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COLLEGE OF HUMANITIES 
 
 
THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF GEORGE WORLASI KWASI DOR TO 
THE MUSICAL TRADITION OF THE EVANGELICAL 
PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH, GHANA 
 
 
 
BY 
 
DZISAH, ANTHONY 
10355596 
 
 
 
 
THIS THESIS IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF 
GHANA, LEGON, IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT FOR THE 
REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF MPHIL MUSIC 
DEGREE  
 
 
 
DEPARTMENT OF MUSIC 
 
 
 
2019 
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DECLARATION 
I, Dzisah, Anthony declare that this thesis, with the exception of quotations and references 
contained in published works, which have all been identified and duly acknowledged, is my 
own original work, and it has not been submitted in part or whole, for another degree 
elsewhere. 
 
 
 
  
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DEDICATION 
To the glory of the Almighty God 
 
  
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 
My first and foremost thanks goes to the Lord God Almighty for His gracious mercy and 
power that has enabled me to successfully accomplish the two-year MPhil programme at 
the Graduate College, University of Ghana, Legon. To Him be the glory and majesty, 
dominion and power as it was, and is, and ever shall be world without end. Amen (Jude 1: 
25) KJV 
I am highly indebted to the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation, ENCAPEH-UG for funding 
this study within the two-year academic period, the routine academic activities and also pre-
financing this research project. Without the grant from Mellon Foundation my two-year-
academic journey at the Graduate College, Legon, would have meet some degree of 
financial constraints. May I humbly use this opportunity to express my profound gratitude 
to the panel of judges who granted me the opportunity by awarding me the research grant.   
I express my deepest gratitude to my supervisors, Prof. Daniel Avorgbedor and Dr. Mawutor 
Hilarius Wuaku for shaping this work through their immense contributions and suggestions. 
Special thanks to Prof. George Worlasi Kwasi Dor who granted me the permission to study 
his compositions, granted me interview and also gave me a copy of his publication ‘Choral 
Works Vol. 1’ to facilitate my research project. I am also thankful to Faculty, Department 
of Music for the unquantified knowledge they have deposited in me for all these years.  
My gratitude also extends to my family for their prayers, encouragement and support. 
Misters Richard Avah and Hope Konu, I thank you for the informal musical training you 
gave me years back. My respondents, church choirs, bands and information resource centres 
from whom I gathered data for this research project, I say a very big thank you.  
 
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ABSTRACT 
This study examines the contributions and influence of George Worlasi Kwasi Dor to the 
musical traditions of the Evangelical Presbyterian Church, Ghana in the style of prominent 
composers such as Ephraim Amu, N.Z. Nayo and R.N Ndor within the rubrics of 
Interculturalism in music theorized by Akin Euba (Dor, 2013). For more than a century and 
a half, the Evangelical Presbyterian Church, Ghana has continuously followed the Bremen 
model for the celebration of the Eucharist. This practice continued until the inclusion of 
some compositions of George Worlasi Kwasi Dor into the Eucharist format. Over the years, 
G.W.K. Dor has since remained the only Ghanaian composer in the E. P. Church, Ghana 
whose compositions have had a significant impact on the format for celebrating the 
Eucharist. G. W. K. Dor’s compositions continue to feature prominently at the West Volta 
Presbytery Church Choirs’ Union (WVPCU) conferences as compared to other composers. 
Apart from satisfying the liturgical, theological and the linguistic needs of churches such as 
E. P. Church, Ghana, the A. M. E Zion, Methodist Church Ghana and Roman Catholic 
Church Ghana, other governmental agencies have also benefited from G. W. K. Dor’s 
compositions.  
Methods of collecting data included primary and secondary sources. Primary data was 
gathered during an interview section with G. W. K. Dor, selected Rev. Ministers of the E. 
P. Church, Ghana, the paramount chief of Peki traditional area, choir directors and 
instrumentalists etc. Secondary sources included library search, internet and analysis of 
media content. Analysis of formal and LaRue’s Quadrant Framework for Style Analysis 
were some of the analytical tools that were used to examine the building blocks of the 
compositions. The compositions are made up of indigenous and Western musical idioms, 
recurring themes and coherent melodic structures. The research clarifies the fact that G. W. 
K. Dor is the first choir director to have started the concept of Praise Band in the E. P. 
Church, Ghana. This thesis argues that the contributions made by George Worlasi Kwasi 
Dor to the musical tradition of the E. P. Church, Ghana were achieved through intercultural 
musical practices and that they are significant musical additions to the church repertoire.  
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TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
DECLARATION ................................................................................................................... i 
DEDICATION ..................................................................................................................... ii 
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT .................................................................................................. iii 
ABSTRACT ......................................................................................................................... iv 
TABLE OF CONTENTS ...................................................................................................... v 
LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................... xi 
LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................... xii 
LIST OF PHOTOGRAPHS .............................................................................................. xiii 
LIST OF MUSICAL ILLUSTRATIONS .......................................................................... xiv 
LIST OF MAPS and Sketched Map .................................................................................. xvi 
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS .......................................................................................... xvii 
CHAPTER ONE ................................................................................................................... 1 
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................ 1 
1.1 Background of the study .............................................................................................. 1 
1.2 Statement of the Problem ............................................................................................ 3 
1.3 Research Questions ..................................................................................................... 4 
1.4 Objectives .................................................................................................................... 5 
1.5 Scope of the study ....................................................................................................... 5 
1.6 Definition of key words ............................................................................................... 7 
1.7 Significance of the study ............................................................................................. 8 
1.8 Theoretical and Analytical Framework ....................................................................... 8 
1.9 Rationale of the Study ............................................................................................... 12 
1.10 Justification of the Study ......................................................................................... 14 
1.11 Related Literature .................................................................................................... 14 
1.12 Methods of Data Collection .................................................................................... 19 
1.13 Summary ................................................................................................................. 25 
CHAPTER TWO ................................................................................................................ 26 
THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE E. P. CHURCH, GHANA. ................... 26 
THE PRE-COLONIAL EƲES ........................................................................................ 26 
2.1 Some Aspects of Worldview of the Eʋes. ................................................................. 31 
2.2 Spectrum of Worldview ............................................................................................ 32 
2.2.1 Pre-Colonial Notions of Ŋɔtsie ....................................................................... 32 
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2.2.2 Modifications of the worldview ...................................................................... 33 
2.2.3 Colonial Notions of Ŋɔtsie .............................................................................. 33 
2.2.4 Post-Colonial Notions of Ŋɔtsie ...................................................................... 34 
2.3 Perspectives and Concepts of Eʋe Musical Types .................................................... 36 
2.4 Historical Perspectives of South Eʋe Music Making ................................................ 38 
2.5 Organization of Dance – Drumming Activities among the Eʋes. ............................. 40 
2.6 The Enterprise of the Missionaries ............................................................................ 42 
2.6.1 Prelude ................................................................................................................ 42 
2.6.2 Further Developments......................................................................................... 45 
2.6.2.1 The Norddeutsche Missionsgesellshaft ........................................................ 46 
2.6.2.2 Bremen Mission in the Gold Coast (1847-1886) ......................................... 48 
2.6.3 The mission Field at Peki ................................................................................... 49 
2.6.4 Difficulties and challenges.................................................................................. 50 
2.7 Second Attempt to Evangelize Eʋeland by Bremen .................................................. 53 
2.8 The Importation of Musical Practices into the Church ............................................. 56 
2.8.1 The Use of Western Musical Styles in E.P. Church, Ghana ............................... 56 
2.8.2 Hymns ................................................................................................................. 56 
2.8.3 English Anthems ................................................................................................. 57 
2.8.4 Chants, Canticles and Psalms ............................................................................. 59 
2.9 The use of Eʋe Traditional Music in the E. P. Church, Ghana. ................................ 59 
2.9.1 Traditional Tunes ................................................................................................ 59 
2.9.2 Local Choruses ................................................................................................... 60 
2.9.3 Agbadza .............................................................................................................. 60 
2.9.4 Bɔbɔɔbɔ ............................................................................................................... 63 
2.9.5 Egbanegba and or Gbolo..................................................................................... 64 
2.9.6 Brass and Woodwind Bands ............................................................................... 65 
2.9.7 Akpalu ................................................................................................................. 66 
2.10 The Musical Tradition of the E.P. Church, Ghana. ................................................. 66 
2.10.1 Ghanaian Art Music – An Art of Musical Hybridity ........................................ 71 
2.11 The Soundscape of Church Music in Ghana ........................................................... 74 
2.12 Musical Innovation in the E. P. Church, Ghana ...................................................... 78 
2.13 Characteristics of the ‘Musical Indigena’................................................................ 79 
2.14 Institutional Contributions ....................................................................................... 81 
2.15 Performance Practices in the E. P. Church, Ghana ................................................. 86 
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2.16 Historical Antecedents ............................................................................................ 88 
2.17 Instrumental Resources ........................................................................................... 92 
2.18 Traditional instruments and their uses in the E. P. Church, Ghana ......................... 94 
2.19 Idiophones ............................................................................................................... 95 
2.20 Membranophones .................................................................................................... 97 
4.1 The Trajectory of Performance Practice ................................................................. 102 
4.1.1 The Art ................................................................................................................. 102 
2.22 The Rhetoric of the Dondo in the E. P. Church, Ghana ........................................ 104 
2.23 Drumming in the E. P. Church, Ghana .................................................................. 112 
2.24 Summary ............................................................................................................... 115 
CHAPTER THREE ........................................................................................................... 116 
THE MUSIC OF GEORGE WORLASI KWASI DOR ................................................... 116 
3.1 A Brief Biography of G.W.K Dor ........................................................................... 116 
3.1.1 Family Background........................................................................................... 116 
3.1.2 Basic and Secondary Education ........................................................................ 116 
3.1.3 Tertiary Education ............................................................................................ 117 
3.1.4 Music Career ..................................................................................................... 119 
3.1.5 Life at the Diaspora........................................................................................... 121 
3.1.6 Musical works ................................................................................................... 121 
3.2 The Musical Organization of the People of Alavanyo ............................................ 123 
3.3   The Dor Family ..................................................................................................... 127 
3.3.1 Seth Dor (1908 - 1988) ..................................................................................... 128 
3.3.2 Theodore Dor .................................................................................................... 130 
3.3.3 Edward Kojo Dor .............................................................................................. 131 
3.3.4 Louise Dor ........................................................................................................ 132 
3.3.5 Nicholas Dor ..................................................................................................... 132 
3.3.6 Bezaleel Dor ..................................................................................................... 132 
3.4 George Dor, ‘The Traditionalist’ ............................................................................. 132 
3.5 Alavanyo-ʋudidi, The ‘Vienna’ ............................................................................... 139 
3.5.1 The Beginnings ................................................................................................. 139 
3.5.2 Influential Characters ........................................................................................ 140 
3.6 George W. K. Dor: “The Forge and the Anvil” ...................................................... 144 
3.6.1 The Beginning of a Composer .......................................................................... 144 
3.6.2 After National Academy of Music, Winneba ................................................... 147 
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3.6.3 The Creative Processes ..................................................................................... 147 
3.6.4 The Appeal of G. W. K Dor’s Compositions ................................................... 149 
3.6.5 Factors of Influence .......................................................................................... 150 
3.7 The Hybridisation of G. W. K. Dor’s Choral Compositions ................................... 153 
3.7.1 The Premise - Relate Discussions ..................................................................... 153 
3.7.2 Cogitations ........................................................................................................ 154 
3.7.3 Application of Hybridity to G.W.K. Dor’s Choral Compositions .................... 155 
3.8 Philosophical Leanings ............................................................................................ 158 
3.8.1 Philosophies of Some Ghanaian Composers .................................................... 158 
3.8.2 The Interior and Exterior Factors...................................................................... 160 
3.8.3 The Philosophy behind the Composition of ‘Hadzihawo….’........................... 161 
CHAPTER FOUR ............................................................................................................. 166 
THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF GEORGE WORLASI KWASI DOR ................................ 166 
4.1 The Repository of Musical Heritage ....................................................................... 166 
4.2 Institutional Affiliation ............................................................................................ 171 
4.3 Commissioned Musical Works ............................................................................... 173 
4.4 Harmonization of Some Popular Eʋe Tune for Use in the E. P. Church, Ghana .... 173 
4.5 Intervention of the ‘Church Band’ .......................................................................... 174 
4.6 The Linguistic Role ................................................................................................. 178 
4.7 The Theological Role .............................................................................................. 179 
4.8 Impartation of Knowledge ....................................................................................... 179 
4.9 The Popularity of George Worlasi Kwasi Dor ........................................................ 180 
4.10 “Affects and Effects” ............................................................................................. 186 
4.11 Arousal of Emotions .............................................................................................. 186 
4.12 Extra Musical Factors of G.W.K. Dor ................................................................... 188 
4.12.1 Group Consciousness ...................................................................................... 188 
4.12.2 Source of Theological Teachings ................................................................... 189 
4.12.3 Making Space for the Traditional Instrumentalist. ......................................... 191 
4.12.4 Summary ......................................................................................................... 192 
CHAPTER FIVE ............................................................................................................... 193 
APPLICATION of ANALYTICAL THOUGHTS ........................................................... 193 
5.1 ‘Mawu Ve Mianu’ ................................................................................................... 193 
(God, be merciful to us), ............................................................................................... 193 
Psalm 67 ........................................................................................................................ 193 
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5.1.1 Basic History and Usage ................................................................................... 193 
5.1.1.1 Historical Background of this Music ......................................................... 193 
5.1.1.2 Pre-compositional (Traditional) Materials used in this Music ................... 193 
5.1.1.3 New Ways of Using the Pre-Compositional Materials .............................. 195 
5.1.1.4 Sociological Function of the Music ........................................................... 195 
5.1.2 Analysis of Form .............................................................................................. 196 
5.1.2.1 Divisions of Form ...................................................................................... 196 
5.1.2.2 Comparison of Sections ............................................................................. 198 
5.1.2.3 Pattern Analysis ....................................................................................... 199 
5.1.2.4 Implications for performing this piece in view of the form ....................... 201 
5.1.3 Application of Don Freund’s Spectrum of Fifths to this Music ....................... 202 
5.1.3.1 The Implications of the cycle of fifths in Performing this Music .............. 202 
5.1.4 Psychological Analysis ..................................................................................... 202 
5.2 ‘Megalam O, Mawu’ ............................................................................................... 203 
(Do not cast me away, Lord) ......................................................................................... 203 
5.2.1 Basic History and Usage ................................................................................... 203 
5.2.1.1 Historical Background of Ghanaian art music ........................................... 203 
5.2.1.2. Pre-compositional (Traditional) Materials used in this Music .................. 204 
5.2.1.3 New ways of using the pre-compositional materials in this music ............ 206 
5.2.1.4 Sociological Function ................................................................................ 208 
5.2.2 Psychological Analysis ..................................................................................... 210 
5.2.3 Analysis of Form .............................................................................................. 210 
5.2.3.1 Structure and Divisions of Form ................................................................ 211 
5.2.3.2 Comparison of sections .............................................................................. 216 
5.2.3.3 Implications for performing this piece in view of the form ....................... 216 
5.2.3.4 Pattern Analysis ......................................................................................... 217 
5.2.3.4.1 Implications for the pattern analysis ....................................................... 219 
5.2.4 Application of Don Freund’s Spectrum of Fifths to this music. ....................... 219 
5.2.4.1 Implications of Performing this Music in View of the Spectrum of 5ths .. 220 
5.2.5 The Musical Goals ............................................................................................ 220 
5.3 ‘Hadzihawo, Midzi Ha Le Mawu ʄe Fiadufe La Ŋuti’ ............................................ 221 
(Choirs, Sing in proclamation of the Kingdom of God) ................................................ 221 
5.3.1 Basic history and usage..................................................................................... 221 
5.3.1.1 Historical Background of this anthem........................................................ 221 
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5.3.1.2 Pre-compositional (Traditional) Materials used in this Music ................... 222 
5.3.1.3 Call and response ....................................................................................... 223 
5.3.1.4 Repetition ................................................................................................... 224 
5.3.2 Analysis of Form .............................................................................................. 226 
5.3.2.1 Divisions of Form ...................................................................................... 226 
5.3.2.1 Pattern Analysis ......................................................................................... 231 
5.3.3 Psychological Analysis ..................................................................................... 232 
5.3.4 Application of Don Freund’s Spectrum of Fifths ............................................. 232 
5.4 Summary ................................................................................................................. 234 
CHAPTER SIX ................................................................................................................. 236 
6.1 Brief Summary ........................................................................................................ 236 
6.2 Findings ................................................................................................................... 237 
6.3 Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 243 
6.4 Recommendations ................................................................................................... 244 
REFERENCES .................................................................................................................. 246 
APPENDICES .................................................................................................................. 253 
Appendix A: Megalam O Mawu ................................................................................... 258 
Appendix B: Mawu! Ve Mia Nu ................................................................................... 269 
Appendix C: Hadzihawo…. .......................................................................................... 271 
Appendix D: Mido Ŋuse Mawu ʃe Agbenya La ........................................................... 275 
Appendix E:  ŊKegbe Didi ........................................................................................... 284 
Appendix F: Mawu Wɔ Nusianu Nyuie ........................................................................ 288 
 
 
   
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LIST OF TABLES 
Table 1: Archival material showing how frequent the music of G.W.K. Dors was used at 
WVPCCU rallies between the year 1978 and 1996. ............................................. 185 
Table 2: Sectional division of Mawu Ve Mianu ............................................................... 196 
Table 3: Sectional divisions of Megalam O, Mawu. ......................................................... 212 
Table 4: Sectional division of Hadzihawo Midzi Ha Le Mawu ʄe Fiadufe La ŋuti. ......... 227 
  
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LIST OF FIGURES 
Figure 1. Gakogui (gong-gong)........................................................................................... 95 
Figure 2: Atoke ................................................................................................................... 96 
Figure 3: Afretsiwa (castanet) ............................................................................................. 96 
Figure 4: Atsikpakpa (Wooden-clappers) ........................................................................... 97 
Figure 5: Akaye or axatse ................................................................................................... 97 
Figure 6: Atsimevu .............................................................................................................. 98 
Figure 7: Kidi ...................................................................................................................... 99 
Figure 8: Dondo .................................................................................................................. 99 
Figure 9: Ʋuga .................................................................................................................. 100 
Figure 10: Asiʋui ............................................................................................................... 100 
Figure 11: Brɛkɛtɛ ............................................................................................................. 101 
Figure 12: Alto solo and organ accompaniment. .............................................................. 157 
Figure 13: A script of G.W.K. Dor’s composition showing ink marks. ........................... 168 
Figure 14: Cover page of CHORAL WORKS Vol. I by George W. K. Dor. ................... 169 
 
  
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LIST OF PHOTOGRAPHS 
Photograph 1: Portrait of G. W. K Dor ............................................................................. 123 
Photograph 2: George Dor leaning against some traditional African instruments ........... 134 
Photograph 3: Church Choir of E. P. Church, Ghana - Peniel Congregation performing 
Gbɔgbɔmenuwo during a concert in December, 2017. ............................. 184 
  
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LIST OF MUSICAL ILLUSTRATIONS 
Musical Illustrations 1:  Dondo cue for songs in a simple time signature. ....................... 107 
Musical Illustrations 2:  Dondo cue for songs in a compound time signature. ................. 107 
Musical Illustrations 3:  The cantus firmus from which variations of dondo cues in the In 
the E. P. Church, Ghana were generated ................................. 108 
Musical Illustrations 4:  Dondo cue for Israel Group. ...................................................... 108 
Musical Illustrations 5: Dondo Cue for Appraisal in the E. P. Church, Ghana. ............... 109 
Musical Illustrations 6: The usual rhythmic pattern of hand clapping- in the E. P. Church, 
Ghana Borrowed from bɔbɔɔbɔ rhythmic line. ....................... 110 
Musical Illustrations 7: Highlife timeline that has influenced the pattern of hand clapping 
in most Akan dominated churches. ......................................... 110 
Musical Illustrations 8: First eight measures of Theodore Dor’s version--tune and harmony 
to the words of EPH  ............................................................... 208              
Musical Illustrations 9: Examples of repeated notes......................................................... 194 
Musical Illustrations 10: Examples of syncopations, measures 3 and 4. .......................... 195 
Musical Illustrations 11: The first theme of Mawu Ve Mianu, sub section [a] of section A.
 ................................................................................................. 196 
Musical Illustrations 12: Sub theme [a/] of section A. ...................................................... 197 
Musical Illustrations 13: Second theme (beginning of section B) sub-section [b] ........... 197 
Musical Illustrations 14: The beginning of the coda starting on the weak beat of the second 
pulse. ....................................................................................... 198 
Musical Illustrations 15: Tessitura and climax of the music............................................. 201 
Musical Illustrations 16: Basic rhythmic prototypes of gabada and egbanegba. .............. 205 
Musical Illustrations 17: The bass melody showing drops in octaves .............................. 207 
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Musical Illustrations 18: Long rhythmic motifs at phrase endings, expression marks and 
repeats. .................................................................................... 208 
Musical Illustrations 19:  An example of the perfect authentic cadences ......................... 212 
Musical Illustrations 20:  The prolonged tonic chord signifying the end of the music. ... 213 
Musical Illustrations 21:  First theme. .............................................................................. 213 
Musical Illustrations 22: Second theme. ........................................................................... 213 
Musical Illustrations 23: A downward movement of soprano and tenor melodies 
illustrating the falling a tree. ................................................... 214 
Musical Illustrations 24: A full measure rest used to separate the section of call and 
Response from the other.......................................................... 215 
Musical Illustrations 25: The rhythmic motifs used in the music ..................................... 218 
Musical Illustrations 26: Change in rhythmic pattern from dotted notes and quavers to 
triplets. ..................................................................................... 218 
Musical Illustrations 27: The first theme of the music. .................................................... 223 
Musical Illustrations 28: Call and response between soprano and other three parts (alto, 
tenor and bass)......................................................................... 223 
Musical Illustrations 29: Example of pedal notes ............................................................. 224 
Musical Illustrations 30: Examples of unisons between the parts. ................................... 225 
  
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LIST OF MAPS and Sketched Map 
Map 1: Eʋeland [Volta Region, Ghana ............................................................................... 31 
Map 2:  Ethnic States of the Eʋes ....................................................................................... 36 
Sketched Map 3: Peki State ................................................................................................ 52 
 
  
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS 
ARS                                         Apostles Revelation Society 
CYB                                        Christian Youth Builders 
E. P. Church, Ghana  Evangelical Presbyterian Church, Ghana 
EPH                                         Evangelical Presbyterian Hymn  
EPSU                                       Evangelical Presbyterian Students Union  
ICTM                                       International Council for Traditional Music  
NAM, Winneba              National Academy of Music, Winneba 
SEM                                         Society for Ethnomusicology  
WVPCCU               West Volta Presbyterian Church Choirs’ Union 
 
