5.767 0.000 ZWFC ------>ZFS 0.048 0.057 0.840 0.401 ZWFC ------>ZLS -0.122 0.056 -2.179 0.029 ZSS ------>ZJS -0.197 0.054 -3.655 0.000 ZSS ------>ZFS -0.173 0.057 -3.040 0.002 ZSS ------>ZLS 0.202 0.056 3.598 0.000 INTERACTION --->ZJS -0.003 0.058 -0.055 0.956 INTERACTION --->ZFS 0.024 0.060 0.432 0.665 INTERACTION --->ZLS -0.024 0.060 -0.427 0.669 YEARSINSERVICE --->ZJS -0.078 0.034 -1.460 0.144 YEARSINSERVICE --->ZFS -0.020 0.036 -0.366 0.714 YEARSINSERVICE --->ZLS 0.014 0.036 0.253 0.801 Source: Field Survey (2018). WFC = Work Family Conflict; JS = Job Satisfaction; FS = Family Satisfaction; LS = Life Satisfaction; SS = Social Support and Z = Zscores for the variables H1a: Work-family conflict will be negatively related to job satisfaction. This hypothesis was not supported due to the fact that the Pearson’s correlation results show a positive significant relationship between work-family conflict and job satisfaction of female police officers (R² = 0.050) (r = 0.273, p = 0.000). The Beta Estimate value also shows a statistically significant positive relationship. (β = -0.311, p = 0.000). This means the hypothesis which stated that work-family conflict will be negatively related to job satisfaction was not supported. 62 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh H1b: Work-family conflict will be negatively related to family satisfaction. The second hypothesis was also not supported because the Pearson’s correlation results show that there is a positive relationship between work-family conflict and family satisfaction of female police officers (R² = 0.031) (r = 0.017, p = 0.760). The Beta Estimate value also shows a positive relationship even though it was insignificant. (β = 0.048, p = 0.401). This indicates that the hypothesis which specified that work-family conflict will be negatively related to family satisfaction was not supported. H1c: Work-family conflict will be negatively related to life satisfaction. This hypothesis was not supported since the Pearson’s correlation results show that work-family conflict and life satisfaction are negatively related (R² = 0.0.123) (r = 0.089, p =0.119). The Beta Estimate value also shows a positive relationship even though it was insignificant. (β = -0.122, p =0.029). This implies that the hypothesis which stated that work-family conflict will be negatively related to life satisfaction was not supported. 4.6 Path Analysis of the Hypothesised Relationships Statistical Package for Service Solution (SPSS) version 23.0 software was used in the computation of the Zscores of the means of the variables. Also, the interaction effect was calculated by finding the product of the independent variable (work-family conflict) and the moderator (social support). The Zscores of the variables were further exported to IBM AMOS version 23.0 for the structural model. Fig. 4.1 shows the initial structural model for the analyses. Zscore (WFC) represents the Zscore of Work-family Conflict, Zscore (JS) represents the Zscore of Job Satisfaction, Zscore (FS) represents the Zscore of Family Satisfaction, Zscore (LS) represents the Zscore of Life Satisfaction and Zscore (SS) represents the Zscore of Social Support. 63 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 4. 2: Initial Structural Model To determine whether the theoretical relationships specified in the model are actually supported by the data, the structural model was assessed. The assessment of the Initial Structural Model indicated that the threshold for the various indices were not met. However, in such situations, literature suggests that some control variables should be introduced to meet the required thresholds. Different controls were therefore introduced, but years of service dummy got the model fit the data. The final structural model is presented in figure. 4.2 64 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 4. 3: Final Structural Model 4.4.2 Validation of Test of the Structural Model The structural model was validated by using the various fit indices. The cut-off criteria required by the model were met signifying that the model fits the data. The model showed sufficient fit consistent with thresholds recommended by Hu & Bentler, 1999; Hair et al., 2010). The Chi-square to the degree of freedom CMIN/df for the study model was 1.621. This is within the threshold of between 1 and 3 suggested by Hu and Bentler (1999). Next, the Comparative Fit Index (CFI) was 0.985 met the cut-off points recommended by Schreiber et al. (2006). The Root Mean Square Error Approximation (RMSEA) of the model for this study was 0.042 which is excellent as per the 65 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh recommended cutoff point (< 0.06) suggested by Hu and Bentler (1999) and Hair et al., (2010). The Pclose (0.082), Standardised Root Mean Square of Residuals (SRMR) (0.056) Goodness-of-fit (GFI) (0.954), Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI) (0.954) Incremental Fit Index (IFI) (0.958) and Adjusted Goodness-of-fit (AGFI) (0.944) also met the cut-off points recommended by Hu and Bentler (1999). All these values as shown in table 4.7 indicate that the hypothesised model fits the data. Table 4. 