 
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CHAPTER ONE 
INTRODUCTION 
1.1 Background of the study 
The musical tradition of the Evangelical Presbyterian Church, Ghana (E. P. Church, Ghana) 
was initiated by the Bremen Missionaries and later through the process of indigenization.  
Church musical forms and its performance practices in the E. P. Church, Ghana was an 
embodiment of the religious activities which started in 1847 in the then German – Togoland, 
now Volta Region of Ghana. It was statutory and followed some principles in the fashion of 
Protestant and Lutheran churches in North Germany– enshrined in the Reformation, 
example, involvement of congregational singing and most essentially, singing in the 
vernacular (Eʋe). Although the musical tradition of the E. P. Church, Ghana has gone through 
a considerable amount of change the core fibre of missionary heritage remains and continues 
to be an essential identity of the church.  
Later developments included modifications of the ‘Bremen Status Quo’ which 
resulted in the formation of groups such as, Hadzihaga, Good News Choir, Praise Band, 
Evangelical Presbyterian Students Union (EPSU), Israel Group and other dance drumming 
groups. This was as a result a process of re-examination of the E. P. Church’s foundation 
which brought about a ‘cultural re-awakening’. Today, the musical tradition of the church 
encompasses not only hymns and psalm singing but various danceable tunes and other modes 
of indigenous performance practices.  
Before the advent of these groups, the church choir was already in existence and 
tasked by constitution to lead congregational singing in conformation with the ‘status quo’. 
In addition to hymnody, anthems and the occasional singing of Psalms, the church choir also 
performs the following: Processional, Introit, Before Sermon, After Sermon, Doxology and 
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Recession. It is the foregoing vein that accommodates G.W.K. Dor choral compositions. His 
choral compositions fall in line with the ‘new music idiom’ initiated by Ephraim Amu which 
was sustained by other musicians like Robert O. Danso, Otto Boateng and their successors 
by relinquishing the art to choirs and missionary established churches.  
Nketia (2016) drew our attention to the difficult linguistic problems ‘Christaller and 
his collaborators continued to face because of their adoption of western metrical systems of 
the hymn tunes they selected and the inevitable prosodic conflicts between text and tune that 
emerged in their Twi translations’. With the exception of John Hus, most of the hymns 
selected for the Twi Hymn Book were written by western authors (Nketia 2016:89-91). 
Contrarily, G. Daeuble enumerated a number of African and European composers and 
translators whose works were added to the collection of songs in the ‘Eʋe Hymn Book’ in 
his Hadzigbale (1924) introductory note. These were “Osofowo Andrea Aku, Sam Quist, 
Robert Baeta, Edem. K. Ayikutu, Rob. Kwami” and so on. Others are Osofo J. Binder, Osofo 
Binetsch, J, Knuesli, Fr. Flothmeier, G. Daeuble and Katehist Kristian. 
The order of the celebration of Eucharist, in the E.P.G., GH in print has enjoyed a 
considerable amount of monopoly by using translated western hymns until the 2008 edition 
of the Hadzigbale (5th edition) featured some compositions by George Dor which aided in 
bridging the gap between the western and the traditional. Additionally, the compositions of 
G. W. K. Dor continue to be used at WVPCU conferences either as a mass anthem for the 
conference or optional song for any of the participating choirs. 
His choral compositions have continuously been used by church choirs of the E.P.C., 
GH, the Methodist Church Ghana and A. M. E Zion to satisfy their liturgical and theological 
needs. I heard of “George Dor”, as he is affectionately called, in a very small village called 
Hyɛbrɛkrom in the Western region of Ghana. The village folks are peasant farmers and 
survive mainly on crop farming. They tagged him as a prolific composer (Sablah Daniel and 
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Akpah Ebenezer: Personal communication: 12th August, 2017@8:00GMT, Prestea, W/R, 
Ghana). Majority of the population are Christians who attend the E. P. Church, Ghana, where 
I served as a chorister during my teen years. 
The purpose of this study is to highlight the contributions made by George Worlasi 
Kwasi Dor to the musical tradition of the E. P. Church, Ghana. It will also assess the reception 
of Dor’s compositions in the church. The study will further ascertain the primary musical 
elements and highlight some extra musical elements of Dor’s compositions and its impact or 
otherwise in the E. P. Church, Ghana 
1.2 Statement of the Problem 
Ghanaian art music composers whose works have gained an appreciable audience in the E. 
P. Church, Ghana include Ephraim Amu, Robert Komla Ndor, Nicholas Zinzendorf Nayo, 
Kenn Kafui, Walter Blege etc. In addition to contributing to the church’s musical repertoire, 
their works have served different liturgical purposes such as ensuring conformity and unity 
among the local congregations nationwide and abroad. In addition, some of their 
compositions which include hymns and marches are popular among singers within the Eʋe 
dance drumming groups, especially the Bɔbɔɔbɔ ensembles. 
 Preliminary conversations I heard among a section of the migrant farming 
community in the Western Region of Ghana called Hyɛbrɛkrom, who are indigenes of 
Kpoviadzi in the Volta Region and confess the Christian faith, did not exclude Dor but 
placed him high among his contemporaries. The group I interacted with is mainly made up 
of choristers who serve in the E. P. Church choir at Hyɛbrɛkrom. During the 1995 annual 
conference WVPCU at Suhum in the Eastern Region of Ghana, there was a memorable 
standing ovation in honour of George Worlasi Kwasi Dor in absentia when his choral 
composition popularly known as Hadzihawo was performed, although several choral works 
by different composers were performed during the choir rally. 
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 Mr. Richard Avah, the choir director of the Bethel Church Choir, Accra Newtown 
takes delight in teaching and directing Dor’s choral works, among others. After Nye Kple 
Nya Fe ya (I and my House”) was performed at Bethel Church Choir rehearsal section at 
Accra Newtown, someone exclaimed, “Is that Dor?” Amuah (2012) asserts that G.W.K. 
Dor’s choral compositions are also being used to serve different purposes in the Methodist 
Church Ghana, Presbyterian Church of Ghana and the educational sector in the Republic of 
Ghana. This asserts that significantly, Dor’s compositions are being used to meet different 
demands in different spheres of life.  
The question therefore is “Why Dor?” This consequently calls for a scholarly 
investigation into the popularity and the contributions of George Worlasi Kwasi Dor to the 
musical tradition of the E. P. Church, Ghana This is the gap which the study aims to fill. 
1.3 Research Questions 
The following research questions were used to guide to the study. 
i. What are the contributions of G.W.K. Dor to the musical tradition of the 
Evangelical Presbyterian Church, Ghana? 
ii. What specific aspects of the musical tradition of the Evangelical Presbyterian 
Church, Ghana, does G.WK. Dor’s compositions contribute?  
iii. What are the factors that influence G.W.K. Dor’s music and the extent to which 
they explain or inform his compositional style? 
iv. What are the extra musical aspects of G.W.K. Dor’s composition and their impacts 
on the musical traditions in the E.P.C., GH. 
  
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1.4 Objectives  
The following objectives were used to guide the study.  
i. To investigate the contributions of G.W.K. Dor to the musical tradition of the 
Evangelical Presbyterian Church, Ghana? 
ii. To ascertain specific areas of the musical tradition of the Evangelical Presbyterian 
Church, Ghana to which G.W.K. Dor’s choral works contributes.  
iii. To ascertain factors that influence G.W.K. Dor’s music and the extent to which 
they explain or inform his compositional style. 
iv. To examine the extra musical aspects of G.W.K. Dor’s composition and the 
impacts of musical traditions in the E.P.C., GH. 
1.5 Scope of the study 
The study was conducted at selected congregations of the E. P. Church, Ghana. The 
selection was based on presbytery, district and zonal demarcations including year of their 
establishment. It also considered the spatial distribution of E. P. Church congregations in 
Ghana. The selected congregations are E. P. Church, Accra New-Town (Bethel 
Congregation), E. P. Church, Ho (Kekeli Congregation), E. P. Church, Prestea W/R, E. P. 
Church, Kumasi- Amakom and E. P. Church, Sunyani, (Emmanuel Congregation) and E. P. 
Church, New-Legon (Peniel Congregation)  
The study was designed to have six chapters. These contributes towards the 
architectural solidarity of the research. The scope firstly examines some notions and 
perspectives of Eʋe traditional music before the arrival of the missionaries. This is intended 
to provide the background to the general outlook of the sphere of music in the E. P. Church, 
Ghana. This cultural background is an interpretative framework to the performance of music 
in the church.        
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The diabolization of Eʋe religion was a characteristic feature of missionary 
discourse which represented conversion to Christianity as a turn away from the power of 
the Devil and his agents, that is, the local gods (Meyer 1992, 1996). In its attempt to renew 
the church, the E. P. Church 'of Ghana' placed itself in the missionary tradition and at the 
same time, took current Pentecostalism as a model. This is the cross-roads between the E. 
P. Church, Ghana and E. P. Church of Ghana, now Global Evangelical Church (GEC). The 
study, however, encapsules the historical antecedents of the musical culture of the church 
under study and why it serves as a premise to current musical developments, and the 
trajectory of performance in this Christian denomination. 
The scope of this study has partly been dedicated to the music of G. W. K. Dor, a 
composer, performer, arranger and director of church and school choirs. Themes in this sub-
section includes the general background of traditional music among the people of Alavanyo-
ʋudidi, the family of the Dor, the creative processes in Dor’s musical pieces, the music and 
its appeal etc. G.W.K. Dor has consistently been the director of church and school choirs, 
he has been a member of choral conductors and associations and at times held executive 
positions up to the national level. The understanding of such trends will facilitate the 
understanding of the contributions he has made to the E. P. Church, Ghana (discussed in 
chapter four) and the legacy he has left behind.  
           Music scores were collected and analyzed. The sources of collection included church 
music libraries, choir directors, individuals and instrumentalists. Three anthems were 
purposively selected and analyzed. I asked the following basic questions as a guide. One, 
‘Which choral compositions of G.W.K. Dor falls into the category George Dor’s ‘early’ 
compositional works?’ Two, ‘Which ones can be classified as a ‘matured’ compositional 
work?’ George conformed Megalam O, Mawu as a matured piece in a personal 
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communication with him and three, ‘Which of the compositions are popular among the 
choral fraternity in Ghana and perhaps Togo. The following were arrived at. 
i. Mawu Ve Mianu                         
ii. Megalam O, Mawu. 
iii. Hadzihawo, Midzi Ha Le Mawu ʄe Fiadufe La Nuti. 
The study was confined to the relationship between music and worship in the E. P. Church, 
Ghana. A critical study of the compositions of the figure under study through analysis 
revealed the factors that led to the appeal of the musical works and hence their place in 
worship.  
          In this study I refer to the Volta Region as the landmark between the Republic of 
Togo and the east of the Volta Lake. The territorial demarcation undertaken by the colonial 
administration labeled as the ‘Volta Region’ before the independence of present-day Ghana 
in 1957. I do not mean Volta Region and Oti Region as separate political regions but the 
two joined together. This is intended to enhance our understanding of the discussions.  
1.6 Definition of key words 
i) Musical tradition:   
a) Musical practices that has been handed down from one generation to another 
generation over the years.  
b) Modes of musical expressions used as a channel of rendering service and 
reverence to the Supreme God, lesser gods or way of satisfying social contents.   
c) Musical practices that connotes a group’s – in this case - religious organization’s 
identity. 
 
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ii) Performance practice:  
The manner by which the known (music) is carried out. This component has an     
aesthetic value. 
iii) Organization of music:  
             The musical roles assigned to music performing group(s) in a community, a band  
              of musicians, a religious organisation etc. 
1.7 Significance of the study 
An amount of scholarly work has been carried out on George Dor and his compositions. 
Such works have thrown light unto various aspects of his compositions such as the 
utilization of traditional elements as a pre-compositional resource, the difficulty adherent in 
the performance of Dor’s compositions etc.  
G.W.K. Dor is the first Ghanaian composer whose works has gained entry into the 
E. P. Church’s liturgy for the Ministration of the Eucharist. The Eucharist – being the 
highest-level worship in the E.P.C., GH - constitutes the core theme for the establishment 
of the E.P.C., GH as mentioned thus, the gift of Jesus Christ for the redemption of humanity.  
Because G.W.K. Dor fuses Eʋe traditional ‘themes’ in his compositions, his works play an 
interdisciplinary role of preserving the culture as well as folklore and language of the Eʋe 
People.  
The study will be beneficial to the academic discourse in providing information to 
disciplines such as linguistics, history, philosophy, religion, sociology, music etc.  
1.8 Theoretical and Analytical Framework 
Interculturalism: Tinajero-Villavicencio (2011) asserts that Interculturalism takes account 
of the descriptive. He argues that Interculturalism accommodates the interrelations and 
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interactions between different groups of diverse cultures coexisting in the same territory. 
Furthermore, the discourse avoids discrimination, exploitation and racism in an attempt of 
avoiding the drawing of relationships. However, “it implies, a relationship between 
culturally different groups on an equal basis and does not draw the line between the 
colonized and the colonizer and possibilities of asymmetries (Tinajero-Villavicencio, 2011: 
232 - 239).  
Finchun-Sung (2017: 9) explained that Interculturalism first started in 
communication studies and was later applied to linguistics to study interactions that exists 
beyond boundaries. Hennemann (2010: 86-118) made the assertion that Interculturalism 
creates the space for global experience by transcending boundaries. According to 
Hennemann, it addresses the phenomenon of sustained cross-cultural interractions. Hunter 
(1989: 192-196) drew the conclusion that Interculturalism enables the networking between 
‘personal’, ‘political’, ‘social’ and artistic innovations. He noted that “in studies of music 
composition, the term Interculturalism works co-currently with terminologies such as 
fusion, syncretism, synthesis and hybridity”. Hall (2007) made the observation that 
Interculturalism is the medium through which intertextual manipulations of a song-text 
meet. It allows the composer to implicate different textural content simultaneously and again 
serves as the medium to understand the discourse of Interculturalism. He said “Music has 
become an effective medium for understand Interculturalism…and for integrating and re-
integrating multiple influences” (Hall, 2007: 199-201).  
In view of the definitions and arguments above, I make the submission that 
Interculturalism is a reversal process to the ‘Human State’ with special references to the 
Tower of Babel, so to speak, where and when interractions and interrelations between the 
human race was devoid of all forms of human differences described nowadays as 
boundaries. With this, I agree to the divergent views and arguments made by the ‘School of 
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Interculturalism’ that the discourse of Interculturalism generally (used loosely) breaks all 
forms of institutional boundaries to the ‘Human Stage’ where the different cultures coexist; 
a return to the Tower of Babel, conceptually.  
The theory of Interculturalism in music was first explored by Akin Euba in musical 
compositions and performances. He is not the originator but as a theorist of the concept. He 
defines intercultural music as “that in which elements from two or more cultures are 
integrated”. Compositions by Ghanaian and Nigerian art musicians, dissertations, thesis, 
articles and other scholarly endeavours supports the assertion that ‘Interculturalism involves 
the fusing of other music cultures beyond African and Western pre-compositional resources. 
Dor cited Euba’s assertion that, “the origin of the composer is irrelevant to the definition of 
intercultural music because indeed this type of cultural activity is thematic, being inherent 
in the music itself”. Dor argued that the composer might not necessarily come from Africa 
or Asia to enable him compose a musical piece derived from those cultures. “Yet, this kind 
of cultural activity may be driven by the composer’s philosophy, his or her quest for identity 
construction, coupled with the historical or political processes and landscapes that condition 
the composition of intercultural music, considerations that go beyond the thematic”. He 
continued that Euba has since modified that part of the definition to make room for the 
human agency behind the compositions. Intercultural composition can be internal, merging 
musical idioms of different ethnic groups within the same country or continent an art which 
verifies the composer’s ability of combining pre-compositional materials from the two 
cultures.  
It is this problem that Euba’s Neo-intercultural art music addresses. Historical 
antecedents such as “colonization, trade, Christianization, Islamic influences, massive 
movement of people due to push or pull factors, westernization, nationalism, reconstruction 
of identity in contemporary times, and new processes and effects of globalization supports 
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the blending of musical cultures. Accordingly, Interculturalism has implications for bi-
musicality, post-colonialism, modernity and cultural change in general” (Dor, 2005 
: 443). 
Nketia (1995) observed that Interculturalism arouses not only the aesthetic value of 
the composition but also their creative imagination. An encounter with different sound 
systems and their usages in melody and rhythm may create different creative possibilities to 
the composer. Interculturalism offers the composer the opportunity to contemporary 
composition which goes beyond the mere task of combination musical quotations by 
exploring techniques and idioms. Interculturalism is regarded as a new area of contemporal 
compositional practice which provides an alternative or a complement to modernity. (Nketia 
1995:225).  
Hybridity: Terpenning (2016) defines Hybridity in his article African Musical 
Hybridity in the Colonial Context: An Analysis of Ephraim Amu’s Yen Ara Asase Ni’ as the 
‘juxtaposition of musical elements associated Christianity and a text that furthers a cultural 
nationalism. That is, a composition that combines African and European styles. In this 
context, the composition of ‘Yen Ara Asase Ni’ merges Christianity and the secular. The 
musical setting has the resemblance of a hymn yet the text draws from Amu’s Pan-
Africanism literature and the secular. “It is generally preferred that the term “creolization” 
or acculturation be used to refer to the mixing that occurs in the context of contact between 
cultures because it avoids the implication of hierarchy” (Terpenning, 2016:461). In the 
process of combining musical cultures, hybridity offers cultures of having equal importance. 
Terpenning contends that “Amu’s juxtaposition of musical elements associated with 
Christianity and that furthers a cultural nationalism reflects a dedication to hybridity in his 
creative process.” He noted that whiles hybridity is considered as a static work of art it aslo 
reaches a stage of becoming dynamic. Terpenning use of the word corresponds with the 
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hybridity cycle where “cultural entities move periodically from heterogeneous forms to 
more homogeneous ones and then to a more heterogeneous form”. A more detailed 
definitions will be given in the subsequent chapters.  
The theories and definitions above accommodate G.W.K. Dor’s creative 
combination of stylistic difference that hitherto were not compactible afore time but through 
curiosity and experimentation has been brought forth by the pioneering activities of the 
exponents of Ghanaian art music. My study is situated within the theoretical framework of 
Interculturalism and Cultural Hybridity. Dor combines Christianity and the secular in 
addition to the Western and the African music making that were partitioned by western 
ideologies through the process of purification. My studies will examine the choral 
compositions of Dor through the lens of Interculturalism and Hybridity. The musical 
expressions of the E. P. Church, Ghana will be investigated versus the traditional modes of 
expression that finely knit to produce the hybridization. 
The juxtaposition of church musical forms and traditional idioms is what motivated 
the use of this theory. Biblical themes, western musical forms and the indigenous musical 
expressions will be investigation to ascertain why G.W.K. Dor’s choral composition 
contributes the musical tradition of the E. P. Church, Ghana. 
1.9 Rationale of the Study 
Ghanaian art music has gained an appreciable recognition in the mission churches, for 
example, the Presbyterian church of Ghana, the Roman Catholic Church, the Methodist 
Church Ghana, E.P. Church, Ghana and A.M.E. Zion. The dissemination of the genre and 
its performance practices is directly linked to the educational institutions established by the 
missionaries and the colonial administration. Churches, particularly, mission established 
ones continue to be fed with trained musicians of which the E. P. Church, Ghana is a 
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beneficiary. Because of factors such as homogeneity and the residues of musical heritage 
left behind by the German missionaries, E. P. Church, Ghana has benefited from the choral 
works of composers such as N. Z. Nayo, R. N. Ndor, Kenn Kafui, Walter Blege and G. W. 
K. Dor.  
However, the works of G.W.K. Dor have gained an appeal in the E. P. Church, 
Ghana and other mainline churches in Ghana over the years. His choral composition 
Xɔsetɔwo Mitso, Dokuibɔbɔ Nyo, Hadzihawo Midzi Ha Le Mawu Fe Fiadafe La ŋuti etc. 
are very popular and famous among the church choirs and singing bands of the E. P. Church, 
Ghana and some Methodist and Presbyterian Churches in Ghana. Amuah asserts that Dor’s 
choral compositions have been used as the select piece for Methodist Choirs’ Conferences. 
Some have also been used as examination pieces in the Ghana Education Service. 
Before the publication of the 2008 edition of the Hadzigbale (5th edition of the E. P. 
Hymn Book), the liturgical format for the ministration of the Eucharist feature translated 
German and English hymns but the latest hymn book has included compositions of Dor. 
The inclusion of his composition breaks the monotony of the use of translated German 
chorales and English hymns in the liturgical format for ministering the Eucharist. On the 
periphery, it solves the problem of tonal inflections encountered by translators of German 
and English hymns into the vernacular. The inclusion of his compositions “ensured African 
modes of expression and communication in the contemporary context of Christian worship 
and related activities which occurs in a manner which satisfies theoretical and philosophical 
issues of compatibility” Nketia, 2016: 87). ‘The flesh and blood of Christ’ is a motivating 
factor for the establishment of the German-Togoland. As Werner Ustorf writes “The mission 
was to take its stance neither from Wittenberg nor from Geneva nor from Rome, but from 
Jerusalem on the mount of Olives… the society recognized the validity of the various church 
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confessions of the home country, but wished to be bound only to Mathew 28:18-20” for the 
spreading of the Kingdom of God among the heathen” (Ustorf, 2002).  
The popularity and inclusion of Dor’s composition in the 5th edition of the 
Hadzigbale for the ministration of the Eucharist is significant to warrant a scholarly study 
of his choral compositions and its contribution to the E. P. Church, Ghana.  
1.10 Justification of the Study  
The result of my study will add up to existing literature on the compositions of G.W.K. Dor 
in defining the mode of Ghanaian art music and its usage in the Christian religious 
denominations. Because literature on the musical tradition of the E. P. Church, Ghana is 
very scanty, the study will increase this aspect of the literature by providing a catalogue of 
the musical traditions and performance practices inherent in E. P. Church, Ghana. This will 
serve as a “source of reference for further studies. The study will serve as a reference 
material for choir directors and choirs of different denominations to aid their performance 
activities in the E. P. Church, Ghana. It will serve as a reference to Ghanaian Art Music to 
develop further the modes of performance in the church. It will serve as a platform to 
investigate the musical practices in the church. The study will serve as a medium of 
transmission and preservation of the indigenization processes in the church. It will also 
assist in the explanation of the performance practices associated with the E. P. Church, 
Ghana. 
1.11 Related Literature  
In Vol. 1 of ETHNOMUSICOLOGY AND AFRICAN MUSIC: Developing Contemporary 
Idioms out of Traditional Music, Nketia (1995) highlighted some peculiar tenets of 
contemporary composition practices. He noted that contemporary music embodies a number 
of trends and a radical break away from some vital aspects of the ‘African’ tradition. He 
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asserted that “it is the usages of the past that provide the models for creating and developing 
channels of communication and musical codes that can be understood by the receptors of 
the music and not just by those who generate them” and that the challenge tradition poses 
is not the problem of originality but authenticity (Nketia, 1995: 225 - 232)). He outlined 
three compositional techniques for creating compositional idioms out of traditional music. 
Reversal technique, syncretic technique and the techniques of re-interpretation. In another 
paper he brought to the fore that the reconstruction of the music by societies is only possible 
by applying principles of cultural layers or cultural strata to musical materials assembled 
from different parts of the world. (Nketia, 2005: 256 259). 
Amuah (2012) examined the traditional elements in the compositions of G.W.K. 
Dor. He analyzed Agbemavɔ miyam miele (We are aiming at spiritual things), 
Gbɔgbɔmenuwo (Spiritual gifts) and Dokuibɔbɔ nyo (Humility pays) to unearth the use of 
traditional musical elements. His focused on the uses of traditional music elements as a pre-
compositional tool utilized by the three composers namely: George Worlasi Kwasi Dor, 
Nicholas Kofi Badu and Newlove Annan. His study focuses on individual composer’s 
procedures in the utilization of the traditional music elements.  
          Dor illustrated the creative processes through which three representative Ghanaian 
Choral Art Composers namely Ephraim Amu, Walter Blege and himself, George Worlasi 
Kwasi Dor have used indigenous genres in their compositions as a pre-compositional 
resource. This article primarily focuses on the revitalization of indigenous music in 
Ghanaian Art Musical Composition stream. He gave a historical account of the selected 
compositional works he studied before undertaking a structural and stylistic analysis of the 
works. The works he studied are Yaanom Abibirimaa (Fellow Black Africans) by Ephraim 
Amu, Ese ye do ame da (The Creator God Sends People with Unique Gifts) and Agbemavɔ 
Minyam Miele (We are Aiming at Eternal Life) by G. W. K. Dor. In this article: Uses of 
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Indigenous Music Genres in Ghanaian Choral Art Music: Perspectives from the Works of 
Amu, Blege and Dor, the writer gave a general historical account of the national choral styles 
of Africa by tracing the practice to the West. 
He outlined the historical events which brought into being the Ghanaian Choral Art Music 
and the contributions of the relevant institutions.  
          Agordoh (2011) examined the development of the Church that has been in Ghana 
long before the independence of the country. He also discussed the contributions of the 
various Christian denominations. These includes early Missionary and African Independent 
churches such as the Presbyterian Church of Ghana, the Methodist Church Ghana, the 
Presbyterian Church of Ghana, the Roman Catholic Church Ghana, the Evangelical 
Presbyterian Church of Ghana, the Anglican Church Ghana, the Seventh Day Adventist 
Church, the Musama Disco Christo Church (MDCC), the Apostles Revelation Society of 
Ghana and the Pentecostal/Charismatic Churches. 
          Agordoh gave an account of the typology of church music during the pre-
independence era of Ghana. He discussed but briefly the various church musical forms that 
were utilized by the ‘African’ Christian churches which includes Western hymn, the Mass, 
Chants, Psalms, Canticles, Anthems, African traditional tunes and traditional choruses. The 
biographies, musical works and contributions of some prominent Ghanaian Art composers 
were also spelt out by Agordoh. New trends associated with Ghanaian church music since 
Ghana’s independence, 1957, were discussed under subtitles that includes (i) African 
American Religious Models, (ii) Influence of African American Religious Music on the 
Ghanaian Church, (iii) The Gospel Music Concept of Ghana, and (iv) Recent Innovations 
in the Ghanaian Gospel Music Industry. 
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          Ansre ed., (1997) gave a ‘simple but accurate’ account of the events that has shaped 
the Evangelical Presbyterian Church, Ghana and made it what it is today. To achieve this 
purpose, he attempted to introduce the reader to the historical, socio-cultural and the 
religious contexts of the people among whom the early missionaries came. Descriptions and 
narrations in the book, Evangelical Presbyterian Church – 150 years, includes the 
establishment and growth of the E. P. Church, Ghana, the contributions of the church 
towards person, societal developments and the welfare of the people among whom the 
church finds herself. The challenges that were encountered by the leaders and builders and 
the decisions that were taken to solve them were also highlighted by Ansre (1997). 
Furthermore, he discussed the recent crisis of the E. P. Church, Ghana that led to the split 
of the church into two resulting in mass exodus and subsequent formation of the Evangelical 
Presbyterian Church of Ghana now Global Evangelical Church, Ghana. The book is also 
devoted to highlight both the theological and secular and also explains the collaborative 
efforts of the church and successive governments of Ghana in giving quality of life to the 
people of Ghana.  
          Ganusah (2008) gave a general historical account of the Eʋedome people, thus, the 
birth place of G. W. K. Dor. She gave an account of the socio-cultural aspects the people 
which defines them as a homogenous group of people. These includes the origin and 
meaning of the name Eʋedome, the vegetation and occupation of the people which has an 
influence on their worldviews, the historical background of the area, the philosophy and 
religiosity of the people and the moral and ethical issues.  
          The missionary route to the Gold Cost, their interractions with people of Eʋedome, 
the conceptualization of Mawu (lit. The Supreme God) and trɔwo (lit. lesser gods) by the 
missionaries, narratives about Eʋedome and the interception between Eʋe religious beliefs, 
Christianity and its inherent new developments were discussed. Ganusah detailed two 
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factors that resulted in the change of name from Eʋe Kristo Hame or Eʋe Presbyterian 
Church to Evangelical Presbyterian Church. She pointed out the factors as (i) political 
agitation and (ii) to make the church more universal. 
         Ustorf (2002) concerns himself with the inconsistencies one finds in the sources which 
sidelines both the personality and works of Micael Zahn who has had little recognition in 
the historiography of missionary activities. The cause Zahn championed in the German 
Empires and his debate on colonization. Ustorf wrote about the obedience of Zahn to his 
faith into missionary terms and how his dedication to the developments the church among 
the Eʋe people flourished although hindered initially. Bremen Missionaries in Togo and 
Ghana: 1847 – 1900 described the historical movements of the missionaries, thus, from 
Europe to Africa and back to Europe. Ustorf started by investigating the biographical, 
theological and the social background against which Zahn and the North German Mission 
is to be understood. Investigation into Zahn’s relationship with the Vietors (Bremen) was 
also of a prime concern to Ustorf. He devoted chapters II and III entirely to Zahn’s effort to 
structure theologically and institutionally Europe and Africa’s work in missionary efforts. 
He listed other factors which plays a significant role in the development of church structures 
in Africa. These are political (British colonial rule) and climate conditions (the premature 
death of missionaries). 
          A description of the complex relation between European and African office bearers 
in the process of forming congregations, Zahn’s ideological position including central 
questions such as slavery, polygamy, church discipline, baptism, the attitude of the 
missionary and the congregation towards traditional and colonial authorities, church 
independence, audination of Africans into missionary work and Africa’s efforts towards 
their own theological expression were discussed by Ustorf. Zahn’s attempt to influence 
comprehensive future church leaders by his ideas by providing a remarkable training 
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programme in the German Empire as a result of his conflict with the emerging African class 
of church leaders was also outlined by Ustorf. 
          Walls (2017) gives a detailed account about the missionary movement in Christian 
history, thus Studies in the Transition of Faith. The study is divided into three broad areas. 
These are (i) a reflection on the nature of the Christian faith. Thus, considering it from the 
perspective of its historical transmission, (ii) the transmission process in relation to the 
special case of Africa. This also considers the special place of Africa in Christian history 
and (iii) focus on missionary movement from the West as a model to the partners in the 
process and the transmission that took place. 
1.12 Methods of Data Collection 
I resorted to primary and secondary sources to collect my data. Ethnography is the study of 
people in their environment by the use of methods such as participant observation and face-
to-face interviews (Sidky, 2004). Sidky suggests that ethnography documents similarities 
and differences through empirical fieldwork which aids generalizations about human 
behaviour and the operation of the social and cultural systems. I however adopted 
ethnographic methods to collect primary data about the background of G.W.K. Dor at 
Alavanyo-ʋudidi, his hometown, which I later studied and analyzed. It was done through 
face-to-face interviews, participant observation among selected performing groups of 
traditional music within Alavanyo traditional area. This was aimed at gathering information 
about the following. First, the traditional musical types of G.W.K. Dor’s hometown which 
serves as a common geographical space for social activities that binds the people of 
Alavanyo traditional area as a homogenous entity from which G.W.K. Dor draws his 
thematic materials were studied. The broader soundscape of the traditional music practices 
among the Northern Eʋes of the Volta Region were also studied through interviews. This 
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was intended to give a broader view of the genres which serves as a pool of resources for 
G.W.K. Dor’s compositions. 
According to Morgan (1998), a Focus Group Discussion is a qualitative research 
method which gathers people with a common background and experiences to discuss 
topic(s) of common interest. He made the suggestion that the researcher serves as a 
moderator who co-ordinates the discussion in which participants may agree or disagree. 
This method of discussion gives a better insight to the researcher. A focus group discussion 
among practitioners of traditional music styles, example, Akpi, Gabada and Adeʋu, etc. in 
Alavanyo-ʋudidi was organized. Through these interactions I collected information about 
the performance practices of these specialized bands. Factors such as instrumental 
resources, performance practice, repertoire, aesthetic values, cantor and chorus etc. were 
discussed. Participation included notetaking, taking and recording of still and moving 
pictures. The historical and philosophical foundations of their musical practices were 
ascertained by this method of data collection. 
During a thirty-minute discussion with G.W.K. Dor he mentioned some of the 
activities he was actively engaged in. Such as composing marching songs, anthems, patriotic 
songs ceremonial songs etc. He added that he has been a member of the E. P. Church 
Hadzigbale Review Committee, being the choir director for several church choirs, formed 
church band at La North E. P. Church, being the national president of the E. P. Church 
Choirs Association, functioned as the Synod organist for two times, one at Ho and the other 
at Sunyani, and so on (Interview with G.W.K .Dor, Dept of Music, UG, Legon, August, 
2017: 2:15pm)). In this regard, some of the people he closely worked with in the various 
organizations in the E. P. Church, Ghana were interviewed. Respondents were selected 
through stratified sampling method. The strata were based on characteristics such as roles 
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played by an individual or group within the church; the specialization of the individual or 
group -e.g. choral, ‘praise band’, dance drumming group such as C.Y.B. and Israel Group; 
church administrative hierarchy i.e. presbytery, district and local congregation.  
I used purposive sampling method to interview choir directors who have taught and 
directed Dor’s choral compositions for a considerable number of years. For instance, Mr. 
Richard Avah (the choir director of Bethel E. P. Church Choir, Accra New Town), Mr. John 
Ampony (the choir director of North - La E. P. Church Choir, North - La), Mr. Humphrey 
Agbeihia, Mr. Walter Blege (the choir director of Grace and Peace E. P. Church Choir, 
Adentan - Accra). Other prominent choir functionaries who served at national, presbytery 
and local levels of the E. P. Church Choirs’ Association were also interviewed. 
I resorted to in-depth interviews and focus group discussions among the migrant 
community members of Hyɛbrɛkrom where I first ‘heard of’ ‘George Dor’ and his music to 
ascertain why they talked and discussed Dor as a composer and placed him tall among his 
contemporaries. 
Georgia State University Library defines Religious Archives as “Archives relating 
to the institutions or tradition of a major faith, denominations within a faith or individual 
places of worship. The materials stored in these individual repositories may be available to 
the public, or may exist to serve members of the faith or the institution by which they were 
created”. I conducted archival search in various institutional libraries such as the ICAM 
library, Department of Music University of Ghana, Balme Library- University of Ghana and 
Accra New-Town E. P. Church Choir music library.  
The search was also extended to individuals who have at their disposure a great stock 
G.K.W. Dor’s compositions. For instance, Mr. Richard Avah of Bethel Church Choir – 
Accra New Town, Mr. John Ampony of North La E. P. Church Choir and Mr. Humphrey 
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Agbeihia. Materials gathered from these individuals were purposively sampled and 
analyzed to unearth the creative processes used.  
Some of the analytical tools used includes La Rue’s LaRue’s Quadrant Framework 
for style analysis, Analysis of Form, Don Freund’s Spectrum of Fifths, and Psychological 
Analysis. Over the centuries, music composers, performers, theorists, analysts etc. have 
endeavoured to categorize exiting musical works into stylistic periods. African and or 
Ghanaian art music since its creation has also been perceived to be a category of style within 
the soundscape of the continent that can also be examined by using analytical tools including 
Quadrant Framework for Style Analysis in Music by Jan LaRue and many others.  
This tool takes into account the dual aspects of musical shape and movement (form 
and process); the division of musical events into large and small dimensions (the whole and 
the parts); and finally, the strands or elements in the musical fabric – the familiar categories 
of sound, harmony, harmony and rhythm. Analyzing these elements within the four 
quadrants (Large dimensions-shape, Large dimension-movement, Small dimension -shape 
and Small dimension-movement) permits a more insightful observation of the style than a 
more general approach would have permitted. 
I chose to use the Quadrant Framework for Style Analysis because it readily provides 
the tools for analyzing the style of a particular composer. It provides the tool (Cue Sheet) 
for investigating the shape, movement and the strands of the composition(s) within the 
spectrum of Sound, Harmony, Melody, Rhythm and Growth. With the Quadrant 
Framework, I studied the large and small shapes of the selected pieces based on the sound, 
harmony, melody, rhythm and growth to unearth the changes which occur along the 
‘musical journey’. The large and small movements of the compositions was also 
investigated by the help of the cue sheet – SHMRG (La Rue, 1981: 40-41). 
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Don Freunds Spectrum of Fifths is an analytical tool used to investigate the 
‘brightness’ and ‘darkness’ of a piece of music. It dwells heavily on the sound of the music 
as the music moves from motif to motif, phrase to phrase, section to section, movement to 
movement and to the form finally. According to Don Freund, music becomes brighter when 
it modulates to the dominant. Example, Cmj – Gmj - Dmj – Amj – Emj – Bmj – F#mj etc. 
and when it modulates around the subdominant, it becomes darker, e.g. Cmj – Fmj – Bbmj 
– Ebmj – Abmj – Dbmj – Gbmj etc.  
There are mood changes in most compositions by G.WK. Dor. Because the mood of 
the selected composition is not static but changes according to the composer’s 
compositional plan or map, I sought to use an analytical tool that will enable me to 
investigate the moods of the works using sound, basically. By listening to the compositions, 
I examined the harmonic scheme of the various pieces that contributed to the mood swings 
yielding to the brightness and darkness. I dwelt principally on modulations within the works 
and the various cadences which precipitated them. With these I was able to tell the bright 
and dark portions as the music moves forward. (https://www.google.com/search?client= 
firefox-b-d&q=don+freunds+fifths)  
Psychological analysis poses the question as to whether musical expectations that 
defines that particular genre are meet. According to Clifford D. Burden (2013: 8-13), 
“knowledge of a musical syntax is not innate, rather it is developed through formal and 
informal exposure. Altering exposure affects knowledge of a musical syntax, and altering a 
musical syntax affects expectations”. Hence altering exposure affects expectations.  
Consequently, the syntax of Ghanaian art music, including those G.W.K. Dor, has 
been unearthed by scholars. However, this analytical tool has been employed to investigate 
the expectations of the listener to the selected compositions. It was used to show that which 
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is known, why and how G.W.K Dor does it differently. For, example, I examined the 
dominant seventh chord whether they resolve to their relative tonic chords. The melodies 
and rhythms were also investigated to bring to light whether the speech tones and rhythm 
of speech of the text used for the composition were considered during the creative processes. 
Some amount of historical background to the selected pieces in addition to some of 
the ‘African’ pre-compositional materials deployed in the generative processes have been 
highlighted in a bid to enhance the discussions on the strands of the selected musical 
compositions. These are not analytical tools intended for investigating the compositions but 
serving as background to these sub titles under study. The goal of this examination was to 
examine the compositional techniques and the theoretical foundations of G.W.K. Dor’s 
composition.  
Faculty was used to enhance the research. The weekly seminars organized by the 
Department of Music will be attended. At these seminars, topical and sensitive issues about 
music and its performance practices are being scrutinized by resource persons. The notes I 
took at this forum were used to aid the study. Topics and discussions at the seminars which 
relate to my area of research enhanced my understanding of the related issues and served as 
an additional source of data gathering. I did not hesitate to collect data from lecturers and 
students alike. S.P.A. Library and African Studies Library were used to gather the needed 
information. The choral and African ensembles of the Department of Music, University of 
Ghana - Legon, Abibgromma – the resident drama group of University of Ghana – Legon 
and the drummers of Ghana National Dance Ensemble were of great value.     
At the 2018 biannual conference organized by the WVPCU at Kasoa between 
Thursday 23rd August and Sunday 26th August 2018, G.W.K. Dor’s composition Mawu 
Wo Nusianu Nyuie (God is Orderly) was used as the ‘main’ conference song. About forty-
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seven participating choirs were in attendance. I conducted a preliminary interview among 
participants both choir directors and chorister. Notetaking and recording of events took 
place. The data was analyzed to ascertain the reasons behind the selection of that song as 
the mass anthem for the conference. 
Data was gathered from secondary sources. Example, books, dissertations, journals, 
articles, periodicals etc. It will enable me to have a fair knowledge about the current 
discussions about choral works and their application in the context of worship in the church. 
Articles, papers and MPhil dissertation written by Dor were also read to understand his 
position on the related issues.   
1.13 Summary 
The choral compositions and other musical activities of G. W. Dor have been identified, 
acknowledged and apprecited by individuals, religious and educational organizations in 
Ghana. The works are being used to serve different need in the church and partly in the 
educational sector in Ghana. However, this study investigates the intercultural dimensions 
of the choral compositions and other musical activities of George W. K. Dor and its benefits 
to the E. P. Church, Ghana. The objectives of the study include factors of influence to G. 
W. K. Dor’s compositions, why the compositions fit into the E. P. Church performance 
practices and the songs’ extra musical factors in the church. The scope of the study is again 
limited to the musical practices of the E. P. Church, Ghana, the influence(s) and creative 
processes of G. W. K Dor choral compositions and structural analysis of compositions 
selected for this research project.  
 
 
 
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CHAPTER TWO 
 THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE E. P. CHURCH, 
GHANA.   
One would appreciate the musical tradition and performance practices of the E. P. Church 
better if some composite factors of the church’s musical foundations are understood. These 
factors dictate the organization of music, its role and performance practices in the church. I 
therefore deem it fit to discuss these antecedents in their chronological order in bid to 
enhance our comprehension.  To achieve this objective, this chapter has been sub divided 
in four sub titles. These are (a) The Pre – Colonial Eʋes; their migration, spatial distribution 
and some conceptions of their music before the arrival of the missionaries. (b)The 
missionaries and their music, the product of the Intercultural practices in the mission 
churches including the E. P. Church, Ghana and (c). The musical tradition and (d) The 
Trajectory of performance practices of the E. P. Church, Ghana.  
THE PRE-COLONIAL EƲES 
1) Migrations and Settlements of the Eʋes 
The migration story of the Eʋes is a confused one. Many authorities have given their 
versions of the possible route. Documentations and narratives have non-identically traced 
the origin of the Eʋes to Ketu (in present day Benin) and Ŋɔtsie “Tracing the history beyond 
Ketu is a task that historians are yet to perform” (Ganusah, 2008: 5). The question of where 
the Eʋes were before Ketu or Ŋɔtsie continues to be an unsolvable puzzle. For example, the 1997 
publication of the 150 years of evangelization and development by the E. P. Church, Ghana, 
sited Ketu as the origin of the Eʋes. Some contemporary writers have traced the origin to 
the Tower of Babel, Mesopotamia and Israel. Ganusah quoted Kludze as saying that 
“Perhaps the Eʋe migratory process together with those of the neighboring Akan, began 
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somewhere in the Sudan and progressed in the south-western direction to avoid the Sahara”. 
Historians have meddled in the game of probability largely because the analysis and 
interpretations of facts is a sophisticated one knowing that it is based solely on oral tradition. 
The matter of origin is therefore unsettled. (Ganusah, 2008). However, I will begin the story 
from Ketu. 
The ancestors of the Eʋes trace their place of origin to Ketu, formerly Dahomey 
(present day Benin in the south-eastern part). From Ketu they moved to settle at Tado in the 
eastern part of river Mono in present day Togo because of constant wars and raids. This was 
in the 1400s. Ansre (1997: 1 - 8) noted that linguistic evidence points to a much earlier time 
on the account of the rate of dialectic differentiation.  
Later on, they moved from Tado to Ŋɔtsie. According to oral tradition, Ŋɔtsie was 
large capital city with walls around it. Ŋɔtsie is sometimes referred to as Glime, which 
literally means ‘within walls. The dwellers of the surrounding area often took asylum in the 
city when threatened by wars or slave raids. The main economic activities of Ŋɔtsie and its 
surrounding communities were hunting, agriculture and handicrafts. They grew millet and 
yam. Tradition has it that, the Eʋes, at the said time were ruled by King Agokorli who is 
said to be the descendant of the first settlers and the founding fathers of Ŋɔtsie. But he was 
a tyrant.  As a result of the unbearable tyranny, the Eʋes emigrated, reportedly around the 
first half of the 17th Century.  
According to oral tradition, they first travelled together to enable them to fight back 
pursuing Ŋɔtsie forces but later split into three major groups: a northern, middle and 
southern groups.  In an interview with the Paramount Chief of Peki traditional area, Togbe 
Kwadwo Dei XII, at his residence in Accra - the northern group included the ancestors of 
Kpele, Agu, Agome, Leklebi, Ve, Kpando, Kpedze, Akome, Dzolo, both Anfoe, Matse, 
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Kpetsi, Woadze, Awudome and Gbi. The middle group included Agɔtime, Ho, Adaklu, 
Sokode, Abutia and others. It is said that the southerners were the ancestors of the Anlo, 
Tɔŋu and related branches of the ‘Dogboawo’. These included the founders of Be, Ʋeta, 
Dzodze, Fenyi, Ave, Aʄiʄe, Mafi, Agave, Tokoe and Tanyigbe.  “It is likely that these 
groupings actually represent the present-day geographical location of the various Eʋe-
speaking peoples and the social alliances they may have formed”. (Ansre, 1997: 2). In his 
article Gbolo Kobla – A Traditional Composer and His Songs, Kafui (2014) categorizes the 
Eʋe-speaking people in two major groups. He asserts that the northern Eʋes, known as 
Eʋeawo, are found north to the southerners and these includes the Ho, Gbi (Dzigbe), Hohoe, 
Kpando, Kpeve and Jasikan districts. He categorizes the southerners (Aŋlɔawo) as the 
speakers of Aŋlɔ, Some Avenɔs, Toŋus and others. Kafiu observed the sub division between 
the northerners known as Gbi Dzigbe and Gbi Nyigbe. 
The Gbi subdivision is traditionally said to have settled at Agodzogbe, between 
present-day Hohoe and Fodome both political and economic. The kingdom, in its growth, 
undertook adventures of conquest and thereby expanded in a bid to sustain its authority and 
prestige over its neighbours. By the 18th Century, Akwamu had established her political 
power over the Guan principalities in what is known today as Akuapem area, over Ga-
Dangme areas and even to the east of the Volta. 
Akwamu’s political ambition was knitted to its economic motive. Akwamu’s 
interest was directed towards gaining control over Krepi (Gbi south and its neighboring 
states) because of its importance as a source of slaves and ivory. Historians consider the 18th 
century to the peak period of the slave trade. The Akwamus involvement in the slave trade 
accounts for this. 
  
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2) Present location of the Eʋes  
Linguistically, Eʋenyigba (Eʋeland) cut across the Eastern part of the Volta River, the 
Republic of Togo, the Republic of Benin and parts of the Federal Republic of Nigeria. 
Dialectically, they belong to the Niger-Congo group of languages. Ganusah (2008 p. 6), 
pointed out that in West Africa as a whole, Eʋes are found in large numbers in Ghana, Togo 
and Benin with just a handful along the western boarders of Nigeria, It is worthy to note 
that Eʋes are also found outside these populated areas ‘in common with the movement of 
people all over the world as a result of occupational and other activities’. 
The Eʋes in Ghana are grouped into two; the northern and southern Eʋes. The 
northern Eʋes, commonly known as Eʋeawo are found in the Ho, Gbi (Dzigbe), Hohoe, 
Kpando, Kpeve and Jasikan districts. (Kafui, 2014). Ganusah observed that the term ‘dome’ 
literally means “middle” or central being used to refer to the inland or the Eʋe group of 
people found mainly at the southern part of the Volta Region. She noted that, since this area 
lies at the northern side of the two Eʋe groups (the Tɔŋu and the Aŋlɔ), the area was referred 
to as the Eʋe-Dome. The term refers to both the geographical area and the people. A striking 
feature about the north and south settlers is that they speak two variant forms of the 
language. Each category of the forms has a detailed tonal inflection that specifically 
differentiates one traditional area from the other. However, speakers of the language are 
‘able to tell, through the accent, the area from which a fellow Eʋe originates from, that is, 
whether the person comes from Eʋe-dome or from the southern section of the Ewe land. 
The variant forms are illegible to all   Eʋes’. (Ganusah, 2008 p. 3) 
The geographical area of the Southern-Eʋes includes settlements that spreads across 
the area between the Togo Hills (to the east), the Volta River (to the west) and the costal 
belt. They include parts of North and South Tɔŋu administrative areas which includes Aŋlɔ, 
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Ave, Avenɔ, and Klikɔ, Some, Aʄawu, Dzodze, ʋeta and Abɔr traditional areas. According 
to oral tradition, the people who occupy these areas are believed to come from the same 
tentative ancestry. They speak varieties of the Eʋe language but there are differences among 
the dialects. The indigenes are able to differentiate between the dialects by the tonal 
inflections. In the Republic of Togo, the Eʋes can be found in Lome, Noeʄe, Voga, Kpalime, 
Anexɔ, Genyi, Agbedrafɔ, Badzida, Adzanu, Atando, Togoville and Ziɔ. At the south-
eastern part of the Eʋe settlement is the speakers of Fɔn. The people who speak this language 
(Fɔngbe), are settled around the following areas. Allada, Adza, Agbome, Agboe, Fla, Kɔme, 
Gleʄe, Kutonu, and Xɔgbonu in the Republic of Benin. In the republic of Nigeria, the Eʋes 
are found scattered in areas like Lagos and Badagri. 
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Map 1: Eʋeland [Volta Region, Ghana] (https://www.google.com/Ho-Municipality-and-
other-Districts-in-the-Volta-Region_fig1_225900025) accessed 10/03/2020 
2020@6:20pm 
 