8: Goodness-of-Fit Indices for Structural Model Measurement Estimate Threshold Interpretation CMIN/df 1.621 Between 1 and 3 Excellent C.F.I 0.985 ≥ 0 .95 Excellent G.F.I 0.954 ≥ 0.95 Excellent RMSEA 0.042 < 0.06 Excellent PClose 0.082 >0.05 Excellent AGFI 0.944 ≥ 0.90 Excellent SRMR 0.056 <0.08 Excellent TLI 0.954 >0.95 Acceptable IFI 0.958 >0.95 Excellent Threshold sources: Hu and Bentler (1999), Gaskin and Lim (2016) and Schreiber et al., (2006) Source: Field Survey (2018) 4.6.4 The Moderating Role of Social Support H2: Social support will moderate the relationship between work-family conflict and Satisfaction. The results indicate that Social support did not influence the relationship between work-family conflict and satisfaction (R² = 0.014) (β = -0.048, p = 0.441). Thus, WFC and SS appears not to 66 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh interact. The unstandardised values of the independent variable (work-family conflict), moderator (social support) and the dependent variables (satisfaction) were exported to excel statistical tool package which plotted the two-way interaction effects for unstandardised variables. The results of tFhieg uterset a4r.e 1 d: iIsnptlearyaedct giornap Ehficfeacllty o afs S coacni able S purpespeonrtte do nin W fiogrukre-.f a4m.3i.l y Conflict and Satisfaction 5 4.5 4 3.5 Moderator 3 Low Social support 2.5 High Social support 2 1.5 1 Low Workfcm High Workfcm From the graph above, the blue line represents low Social Support (before the introduction of the moderator) and the orange line represents high Social Support (after the introduction of the moderator). The graph shows that there is no interaction between the independent variable (WFC) and the moderator (SDO). The upward slope of the blue line indicates high positive relationship between the independent variable (WFC) and the dependent variable (satisfaction). The introduction of the moderator (SS) decreased the positive relationship between the independent variable (WFC) and the dependent variable (satisfaction) but the relationship is still positive. 67 satisfaction University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.6 Analysis of Linear Regression Results Based on the indication that there was no interaction between WFC and social support from the SEM results, the hypothesis was further tested with linear regression to confirm the findings. The results clearly indicated that there was no interactive effect. Social support failed to moderate the relationship between work-family conflict and all the three forms of satisfaction in the study. The results are presented in the tables below: 4.6.1 Job Satisfaction T able 4. 9: The Results of Linear Regression Analysis for the Moderation Effect of Social S upport on the Relationship between Work-Family Conflict and Job Satisfaction Variable β t p Work-family Conflict .30 5.52 .000 Social Support -.19 -3.53 .000 Work-fam Con*Social Support -.00 -.08 .940 Dependent Variable: Zscore (JS), R2 = 0.111 The table above indicates significant positive relationship between work-family conflict (IV) and job satisfaction (DV) (β = .30, t = 5.52, p > .000). Social support (the moderator) also has significant relationship with job satisfaction and the relationship is negative (DV) (β = -.19, t = -3.53, p > .000). The interaction term was not significant with job satisfaction but the relationship was negative which therefore means that the moderator (social support) failed to significantly contribute to the relationship between WFC and job satisfaction (β = -.00, t = -.08, p > .940). Work-family conflict and social support explains 11 percent of the variance in predicting job satisfaction (R2 = .111). 68 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.6.2 Family Satisfaction Table 4. 10: The Results of Linear Regression Analysis for the moderation effect of Social Support on the Relationship between Work-Family Conflict and Family Satisfaction Variable β t p Work-family Conflict .05 .79 .432 Social Support -.17 -3.00 .003 Work-fam Con*Social Support .43 -.08 .671 Dependent Variable: Zscore (FS), R2 = 0.030 The table above shows that work-family conflict (IV) has a positive relationship with family satisfaction (DV) but the relationship is not significant (β = .05, t = 0.79, p > .432). Social support (the moderator) is negatively related to family satisfaction (DV) and the relationship is signification (β = -.17, t = -3.00, p > .003). The interaction term was not significant with Family satisfaction event though the relationship was negative which therefore means that the moderator (social support) failed to significantly contribute to the relationship between Work-family conflict and family satisfaction (β = .43, t = -.08, p > .671). Work-family conflict and social support explains 3 percent of the variance in predicting family satisfaction (R2 = .030). 69 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.6.3 Life Satisfaction Table 4. 