2.1 Some Aspects of Worldview of the Eʋes.  
Ŋɔtsie was the place where king Agokorli ruled with adverse tyranny which eventually 
caused the Eʋes to escape. The political system of their original home, the exodus and their 
final settlement in the west of Africa offers scholars to the opportunity to study them as one 
of the few indigenous sources of early local history. Some categorize the Eʋes to be of a 
centralized political system. Ŋɔtsie had a great political, economic and religious status 
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between the nineteenth and the twentieth but it declined because it was colonized by the 
German followed by the French. But none of these eroded the town of its economic and 
religious significance. It is through this cultural background that the northern and southern 
Eʋes define themselves. The fall is also linked to the rise in demand for enslaved African 
labour and the Akwamu imperial wars against the Eʋes in order to control the eastern trade 
route. During the next two decades the Akwamus lost their rule over the Eʋes. The deities 
of the southern Eʋes communities started bringing in wealth where the Europeans demanded 
for slaves and also as a result of the rise of economic exchange on the Atlantic coast. 
2.2 Spectrum of Worldview  
Greene (2002) delineated the worldviews of the Eʋes into three historical viewpoints which 
she described as pre-colonial, colonial and post-colonial narratives.    
2.2.1 Pre-Colonial Notions of Ŋɔtsie 
By 1769, Aŋlɔ had lost her political power due to series of military incursions which caused 
Aŋlɔ to lose her believe in Adzovia and Bate deities. The Dzevi (an outsider Aŋlɔ clan) 
challenged Aŋlɔ to take Adzovia and Bate as their political and religious deities. Even though 
they have lost their abilities in the sixteenth century, they have regained it in the eighteenth 
century in producing tsina or tsikpe (rain stone). By the turn of this century a deity’s ability 
in winning wars was far revered than that which was capable of giving rain fall and harvest. 
As a result of this, Dzevi’s war deity had a significant toll on the relevance of Ŋɔtsie to the 
people.  
          Annual pilgrimages to Ŋɔtsie dwindled and more attention was given to Dzevi’s local 
war god Nyigbla. Political, economic and religious contacts with the neighbouring 
communities around Aŋlɔ brought a new divination, Afa, which subsequently introduced the 
god Se. The people contextualized Se to coexist with Mawu but superseded him (Mawu) in 
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supremacy. Because of this, daily prayers were made to Se in the eastern communities where 
Se is thought to have originated. This place of origin became a common place of religious 
destination to the Aŋlɔs and the surrounding communities. This occurrence gave a new 
definition to Mawu and its religious significance to its home, Ŋɔtsie However, the towns in 
close proximity to Ŋɔtsie resorted to it for their religious benefits.  
2.2.2 Modifications of the worldview  
Ellis in Greene (2002) noted that Mawu was regarded as the most powerful god by the 
communities around Ŋɔtsie and even some among the Aŋlɔs. Mawu was perceived to be 
one of the independent gods. But the Aŋlɔ and their allies who were in close contact with 
the Europeans had a different worldview of Mawu. They divergently perceived Mawu to be 
the lord of the terrestrial gods hence the powerful among the others. Sacrifices were not 
made to him and libations rarely poured. To them, “Mawu is too far to interfere in the affairs 
of man. They believe that “He lives in beatific condition of perpetual drowsiness. (Ellis, 
1878).  
The Eʋedome or Eʋedomeawo believe that Mawu has no priest and that Ŋɔtsie is 
His home where occasional religious pilgrimages are made. By the 1700s, Ŋɔtsie, a site that 
commanded political, economic, and religious significance had become an ‘empty shell’. 
Both Eʋes and non-Eʋes retreated from its hopes but sidelined with the rapid change of 
social lives influenced by the Europeans on the continent.   
2.2.3 Colonial Notions of Ŋɔtsie  
The Bremen missionaries actively ended their missionary activities by the end of World 
War I and left in the minds of the Eʋes a new way of perceiving their African gods. The Eʋe 
had learnt that all human beings were created by and come from the Supreme God but 
rebelled against Him. All humans, once upon a time, lived in Babel and that the rebellion 
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accounts for the diverse linguistic and ethnic differences. In an attempt to reconnect the 
Eʋes to their monotheistic past, the missionaries regarded the Eʋes as one linguistic 
community. They reduced their language into writing and resorted to its standardization 
using the Aŋlɔ dialect as a medium of communication and thought pupils who enroll in their 
school how to read and write the Eʋe language. Aside these, the missionaries re-echoed the 
view that all Eʋes come from Ŋɔtsie. To stripe off the original content of Ŋɔtsie and to 
ensure the unification of the Eʋes, the missionaries worked with the German governments 
to secularize the town in the minds of the pupils and also in reality. Publications omitted the 
fact that Ŋɔtsie was the home of Mawu neither was Mawu viewed as a powerful deity. It 
became a simple town where all Eʋes once lived, ruled by the tyrant King Agokorli. Mawu 
was now regarded as the Supreme God of the Christians: omnipresence, omnipotent, 
omniscience. Hereafter, political struggles in the regions redirected the memories of the 
Eʋes to Ŋɔtsie.  
2.2.4 Post-Colonial Notions of Ŋɔtsie 
As a result of the administrative boundaries that was established in1890 between British 
Gold Coast and German Togoland a division was created between the total linguistic 
communities of the Eʋes. The Eʋes within their administrative regions took advantage of 
the social amenities available to them to develop themselves. Their focus was directed to 
regional, districts and local integrations rather than the Eʋes unification initiated by the 
missionaries. Ŋɔtsie once again lost its significance. It barely remained a ‘local pride’. 
However, Hogbetsotso was instituted in 1962 by the Aŋlɔ to commemorate the exodus but 
placing more emphasis on cultural pride. However, in 1973 during Togbui Adeladza II’s 
reign, the festival was re-organized to facilitate local developmental rather than a cultural 
showbiz (Greene, 2002: 1017-1029).           
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 The Akan speaking people of Ghana shares common religious beliefs with the Eʋes. 
For instance, both believe that the physical world is made up of the material world and the 
secular activities that goes on in it and while the spiritual world consists of gods, human 
beings and the ancestral world. The spiritual world is also made up of forces such as magic, 
witchcraft, sorcery and so on. They believe that the spiritual forces involve themselves in 
the affairs of man and are arranged in a hierarchical order of supremacy, the Supreme God 
being the creator, Oboade - Akan, hence the greatest. Contrary to that said, the Eʋes perceive 
that Mawu is a terrestrial god, most powerful, independent and does not involve himself in 
the affairs of man. Unlike the Eʋes who do not petition Mawu, the Akans petition Oboade 
through the pouring of libation. The two distinct worlds (physical and spiritual) in the Akan 
worldview co-exist to make life worth living. The Akan believe the habitations of these 
spiritual forces are trees, rocks, rivers, mountains etc so do the Eʋes. “The customs and the 
traditional ways of life sanctioned by the spiritual, ancestors and the gods provides a 
framework of the Akan ethics” (Awuah-Nyamekye, 2009). 
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Map 2:  Ethnic States of the Eʋes 
(https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/africa/images/to-map-1900.jpg ) accessed 
10/03/2020 2020@6:20pm 
 
2.3 Perspectives and Concepts of Eʋe Musical Types 
Within the Aŋlɔ religious and musical milieu every musical type such as Akpoka, Atrikpui 
and dzida is named after the deities from which the genres are perceived to have originated.  
The names of the dance-drumming types are prefixed with the names of their respective 
deities. For instance, one may also have Afaʋu, Nyigblaʋu, Yeʋeʋu and others alike. These 
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types of songs are purposely used for religious activities but during literal public 
performances, these musical styles may be performed alongside recreational musical types. 
Their functional differences are sharply drawn by the repertoire of songs and idioms used 
for the genre and the involvement of indigenes who profess the creed and confessions of 
such deities in question. Also, they are normally possessed by the deities during such 
performances.  
          Music making in the socio-cultural wed of the Aŋlɔ is organized along group or solo 
performances. Uni or multilinear thematic materials that are used are not a definitive factor 
for the categories here identified. During a solo performance, the performer may engage a 
non-performer when a communication is established. The themes that are used in each of 
these categories are commonly shared with neighboring communities, households and 
individuals in the vicinity.  
          In view of the foregoing, even if the music is performed in the absence of an audience 
the music will still be a reality. Fiagbedzi (1977) asserted that collective music making 
among the southern settlers is organized through the principle of division of labour as it is 
among other non-Eʋe speaking communities in Africa. Pleasure songs (plasiʋu) are 
organized in stages: dance-drumming, libation, dance and singing known as hatsiatsia. 
Generally, there are two streams of music types. They include the indigenous original Aŋlɔ 
music and those that are imported from neighbouring communities, for example, Amesiʋu, 
Misego, Kpegisu, and Duasika and the Western: Europe, U.S.A. and the West Indians which 
include choral music and ballroom musical types such as waltz, foxtrot, quick step including 
Black American types like soul music. The coexistence of the two brought about a hybrid 
of genre in the resemblance of Western four-part harmonization such as Aŋlɔdukomeha by 
Evans Amegashie and Hogbetsotsoha by Philip Gbexo. Vocal songs are text-bond and 
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rhythmically syllabic and limited in melisma. Songs in free rhythm follow the speech 
contour.  
2.4 Historical Perspectives of South Eʋe Music Making 
The earliest indigenous musical types of the Aŋlɔ and their allies predates their exodus and 
final settlement at their present locations according to oral tradition. The narratives explain 
that a night before their escape from Ŋɔtsie they performed way into the night. After the 
recreational activity, Togbui ʋenya removed his sword, pointed it to four directions (North, 
South, East and West) and trusted it through the ‘city’ wall. With great force, the people 
pushed the wall down flat and fled. The drum-dancing type which was performed at that 
night is believed to be Misego (gird your loins) identified in modern times as Husago, one 
of the nine Yeʋe cult music. It is performed as a preparatory music prior to Yeʋe rituals. 
Fiagbedzi asserted that if misego existed prior to the Eʋe exodus “then Eʋe esoteric dance-
drumming types such as Soʋu, Sogbaʋu, and Adaʋu very likely exited at the time as an 
integral part of Yeʋe ceremonial dance-drumming types (Fiagbedzi, 1977: 367-376). 
            Among the Southern Eʋes, just like the Northerners, thinking about music generally 
is integrated into the general life endeavours of the indigenes. The vitality of music 
performance is embedded in the ‘rich’ rhythmic complexities. Agawu argued that the music 
is best understood when viewed from the larger pool of creative sources for expressions 
which encircles West African traditional musical embodiment. In a summary Agawu noted: 
Musical expression (or, essentially, rhythmic expression) is not 
divorced from other forms of communication - speech, gesture, 
greetings and dance – but derives directly from these (Agawu, 1987: 
403). 
 
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          Melodic instruments are rarely found among the Southern Eʋe settlers. As a result of 
this, their music is found to be flooded with singing, vibrant drumming and dancing. Their 
music is finely crystalized into facets of performance practices. These crystallization 
processes are aided by factors such as historical periods, function, predominant instrument, 
age and gender of performers (Fiagbedzi, 1977: 55 - 59). Dor noted that among these, 
classification by function is the most common. For example, xɔseʋu (Christian music, 
religious music or converts music) and aʋadeʋu (war song or music). Again, notable among 
the Aŋlɔ are Agɔhawo and Nyagaʋuwo. The former is composed by individuals as an 
expression of their sentiments abouts events and nature. They are also known as songs of 
lamentation. The latter is a musical group that is made up of aged women, predominantly. 
This musical group’s dicta for performance is feminine. The have very few men who plays 
and accompaniment role by playing the drum and some idiophones (Dor, 2004: 27 - 28). 
          There are parallels of these concepts among the northerners also. Drumming is used 
to accompany singing and dancing. Vocal music is the most celebrated among the Eʋes 
because melodic instruments do not abound compared to other class of traditional 
instruments. Nketia (1974) argues that the instrumental forms play a contemplative role 
among ethnic groups of Africa. Young (2011), identifies contemplative modes such as 
‘performance at the courts of chiefs, at funerals, or at storytelling sessions. African music is 
known to be rhythmically oriented. 
In terms of instrumental or drum music, ʋugbe (lit. rhythmic patterns of drumming) 
are text-bound may be understood in terms of translatable words. They may also be 
understood by mnemonic or nonsense syllables with which the drummer creates or identifies 
patterns or drum rhythms.  This is the main form of musical notation that the people use to 
teach, remember, learn and interpret as rhythmic patterns (Fiagbedzi in Agbodeka 1997: 
153). 
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2.5 Organization of Dance - Drumming Activities among the Eʋes.  
Musical activities are organized as a social activity. There are free musical performances 
that are ritually bond. These are referred to as modzakaɖenowo. There are also those that 
are performed in the context of religious activity. The first category of musical types caters 
for pleasure, entertainment, or artistic experience as an end in itself. These are leisure time, 
boredom-killing dance-drumming and song types. They are primarily for entertainment. 
Most of these types may also function at funerals, traditional weddings, puberty rites or any 
festival. The second category of musical types are viewed as part of the traditional 
ceremony, the ritual, or the special event to which they are connected. Dance-drumming 
types in this category are performed at specific points in time during the ceremony, either 
as a prelude, interlude, or postlude. Most of these musical types are linked with political 
activities, religious activities, occupational activities and life-cycle events. 
Dance-drumming among the South-Eastern Eʋes is organized as a social event, and 
is principally a group activity. Groups are organized within the framework of the kɔʄe 
(village), to (suburb) or du (town) political demarcations. There are musical groups or bands 
found in almost every community, in addition to the more general performances, which are 
open to everybody in the community. Young in Kovey (1998) observed that to achieve 
aesthetic values the local people assign certain traditionally accepted roles to special people 
in the communities for ‘effective and high-standardized’ musical presentations. He 
enumerated these as follows; the lead singer or cantor (Henɔ, hadzitɔ or hagla) is assisted 
by special assistant called hatsɔla. Assisted by the hatsɔla is the hatsɔvi. The master 
drummer (Azaguno) is assisted by players of supporting instruments (Azagunɔ kpewo). 
There is the male patron of a group. He is known as ʋumega. The female leader or queen 
mother of the group is called ʋudada. Even though music performances in the traditional 
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setting are socially organized and deem as a collective activity, there may be spectators to 
these performances. They are Kpɔnkuitɔwo. The disciplinarian of a group at a performance 
is known as Atinua or kadaa. 
Generally, music-making is an integral part of the social and cultural matrix of the 
pre-colonial Eʋe. Events which encapsulate music-making include life cycle, their religious 
and traditional events, leisure, marriage and family etc. Performances are not always 
characterized by groove, as a notion of Africa, but can also be realized on a ‘lighter scale’. 
Example, solo music making, contemplative or reflective music making, dirges, singing of 
lullaby, music associated to the cult and rituals etc. Occupational activities are found in this 
category of ‘light scale’ music. Farming and fishing activities; clearing the land (which may 
be organized in turns among a given group, usually small, example, ndɔboa of the Akans of 
Ghana, or by an individual, planting or sowing, and harvesting may be accompanied by 
music making (Abotchie 2013: 10 - 21).  
Others are those that are associated with artifact making. For instance, 
blacksmithing, basketry, kente weaving, mat weaving, carpentry, pottery etc. There are also 
musical activities practiced among the Eʋes who live along the Volta River and the coastal 
areas. The Tɔŋus, the settlers at Keta, Anyako and Aŋlɔga areas in their fishing activities 
utilize ‘group music making’ in pulling their nets. Its equivalent to the group music making 
that comes with ndɔboa and communal labour in the communities. Such lighter scale music 
may employ just one, at most two-percussion instrument – the double bell, castanet or the 
rattle). Otherwise, music-making would involve groove, cross rhythm, close to nature etc. 
Outdoor musical types such as entertainment, funerals, coronation of Kings and so on 
vigorous.  
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           Melodic instruments are rarely found among the Southern Eʋe settlers. As a result 
of this, their music is found to be flooded with singing, vibrant drumming and dancing. 
Their music is finely crystalized into facets of performance practices. These crystallization 
processes are aided by factors such as historical periods, function, predominant instrument, 
age and gender of performers (Fiagbedzi, 1977: 55 - 59). Dor noted that among these, 
classification by function is the most common. For example, xɔseʋu (Christian music, 
religious music or converts music) and aʋadeʋu (war song or music). Again, notable among 
the Aŋlɔ are Agɔhawo and Nyagaʋuwo. The former is composed by individuals as an 
expression of their sentiments abouts events and nature. They are also known as songs of 
lamentation. The latter is a musical group that is made up of aged women, predominantly. 
This musical group’s dicta for performance is feminine. The have very few men who plays 
and accompaniment role by playing the drum and some idiophones (Dor, 2004: 27 - 28). 
Music associated with funerals includes dirges, choral laments and the performance 
of social and religious dance-drumming types depending on the status of the dead or the 
bereaved family. Performances at the funeral start by wake keeping, then the funeral rites, 
burial, grand funeral, then the final rites. At night, especially when moon light appears it 
usually signifies a time for storytelling and moments of music making. These are times of 
glitoto in the rural setting.  
2.6 The Enterprise of the Missionaries  
2.6.1 Prelude 
The first prototype of mission abroad was first formed by the Anglican Church. It was 
formed in 1699 and named Society for the Propagation of Christ Knowledge (S.P.C.K). The 
society was meant for the propagation of the gospel in 1701. The purpose of these society 
was to attend to the spiritual needs of Europeans temporary living abroad in the name of 
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explorations. The un-evangelized or pagan was out of focus. A change in attitude was 
brought about as a result of the Pietist Movement. 
“Not only was Pietism characterized by an emphasis on conversion but it stood for 
Christianity in action, the Christian message expressed in life. Holland, France and Germany 
were instrumental in this movement and the Moravian Church of the Brethren was in this 
stream” (Groves 1948: 1-169). 
Warnock (1983) supports this assertion and writes that missionary “zeal first grew 
out of pietism” initiated by the Moravians. After ten years of the movement, the Moravians 
sent missionaries to the Greenland and the West Indians. “These are the first of Protestant 
missionaries. Five years later, they arrived in the West and South of Africa identified as the 
very first to be sent to Africa. This marked the genesis of missionary activities in Africa 
(Warnock, 1983: 34 - 45). 
In 1737, Henry Huckoff, a Dane and European educated black launched a Moravian 
mission to the Gold Coast. He established a school in Christiansburg in 1756, completed a 
Fante grammar in 1764 but died shortly. Disease, especially malaria, continued to hamper 
the work of any missionary activity in the Gold Coast. “Africa came to be called the White 
Man’s Grave. In the eighteenth century, others were moved to evangelize in Africa. An 
example is Jacobus Captien who was ordained a chaplain to the Gold Coast. He translated 
a few materials in vernacular including the translation of The Apostle’s Creed into Fante.  
Thomas Thompson, an Anglican missionary followed in 1751. The Moravians were 
few to have made any substantial impact allowing a few others join the move. Hallet writes 
“In 1790, Africa contained a handful of European missionaries but their influence was 
almost negligible”   
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Although the Moravians were instrumental in setting the pace, the real task of 
Protestant missionary activity was triggered by a religious revival in Britain during the 
eighteenth century commonly referred to as the Evangelical Revival or the Wesleyan 
Revival; John Wesley (1703-1719) and Charles Wesley (1707-1788) being the exponents. 
Adherents of the revival are those who remained in the mainline denominations. Hymns 
out-poured from the stylus of these two brothers. Other missionary societies proliferated. 
Baptist Missionary society (1792) and the London Missionary Society (1795), most of them 
showing interest in Africa. Missionaries appeared at the shores of Africa when the slave 
trade was about to be abolished (Fage 1978).  
Attention for the slave trade was first directed to Sierra Leone. Among the first were 
the Baptists (1795), the Wesleyans (1796), the Glasgow and Scottish Missionary Societies 
(1797), the Church Missionary Society (1804) and the Methodist (1811). “Sierra Leone was 
chosen as a place to establish a foot-hold because it had the advantage of being the only 
place in Africa where slavery was illegal. Missionary work grew slow around Freetown. 
The Basel missionary started to implant a church in the Gold Coast in 1828 but had no 
converts until 1847 when the Bremen mission started missionary activities around the 
eastern part of the Gold Coast between River Volta and the Togo hills. By the second half 
of the seventeenth century, missionary activities had taken a firm ground in West Africa.  
“Evangelizing Africans was complicated by the presence of Europeans settlers. By 
the opening of the nineteenth century, Dutch settlers already had a history of a century and 
half of residence. They tended to see themselves as God’s chosen people with the mandate 
to subdue the land and its people. Their mistreatment of Africans and voracious appetite for 
land cause the Africans to distrust missionaries” (Warnock, 1983: 44).   
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2.6.2 Further Developments 
Missionary stations were established within a distance of one hundred miles off the 
coastlines because of Islamic influences around the central and the coastal with the 
exception of South Africa. Around the period of 1851-1918, momentum was steadily 
building up to allow missionaries of the second half and the ninetieth century and the early 
twentieth century to penetrate the interior of Africa. Anthropologist, David Livingstone was 
responsible for this occurrence. His objective was to survey the continent of Africa and its 
inhabitants of unexplored regions. His lectures back home inspired new interest in Africa 
and challenged a generation of missionary recruits to direct their attention to Africa. 
Livingstone invoked interest in evangelizing the whole of Africa. The coastal areas 
had a history of an Islamic contact and people with the Islamic influence rejected the 
missionaries. The situation was different in West Africa. Islamic stronghold was in the 
hinterlands leaving the coastal areas virgin to be explored by the missionaries. As a result, 
the central part of Africa was approached from the south rather than the east. 
The Roman Catholic insurgence in the second half of the eighteenth century made a 
great impact on missionary activities in Africa. The Catholic missions; the White Fathers 
(1868) and Lyons Society African Missions (1868) were structured along the lines of the 
protestant missions. Although the Catholics started missionary work later than the 
Protestants, they managed to outnumber the Protestants in church establishments. Catholic-
Protestant ratio of 6,000: 4500 is documented by historians. “Catholics do not balk at 
entering areas of protestant influence”. The presence of Catholics and protestant created a 
sort of competition which amounted to co-existence and co-operation (Fage 1978: 336). 
The scramble for Africa created problems for the missionaries because of the already 
culturally diverse Africa. Whiles the missionaries sought to unify the people through 
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Christian religious practices, colonialism had the potential of dividing them with disregard 
to language, religion, music and other forms of social organization. African in English 
controlled countries would learn English separating themselves from French-speaking 
Africans in French colonies. Since the missionaries came before the colonialist, the Africans 
mostly confuses the works of these two foreign bodies. 
Throughout Africa, one can hear complaints such as “The missionaries came and 
taught us to pray and when we opened our eyes our land was gone”, or “Before the white 
man came, we had our land and they had bible; now they have the land and we have the 
bible”. The missionaries had a difficulty of differentiating themselves from the colonialists. 
However, the missionaries also benefited from colonization. The presence of the 
colonialist provided a sense of security for them. Although, there was instability among the 
ethnic groups at the time, the arrival of the governor’s military protected the missions from 
rivalry and wars among the chiefdoms. Colonialism directed Europeans attention to African 
in seeking the spiritual and total wellbeing for the African. This gave the missions a bit of 
relief. 
2.6.2.1 The Norddeutsche Missionsgesellshaft    
The Norddeutsche Missionsgesellshaft (The North Germany Missions Society) is a product 
of the Pietist Movement which can directly be traced to The Reformation, the religious 
movement in the sixteenth century lead by Martin Luther; and later by John Calvin. The 
religious revival in Europe during the eighteenth century further resulted in the formation 
of the North Germany Missions Society.  
          The society was formed in 1836 by the joint effort of the Lutherans and the Reformed 
churches in Germany. During the revival, it was agreed in North Germany that all Lutherans 
and Protestant missions be united to form one North German Mission. Representatives from 
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State, Bremen and Retzebuttel converged at Hamburg. During the period, other missionary 
societies were formed in other parts of Europe and the USA. They include the American 
Missionary Society, the Wesleyan Missionary Society, the Basel Missionary Society and 
the Society of African Mission. Formed at the north of Germany it was called The North 
German Mission Society.   
          Ansre (1997) asserts that, representatives of the society came from Humberg, Bremen 
and Stade. Johann Hartwig Brauer was its first inspector. Mission schools were opened and 
candidates were trained for mission abroad with focus on the West Coasts of Africa. In 1846 
the students’ population grew to ten. The students had training in Vocational Skills in 
addition to other disciplinary skill e.g. Linguistics, Agriculture, and Health Science before 
enrolling in the missionary school. The inspector of the mission Johann Hartwig Brauer, 
played a cardinal role in the day-to-day administration of the mission. In 1847, missionaries 
Lorenz Wolf, Luer Bultman, James Graft and Karl Flato were sent to Africa. The quartet 
berth at Christiansborg Castle ready to find an untapped mission field (Ansre, 1997: 18 - 
20). 
 Ustorf explains that the formation of the society played an important role in the 
confessional divisions which prevail among the Christian Community at the time. He noted 
that “The mission was to take its stance neither from Wittenberg nor of Olives” (Ustorf, 
2002: 22 - 25). The mission of the society was grounded on the message in Matthew 28:18-
20 for the spreading of the Kingdom of God among the heathen. Initially, the society did 
not have offices for its administrative work but operated in rented apartments and in the 
houses of its members who were well off until the turn of the year 1868. The Norddeutsche 
Missionsgesellshaft was only represented in Bremen by a committee.  
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Consequently, the headquarters was moved from Hamburg to Bremen. The Bremen 
Mission Association was then founded in 1819. Note that this happened after Wolf and his 
team had already penetrated the Eʋeland. It took over the leadership of the North German 
Mission in 1850 and operated from Bremen. The association was run on democratic 
principles initially and its expansion included members of its own ranks in Bremen. But it 
changed. The Bremen committee became aristocratic and patriarchal for half a century. 
Membership was limited to contributors of its financial aid. “To that extent the term, 
‘Bremen Mission’ which was usual in the West Coast of Africa was justified (Ustorf 2002).  
2.6.2.2 Bremen Mission in the Gold Coast (1847-1886) 
The four German trained missionaries, Lorenz Wolf, Luer Bultman, James Graff and Karl 
Flato, arrived at Cape coast on May 5, 1847. Before their arrival, the Wesleyan missionaries 
had started missionary work among the Fantis and were stationed at Cape Coast. Thomas 
Birch Freeman hosted the four Bremen missionaries for two weeks. Expectantly, Wolf and 
Boltman left for Gabon. Their objective was to explore the possibilities of starting 
evangelism among the people of Gabon but they were repelled by Roman Catholic 
missionaries who were already stationed in Gabon supported by the French authorities. In a 
bid to stop any form of rivalry between the Roman Catholics and the Protestants (Bremen 
mission), the French authorities ordered Wolf to leave Gabon. Meanwhile Bultman died 
soon after arriving in Gabon. 
Wolf came back to Cape Coast only to find out that his companion Karl Flato had 
also died. Lorenz Wolf and James Graff, were the only two missionaries left. Upon learning 
that the Basel missionaries had settled at Christiansborg since 1828, Wolf and Graff decided 
to consult them in finding an untapped mission field. The two missionaries made a move to 
Christiansborg hoping to be assisted by the Basel missionaries in finding a virgin mission 
field. They were directed to Eʋeland. At that time, economic activities between the people 
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of Osu, around Christiansburg, and the people of Eʋeland in Peki was at its peak. The people 
of Peki traded European goods which included guns and other ammunitions. 
2.6.3 The mission Field at Peki 
Between 1828 and 1847 the Basel missionaries had succeeded in establishing a school in 
Accra, Christiansborg which prince Nyangamagu - the son of King Kwadzo Dei II, known 
in private life as Tutu Yao - attended. When Nyangamagu learnt that the Bremen 
missionaries were in search for an untapped mission field to explore he assured them of 
Krepi in Eʋeland where his father, King Kwadzo Dei II, ruled. Nyangamagu sent a word to 
his father – the King. The response was affirmative. King Kwadzo Dei II sent bearers to 
Christiansburg to bring the missionaries. Leaving Graff behind, Wolf set off to Peki on 
November 10, 1847. 
On arriving, Wolf was fascinated to see the cleanliness and diligence of the Krepis. 
Hundreds of people ushered Wolf into the Kings town, Peki - Blengo, with shouts and 
dancing. Two rounds of gun were fired in his honour. He lodged in the Kings palace. (Ansre, 
1997). Ansre wrote, “Wolf was so much impressed by the fertility of Krepiland, the 
cleanliness and the diligence of the Krepis that he entered in his dairy ‘the large village, 
Asiedu, was so clean and nicely built” (Ansre, 1997: 21). On Monday November 15, 1847, 
many of the town folks visited Wolf and gave a lot of gifts. Upon request, the people of Peki 
built a house for him to start his missionary work. Meanwhile, news reached Wolf from 
Christiansborg about the demise of Graff. On November 28, 1847, Wolf went to Accra-
Christiansburg and brought with him their belongings. 
Between January 1848 to January 1851, Wolf carried out his missionary activities 
smoothly. The mission house served as chapel, clinic and school. The school started with 
fourteen boys. The curricula included Biblical History, Reading, Arithmetic, Writing and 
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Hymn Singing. Wolf’s healthcare delivery earned him more fame. He cured Tim Klu, the 
then chief of Peki – Wodome, of a chronic sore. Using English as the medium of 
communication posed many challenges to the missionary. 
2.6.4 Difficulties and challenges 
At the time, Wolf was not successful in winning the people to Christ as he was in his 
educational and healthcare delivery. The traditional priests prevented the people from 
accessing healthcare from the clinic because in the traditional setting, the priests facilitated 
healthcare delivery. Consequently, arrival of the missionary had a toll on the monetary gains 
of the former. The people were not willing to give up their traditional ways of worship but 
were more concerned about their gods and more zealous to their traditional religious 
practices. They held the traditional priest in high esteem paying little attention to the 
missionary. In 1848, there was a severe drought. The traditional priest blamed it on the King 
for accommodating the Whiteman and his God. To compound the problems was the illness 
of Wolf. The people attributed it to the anger of the gods. He was healed. ‘Unknown to 
Wolf, spell was cast at crosswords and libation poured to save his life’. 
During the first year of Wolf’s missionary work in Peki, he had no converts. On 
March3, 1849, new missionaries, Groth and Quinius arrived at Peki to support the 
missionary work. The school had very few pupils, those who attended the church were very 
few and paid no attention, building a new mission house was delaying, grants from Germany 
were delaying and inadequate, the missionaries were constantly taken ill, inefficient 
interpreters hampered the work, parents of the pupils demanded clothes from the 
missionaries, adopting to local food was difficult, correspondence with Europe was 
extremely difficult. The school was temporarily closed down due to ill health. 
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On April 5, 1850, Miss Karoline Diest arrived at Peki. Her arrival re-kindled the 
hopes of the missionaries. Just at this point, Wolf’s health deteriorated and he decide to 
return home. Threatened by the harshness of the mission field, the other missionaries 
decided to go with him. The four, Wolf, Groth, Quinius and Karoline left the shores of the 
Gold Coast for Hamburg, Germany in January 1851 having made no converts. Before then, 
Wolf had taken Karoline to be his wife. Upon reaching the harbor of Hamburg, Germany 
on April 9, 1851, Wolf died. During the four-year period of evangelizing in Peki, Wolf 
wrote a 16-page book entitled Wiinje Aballe Deka Eibe Kasem (an Arithmetic Book). He 
also compiled a hymn in Eʋes with four hymns - Elle Chazi-Eibe fia. 
 
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Sketched Map 3: Peki State (Weilman, 1924, p. 9)) 
 
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2.7 Second Attempt to Evangelize Eʋeland by Bremen 
The first attempt to evangelize Peki did not yield much result. But the mission at home, 
Bremen, was very resilient. Mission station at Peki was important to Bremen. This is 
because Peki and the whole of Eʋeland was untapped and free from missionary rivalry. 
Quinius, Wilhelm Dauble and Johannes Menge were sent back after twelve months of 
missionary absence in Eʋeland. The trio were Basel trained missionaries in Switzerland. On 
December 23, 1851 they arrived at Christiansborg. John Wright – Wolf servant joined them. 
Quinius, come with his newly married wife. He led the team to Peki because he has already 
been there.   
The fate of the second team of missionaries was not different from their forerunners. 
The mission house was dilapidated; they suffered from constant fever which hindered the 
progress of their activities. Quinius lost his new born son on March 6, 1852. The other 
missionaries were constantly taken ill and had to leave Dauble alone at the station. There 
were threats of war between Peki and Akwamu. Because of this, supplies stopped coming 
from the Basel mission at Christiansburg. Dauble petitioned Bremen that he should be 
transferred to Keta but Bremen will not quit Peki because it was a strategic point between 
Asante and Dahomey. Two missionaries joined Dauble in January, 1853 in support of the 
missionary work.  
Meanwhile, the Ashantis and Akwamus had formed an alliance against Peki. To 
make matters worse, the Danes had sold their Christiansborg castle to the British and were 
leaving to the Guinea Coast.  At the time, the British had just introduced poll tax in the Gold 
Coast. Its introduction caused confusion among the people of Gold Coast because they were 
not willing to pay. The people of Peki were not supportive anymore because they were 
preparing for the Peki-Akwamu war. These challenges among others compelled the British 
governor to request the missionaries to leave Peki. Dauble agreed to the request. He 
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petitioned Bremen for the missionary activities to be transferred, if possible, restart at Keta. 
After critical deliberations, the mission agreed and a letter was sent to that effect. It was 
received at Christiansburg on July 27, 1853. 
Dauble and Plessing landed at Dzelukoʄe by ship on September 2, 1853. From there, 
they went to Keta by foot after about a half hour’s walk. Keta was very sandy as compared 
to the greenish vegetation of Peki. It had a fort which belonged to Commander Evans, the 
governor of the fort. The governor accommodated the missionaries. They built a mission 
house with the assistance of the people. Some of them were John Wright and Kwao who 
were previously baptized at Cape Coast and had skills in carpentry and other vocational 
endeavours. Others were Ababio and Peter Papa who were Peki indigenes recruited by the 
missionaries.  Unfortunately, the difficulties at Peki re-surfaced. Dauble took ill and died 
on December 26, 1853. Plessing was left alone to continue with the work. He was joined by 
Brutschin on 6th January 1854. Together they continued the building project. Brutschin, 
Quau (Kwao) also died suddenly. The then paramount chief of Anlo had ordered his people 
not to assist in the building because the missionaries did not pay him homage but this was 
resolved. The building was completed at the beginning of 1854. The missionaries 
evangelized the people of Keta but at a very slow pace. Like their counterparts at Peki, they 
were more akin to their gods than the ‘missionaries’ God’. The people demanded gifts from 
the missionaries, for example, money and alcoholic drinks. 
On the February 22 1854 a school was opened at Keta. The pupils were children of 
migrants. Schauffer, a new missionary joined but died shortly. In that year, seven converts 
were baptized. It is worth noting that, after working for seven years, seven missionaries 
died, and seven converts made. Among the seven converts was Johannes Ababio a Peki born 
– where missionary activities started. The missionaries faced resistance from the paramount 
chief of Anlo to evangelize the interior of his jurisdiction. The missionaries were believed 
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to be interested in trade and this hindered their efforts to propagate the gospel. The people 
of Keta were not prepared to let go of their traditional religious beliefs but cleaved unto their 
gods. 
The people living beyond Keta to the north did not readily accept them because of 
two reasons. The paramount king’s command to the people not to assist or associate with 
the missionaries and the people’s thoughts about the missionaries as disguised traders who 
were propagating the gospel. The effects of colonialism also hampered the activities of the 
missionaries. Ambitious to evangelize the whole of Eʋeland as much as possible, the 
missionaries moved further away from the coastal areas into the hinterland. They entered 
the Adaklu plains on 11th August, 1855 but the people of Adaklu refused to accept them. 
Brutschin and Steinmann were the two pioneers who commenced this trip. 
 They got to Waya on 26th January, 1856. Here, they were received. They built a 
mission house which served several purposes such as a chapel, school, dormitory, 
carpenter’s shop. Bernard Schlegel a linguist moved from Keta to Waya. The trio were eager 
to learn the Eve language. Some of the pupils from Keta were brought to Waya to continue 
their education and to augment the missionary work. Missionary Illg worked at the 
horticulture and landscaping sector of the mission house at Waya where he planted very 
useful trees and a started coffee farm. The station became very attractive. The missionary 
work grew progressively and rapidly. Stations were built at Anyako and Ho in 1857 and 
1859 respectively. The establishment of the station at Ho marked “the end of the pioneering 
stage of missionary activities and the beginning of its expansion” (Ansre, 1997: 35). 
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2.8 The Importation of Musical Practices into the Church 
2.8.1 The Use of Western Musical Style in E.P. Church, Ghana 
As I mentioned earlier, the E.P. Church, Ghana evolved out of missionary quest to 
evangelize Eʋeland. Scholars have asserted that the missionaries disregarded the African 
ways of life and therefore sort to provide a sort of remedy to the ‘menace’. Hereafter, the 
‘African prototype’ of the church was structured in conformity to the Protestant and 
Lutheran tradition. Attesting to this fact is E. P. Church’s affiliation to the Evangelical 
Association of Reformed and Congregational Christian Churches (W.A.R.C.) thus, World 
Alliance of Reformed Churches. E. P. Church, Ghana and the Presbyterian Church of Ghana 
belong to the same tradition and heavily depends on the singing of Hymns and Psalms which 
uses biblical text for their content.  
Accustomed to the mainline church and against the backdrop of the Reformation 
tradition, the E. P. Church, Ghana uses musical forms peculiar to that of the missionaries 
namely Hymns, Psalms, Canticles and short chants. I will discuss these musical forms and 
their application in the E. P. Church, Ghana in much detail in the subsequent subtitle of this 
chapter. Therefore, the discussions that follow, hereafter, will constitute an introduction to 
the corpus of the preceding discussions. 
2.8.2 Hymns 
The hymn is the oldest liturgical content that draws on biblical sources for its text. It was 
developed out of the medieval plainsongs. Scay (1965) asserts that the hymns were designed 
to teach religious doctrine and were polemic in nature although the text used popular 
melodies and folk tunes. Considering St. Ambrose (340 -397) as the father of Catholic 
hymns, Scay explained that St. Ambrose’s work established the model for further 
generations. His work eliminated the heresy which was as a result of the occasioned 
subjectivity by the Eucharistic, non-Biblical background and the ecstatic emotion attached 
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to the Alleluia. The hymn became popular, sung congregationally, hymns were rhythmic – 
a shift from “the qualitative classic Latin to the qualitative Medieval Latin”. (Scay, 1965: 
46-47). 
Grout described the genre as “the strophic congregational hymn, called in German 
as Chorale” the most distinctive and important musical contribution made by the Lutheran 
church. The chorale is essentially made up of a text and a tune. As mentioned earlier, the 
text is barrowed from biblical themes. Grout observed that the hymns (chorales) from the 
onset were intended for congregational singing in unison without any harmonization or 
accompaniment. Empowered by the Reformation, Luther wrote chorales for use in the 
Lutheran church. A popular one is Ein’ feste Burg (A mighty stronghold). In some cases, 
the tunes were adopted from the secular and the text was modified to suit the liturgical 
demand. The refinement and embellishment were achieved in the hands of J.S. Bach (Grout, 
1990: 662 - 667). Singing the hymn in vernacular started during the Reformation and has 
remained the constant practice worldwide. Hymn sing in the E. P. Church, Ghana began at 
Peki, the birth place of the church. The first attempt to translate the hymns into the 
vernacular (Eʋe) was carried out by the Bremen missionary, Lorenz Wolf. The book 
contained four translated German chorales with the title Elle Chazi Eibe fia. 
2.8.3 English Anthems  
The word Anthem was derived from the Greek word antiphonos; anti, meaning ‘against’ 
and phonos, meaning ‘sound’ or ‘voice’ It first appeared in old English as “antefn” 
“performed as devotional versus sung as a response during religious services” (Merrian-
Webster Dictionary). Anthems became liturgical incorporated. It involved solo, chorus and 
mixed variants of compositional techniques solely for voice and accompanied mostly by the 
organ. Anthems could be rendered to symbolize an individual, a group or a nation hence 
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national anthems e.g. Ghana National Anthem “God Bless Our Homeland Ghana”. One of 
the oldest national anthems is ‘God Save the Queen’ of Great Britain. 
Because of its antiphonal nature, the anthem attracts different compositional and 
performance techniques. For example, cantata as a baroque musical form served the purpose 
of an anthem. Heightened by J.S. Bach in the sixteenth century it was performed based on 
the old and new testaments of the bible in reinforcement of the minister’s sermon. It could 
last several minutes and could be composed in different musical forms such as solo, duet, 
chorus, arias and recitative. It was accompanied with the organ or orchestra; Its text was 
sacred or secular and its composition could be based on a chorale and sand in vernacular in 
either major or minor key (Kamien, 2002: 130-131). Through missionary endeavors, anthem 
singing became popular with mission churches and choirs through the hybridization of the 
western idioms and Ghanaian traditional idioms through the effort by Ephraim Amu. 
Agordoh argues that Amu was the first Ghanaian who “appreciated and taught 
Western music like the hymns and anthem”. But I argue that before Amu’s hybridization 
through intercultural experimentation there have been Basel, Wesleyan and Bremen trained 
ministers and catechists who have appreciated and taught German and English hymns (in 
its pure vernacular forms) except that they did not trod the path of hybridization of the two 
cultures. Perhaps, they had not acquired mastery of the theory of music, had not been 
encouraged by their superiors in the likes of the Scottish missionary Rev. Thomas Beveridge 
and W. E. Ward, the Western musician and historian, who encouraged and enlightened Amu 
about some Western usages that has resemblance and parallels Ghanaian traditional usages, 
or they feared to break the cultural segregation - the purification. The new idioms developed 
by Amu was what will become Ghanaian Art Music which parallel the western anthems in 
character and used for liturgical purpose in Ghana.  
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2.8.4 Chants, Canticles and Psalms 
Chants variously means to sing a Psalm and songs of the church. They were developed out 
of the plainsongs. They have short musical passages in two or more phrases and are 
unmetered. Its text is based on biblical themes. Agordoh (2011: 33) cited three Evangelical 
Hymns or “Cantica majora” of the Roman Catholic Church namely, the Magnificat, 
Benedictus Dominus Deus Israel and Nunc Dimittis. In Ghana, the singing of canticle, 
psalms and chants finds its high expressions in the Roman Catholic Church, Anglican 
Church and the Methodist Church. 
2.9 The use of Eʋe traditional Music in the E. P. Church, Ghana. 
2.9.1 Traditional Tunes 
Ghanaian traditional songs are constituent to the traditional society. Their philosophical 
underpinnings are firmly rooted in the day-to-day interactions and interrelations of the 
complex web. Traditional songs in the Ghanaian traditional space emphasize and interpret 
the worldview of its people. The similarities and difference in these philosophies and their 
minutest detail lies in the custody of the various ethnic groups. In short, it is these traditional 
tunes that have been adapted into the church to serve themes in the Christian religious 
services. Local tunes are directly borrowed from various themes within the traditional 
setting such as work songs, recreational songs, lullaby, play songs, dirges, contemplative 
songs and praise-songs.  
Because of its familiarity, worshippers in the churches have shown interest in its 
uses. The ‘affacts’ of these traditional tunes have resulted in various forms of ‘effects. 
Scholars like Amuah and Agordor have argued that it was Rev. Thomas Birch Freeman who 
allowed non-literate members of the Methodist Church in Cape Coast to sing any of their 
traditional tune to biblical texts. The result of this development is the African music type 
described variously as ‘Fante Lyric, Akan sacred music or Ebibindwom (African songs).  
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In the E.P. Church however, a type of the Ebibindwom is occasionally used during 
service. It is performed in the style of Akpalu. The root of this traditional tune can be traced 
to the southern part of Eʋeland where its original creator lived. This is discussed in detail 
under the subtitle Akpalu. 
2.9.2 Traditional Choruses 
                    Rt. Rev. Amenu, the immediate past moderator of the General Assembly of the 
E. P. Church, Ghana, noted in the interview that the ‘charismatic’ groups within the mission 
churches in Ghana, for example, the E. P. Church, Ghana started around mid-twentieth 
century. This assertion was supported by Ansre (1997: 118 - 127) when he wrote: “Newer 
Christian groups imerged in the missionary churches in Ghana. Some imported and others 
home-grown”. Amenu explained that the E. P. Church had her fair share of that social 
current. 
Amenu continued that, the creation and performance of traditional contents or choruses in 
the E. P. Church was considered to be a rebellion against the Western traditions in the 
Ghanaian churches, particularly, the E. P. Church, which consequently faced opposition 
from the church presbyters. The groups that sprouted up among the ‘traditional’ missionary 
practices depended heavily on Ghanaian or African traditional choruses for their repertoire. 
Also, the genre uses call and response technique: a characteristic of an African style of 
composition and singing.  
           In using music as part of their worship sessions, individuals within the ‘new’ formed 
groups made up tunes for their uses in church. Its growth, spread and popularity came about 
as a result of the breaking away of some converts - who were not in favour of the Western 
church traditions - from their mother churches to form their own churches. Individuals in 
the E. P. Church who had the gift of music had the freedom to make up more tunes for 
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worship too. Those who broke away from the church as a result of opposition from 
authorities and Western taboo on dancing in church, also created more tune that were 
borrowed for inter and intra church consumption. Rt. Rev. Frances Amenu argued that the 
use of traditional choruses in the E. P. Church, Ghana is therefore, an influence from outside 
the Bremen tradition. Some converts in other missionary established churches in Ghana, for 
example, Presbyterian Church of Ghana, Methodist Church Ghana, etc., defied all 
oppositions and remained, still practicing their new spirituality within the context of their 
denominations.  (Interview: 26th May, 2019@9:00 GMT, Dansoman, Accra). 
          Collins made the assertion that “These included local gospel music which operates 
within the untaxed spaces of churches” (Collins, 2005: 8). Writing about the “Emergence 
of Local Gospel Popular Dance Music” - which share common idioms for their 
compositional resources – Collins explained that’ local’ content used for Christian 
worship”, “is largely based on the rhythms, melodies and instrumental resources of popular 
dance music”. Thus, their compositional resources are drawn from the pool of Ghanaian 
traditional musical idioms. These are not used for outreach purposes alone but it is also used 
for ‘praise’ and ‘choruses’ Collins (2005: 31). It is clear from the foregoing that Collins 
used the word ‘local’ to describe Ghanaian musical types that are embedded in Ghanaian 
traditional idioms, particularly, for public usages. Perhaps, it is the same conceptualization 
which the author of LOCAL GHANAIAN CHORUSES, thus, Emmanuel Boamah 
harnessed to compile, harmonized about sixty-five Ghanaian traditional choruses as a study 
material for basic piano tuition.  
          Because the traditional chorus is performed in the African style, it has attracted a lot 
of attention. It allows the worshipper to freely participate in the worship unlike other 
traditions which prohibits audience participation in the musical performance. This is the 
place of worship where the individuals were semi-literates and found the singing of western 
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hymns burdensome. Like the other genres described above the text of the traditional 
choruses are grounded in themes from the bible. They are very repetitive and easy to 
memorize. They are mostly composed in the major mode with no or very few modulations. 
Because of these and more, the African is more acquainted with their liturgical usages. 
Generally, the choruses have no right of ownership. Local choruses or tunes are 
accompanied by traditional instruments, mostly percussive in addition to ostinato hand 
clapping (Boamah, 2007: i - ii). Common local chorus among the Eʋes and Akans are Akpe 
mada Na Mawu and Da N’ase respectively.  
2.9.3 Agbadza  
My first encounter or experience with any form of Eʋe recreational expressions was when I 
lived with my maternal uncle in Hyɛbrɛkrom or Kpoviadzi No.2, a suburb of Prestea in the 
Western region of Ghana. Before then, all I knew that agbadza is a recreational activity of 
the Eʋes. I pre-suppose that this foreknowledge is common among most Eʋe-urban dwellers 
of my caliber as it might be among most non Eʋe-speakers also. It is no doubt that Younge 
(2011) describes it as the ‘oldest musical type performed by the southern Eʋes of Ghana. 
The word agbadza means broad or wide. It also connotes a war-girdle. Younge 
outlined three possible instances which might have occasioned its creation. He cited Nketia 
saying that Da Cruz attributed the origin of agbadza to King Tegbeson (1732–1775). It was 
performed together with other traditional types for example, hanhye, gokwe and gbolo as 
court music. Secondly, it emanated from an old-war dance-drumming ritual performed by 
men with different vocations. Thirdly, it was a hunter who spotted a monkey dancing to 
morn their dead. The hunter copied and taught others. (Younge, 2011: 46). 
Agbadza is used at different occasions. It is used during funerals, recreation, and 
durbar. It is generic and has variants forms depending on the tempo and other important 
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thematic materials such as rhythmic structure, song text and dance movements. Examples 
are kenka, kete and atsiagbeko. Younge listed agbomasikui, akpoka, agba, ageshie and Kini 
as other forms. Its instrumental resources are mainly percussive. It is structured in a 
compound duple time. Agbenu (1998) makes the assertion that agbadza is widespread 
among southern settlers of the Eʋes, thus the Aŋlɔs. It is also performed among the Tɔŋus. 
Historically, it used to be performed among only men but it has changed to include both 
sexes nowadays.  Its singing style is a call and response and Performed bear footed. 
(Agbenu, 1998, p.108). Agbadza is commonly practiced among the Eʋe speakers of Ghana, 
Togo, Benin, and Nigeria (Agbenu, 1998: 108). 
2.9.4 Bɔbɔɔbɔ 
Younge noted that Francis Cudjoe Nuatro, alias F.C., a retired police officer is the originator 
of this popular traditional musical type commonly practiced among the Eʋedome. Kpando 
is the cradle for this dance-drumming genre. Ghana’s independence struggle between 1947 
and 1957 brought about pockets of social change in amalgamation to the complete whole. 
The struggle and its inherent change affected the old Konkoma secular dance of the 
Eʋedomeawo. Agbenu (1998) noted that the difference between the two is their instrumental 
resources. Nketia noted that Nkrumah advocated for the performance of Ghanaian 
traditional forms to accompany the independence and also enforce the sense of nationalism. 
“It should be noted that during Kwame Nkrumah’s era, Bɔbɔɔbɔ music was played at all 
CPP (Convention Peoples Party) rallies”. It was also played at different social gatherings. 
Example; festivals, funerals, durbars (Younge, 2011: 112 – 113; Agbenu, 1998: 118). 
Bɔbɔɔbɔ is a social drum-dancing musical type which literally means ‘bend-down’. 
It is used in different Christian denominations especially in the Volta Region. Although it 
is originally a secular piece, when used by Christian worshippers, its text is modified to 
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reflect the biblical themes and reflections. Its rhythm is structured on a simple metre. It is 
antiphonal and uses call and response. It instruments are mainly percussive in addition to 
the trumpet. 
 2.9.5 Egbanegba and or Gbolo 
The caption above appears to be a confused one. This is because the literature on egbanegba, 
gbolo and gabada, as a dance-drumming musical type belonging particularly to the 
Eʋedomeawo has been given different historical perspectives by the academic discourse 
community. In his article “Gbolo Komla and His Music: A Performing Arts in Africa, Kafui 
(2014) makes the assertion that the originator, creator and composer of this music type is 
Komla Gbolo, a native of Agbi Kɔʄe, Alavanyo-ʋudidi: Kafui explained that there are three 
generative processes that contributed to the creation of this dance-drumming namely; one, 
Gbolo (the whoremongery, fintive and adulterous nature of the performers of the genre); 
two, Gabada (the “charm” or “juju” which was used by the men to win the women; married 
and single – into having sexual affair with them) and three, egbanegba (the dexterity and 
vigour attached to the performance of this music after the imprisonment and release of 
Gbolo Komla by the police). Kafui therefore argues that Gbolo, Gabada and egbanegba is 
but one dance-drumming musical type of the northern Eʋes and hence of the same origin 
(Kafui, 2014: 70 - 74). 
Pascal Younge, in his Music and Dance Traditions of Ghana separates Gbolo from 
egbanegba. He argues that there are two origins of egbanegba. First, that, ‘Egbanegba was 
brought from Ŋɔtsie during the migration of the Eʋes by the people of Kpandos, under the 
name Gabada. Secondly, that it was created by the people of Alavanyo-ʋudidi and Kpando 
during the 19th century, long after their migration’. The second story of origin agrees with 
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Kafui’s assertion. The assertions of Younge about the origin of this traditional is a confused 
one.  
Kafui and Younge agree on the ‘sexual gratification, spiritual and ritual dimension’ 
associated with the rather family and friendly, story-telling musical type that finely laced 
with spontaneous singing and its inherent recreational activity. Younge does not draw any 
sharp distinction between egbanegba and gbolo recreational dance-drumming musical types 
through content analysis. The origin, the point where Kafui differs slightly, the generative 
processes and the performance practices are same for the two musical types. This suggests 
why Kafui grouped the three as one. 
However, the dance-drumming has found a place among the Christian community. 
The texts are firmly grounded on biblical teachings and doctrines. When performing the 
music, one finds a contour and a chorus. The organization of the melody by contour is a 
recitative, free in rhythm and speech-like. It is performed and accompanied with 
membranophones and idiophones. There is a mixed chorus of male and female voices. The 
song is composed in a simple duple meter.  
2.9.6 Brass and Woodwind Bands 
The practice of brass and woodwind music in the E. P. Church, Ghana can be traced to the 
West African Frontier Force, a unit of the Ghana Armed Forces, during the pre-colonial era 
of present day Ghana (Collins, 2005). The missionaries also introduced this genre into the 
new African Christian churches and schools for parades. Today, these bands augments the 
musical performances in the E. P. Church in Ghana. They perform at functions such as 
funerals, Sunday offertory periods, route march for Palm Sundays and anniversary days, 
etc. Their repertoire is mainly improvised hymns, traditional tunes and choruses, African 
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blues, etc. Because of their versatility, they have a wider range of stylistic performances. 
Their members are made up of mainly the youth (Wuaku, 2015: 2-3). 
 2.9.7 Akpalu  
(i) Overture  
Occasionally, one would observe that worshippers of the E. P. Church, Ghana performs a 
genre that is tailored along Akpalu’s style of music. It will be helpful to give a brief 
biography of the composer known as Akpalu at this point. Vinɔkɔ Akpalu was born around 
the year 1888 at Tsiame in the Keta district of the Volta Region. His father, Kpodo lived at 
Fiaxɔ, 6 miles across the lagoon from Anloga, while his mother, Ehi, a native of 
Anyako, also lived in another island-town. Akpalu was born and lived under unhappy 
circumstances which were reflected in his compositions (Nayo, 1973: 120). As an 
indigenous composer, poet, performer of his own music and a custodian of Eʋe indigenous 
knowledge he uses the Eʋe figurative language and metaphors in both verbal and song 
discourse which he acquired aurally (Dor, 2015: 156 - 157).  
(ii)Thoughts that permitted performance of Akpalu in E. P. Church, Ghana 
How did the genre, Akpalu, found its way into the musical practices of the E. P. Church, 
Ghana? It is the interplay of factors such colonial legacies, indigenization processes and 
schisms in the E. P. Church, Ghana that paved the way. A brief background information 
about Mawuʄeame Wovenu Nutornuti of Tadzeʋu will help this discussion. Ganusah (2008) 
wrote that the first schism in the E. P. Church was perpetuated by Wovenu. He was the 
catechist of Accra New-Town E. P. Church (Bethel Congregation). In 1939, he started a 
bible study and prayer fellowship. As a catechist, he encouraged some of the practices spelt 
out in the Old Testament of the bible such as eating of ‘taboo foods’, sacrificing of animals 
(including birds), and encouraging polygamy. The congregation found these practices 
unacceptable in accordance with Christian and biblical teachings and principles. Ganusah 
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quoted Wovenu, “Our food taboos are those stated in the Old Testament” and “Polygamy is 
allowed, according to scriptures but not loose living in sexual matters” (Ganusah, 2008: 44). 
Attempts to bring the catechist to order failed and in 1949, Mawuʄeame Wovenu Nutornuti 
break off from the E. P. Church, Ghana to form his church, Apostolowo ʄe Dedefia Habɔbɔ 
(The Apostolic Revelation Society) with its headquarters at Tadzeʋu.      
           Hitherto, Wovenu created the avenue in his church for the display of Ghanaian 
traditions elements for religious purposes. For example, as Dor (2005: 239) puts it, the 
prophet allowed traditional courtly processions into the worship arena with linguist staffs, 
king stools and other court regalia. As written by Avorgbedor (1997), Prophet Wovenu also 
enstooled his elderly daughter in the church. Her stool name was MAMA KEKELI (lit. 
MOTHER OF LIGHT). Mama Kekeli received adulations, homage, physical support etc. in 
public befitting Queen Mothers. Such treatments were assigned different meanings to suit 
the place of worship in the ARS congregations. This re-contextualization was common to 
the entire body of the church as well as its meanings (tangible and intangible) and sensory 
experiences commonly shared among the congregants. Additionally, According to 
Avorgbedor, such practices was among several African independent churches among the 
Aŋlɔ. There was so much variety that there was a debate among the independent churches 
in Aŋlɔ as to whose church was a ‘cult’ (Avorgbedor (1997: 1 - 2). 
Avorgbedor (1997) noted that the indigenization processes were situated within the 
pre-colonial, colonial and post-colonial legacies of Africa, particularly, Ghana. It was, 
perhaps, within these thoughts that Prophet Wovenu and the other African independent 
church founders and leaders were operating. In summary, “The African pre-colonial, 
colonial and post-colonial experiences and material legacies are indispensable in 
understanding the contemporary situation of indigenous Christianity as far as the presence 
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and configuration of cultural display and ethnic differences are concerned” (Avorgbedor: 
1997: 1). 
(iii) Akpalu’s Conversion to Christianity 
In 1964, Akpalu converted and was baptized into the Christian faith. He became a member 
of ARS (Apostles Revelation Society) whose founder and leader were Prophet Charles 
Kwabla Nutornuti Wovenu (Dor, 2015), otherwise known as Mawuʄeame Wovenu 
Nutornuti. An author of Akpalu, Nayo, draws our attention to a different facet of Akpalu’s 
conversion. He wrote, “A former ‘fetish priest of songs’ as he believes himself be, Akpalu 
has now been baptized into the Apostolic Church with the name Jeremiah to the 
disappointment of many Akpalu fans” (Nayo, 1973: 121). The sources given above buttress 
the fact that Akpalu converted to be a Christian and performed within the Christian circles. 
This is what I seek to concern myself about under in this subtitle.   
(iv) Akpalu’s Compositions after Conversion 
Akpalu’s song text changed after he converted to the Christian faith. However, it must be 
noted that there was no reduction in his productivity as a poet and composer. He continued 
to be enabled by his Hadzivudu (lit. song or music god). He claimed to be an indigenous 
priest of songs - as noted by Nayo - possessed by the spirits of songs, a God – sent and 
created by God. Dor, explained that his compositional dicta at this time did not changed 
significantly. Principally because, the song text was not drawn from the Bible directly, but 
they were still philosophical, contextually. In his compositions, Akpalu praised Prophet 
Wovenu’s style of preaching and his (Wovenu) attempts of using Eʋe worldviews and 
thoughts. Again, the composer addressed the concerns of his critics who busied themselves 
about his (Akpalu) conversion to the Christian faith Dor, (2015). As a result, Akpalu 
composed a song to silence the gossipers. Mi dasi taŋu nam (lit. It is my own head, Leave 
my head alone, or Leave me alone, it’s my own head). This is the song he composed to 
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counter the gossipers (Nayo 1973: 121 in Dor, 2015). Wovenu instituted a concept in his 
church labelled Tutudo (lit. building-on or developing). Dor referenced Dogbatse (1997) 
about the role Akpalu played in the Tutudo project. Accordingly, Akpalu and his music 
became emblematic in ARS. Dor (2015) noted “This was the kind of reflexive modernity 
and landscape that appealed to several Anlo Ewe traditionalists including even priestesses 
and musicians of whom Akpalu was very visible and notable”. 
(v) Theoretical Basis 
The theorical concerns of the cultural display and the construction of ethnic identities in the 
ARS which creates the cultural space and eventually accommodates Akpalu and his music 
is clearly spelled out by Avorgbedor. He distinguished between two patterns that serves as 
a backdrop to cultural displays in African countries – the permanent and the negotiable. He 
wrote, “It is the negotiable which allows national and policy makers to pursue their goals in 
encouraging innovation and creativity in the spectrum of arts and culture. This creativity is 
potent because it enables the construction of new relations, expectations and more when it 
derives on multiple ethnic sources” Avorgbedor (1997: 1 – 2). 
(vi) Appropriation and Practice of ‘Akpalu’ in E. P. Church, Ghana  
          I have noted the extent of proliferation of indigenous practice(s) accustomed to the 
independent churches among the Aŋlɔ ensued in the indigenization processes in the pre-
colonial, colonial and post-colonial legacies and the African, or better, Ghanaian 
Independent Churches written by Avorgbedor (1997). What enables the genre fit into the 
church’s musical tradition? First and foremost, let’s consider the fact that the E. P. Church 
has a sizable number of Aŋlɔ indigenes playing vital roles in the day to day activities in the 
church. Secondly, there is a section of converts in the church who favour re-
contextualization of traditional ways for use in church. Thirdly, a good number of Akpalu’s 
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fans are also faithful and loyal to the E. P. Church, Ghana. These and many others create 
the space for the acceptance and performance of the genre in the church. 
          This song style has been contextualized in many Christian religious settings including 
the E. P. Church, Ghana – biblical text and themes are now employed in the genre’s 
compositional frameworks. Examples of these songs sung in the church are: Mena ŋuse mi 
ɖe gbɔgbɔvɔwo dzi e, miwɔ dɔ kple kale (I have given you authority over unclean spirits, be 
brave to work), Yesue do dzo aɖe, dzo ya Wo do ama ‘ɖeke ma teŋu atsio (Jesus has kindled 
a fire which no one can quench), Yesua mexɔ e, agbemɔ na ʋu nama mayi Mawu gbɔ (Jesus 
have I accepted, the ways of salvation be granted me), Anyigba ledzo leke a , alleluia Yesu 
e va dem kaba (The world is sore troubled, Jesus come to my rescue swiftly) etc. I do not, 
however, make the assertion that the examples of songs listed here are strictly Akpalu. The 
intention is to provide a conceptual framework to facilitate our understanding of the sub-
title. Similarly, the Methodist Church Ghana is privy in such religious practices. Among the 
‘Ghanaian’ Methodist it is known as Ebibindwom, (See, for example, Adolph, 1975, 
Amoah, 2010: 44 - 48, Dor, 2013: 186 - 187). These songs are performed spontaneously 
during Divine service. As a result, they find no specific place in the liturgical order in the 
E. P. Church, for example. This character of spontaneity is confirmed by Dor when he wrote 
that “The older women will draw upon sermon themes to make songs spontaneously in situ”. 
He continued by explaining that “The practice of singing Ebibindwom not only ensured a 
more active and inclusive participation during worship for adult participant, but the genre’s 
style also added an indigenous flavour to the worship” (Dor, 2013: 186 - 187). In the E. P. 
Church, Ghana, they are normally unaccompanied. To perform this genre, there is a 
principal cantor assisted by one or two chorus leaders (Nayo, 1964: 54).  
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2.10 The Musical Tradition of the E.P. Church, Ghana. 
2.10.1 Ghanaian Art Music – An Art of Musical Hybridity 
In the foregoing chapters of this thesis, I made mention - although briefly - of the advent of 
the Reformation and how it gave rise to Protestant churches and the Apostolic Revival. The 
following discussion under this sub-title provides a valuable conceptual framework for 
analyzing the music and performance in the E. P. Church, Ghana for further scholarly 
scrutiny. The missionaries propelled by the Apostolic Revival arrived in West of Africa and 
eventually penetrated the Gold Coast and her cultural web. Threading on ethnocentrism, the 
missionaries considered the indigenous culture to be a backward and ‘primitive’ lifestyle 
and therefore “sought to transform the way of life of their converts by instituting relevant 
aspects of their own Western culture and religious practices” (Nketia, 2016: 88) through 
evangelization, provision of healthcare and the establishment of educational institutions. As 
time lapses, especially during the post-colonial era there was the need to bridge cultural 
dualities created by missionary and colonial activities. Nketia (2016) asserted that ‘the bond 
was fashioned in a manner that will satisfy the theological and philosophical issues but 
would have the capacity of ensuring ‘traditional modes of expression and communication 
in the contemporary context of Christian worship’ and its related activities’. 
The ‘Christian community’ was separated from traditional ways of music making. 
New converts were prohibited from taking part in communal modes of musical expression. 
They were to regard them as heathen. The penalty was excommunication from the Christian 
religious sect. Dor (2005: 442) writes that despite the suppression of the music and dance 
forms, some traditionalists were steadfast and loyal to their heritage. This was made possible 
through the acquisition of skills in reading and writing music at academic institutions 
established by the colonial government. ‘The autodidacts drew on the experiences of long-
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term engagement with the church music to compose part songs that were Western in style’ 
(Dor, 2005: 443). 
In the 1900s, Amu and his temporaries sought to reconcile the cultural dualities from 
the residues of the two cultures; Western and African traditional idioms. By so doing, they 
created a hybrid form from the two distinct cultural practices. The process was augmented 
through a process of self-identify and re-definition. By returning to traditional idioms whiles 
learning about western usages, a new musical style came to birth at the shores of the Gold 
Coast which is now Ghanaian Art Music, a hybrid of western musical idioms and that of 
Ghanaian traditional idioms. Terpenning (2016: 460 - 463) suggests that it is preferable to 
use the ‘older term, such as “creolization” or acculturation “to mean the mixing that occurs 
during contact with cultures to hybridity which continues to be a contested term among the 
humanities. Terpenning cited Amar Acheraiou investigation of hybridity as a “historical 
phenomenon outside the historical era into the ancient times”. What we refer to today as a 
western culture are hybrids of other cultures. By extension Ephraim Amu and his 
contemporaries were practicing what has been the norm when two distant cultures get into 
contact. 
Decades of practice by practitioners of Ghanaian art music has validated the 
compatibility of the two separate cultures. Ghanaian choral composers have experimented 
with both the western musical structures and traditional modes of expression and brought to 
the fore a musical practice which falls between the two extreme cultures. One finds the 
combination of scales, melodies, harmonies, rhythms, texture and instrumental 
organizations and musical forms. 
Ghanaian art music has utilizes western forms such as strophic and through 
composed. These forms are prevalent in vocal music intended for church consumption, 
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especially in the mission churches. Amu and his immediate successors dwelt heavily on 
these musical forms in order to ‘bridge’ the traditional and the western. Extended 
compositions such as sonata, theme and variation, symphony and suites are borrowed 
Western forms intended for concert halls and also for reflection. Pentanata by Kenn Kafui 
quickly comes to mind. The term is a coinage of musical words pentatonic scale and sonata. 
Pioneers in the field of this form of idiomatic expression include ‘J. H. Nketia, Atta Annan 
Mensah, N. Z. Nayo Turkson, Nicholas Kofie, Gyima Larbi, Cosmos Mireku, George Dor, 
Kenn Kafui etcetera.  
Traditional melodies and choruses have been extensively used in Ghanaian art 
music. Composers who followed the footsteps of Ephraim Amu, the father of Ghanaian art 
music, use pre-compositional materials, for example, melodies, rhythms, harmonies etc., 
from different ethnic backgrounds to curve a new form. Art music in Ghana strictly adheres 
to the speech contour of the Ghanaian languages but strictly follows the speech rhythm when 
writing four-part writing, an art which has been a challenging one. Dor (2005: 448) explains 
that musicians have found a way of solving the problem and such is a characteristic of 
Ghanaian art music. During a class section in 2011, the late Dr. Boamah made mention of 
the raised 4th and the lowered 7th as a feature of traditional melodies. He cited examples in 
Nketia’s collection of traditional tunes. 
One can continue to examine other musical structures e.g. the rhythm which follows 
drum language and harmony in parallel 3rd, and 6th among the Akan speaking people and 
aslo the speakers of Eʋe. Intercultural music validates the authenticity of traditional idioms 
earlier on opposed by separation by westerners by way of the thought that the western 
culture was superior. The missionaries and colonial administrators blurred their vision by 
sharply distinguishing between indigenous music and that of their culture, a distinction 
which described the locals’ ways as being tribal. The change in attitude does not only inform 
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us about the possibility of hybrid forms ‘but carries with it not just the recognition of 
coexistence of musical cultures but also the challenge to broaden our musical horizons by 
accommodating or making sense of differences’ Nketia (Intercultural music vol. I 1995). 
The creative imaginations of Ghanaian art composers are challenged. The exposure 
to different musical systems places a demand on the intercultural composer to use melody 
harmony, rhythm, texture and instrumental in creating new musical taste that will not depart 
from the cultures from which they are borrowed. Contemporal compositions can be seen as 
filling the gap between the traditional and the foreign by bridging the two aliens. Bela 
Bartok investigated the traditional folk music of the Romanian and composed Hybrid forms 
out his research. Recordings and migrants’ musicians to urban centres, where educational 
institutions abound have been of a great resource to the composition of intercultural music. 
2.11 The Soundscape of Church Music in Ghana 
The soundscape of church music in Ghana is a piece of mosaic.  The phenomenon 
encapsulates the Mission, Pentecostals, Apostolics, Charismatics and the Nackabah musical 
practices. Different musical traditions constitute its corpus. Scholarly investigation and the 
general Christian religious scene in Ghana points to differences such as the ‘missionary 