11: The Results of Linear Regression Analysis for the Moderation Effect of Social Support on the Relationship between Work-Family Conflict and Life Satisfaction Variable β t p Work-family Conflict -.12 -2.13 .034 Social Support .20 3.56 .000 Work-fam Con*Social Support -.02 -.422 .674 Dependent Variable: Zscore (LS), R2 = 0.049 The table above shows that there is negative relationship between Work-family conflict (IV) and life satisfaction (DV) (β = -.12, t = -2.13, p > .034). Social support (the moderator) also has significant relationship with life satisfaction (DV) and the relationship is positive (β = .20, t = 3.56, p > .000). The interaction term was not significant with life satisfaction which therefore means that the moderator (social support) failed to significantly contribute to the relationship between work-family conflict and life satisfaction (β = -.02, t = -.422, p > .674). Work-family conflict and social support explains about 5 percent of the variance in predicting life satisfaction (R2 = .049). 4.7 Discussions of Research Findings The various findings of this study based on the objectives and hypotheses that have been tested are discussed below: 4.7.1 Work-family conflict and Satisfaction The present study has two objectives. The first objective sought to examine whether the relationship that exists between work-family conflict and satisfaction. To achieve this objective, three hypotheses were formulated. First, the study hypothesised (H1a) that work-family conflict and job satisfaction 70 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh will be negatively related. However, the results indicate that H1a was not supported. The next hypothesis (H1b) also stated that work-family conflict and family satisfaction will be negatively related. H1b was also not supported. The third hypothesis (H1c) indicated that work-family conflict and life satisfaction will be negatively related. This hypothesis was partially supported since the p- value was not significant. These findings are consistent with the results of very few researches including a study by O’Driscoll et al. (1992). It revealed a positive relationship between job satisfaction and FIW. Similarly, Bedeian et al. (1988) conducted a study that revealed that for married female accountants, WIF had a positive association with job satisfaction. In a recent study by Kalliath et al. (2017), it was revealed that time- based WFC and family satisfaction were positively related for the Indian social workers but not for Australian social workers. Moreover, some studies found out that there is even no relationship between the two (Parasuraman et al., 1992; Parasuraman, Purohit, Godshalk, & Beutell, 1996). However, the findings are in contrast with majority of work-family conflict studies which revealed a negative association between WFC and job satisfaction (e.g. Baral, 2016; Dartey-Baah, 2015). Family satisfaction was also found to be negatively related to work-family conflict (Kinnunen et al., 2004; Rathi & Barath, 2013). Likewise, researchers such as Afzal and Farooqi (2014) found out that there is a negative relationship between life satisfaction and work-family conflict. Certain factors may have contributed to the findings being contrary to majority of existing literature. To begin with, the culture of Ghana may be a primary reason behind the results not conforming to other works. As per the findings of some authors like Hofstede (1984), African societies are mainly collectivistic. Therefore, the Ghanaian culture is that of collectivism which means people place more importance on common goals rather than a person’s own interests. Work is seen as a means of 71 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh supporting family rather than enhancing a person’s self. Collectivists “work to live” (Lu et al, 2010). Markus and Kitayama (1998) explicated that people in collectivistic cultures focus on interconnectedness with others. Engaging in work roles are regarded as serving the needs of the in- group rather than the individual. People who put extra effort into work are seen as making sacrifices for their in-group (e.g., family) and enjoy support from the family. To add that, Kagitçibasi (2005) indicated that collectivists are encouraged to explore their need for belonging. This is consistent with Falicov’s (2001) assertion that collectivists give priority to family connectedness over the needs of the individual. There is considerable research proving that work-family conflict is less detrimental to people in collectivistic culture as compared to those in individualistic cultures (Lu, Gilmour, Kao & Huang, 2006; Lu et al., 2010; Spector et. al., 2007; Yang et al., 2000). In the opinion of Lu et al. (2005), this can be attributed to the fact that collectivist societies have less rigid demarcation of the work and family boundary and relatively greater tolerance for spillover between the two life domains. Hence, female police officers had satisfaction even in the mist of work-family conflict probably due to the culture. Next, the unemployment situation in Ghana may be another reason why the findings were inconsistent with literature. According to the Ghana Statistical Service (2016), the 2015 Labour Force Survey Report