traditions’ (Nketia, 2016) which is at the custody of mission churches for example, the 
Roman Catholic Church, the Methodist Church, Ghana, A.M.E. Zion, the Presbyterian 
Church, Ghana, the Anglican Church and Apostolic, Pentecostal and Charismatic churches.  
          Musical practices which dominate the mission churches are predominated by choral 
music which includes hymns, canticles and psalms, masses and anthems that are 
traditionally accompanied with the harmonium, organ or piano. The church choir, the 
singing band and other choral group play an important role in the rendition of these musical 
styles. They institutionalize the art of the performance practice which serves as a means of 
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transmission and preservation. In the mission churches, the performance of music is directly 
under the leadership of trained musician -commonly referred to as choir directors - who 
have been trained in missionary established educational institutions. For instance, Akropong 
Teachers’ Training College, National Academy of Music, now Music Department of 
University of Education, Winneba, University of Ghana, Legon etc.  
In missionary churches, one finds four-part singing by the choir whose traditional 
costume is the robe. The colour of the robe differs from congregation to congregation. Song 
ministrations are carefully selected to reflect liturgical order, themes and seasons and festive 
moments on the Christian calendar. Choral music has also found place of expression at the 
national programs. For instance, during national events such as Festival of Nine Lessons 
and Carols, opening ceremonies, state funeral etc. that are usually organized by state 
agencies, Ghanaian art music is being utilized greatly. We find government officials playing 
key roles at such functions. They participate in the congregational singing and also take up 
roles such as reading of scripture and other liturgical needs. 
Pentecostalism and its inherent musical expressions started at the southern part of 
the Gold Coast, now Ghana, as a carbon copy of the British-based Apostolic Church. Peter 
Anim and James Mckeawn are the pioneers of this movement but separated due to “a dispute 
over the question of faith healing and the use of medicine” (Wyllie, 1974: 3). The break 
resulted in the establishment of Christ Apostolic Church and the Church of Pentecost by 
Anim and McKeon respectively. Anim was influenced by Pastor Clark of Faith Tabernacle 
of Philadelphia in the United States of America. McKeon on the other hand, was influenced 
by Elim Pentecostal Church in Scotland (Wyllie, 1974:2-4). In his concluding remarks, 
Wyllie makes the assertion that the Christ Apostolic Church and the Church of Pentecost 
share “a common pattern of church organization and a common body of doctrines and 
teachings”. The assertion suggests similarity in modes of musical expressions in these two 
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churches. There are common modalities, performance practice and philosophical 
underpinnings.  
Today, the Christ Apostolic Church and the Church of Pentecost have been grafted 
into the celestial web of the Ghanaian religious space because the shared pattern of church 
organization and a common body of doctrine and teachings has been accepted by the 
Ghanaian religious body.  African independent churches depend heavily on local tunes 
(Boamah, 2007: i - ii). Occasionally, they use very common western hymn but sang in the 
vernacular and also in a free rhythm. The rendition of anthems in these religious traditions 
are led by trained musicians and a choir. Modes of expression is based on “the direction of 
the Holy Ghost”. Emotionalism plays a very important role in this tradition of musical 
expression. The church service tends to be joyous, spontaneous and celebrative. There is no 
‘formal’ or structured liturgy. For example, local congregations of Apostolic Church in 
close proximity and homogenously composed will have different scripture readings, songs, 
order of service etc, on the same day, time and season (Agordoh, 2011: 55 - 57). 
Observations at selected Apostolic and Pentecost churches show that dancing and 
sitting arrangements in Pentecostal and Apostolic churches are organized on gender basis. 
During praise sections, the men and women groups have their turn separately. Dancing is 
done in rings. In the few time I worshipped at such gatherings, I observed that the deacon 
or church elders have their turn in the dancing separately. The experience points sharply to 
classism (social discourse where people are grouped into sets of hierarchical categories). 
The women forming the masses at the bottom of the pyramid, at the middle are the men, 
then at the top the deacons. In the urban centres like Accra, Kumasi, Takoradi, singing is 
led by gospel artists who have acquired a level of reputation in the gospel scene in Ghana, 
such as Esther Smith, Obaapa Christy and Kweku Gyasi. They are mostly assisted by 
vocalists. Hand clapping (Ewe: Asikpoli) as an accompaniment to praise and worship is 
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predominant among this category of worshippers. Clapping is also used to accompany 
intercessory prayers.  
Spontaneity is a major feature of Pentecostalism. Worshippers who congregate at 
these worship centres believe in ‘contemporaneity of spiritual gifts, baptism with the Holy 
Ghost, speaking in tongues, divine healing, prophecies and a very loose and free style of 
worship. It also encourages participation of lay people to some extent. Aglow International, 
a network of women intercessors for Ghana who also care for the welfare of women and 
children, have utilized this form of musical expressions at their intercessory meeting 
grounds. The proliferation of media houses in Ghana in the wake of democracy has also 
popularized these traditions by way of their air plays including the activities of radio pastors 
at Ghanaian media houses such as Peace FM, Adom FM, Oman FM and etc. 
The third category of the church’s musical expressions in Ghana is Charismaticism. 
Just like the Pentecostals and the Apostolics, Charismaticism was born out of the biblical 
narration in I Corinthians 12:1-12. The movement believes in the gift of the Holy Spirit, 
speaking in tongues, free style of worship, dancing (sometimes in formation), jumping, 
shouting, running, crying, raising of the hands, lying prostrate. The membership of this 
category is primarily made up of individuals who were not satisfied by neither the mission, 
Pentecostal, nor the Apostolic traditions of modes worship and music. Charismatic ministry 
in Ghana is similar to gospel music in ‘black congregations’ in America and Europe. The 
musical expression depends heavily on synthesizers, jazz drum sets, electric lead, rhythm 
and bass guitars, electric pianos, brass, saxophones etc. These western instruments are 
normally blended with traditional percussive ones like rattles, congas and gong. Their 
repertoire is mainly the styles of the Black American idioms, swings, jazzy. The keyboard 
is basically percussive. When harmonizing more of the diminished, sevenths and suspended 
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chords are use. There is always a solo and a choir. Contemporary charismatic choirs have 
conductors that are not western trained.  
The next category is associated with the church of the Twelve Apostles popularly 
known as “Nackabah”. Deji Ayegboyin and Ademola Ishola (1986: 25 - 29) claim that it is 
probably the first indigenous church in Ghana. The teachings of this religious sect were first 
brought by Prophet William Wade Harries in the Western region of Ghana. Ayegboyin and 
Ishola outlined beliefs and practices that set worshipers apart from other denominations. 
Worshippers at Nackabah are stark illiterates according to Ayegboyin and Ishola. There are 
no dogmas or creed. They have tow objects for worship. This religious sect endorse 
polygamy. There are two objects of worship. All they have is the bible and the Guard rattle. 
It is mandatory for every worshipper in this sect to have this percussive musical instrument. 
They hold them in their hands. There is a holy ground referred to as the Garden for Special 
Religious Activities. Their musical tunes are traditional. Their melodies are built on the 
traditional scales. It’s very homophonic and harmonized in parallel 3rd and 6th. It based on 
call and response. Their instrumental resource is primary the percussive instruments; 
shakers, one or two. Worshippers at these churches wear white or red robes.  
2.12 Musical Innovation in the E. P. Church, Ghana 
Several factors are responsible for the composite nature of musical expressions in the 
independent churches. The inflow of the traditional and ritual, composite nature of the 
verbal and visual arts accounts for this innovation to which the E. P. Church, Ghana is not 
exception. The plurality of traditional music, the wide spread of musical practices and the 
fluid boundaries between the sacred and the secular is the connecting factor between the 
performance and the religious traditions in Africa. Independent churches are those who have 
gained autonomy from their parent churches through an amount of rebellion, relatively. 
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Local initiatives and inputs from foreign missionary work in Africa are the two possible 
sources of the performance practices in the Independent churches.   
            It must be emphasized that the foreign missions have contributed immensely to 
traditional practices in these independent churches through partnership and exchange 
programmes. These practices are responses to the missionary heritage which also ensures 
autonomy which the missionaries sought to suppress. The origins of the music and dance 
forms can be traced directly to the indigenous pool of recreational, ritual, rite of passage and 
other contextualized realities. Demography of the congregation, background of the leader, 
the level of competition in order to increase membership and the general politics are some 
of the factors that defines the musical style in the independent churches. Although European 
established churches, especially, the Catholic Church is perceived to be conservative but it 
has recorded an outburst of indigenous activities in recent years, many of which are 
commonly shared with the independent churches. 
2.13 Characteristics of the ‘Musical Indigena’ 
After the religious crisis between the E. P. Church ‘of Ghana’ and its mother church, E. P. 
Church, Ghana in the 1980s that was primarily caused by the interpretations and uses of 
Spiritual Gifts – the mother church has now co-opts these new forms of music and liturgy 
in a bid to maintain the E. P. Church, Ghana faithfuls and partly to win back the 
‘revolutionists’. Additionally, the move is also necessary to respond to the wave of 
indigenization across the sub region. The church, hitherto, has become a training ground for 
contemporary musicians whose mode of training is aurally based. The church administration 
readily provides musical instruments for their use. The songs have ready markets. The 
‘school of indigenous music performances’ in the church has also enrolled multiples of 
female cantors into the church music scenery. In the E. P. Church – Accra New Town 
(Bethel Congregation) for example, names like Maggie Gbindey, Beatrice Amoah (the late), 
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William Klatsu, Akpene Jenifer, , etc. readily comes to mind. Avorgbedor sums up the 
characteristics of indigenous musical practices in the independent churches: 
 “Predominance of percussive texture, call and response, repetition, emphasis 
on timbral variety and “pitch bending” (in contradistinction to pure or exact 
pitches, by Western tempered scale system), polyrhythmic (several layers of 
rhythms sound at one time), “offbeat” phrasing, music as integral art form (i.e. 
combines sound, movement, costume and visual arts), active participation and 
audience inputs, music as integral part of rite of passage and daily life, 
employment of three basic timbral levels in drum ensembles, influence of 
speech tone (in tone language societies), inventiveness and improvisational 
skills, and music as a medium of social criticism and competition. In addition, 
spontaneous music expressions is highly characteristic of church independency 
and autonomy. This spontaneity and related tradition of orality in the 
indigenous practices are partly responsible for the ephemeral and anonymous 
nature often identified with the print music of independent churches. When 
hymnbooks are compiled these are quickly superseded by subsequent edition or 
they simply go out of print. The unsystematic methods of collecting and 
assembling and the low quality mediums of preservation are aslo responsible 
for their transient nature. They emphasize their indigenous musical roots and 
culture differently both within and across churches, spontaneous compositions 
by members along Western art music models and selective continuation of 
Protestant hymnody all of which can be experienced in one congregational 
service. The heritage of the African churches is thus articulated through the 
practice of hybridity or plural musical styles” (Avorgbedor, 2004: 269)   
Avorgbedor noted that, historians trace the origin of the earliest form of this popular 
music to the colonial labour settlements in the industrial centres of Kinshasa.  The transport 
system and mining industries brought together male labourers from different parts of Africa 
into the region. Before this time there were influences of the Maringa and Agbaya ring 
dances. Congolese and West Africa guitar music were also becoming popular and were 
marketed in Central Africa in the early 1920. Because of the cosmopolitan nature of the 
region the music grew together within the city. The first professional band started playing 
as early as 1930.  
History records the initiative of the Catholic Church, Vatican II, beginning with 
Pope Paul VI in 1963. The practice was coined as Musical Indigena, Reverend Father Guido 
Haaze being an exponent. ‘Musical Indigena’ however, has offered the opportunity to 
choreographic performances in the E. P. Church, Ghana supported by the proliferation of 
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synthesizers and the availability of music records of indigenous styles. Celebrations such as 
anniversaries, children’s day celebrations, graduation ceremonies and variety shows have 
been the avenue for such choreographies. As noted by the SAGE International Encyclopedia 
of Music and Culture edited by Janet Sturman, the availability of sophisticated electronic 
gadgets, drum machines, synthesizers etc. have eroded live bands performances and 
discouraged them of their improvisational skills, variation techniques and their collaborative 
efforts for such choreographic performances. Music records and synthesizers have also 
reduced live indigenous practices at funerals, birth day parties and other social events to 
some extent. The intersection between the Christian and secular music is exhibited through 
contextualization: appropriation, invention and the syncretic: amalgamation of religious and 
musical practices, cultural and linguistic practices (Avorgbedor, 2004: 268 - 272). 
2.14 Institutional Contributions  
At its inception, it was the intention of the Bremen missionaries to impact knowledge unto 
the Eʋes through their evangelization processes and to eventually involve them in the 
continuum of evangelization cycle. Thus, the evangelized to evangelize. To accomplish this 
aim, schools were established in some Eʋe communities, for instance, Peki (1847), Keta 
(1855), Anyako (1857) and Ho (1859). This is the first attempt to institutionalize the 
theology and music of the E. P. Church, Ghana and the earliest nucleus of dissemination in 
the church. The compilation of the first four hymns in Eʋe by Lorenz Wolf, the teaching of 
these and other hymns and the establishment of schools; basic, elementary and seminaries 
was the beginning of the institutionalization of what will become the music tradition of the 
E. P. Church, Ghana. It must be noted that the institutionalization process was going 
concurrently at other mission stations across the Gold Coast by different missionary 
societies. 
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The role played by colonial educational institutions in shaping the choral tradition 
in the mission churches is enormous. Ephraim Amu was among the first batch of three 
‘senior high school boys’ who were transferred from Peki seminary to Abetifi seminary in 
1916 due to low patronage as a result of the German-British demarcations (Ansre 1997:163-
164). In his article ‘Uses of Indigenous Genres in Ghanaian Choral Art Music: Perspectives 
from the works of Amu, Blege and Dor. Dor (2005: 446) noted the contribution of the 
‘School of Music founded by Amu in 1949 at Achimota in Accra, which was later moved 
to Kumasi in 1951, in producing very fine composers. He enumerates institutions such as 
the Department of Music of University of Ghana (since 1960s). The Department of Music 
of the University of Cape Coast, the N.A.M, Winneba now the Department of Music of the 
University of Education, Winneba. Dor (2005) asserted that courses in composition taught 
in these institutions which resulted in the compositional acumen of these ‘finest’ art 
composition. Nketia (2016) explained that the genre developed by Amu was sustained by 
successive composers and performers through the generations of Ghanaian art music. The 
E. P. Church Teachers’ Training College at Amedzofe and the seminaries at Green Hill 
Campus, Peki-Blengo and Amedzofe continue to feed the E. P. Church, Ghana with 
musician in bid to satisfy her musical needs. 
After Ghana attained her political independence, the awareness of people to their 
cultural identity increased. This was fueled by Nkrumah’s national ideologies. This has a 
parallel in the E. P. Church, Ghana. After the 1992 split, the E. P. Church, Ghana became 
fully aware of her liturgical and musical practices. The musical policy continued to be 
emphasized through institutional interventions such as the national annual Workshop for all 
Musicians and Catechist at Ho – the headquarters, Presbytery Choir Masters Workshops, 
District and Zonal Workshops. 
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The Presbytery Biannual Conference organized by the church Music Directorate 
ensures the maintenance of the musical tradition and its performance directions through a 
process of acculturation such as: 
- Assembly of choirs 
- Maintenance of Code of ethics and traditions through routine inspection 
- Coronation of ‘fine musicians’ 
- Performances of choral music (not instrumental music) 
- Applause in appreciation performances  
- Use of indigenous and Western instruments (Interculturalism)  
- Invitation of other choral groups from sister churches 
- Communion service  
According to an interview with Mr. Richard Avah on 09/11/2018 at his residence at 
Madina - Accra, the annual and later, the biannual conferences of WVPCCU has played a 
significant role in shaping the musical practices in the E. P. Church, Ghana. By constitution 
the church choir is mandated to lead congregational singing. It will therefore be appropriate 
to discuss the activities of the church choir at its highest organizational level, thus the 
Biannual Conferences. The conference is organized at various levels of the administration 
levels. These are National Conference, Presbytery Conference and Zonal Conference. Songs 
are been selected for the conference. They fall within Ghanaian Choral Art category. These 
includes Translated German chorales and English hymns in the Hadzigbale (E. P. Church 
Hymnal) and more recently hymns by Ghanaian composers that are found in the new edition 
of the Hadzigbale (2008 edition). The selection cut across all the themes in the Hadzigbale 
and shared to the choirs according to their competences. The second category of songs is 
the selection of anthems (local or western) and marching songs. This is of two folds. One, 
the mass songs. These are the mass anthem to be rendered by participating choirs. The other 
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mass songs include: processional, introit, before and after sermon, doxology and recessional 
songs. Two, the optional songs. These are optional processional songs and anthems rendered 
by individual choirs. This section will be discussed in detail under the sub title dubbed 
Performance Practices, subsequently. 
Before the conference, the choirs are vigorously taking through singing drills and 
performance techniques by trained choirmasters. These are done to ensure that high 
standards performance. The technical team of the choir ensure that codes of ethic are met 
and the issue of morals addressed before the ‘camp’. Preparations take months. i.e. after 
Easter festivities the choirs converge at a pre-determined venue.  
The concert or performance takes two evenings at Presbytery levels because of the 
number of participating groups/choirs. On the Fridays and Saturday’s evenings, the 
conference showcases the finest of composers, conductors, players of various indigenous 
and western melodic and percussive instruments like the bɔbɔɔb set of drums, agbadza set 
of drums, various shakers and gongs, the hour-glass drum and the electronic keyboard. The 
organ is rarely used at conferences because of its sophistication, cost of transportation 
among others. The keyboard is preferred because it is durable.  
Dor (2005:445-446) mentioned that during the mid-80s when Robert Manford was 
the director of the National Academy of Music, Winneba, performances of the final year 
students was predominantly choral, which is contrary to the priority given to instrumental 
performances by finalist during N. Z. Nayo’s tenure of office as a director in the late 1970s. 
This may however suggest that the choral performances (sacred tunes) during the 
conferences of the E.P. Church choir may have been influenced by the out-pouring of 
Ghanaian art choral composers in the 80s from the music institutions like N. A. M., 
Winneba, which might be happening concurrent at other institutions like the music 
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department of University of Ghana. The rendition of hymns and anthem by the choir as an 
institution and partly by the congregation dictated to the choice for choral music, principally, 
at the conference. Prominent composers whose works continued to be feature are, Ephraim 
Amu, J. H. Nketia, N. Z. Nayo, R. K. Ndor, G.W.K. Dor, Kenn Kafui, Pappoe Thompson 
Walter Blege, , Charles Datsa, etc. procession to the stage is done by singing, drumming 
and dancing in formation (light movements). At the sound of the cadence, the performing 
choir is congratulated by applause, shouts and clappings. This is done to appreciate and 
congratulate the choir. The practice and experience are the same at national, presbytery, and 
zonal conferences. The phenomena at the conference, here mentioned, has a resemblance of 
the description given by Dor at the final year performances at N.A.M., Winneba; preparation 
by students modes of composition (i.e. instrumental and choral), the competitive nature of 
performance, the composition of audience and the ‘final cadence’ and its inherent applause.  
Service of the Eucharist on Saturdays at conferences is re-enactment of the liturgical 
order and musical practices of the church. With the exception of procession and recession, 
there are singing of hymns and choruses. Some of the hymns are sang and accompanied by 
drumming. Local choruses and tunes are rendered within a continuum of simple time or 
compound time. During such sections, observations shows that brass and woodwind 
sections jointly accompanies the singing. This emphasizes the Interculturalism as a solid 
foundation of the musical tradition of the E. P. Church, Ghana. The ministration of the Holy 
Communion will be discussed in detail in subsequent sections. 
The role and contribution of other religious and educational institutions cannot be 
over emphasized. Choirs, especially, those affiliated to churches and those non-aligned to 
churches continue to be invited to perform at programmes such as anniversaries, inaugural 
programmes, concerts, weddings, funerals, book launch, national programmes e.g. state 
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funerals, internal conferences, etc. At these programmes the invited choir render the choral 
songs within their jurisdiction. I mean to say the culture of music familiar to them. 
2.15 Performance Practices in the E. P. Church, Ghana 
The musical tradition of the E. P. Church, Ghana is directly linked to the performance 
practices of the missionaries and the Pre-colonial Eʋes through successive generations. 
From a protestant and Lutheran background, the missionaries introduced the singing of 
hymns into the church. German chorales and English hymns were translated into Eʋe. 
During its formative years, the hymns constituted the main musical tradition of the church, 
a tradition that has remained up-to-date. Among other things yet to be mentioned, a 
‘structured’ liturgy and the rendition of hymns is what readily distinguishes the E. P. 
Church, Ghana from other Asikpoli Tsɔtsiwo. The Hadzigbale has been revised over the 
years by both western and indigenous scholars, ministers, musicians and other church 
agents. “Old-timers” in the E. P. Church, Ghana use the term, Asikpoli Tsɔtsiwo, to refer to 
‘contemporary churches – especially, ‘one-man-established’ churches - where hand-
clapping is used extensively during their musical performances and prayer sections. It is 
worth to mention that the term is rather derogatory in its meaning. It is used to down play 
the Apostolic and Pentecostal modes of musical expressions.  
Although not a common practice, some local congregations E. P. Church, Ghana use 
the psalms and canticles, for instance, Bethel Congregation of the E. P. Church, Accra New-
Town. I have played the Gloria during church services several times at Bethel. It is mostly 
used for Doxology and Before and After Sermon. My search at the choir’s music library has 
also reveal that they used canticle 24 during their 1983 Nine Lessons and Carols during 
Catechist J. R. K. Necku’s tenure of office (1975 - 2001). Hope Konu, choir director and 
organist of E. P. Church, Ghana in an interview mentioned that the Bubuashie E. P. Church 
Choir under the directorship of one Mr. Konu also used utilized canticles, chants and psalms 
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extensively aside the ‘routine Ghanaian Art Choral pieces. He noted that the practice 
boosted the choir’s standard of performance and musical appreciation. As a choir director 
at Penile and Bethel local congregations, I also teach, direct and perform Psalms and 
Canticles at these affiliated congregations. This practice parallels the musical practice of the 
Dansoman E. P. Church Choir. Observations at Biannual Conference of the Vest Volta 
Presbytery Church Choirs U union show that the choir’s frequency of using Baroque and 
Classical pieces as a stage piece during the ‘sing-song’ night   is higher than that of others 
choirs, relatively. During a conversation Prosper Cudjoe remarked “Dansoman church choir 
like singing classical music during church services”. These practices do not differ from the 
Methodist Church Choirs that is well vested in singing canticles, psalms and other English 
anthems.  
Mr. Divine Kpatakpalu noted in an interview on 6th September, 2017 at 17:30 GMT 
at the Peniel church premises that “the once serene atmosphere of worship when drums were 
not accepted as mode of expression during congregational worship has changed drastically”. 
These days the church has become one of the Asikpoli Tsɔtsi. He noted that in the course of 
time some individuals in the church got bored with the ‘rigid’ missionary ways of worship 
and introduced new musical styles into the church. The use of traditional musical 
instruments and modes of expression were borrowed into the church. Local tunes and 
choruses set to biblical themes became composite part of the tradition of the church over 
the years. The influence did spread among local congregations quickly because of factors 
such as homogeneity of the E. P. Church, Ghana membership, inter and intra church 
migration etc. The move was experienced during the third and fourth quarter of the twenty-
first century.  (Interview with Mr. Kpatakpalu: 27/02/19, 11:45am). ‘Style’ associated with 
the E. P. Church also includes brass band music. It members, mostly the youth, are drawn 
from the children’s’ ministry and adult service. Their repertoire is regimentory in character. 
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They mostly play hymns and local tunes and choruses but with a touch of brass and 
woodwind idioms.  
The ‘pop-band’ has also found its place with the musical tradition of the E. P. 
Church, Ghana. Popularly referred to as the Praise Team. They perform highlife tunes using 
biblical themes just like the other groups. ‘Matured’ congregations especially those in the 
capital city of Ghana uses heavy musical instruments, synthesizers and magnifies. Their 
sound levels are mostly high. They do these as a replica of the high quality of sound in 
bigger auditoriums in the urban centres. They mostly minister during a time of ‘Praise and 
Worship’, offertory and also during ‘All Night and Revival sections.   
2.16 Historical Antecedents  
Some factors are accountable for the explosion of the ‘new’ variety of performance practices 
inherent in the E. P. Church, Ghana today which differs from the Bremen heritage. The 
account documented by Ansre (1997: 118 - 130) in the 150 years of Evangelization and 
Development of the E. P. Church, Ghana - 1847-1997 delineates the emergence of the 
practice. Ansre pointed out that the period between 1972 and 1984 was the time when the 
E. P. Church, Ghana experienced a massive explosion of congregations particularly within 
the West-Volta Presbytery. Thousands of her congregants migrated to the Greater Accra, 
Western and Central, Eastern, Ashanti and Brong Ahafo Regions. As a result, the 
geographical location of the church shifted from the Volta Region (the birth-place) to the 
West of the Volta. A process of rejuvenation among different ethnic groups in Ghana was 
initiated although the E. P. Church, Ghana is predominantly made up of Eʋe-speaking 
people.   
The Bible Society of Ghana engaged bible scholars from inter-denominational Eʋe-
speaking churches to embark on a revision of the Eʋe Bible into a new one because the old 
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one was extremely literal’ and sought to retain the Hebrew and Greek expressions. It was 
also to work at the advancement in biblical studies and take care in the changing grammar 
in the Eʋe language. Hermeneutically, this might enlighten a cross section of worshippers 
in the E. P. Church about a quotation in the Holy Bible. “Praise the LORD with harp, sing 
unto Him with the psaltery and an instrument of ten strings. (Holy Bible KJV, Psalms 33:2)” 
and “Make a joyful noise unto the LORD all the earth, make loud noise, and rejoice and 
sing praise (Holy Bible KJV, Psalm 98:4)”. The importation of the traditional or indigenous 
into the once ‘missionary culture’ was a rebellion against the ‘anaemic’, may be.  
In August, 1973, a committee was set up to revise the Homedodo (Church Order) of 
the E. P. Church, Ghana and the Eglise Evangelique du Togo. This move was taken in order 
to take major decisions about the church’s way of doing things. Copies were not given to 
the Togo Branch of the church and discussions came to a dead end. The change of name 
from Eʋe Kristo Hame (Eʋe Christian Church) – [1922], to Eʋe Presbyterian Church – 
[1926] then to Evangelical Presbyterian Church – 1[954] by successive Synods was to make 
the church more universal - thus, open to non - Eʋe speakers – who might not necessarily 
be breast with the ‘Presbyterian’ musical traditions. I argue that, this also created an avenue 
for the importation of ‘new’ musical forms into the church. To make the church more 
universal, “There was, therefore, no point in tagging a Church with a tribal name” (Ganusah, 
2008: 43). This suggest that, the church is readily opened for variety of musical practices 
from different cultural backgrounds.  
The period between 1960s and 1990s was the time when the number of ‘newer 
Christian groups’ increased. Some imported and others ‘home-grown’ that was very much 
alike to the Apostolic and Pentecostal churches usually referred to as Spiritual churches or 
Asikpoli Tsɔtsiwo, preferably. In addition, the personality of Demons and Satan is 
emphasized in these so-called spiritual churches. Demons that are much alike to those 
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described in the Holy Bible or the African cult systems such as afa, dzo, adze, tru and vudu. 
“An essential claim of these churches is their ‘ability to exorcise these devils from their 
victims and restore them back to Christ” (Ansre, 1997: 122). The healing process in these 
churches is reminiscent of the procedure in the traditional settings. Consequently, many 
Christians and non-Christians were attracted to these practices as a result of finding solution 
to their problems. A fraction of E. P. Church, Ghana’s members were among those people. 
Some left the church entirely while others remained but felt that the Hamedodo must be 
tailored substantially to ‘provide adequate cure and relief from these demons and their 
master, Satan.  
Another development during the late twentieth century was the increase in the use 
of Ghanaian art music in the traditional mission churches including the E. P. Church, Ghana. 
The use of Ghanaian or African musical instruments during church service increased 
significantly. The work of Ephraim Amu (the father of Ghanaian art music) and his students 
were integrated into the musical practices of the mihamession churches. These including 
anthems, ‘local’ hymns, marches, choruses and various instrumental forms. The ‘Ghanaian 
School of Art Music’ trending on the wheels of intercultural music merged indigenous and 
western music practices.  
In his concluding remarks, Schuyler (1998) argued that tradition in music goes 
beyond the present and the future. In his expository, he categorized a musical tradition as 
(i) Repertory of the tradition (2) Performance Practice and (3) Context. Contextually, the 
repertoire includes western church musical forms, Christianized traditional musical 
expressions and a hybrid of the two. The repertoire of songs is archived in media such as 
the Hadzigbale (Hymn Book), the Supplementary Hymn Book, Children’s Hymn Book, E. 
P. Church Choirs Songs Book, E. P. Church Choir libraries. However, a collection of music 
scores can be found at some libraries of ‘matured’ E. P. Church Choirs, such as Bethel 
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Church Choir – Accra Newtown, Mamprobi E. P. Church Choir, North La, Nima E. P. 
Church Choir etc., and individuals- mostly trained choir directors and organists. 
As the rejuvenation processes evolved, the new mode of musical practices in the 
church continued to be transmitted through various means. The mode of transmission or 
training was achieved through formal, semi-formal and informal practices. Formal training 
is achieved via the institutions (discussed above). Semi-formal training is achieved via the 
routine workshops organised by the choir directors’ union aimed at upgrading the 
musicianship of directors and organists who could not access formal musical training or 
whose training is considerably low. Repertoire of songs that are not necessarily art music 
can also be accessed informally through performances by various singing bands, e.g. 
C.Y.B., Hadzihaga (Great Choir), Womens’ Bible Class, Womens’ Guild, Israel Group and 
E.P.S.U. Most of those songs have been recorded on CDs. Others are also on the social 
media. Even as they may be intended for meditation, reflection and for the sake of listening 
pleasure, they are also a means of preserving them for future generations and for further 
studies. Reservation can also be found in print format. In context, the musical tradition of 
the E. P. Church, Ghana is a reflection of the past.  The music would be appreciated better 
by careful examination of the missionary, colonial residues, wake of indigenization in 
Ghana if not in the whole of Africa.    
Bright Meyer (1996) noted that the rise of modernity “gives a resurgence of demons, 
witches, and spirits rather than their disappearance” practical zed among the Eʋes at the 
time of North German Missionaries religious activities. This was confirmed by Ansre (1997: 
120). The Eʋes conception of sin were defined by malevolent actions which were dealt with 
by purification. As a result, important parts of Eʋe traditional religious practices remained 
merging it together with elements of Pietist religiosity as a result breeding a hybrid of ‘new 
configuration’. She added “It is precisely the hybrid nature of the post-missionary Eʋe that 
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makes it a useful tool for thinking about the ambivalent nature of embracing new forms, 
social relations and personhood while always partially renouncing the old. (Mayer, 1997)” 
Contrary to the E. P. Church, Ghana, the Pentecostal churches appeal to people because they 
emphasized the devil and gave ‘directions’ to people through exorcising the devil, laying of 
hands and anointing in bid to end their suffering. 
2.17 Instrumental Resources 
The literature on African traditional instruments in general and that of indigenous musical 
instruments of the Eʋes abound in prints such as Nketia’s The Music of Africa and Pascal 
Younges Musical Traditions of Ghana. The history, origins, social functions, the customs 
associated with their uses, their construction and especially their role within the cultural 
setting has been discussed in detail. I will limit my discussions to the craftsmanship and the 
context in which these ‘selected’ Eʋe indigenous musical instruments are used in the E. P. 
Church, Ghana.  
The musical instruments accessible to performers in the E. P. Church, Ghana can be 
grouped into two major categories, thus the Western and traditional African musical 
instruments in their respective categorizations. Among the indigenous musical 
categorizations, the membranophones and idiophones are easily accessible and 
predominantly used during church activities. The indigenous instruments at the disposal of 
performers are dictated by two factors, the geographical location of the church, thus, the 
communities within which the church is situated and the mode of musical specialization 
peculiar to those geographic areas. For instance, E. P. Church congregations established at 
the southern part of the Volta Region of Ghana will use instruments selected from agbadza, 
husago or atsiagbekɔ drum set and those at the Eʋedome will resort to bɔbɔɔbɔ, gabada or 
any other traditional dance drums set. 
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Inter-cultural marriages, the search for greener pastures and other social factors 
allows most Eʋe speakers to congregate at a particular local church and this accounts for the 
utilization of instruments of both the south and northern musical cultures. An additional 
factor that determines the selection of instrument if the proposed style of music to be 
performed. For example, bɔbɔɔbɔ and gabada drum set will suite songs composed in 
common time whiles songs composed in com pound time will suite agbadza, husago or 
atsiagbekɔ set of drums.  There are musical instruments that are borrowed from the local 
communities; example kidi, atumpani and those that have been integrated into the musical 
life of the church through mutual contact. A classic example of such borrowed instrument 
is the dondo or the hour-glass-drum, adenkum (a stamped idiophone), brekete and sorts of 
shakers from the northern tribes of Ghana.  
There are similarities in the construction, design and tuning mechanisms of these 
instruments. In the E. P. Church, Ghana, these percussion instruments find their highest 
expression in all dance drumming activities. They are curved out of logs with two openings 
(big and small). There are pegs that plays two functions: one, for stretching the membrane 
over the opening usually the big end of the drum and two, for the tuning of the instrument. 
Most membranophones are tuned by hitting to top of the peg with solid materials such as 
stone, a piece of wooden clappers (which are musical instruments too) or with to gakogui 
(gong). Tuning may also be affected by wetting the membrane with water or drying in the 
sun or carrying out these two successively. Contrarily, the dondo and the brɛkɛtɛ are not 
tuned by hitting. They are tuned by relaxing or putting tension on the membrane through 
the pulling of tension twines.   
Drums in the E. P. Church, Ghana come in different designs. Observation and 
participating in the musical practices reveal that the drums may be conical, cylindrical, semi-
cylindrical or hour-glass in shape. Some may have their middle section slightly protruding 
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with curving of patterns, images and designs. These designs are sometimes borrowed from 
the Eʋe tradition with may not have any connotation with the Christian faith. Drums curved 
out of logs with two opened ends are mostly found among the northern settlers of the Eʋes. 
Examples of these are ʋuga, atumpani and asiʋui etc. There are drums that are also 
constructed out of wooden strips and bound by a ring or stripes of sheet metals – ‘barrel 
drums’ for example. They are mostly tapered at both ends and finished with various shades 
of oil pants. In an interview, Daniel Atakpa, a drum builder at Akatsi, explained that colours 
depends on factors such as individual preferences and group societal colour. Examples of 
these drums are atsimeʋu, gboba, soga, kidi and kagan of the southern Eʋes. They are 
mostly found among the southerners. 
It is very common to find single-headed drums with the opening covered with 
membrane, laced down by pegs and twines in a Y, W or X shape. Another type of drum that 
is common is the dondo (Nketia & Young, 1974). The dondo and its role in musical tradition 
of the E. P. Church, Ghana will be discussed subsequently.  
2.18 Traditional instruments and their uses in the E. P. Church, Ghana 
Voice: This is the most common of all the instrumental resources in the E. P. Church, Ghana. 
Both the clergy and congregation sing during a church service. In Eʋe, Gbe means voice. 
The gbe is that which is activated in singing a song (Ha). Generally, the word Ha means a 
song or music among the Eʋe speaking people. Hadzidzi is the term in the Eʋe language that 
is used to describe the act of singing. Dziha is an action word, meaning’ to sing’. Hadzila is 
a noun, meaning ‘a singer’. Hadzilawo is a collective noun. It means group of singers. 
Hakpala means a composer. Four-part singing is more prevalent in among the choral 
inclined groups in the church. Other traditional ensembles in the E. P. Church, Ghana 
utilizes cantor and chorus technique of singing which is borrowed from the Eʋe culture.   
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2.19 Idiophones  
Gakogui (gong-gong): It is an idiophone variously known as gakpevi or gagbleve. It is 
constructed by a blacksmith from metal pipes and sleeves of broken machine parts. They 
are found in all dance-drumming activities in the church. They are played by striking the 
bigger and smaller bells in various rhythmic patterns that are normally vocalized using 
vacables such as ‘tiŋ-goŋ’. Their principal role is the keeping of time line during musical 
performances. Younge (2011: 21) distinguished sharply between the gakpleve and the 
gakogui. He refers to gakpleve as the double bell and the gakogui to the slit metal bell. 
 
Figure 1. Gakogui (gong-gong) 
Atoke: This instrument is constructed from metal sheets such as leave springs of 
motor cars and other sheet metals. It is hammered into a canoe-shape. The slit or curvature 
in the embodiment of the instrument and the two hooks at its ends are the two distinguishing 
features. Its body resonates the sound at a high frequency.  This categorizes the instrument 
as a high-pitched instrument. It is played by striking the slit with a metal rod of about 3-
4mm in diameter. The piece of metal rod can be substituted by a piece of wood or stick as 
showed in figure 2 below. It plays the same role as the gakogui. 
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Figure 2: Atoke 
Afretsiwa (castanet): This is known among other Eʋe-speaking ethnic groups as 
kretsiwa, or akoge. It is made up of two detached parts; the bell and the ring. The first part 
is constructed by beating and rolling a metal plate into an egg-shape with a recess for the 
middle finger. The second part is the ring worn on the thumb of the same hand used in 
holding the bell. It is played by striking the bell on the ring. One or two may be used in a 
performance. I have observed during a particular performance at Bethel congregation where 
more than ten players were involved in a rendition. This was during the performance of 
Wodze La Madi Gbolo oo, a choral composition by Joel Quophy Agnegue. Agnegue is a 
choral composer in the Republic of Togo. The instrument is mainly used for keeping time. 
 