indicated that more than 1.2 million people in Ghana from 15 years and older were estimated to be unemployed. This represented the total unemployment rate of 11.9%. Out of the total, about 714,916 were females, representing 57.2 per cent and 535,997 males representing 42.8%. Considering this situation, female police officers may have satisfaction from just getting recruited into the Ghana Police Service. Issues of work-family conflict may be overlooked hence not having negative relationship with job or family satisfaction. Even the negative relationship WFC had with life satisfaction was not significant. The Labour Force Survey Report further indicated that females 72 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh were more likely to be unemployed than their male counterparts. Again, more than half of females (64.8 per cent or 2,801,262), who are currently employed are self-employed with a relatively small number working as paid employees. This is confirmed by the fact that out of a membership of about 32,684 personnel in Ghana Police Service, only 6,821 (representing 20.87%) are females across the country. This implies that GPS is male dominated. It further indicated that unemployment rate was highest for persons with secondary education. (Ghana Statistical Service, 2016). From the demographic analysis, it was revealed that for academic qualification, out of 311 female respondents, majority had SSSCE/WASSCE which represented 37.2%. Hence, being recruited in the service may be regarded as a privilege by females with SSSCE/WASSCE who could have probably been part of the unemployment figures. This is a possible reason behind the increase in satisfaction of female police officers even with the prevalence of WFC. Another salient reason why work-family conflict had a positively significant relationship with job satisfaction may be due to the shift system run by the Ghana Police Service. Officers get the opportunity to schedule activities of the family to fit into their off days at work. This confirms a comparative study conducted by Stone, Kemp, Rix and Weldon (1993) which investigated the relationship between job satisfaction and the shift system in the police service of two different forces namely Ottawa forces and Regulation forces. Ottawa forces had started running the shift system while Regulation forces were still going by the traditional system. The results of the study indicated that Ottawa officers experienced a great increase in their job satisfaction due to the introduction of the shift system. On the other hand, Regulation officers who were not running the shift system expressed a decrease in their satisfaction. The second objective of the study sought to investigate if social support can serve as a moderator between work-family conflict and satisfaction. Based on this objective, one hypothesis was 73 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh formulated. It was hypothesised that social support will moderate the relationship between work- family conflict and satisfaction (H2). This hypothesis was not supported. There was no interaction between work-family conflict and social support. This implies that social support did not moderate the relationship between work-family conflict and satisfaction. This contradicts the findings of several researches that indicated that social support will moderate the relationship between work- family conflict and satisfaction (French et al., 2017; Van Daalen et al., 2006). Several possible reasons may account for the non-conformity of the findings to literature. One of such is the type of social support that female police officers get which could either be emotional, appraisal, instrumental and informational (Trepte et al., 2015). Emotional support deals with the provision of affection, acceptance and intimacy support has to do with the expression of confidence and assurance of one’s worth. The provision of material assistance falls under instrumental support. Lastly, counsel, guidance and useful information are examples of informational support (Siedlecki et al., 2014). In the opinion of Bolger and Amarel (2007), even though many benefits for both physical and mental health have been attributed to social support, it is not always beneficial. It is essential to note that different people have preferences for a particular type or a combination of few types of support (Brock & Lawrence, 2009). Hence, the various sources of support may have offered the wrong type of support to the respondents. This may have rendered social support unable to moderate the relationship between work-family conflict and satisfaction. In lieu of just providing social support, the sources (i.e. those providing the support) must clearly understand the individual preferences that come with it (Ayman & Antani, 2008). 74 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FIVE SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 5.0 Introduction This chapter presents a summary of the findings of the study. It also discusses the contributions to theory, policy and practice. In addition, the limitations and recommendations of the research are also discussed. 5.1 Summary of Research Findings The study sought to investigate the relationship that exists between work-family conflict and satisfaction while examining whether social support influence the relationship between them. Female police officers were used as the sample for the study. In response to the research objectives, the study adopted a quantitative research approach and made use of a cross-sectional survey design. Structured questionnaires were administered in Greater Accra Region. The Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) technique was used for the analysis with the assistance of SPSS version 23.0 and IBM AMOS version 23.0 softwares. Also, linear regression analysis was used to confirm the SEM results. The findings are based on the research objectives of the study. 5.1.1 Research Objective One Objective one sought to ascertain the relationship between work-family conflict and satisfaction. In view of this, three hypotheses were formulated and tested. From the SEM results, it is clear that female police officers experience low job satisfaction due to the conflicting job and family roles they engage in. However, family and life satisfaction of these officers were not affected by the prevalence 75 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh of work-family conflict. The results from the linear regression analysis confirmed fully the SEM results. 5.1.2 Research Objective Two The second objective sought to investigate the moderating effect of social support on the relationship between work-family conflict and satisfaction. One hypothesis (H2) was formulated and tested with regards to this objective. The results indicated categorically that social support and work-family conflict did not interact. This implies that social support failed to moderate the relationship between work-family conflict and satisfaction. 5.2 Contributions of the Study This research has made substantial contribution to the work-family conflict literature in Ghana by providing new empirical evidence. Considering the fact that only few studies have been conducted in the area of Work-family Conflict in Ghana, the essence of this study cannot be overemphasised. Moreover, the few existing studies examined the relationship between WFC and job satisfaction. To the best of the researcher’s knowledge, none of the studies focused on all the three forms of satisfaction in a single study as it has been done in this work. Also the study contributes to knowledge by focusing on the context of female police officers in Ghana. Studies on work-family conflict have focused on other professions. 5. 3 Conclusion The main purpose of this research was to examine the relationship between work-family conflict and satisfaction and to further ascertain whether social support can play an influential role in the relationship between work-family conflict and satisfaction. It was revealed in the study that work- 76 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh family conflict does not predict satisfaction. Again, social support did not influence the relationship between work-family conflict and satisfaction. The findings with regards to the study were attributed to collectivism, the rate of unemployment in Ghana, the shift system run by the Police Service and the type of social support received by the officers. The study concludes that even though work-family conflict is moderate among female police officers if workable measures are put in place to avert its effects. 5.4 Recommendations Based on the findings the study, the following recommendations have been made for consideration and implementation: 5.4.1 Recommendations for Policy The leadership of the Ghana Police Service (GPS) must take into consideration the dual responsibility of female police officers. The family responsibility as well as professional work of these individuals appears to cause inter-role conflict for them. Hence, policy makers in GPS can include in their policies certain strategies that will allow female police officers some flexibility despite the dual role of family responsibility and professional work. Programmes and training can be appropriately scheduled in order not to conflict with their household responsibilities. 5.4.2 Recommendations for Future Research Future studies can adopt a mixed method approach to give researchers a proper understanding of the situations peculiar to individual respondents. For the purpose of enhancing generalisability of the findings, can expand the survey to cover other regions in Ghana as well as other professions. A comparative study of male and female police officers can also enhance researchers’ understanding of how work-family conflict is perceived based on gender differences in future studies. The sample size 77 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh may also be relatively larger than used in the present study. Longitudinal study may also be considered in future studies. This can help researches to critically observe the influence of time on the experience of work-family conflict among female police officers. Additionally, future studies may explore other moderation variables such as personality and self-efficacy between work-family conflict and satisfaction to aid in better appreciation of the relationship thereof. This is because, the more researchers gain appreciation of the WFC-Satisfaction relationship, the more accurate recommendations or solutions can be rendered. 5.4.3 Recommendations for Practice There is a need for in-depth awareness creation about the repercussions of work-family conflict. Education on how to balance work and family will assist in reducing the prevalence of work-family conflict among female police officers. Again, individual officers must passionately aim at achieving a balance between work and family life. 5.5 Limitations The research has a few limitations which include the fact that female police officers were selected from only one region in Ghana. This can affect generalisation of the research findings to other regions. Also, the adoption of a quantitative approach gave the researcher a narrow understanding of the reasons behind certain responses from the questionnaire. Another limitation of the study is the sampling techniques used. The researcher made use of non-probability sampling techniques like convenience sampling in the study due to the practical situation of difficulties in accessing respondents. Also, the cross-sectional survey design which was adopted due to time constraint of the 78 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh study limited the research findings. 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Kindly respond to the questions and statements in all sincerity. For correspondence: nyamankwah@st.ug.edu.gh/ 0241266009 SECTION A: DEMOGRAPHIC INFORMATION 1. Age: a) ☐20-29 b) ☐30-39 c) ☐40-49 d) ☐50-59 e) ☐60+ 2. Academic Qualification: a) ☐ SSCE/WASSCE b) ☐ Diploma c) ☐ First Degree d) ☐ Postgraduate e) ☐ Professional 3. Rank: _______________________________________________ 4. Number of Years in Service: a) ☐1-5 b) ☐6-10 c) ☐11-15 d) ☐ 16-20 e) ☐ 21-25 f) ☐ 26-30 5. Marital Status: a) ☐ Single b) ☐ Married 6. Number of Children: a) ☐ None b) ☐ One c) ☐ More than one 115 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh SECTION B: WORK-FAMILY CONFLICT: The items below reflect the relationship between your work and family life as a police woman. Please indicate your extent of your agreement or disagreement with each statement by ticking one of the digits representing the seven alternatives provided on the scale. Strongly Moderately Disagree Neutral Agree Moderately Strongly agree disagree disagree agree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 No. ITEMS 8. The demands of my work interfere with my 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 home and family life 9. The amount of time my job takes up makes it 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 difficult to fulfill family responsibilities 10. Things I want to do at home do not get done 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 because of the demands my job puts on me 11. My job produces strain that makes it difficult to 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 fulfill family duties 12. Due to work-related duties, I have to make 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 changes to my plans for family activities 13. The demands of my family or spouse/partner 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 interfere with work-related activities 14. I have to put off doing things at work because of 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 demands on my time at home 15. Things I want to do at work do not get done 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 because of the demands of my family or spouse/partner 16. My home life interferes with my responsibilities 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 at work such as getting to work on time, accomplishing daily tasks, and working overtime 116 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 17. Family-related strain interferes with my ability 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 to perform job-related duties SECTION C: JOB SATISFACTION: The following statements show the extent to which you are satisfied with your job. Indicate how you feel by ticking the appropriate digit. Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Neutral Slightly Agree Agree Strongly Agree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 No. ITEM 18. I consider my job pleasant 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 19. I am relaxed with my job 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 20. I feel fairly well-satisfied with my present job 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 21. Most days, I have to force myself to go to work 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 22. I definitely like my work 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 23. Most days, I am excited about my work 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 24. My job is somehow interesting 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 25. I find real enjoyment in my work 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 26. I am disappointed I ever took this job 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 SECTION D: FAMILY SATISFACTION: Please indicate by ticking the digit that corresponds with the extent to which you agree or disagree with each of the following statements. Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Neutral Slightly Agree Agree Strongly Agree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 No. ITEM 27. I feel well satisfied with my family life 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 28. Most days, I am excited about my family life 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 29. Each day of my family life is boring 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 117 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 30. I find real enjoyment in my family life 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 31. I consider my family life unpleasant 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 SECTION E: LIFE SATISFACTION: Below are five statements reflecting how you feel about your life in general. Using the 1–7 scale below, indicate your level of agreement or disagreement with each statement. Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Neutral Slightly Agree Agree Strongly Agree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 No. ITEM 32. In most ways my life is close to perfect. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 33. The conditions of my life are excellent. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 34. I am satisfied with my life. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 35. So far I have gotten the important things I want in 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 my life. 36. If I could live my life over, I would change almost 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 nothing SECTION F: SOCIAL SUPPORT: Please indicate by ticking the digit that corresponds with the extent to which you agree or disagree with each of the following statements. Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Neutral Slightly Agree Agree Strongly Agree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 No. ITEM 37. There is a special person who is around when I am in 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 need 38. There is a special person with whom I can share my 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 joys and sorrows 39. My family really tries to help me 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 40. I get the emotional help and support I need from my 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 family 118 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 41. I h a v e a s p e c i a l p e r s o n w h o i s a r e a l s o u r c e o f 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 comfort to me 42. My friends really try to help me 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 43. I can count on my friends when things go wrong 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 44. I can talk about my problems with my family 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 45. I have friends with whom I can share my joys and 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 sorrows 46. There is a special person in my life who cares about 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 my feelings 47. My family is willing to help me make decisions 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 48. I can talk about my problems with my friends 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Thank you so much for taking time off your busy schedule to participate in this survey. 119 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Appendix B: UGBS Introductory Letter to Ghana Police Service 120 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Appendix C: Permission Letter from Ghana Police Service 121 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Appendix D: Results for Skewness and Kurtosis Descriptive Statistics N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation Skewness Kurtosis Statistic Statistic Statistic Statistic Statistic Statistic Std. Error Statistic Std. Error JS 311 1.00 7.00 3.4886 1.41113 .180 .138 -.501 .276 FS 311 1.00 7.00 2.7337 1.40378 .796 .138 .346 .276 LS 311 1.00 7.00 4.3297 1.36522 -.201 .138 -.670 .276 WFC 311 1.00 7.00 4.6980 1.46708 -.613 .138 -.221 .276 SS 311 1.60 7.00 4.7577 1.19562 .009 .138 -.393 .276 Valid N (list wise) 311 122 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Appendix E: Figure 4.1: The Initial Measurement Model (CFA) showing (Unstandardised) Loadings 123 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Appendix F: Results after Missing Values were computed using EM Method Univariate Statistics N Mean Std. Deviation Missing No. of Extremesa Count Percent Low High WFC 311 4.6980 1.46708 0 .0 0 0 JS 311 3.4886 1.41113 0 .0 0 0 FS 311 2.7337 1.40378 0 .0 0 8 LS 311 4.3297 1.36522 0 .0 0 0 SS 311 4.7577 1.19562 0 .0 1 0 a. Number of cases outside the range (Q1 - 1.5*IQR, Q3 + 1.5*IQR). 124