Figure 3: Afretsiwa (castanet) 
 
Atsikpakpa (Wooden-clappers): They are made from a piece of solid timber or 
bamboo. It comes in a pair. It may be cylindrical or rectangular in shape. It is played by 
striking the pieces against each other. They are also used for time keeping.  
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Figure 4: Atsikpakpa (Wooden-clappers) 
 
 Akaye or axatse: These are shaken idiophones. Nketia (1974) classifies them into 
primary and secondary rattles. The primary rattles include the guard variety which appear 
as a container rattles or as rattles surrounded by nets of cowries, sea shells, pieces of bones, 
bamboo shoots, metals, buttons or beads. It comes in sizes with or without handles or neck 
for holding. The secondary rattles are mostly worn by performers. The primary abounds in 
the E. P. Church, Ghana. 
 
Figure 5: Akaye or axatse 
 
2.20 Membranophones 
Atsimevu: The atsimeʋu is also known as sogo among the Tɔŋus the migrant peasant 
farmers who settled at Hyɛbrɛkrom or Kpoviadzi No. 2 in the Wassa West district in the 
Western region of Ghana. It is the master or lead drum in agbadza, kenka, gahu, kete etc. It 
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belongs to the southern drum categories that are constructed by strips of wooden slaps and 
ring of sheet metal described above. It is single headed and are leaned towards performers 
and supported by stand thus, ʋuglatsi. Atsimevu curved out of solid wood are becoming 
common. Younge (2011: 24 - 25) noted that ‘the playing technique includes one stick one 
hand or two sticks. Tones such as ga, ki, te, ge, de, tsi, to, ka, dza and dzi can be produced 
by varying the tension on the membrane by hand’.  During any grand performance of 
agbadza, gahu etc. in the church, this drum may be used. 
 
Figure 6: Atsimevu 
Kidi: Its construction is the same as that of atsimeʋu and the gboba but the kidi is 
small in size. It is the second supporting drum in most of the dance types among the 
southerners. It is played with two sticks in a close and open techniques. The tones also 
depending on tension mounted on the membrane by the sticks. It is played in a dialogue 
with the kagan. 
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Figure 7: Kidi 
Dondo: The hour-glass-drum is a two headed drum. It is curved out of a wood and 
played by squeezing the drum between the armpits by stretching or releasing tension on the 
strings. It is played by an angled stick with broadened tip. The role of the dondo in the E. P. 
Church, Ghana is enormous. 
 
Figure 8: Dondo 
 
 Ʋuga: Is the master drum found in the bɔbɔɔbɔ ensemble. It is conical and single-
headed. The ʋuga comes in three sizes. The big, medium and small sizes are named by the 
Eʋedome performing groups as the bass, tenor and treble respectively. It is played by 
holding it in-between the tights and the membrane slapped with the bear hand. Varying 
sound is produced by varying the distance between the open-bottom-end of the drum and 
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the ground level. The rhythms played by its players are mostly carved in speech-surrogates 
or vocable. It mainly plays an improvisational role. It also plays leading role in the selection 
and changing of rhythms during a performance. 
 
Figure 9: Ʋuga 
Asiʋui: Asiʋu or Asiʋui is relatively smaller to ʋuga. It comes in two designs; the 
bottle necked shape or the conical shape. It is the supporting drum used in bɔbɔɔbɔ 
ensembles, two or three of these may be used at a time. It is held in-between the thighs and 
slapped by the hands. They are differentiated by their sizes and pitches. It is used by most 
singing bands in the E. P. Church, Ghana. 
 
Figure 10: Asiʋui 
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Brɛkɛtɛ: The origin of this drum is of the Northern sector of Ghana. It is used in 
fumefume dance ensemble but it has been borrowed by the Israel Group of the E. P. Church 
for their performances. It is a cylindrical drum with two parched heads. It is molded out of 
veneer. The parched heads are held in place and tuned by a twine that is laced across the 
length of the drum in x shape. It is the master drum in the musical performances of the 
group. 
 
Figure 11: Brɛkɛtɛ 
 
Apart from those traditional instruments mentioned above some Western orchestral 
instruments are also used. Those ones that are commonly used for performances includes 
those that belong to the four families of the orchestra. Thus, the woodwind; recorder, 
clarinet, flute, the brass; B flat trumpet, cornet, trombone and tuba. The strings; Bethel 
congregation once had violins, violas and cellos. The percussion is commonly found among 
brass and woodwind bands in the E. P. Church, Ghana. Among these the percussion is 
commonly found. The organ is found at the Dansoman congregation. The harmonium was 
used extensively but is now fading out. Most local congregations use a five-octave 
electronic keyboard for music performances.  
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4.1 The Trajectory of Performance Practice  
4.1.1 The Art 
The drama of performance in the E. P. Church, Ghana is a hybrid of western church musical 
forms and Eʋe traditional musical practices. It will therefore be understood better when 
observed against the backdrop of musical performance and organization among the Eʋes and 
that of western musical practices.  From the point at which the choir and clergy process and 
continue with other formalities that make up the liturgy to the time of recession showcase 
some elements of traditional music making among the Eʋes. In other words, my observations 
at the selected congregations started right at the time when the church choir prepare in 
readiness for service, procession by choir and clergy until they exit with a procession. My 
discussion will be limited to the general musical tradition which spans the religious activities 
during Sunday Divine services since that is the climax of all weekly activities in the church 
except the Eucharist. Some of the week day activities include choir rehearsals by the church 
choir and other singing bands such as Hadzihaga, Good New Choir, C.Y.B., E.P.S.U, bible 
study and prayer meetings, wedding, funeral services, outdooring and naming ceremonies. 
I will use what I call the ‘church choir modulus’ to guide the discussion. The ‘church 
choir modulus’ specific to the E. P. Church is the statutory seven genres rendered by the 
church that punctuate liturgical activities during a major church activity such as Sunday 
Divine service, wedding service, pre- burial and funeral service, induction service etc. It is 
worth mentioning that the ‘church choir modulus’ is not a separate item but an integral part 
of the liturgy. It is laced with other activities during the service. The modulus includes 
Processional, Introit, Selection, Before Sermon, After Sermon, Doxology and Recession. 
The performance practice of the E. P. Church, Ghana is made up of three stylistic traits. 
These includes Western church music, modifications of traditional music and a blend of 
both western and traditions idioms. 
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To begin with, the church choir processes with the clergy. The procession involves 
several musical activities which is evident of Interculturalism. It is reminiscent of musical 
practices among the Eʋes - the people among whom the church was established. Procession 
is a common practice associated with some political intuitions in West Africa, especially, 
procession of the chiefs to the durbar ground amidst drumming and singing. There may be 
procession of bands, intended to announce the commencement of a performance in situ. 
Observations at different E. P. Church congregations proved the same practice. I must 
mention that procession at church is also a western inheritance. Marching songs for the 
procession may be a selection from any of the western hymnals namely Ancient and 
Modern, Church Hymnal, Sankey, Methodist Hymn Book etc. sang with the original 
English texts. The tune could also be borrowed from Western hymns but sang in the 
vernacular (Eʋe). Bethel Church Choir of the E. P. Church, Accra New Town congregation 
is vested in singing the English text and vernacular alternatively during a procession.  
Optionally, the choir may sing a marching song or chorus composed by a Ghanaian 
composer that is set to biblical themes. Dor (2005: 445) observed that “most biblical texts 
have relevance and appeal for Christians all over the world”. It is common with composers 
of Christian sacred choral music to paraphrase liturgical texts that speak to the needs of their 
specific congregations. Themes of congregational worship are used as a guide to the 
selection of the processional and recessional songs. The singing is mostly accompanied by 
drumming. Preferably, bɔbɔɔbɔ set of drums, the dondo and selected idiophones such as 
gakogui, akaye or axatse, afretsiwa, clappers and shakers are used for this activity. This is 
reminiscent of a procession of traditional chiefs to a durbar ground. The trinity becomes the 
object of reverence in this context.  
In congregations where indigenous musicians abound, the drumming is treated to an 
ecstasy. The processional and recessional songs are introduced by the organ (western 
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instrument) but cues (prompts) to start the march are given by the dondo. Roles are 
apportioned to these two instruments – one western and the other traditional – for the 
commencement of the procession. This interdependence is dictated by the instrument’s 
abilities. The dondo appears to be saying Tsoooo boi! (lit. Hello everyone!). Where the choir 
responds by saying: Hei (lit. Yes!). Or the dondo says: Agoo! (lit. Hello!). The choir 
responds by saying: Amee! (lit. Hi, or Come in). In the context of church musical practices, 
the choir is required to respond by singing and the drummers by drumming. In the Ghanaian 
traditional setting, the ‘chant’ is said by one individual preferably a male figure. This is what 
the dondo appears to be doing. In other mission churches like Presbyterian Church of Ghana 
and the Methodist Church, Ghana, procession is done without drum accompaniment. In both 
the former and the later, either western hymn sang in English or vernacular (Twi/ Ga/Fanti). 
Performance of the recession is the same as the procession.  
2.22 The Rhetoric of the Dondo in the E. P. Church, Ghana 
There are cubic metres of literature in print about the organology of the dondo in West 
Africa music literature. I will therefore limit my discussions to the uses of this musical 
instrument in the E. P. Church, Ghana. The dondo, also known as the hour-glass-drum, plays 
a vital role in the performance practice in the E. P. Church, Ghana. It is found in almost 
every local congregation of the E. P. Church, Ghana. Traditionally, the drum is not one of 
the indigenous musical instruments of the Eʋes. It is neither found among the court 
collections of musical instruments or among the ‘commons. However, the dondo has 
attained such ‘superiority and audacity’ over dance-drumming musical activities in the E. 
P. Church, Ghana in my estimation. The drum is a native musical instrument of the norther 
ethnic groups. It might have been borrowed into the secular musical world of the Eʋes 
through a process of cultural diffusion. Wars, trade, cultural contact and other social factors 
might have been the cause for the transmission of the drum from the northern part of Ghana 
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through the northern part of the Volta Region to the south. Bigger towns at the north of the 
former Volta Region before its re-demarcation into Oti and Volta Regions includes: 
Kpando, Hohoe, Nkwanta and Kadjebi. 
The uses of the dondo in the E. P. Church is enormous. Apart from it musical role, 
the instrument demonstrates the philosophy of the linguist the Ghanaian political setting. 
One cannot speak directly with the chief except through the linguist. Traditionally, the king 
is reached through the linguist. The linguist is the medium of communication. Messages to 
and from the king are affected through the linguist. This philosophy is illustrated through 
the versatility of the instrument. The dondo has gained mastery of the vocabulary and 
‘rhythmic language’ of all dance-drumming musical types in the church through its 
interpretative usages. Who is a linguist in our Ghanaian traditional ‘sense’? 
          At this point, it will be beneficial to highlight the personality if the chief’s linguist 
(lit. Okyeame [Akan], Kyeame [Eʋe]) and his role (usually men) in some Ghanaian 
traditional court systems. The Kyeame plays an intermediary role between the chief and his 
subjects. The Kyeame is the chief’s mouthpiece, counselor or spokesperson. The chief who 
represents the ancestors, and for that matter, functions as the religious head and also the 
political head cannot be engaged in a communication directly. This is mainly because he is 
a symbolic representation of the dead and connotes the connection between the living and 
the dead. During ‘state’ or court functions he cannot be engaged with the living directly in 
communication. But this protocol or treatment is relaxed in his private life. Such is the 
fluidity in boundaries between the traditional court functions and the private life of the chief. 
This is where the role of the Kyeame matters among other things. On the account of 
addressing the chief, one must talk to the Kyeame who will in-turn address the chief in 
‘coded language or symbols’ to the ‘dead’. The chief then responds but it is translated into 
the ‘language of the living’ by the Kyeame to the recipient(s). I must note that “There is no 
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other language involved, but elders often use esoteric proverbial turns of phrase which are 
not widely understood by most people unfamiliar with chiefs' courts” 
(https://www.refworld.org/docid/3f7d4d9931.html [accessed 2 June 2020])  
          The Kyeame plays other roles such as running ‘high profile’ errands usually between 
chiefs and elders He also plays intermediary role by pouring libation to the ancestors and 
lesser gods during state functions and other gatherings. Ross (1982) explained that it the 
mastery of ‘cultured’ speech or language (in this case, ethnic groups implied) that cultivates 
a mastery of rich proverbial lore. The ability to develop oral presentation of proverbs is a 
great art, she noted. “The Okyeame is the principal counselor and spokesman of the chief. 
His staff (Okyeame poma, lit. linguist’s stick or counselor’s stick), has a curved finial at 
least representing at least one proverbial saying and each saying has a chain of metaphorical 
associations that applies to subjects and situations” (Ross, 1982: 57 - 58). it is in these 
understanding I present the oratory of the dondo in the E. P. Church, Ghana. 
The instrument is used for cues (prompts) for dance-drumming activities in the E. P. 
Church, Ghana In local congregations of the church where the dondo is not found, the drum, 
thus, ʋuga, or asiʋui or any of the idiophone, thus, gakogui, afretsiwa or atsikpakpa is used 
as a substitute, preferably, the ‘bɔbɔɔbɔ’ master drum is preferred because of its ability to 
vary its pitches within a wide range. Any of the supporting drums or idiophones such as 
castanet, gong, rattle or such kinds may be used. Such practices usually go with the swaying 
of the body excluding the processional and recessional activities mentioned above. It is 
surprising to know that when singing, drumming, and dancing are to be performed 
concurrently during church activity, it will not commence until a cue is heard from the 
dondo. This usually happens when the dondo is part of the ensemble. Performers ‘stands 
still’ until the cue is heard. This is a replica of the role of the family head - Abusuapanyin 
(Akan), Xlɔtatɔ (Tɔŋu) - in the Ghanaian cultural setting. Major decisions and actions which 
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concerns the extended family, especially, cannot taken until an approval is given by the 
family head. The dondo is the family head in this context.  
                    
Musical Illustrations 1:  Dondo cue for songs in a simple time signature. 
                  
Musical Illustrations 2:  Dondo cue for songs in a compound time signature. 
The two musical illustrations above, thus, illustration (1) and (2) are the fundamental 
rhythmic structures of the dondo cue. But within the various local congregations, one may 
find variations of these basic thematic materials (See Wuaku, 2015: 40 - 47). Any kind of 
the modifications plays the same fundamental role. It is identifiable because it is an integral 
part of most dance-drumming activities in the church. Also, the possible variations are 
fragmentations of the basic motivic structures of the cantus firmus.   
Cues in the E. P. Church, Ghana have a parallel in other mission churches. It is a 
common practice among the mission churches. Interviews and observations in some 
selected Presbyterian and Methodist churches revealed that there is a modified version of 
the kind used in the E. P. Church, Ghana. During, my childhood years, thus early 70s, I 
heard this kind being used by singing bands of the Presbyterian Church of Ghana and the E. 
P. Church, Ghana. In a personal conversation, Nelson Kwame (the late) of Bethel 
Congregation of the E. P. Church, Accra New-Town, noted that this kind of cues (musical 
illustration 3 [a] and [b]) predates that which is being used currently in the E. P. Church 
today. It however suggests that the dondo cues used in the E. P. Church, Ghana might have 
been created as a variation out of the musical illustration 3 [a] and [b]). However, musical 
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illustration 3 [a] and [b] is also used from time to time but musical illustration (1) and (2) 
are more preferred where drumming accompanies the singing. Simple idiophones like the 
wooden clappers, castanet, gong etc. are used for fig. 4. 
                         
                        
Musical Illustrations 3:  The cantus firmus from which variations of dondo cues in 
the in the E. P. Church, Ghana were generated                                        
 
However, it is not every performance that calls for dondo cues to begin. Examples 
of these are invocations, introits, hymns used for prayer, ‘affirmative’ hymns and songs used 
during sacraments (the Eucharist and Baptism) etc. These are determined by the context in 
which the songs are being performed. Apart from the Israel Group that has a peculiar cue 
(musical illustration 4) for their performances, which certainly serves as their identity, any 
other singing bands including the church-choir uses musical illustration. 1 and 2 for cues. It 
is worth to note that marching songs that are composed in a simple time signature are mostly 
preferred to be used as marching songs for procession and recession in the E. P. Church, 
Ghana. Rarely are compound time songs used.  
     
Musical Illustrations 4:  Dondo cue for Israel Group. 
 
The functionary attributes of the dondo also includes appraisals. When individuals 
or group(s) are commended for their good deeds during church service, they are being 
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applauded. As a token for their reward by the entire congregation, the dondo initiates an 
appraisal by sounding another type of cue identifiable to the entire E. P. Church 
congregations both home and abroad. It is spontaneously performed. Appraisals below 
(musical illustration 5) in the church has its counterpart in court minstrel’s performances 
and praise singing in some Ghanaian ethnic communities.  In the E. P. Church, Ghana it is 
structured on call and response, an idiom of African indigenous music. The dondo calls by 
playing the cue in a simple time, the congregation responds by clapping, accentuating the 
beats in the same metre. Nketia (1974) noted that some ethnic groups in Nigeria uses 
clapping as an accompaniment to some types of their traditional music. Clapping as an 
accompaniment plays a major role group performance among some ethnic groups in Ghana. 
The appraisal by the dondo may be just once, twice or repeated severally depending on how 
gigantic the goodwill might be. 
              
Musical Illustrations 5: Dondo Cue for Appraisal in the E. P. Church, Ghana. 
Clapping also accompanies activities such as praise & worship and offertory. 
Participation, recording and transcription in such congregational activity shows that the 
rhythmic structure of these is in conformity with bɔbɔɔbɔ clapping patterns even if the song 
is being provided by the church popular band, thus, the praise and worship team. Musical 
illustration 6 below facilitates our comprehension of the sub title. Once the song is in the 
simple time signature, be sure of this clapping pattern.   Apart from singing and drumming 
in any bɔbɔɔbɔ ensemble, hand clapping - as a fundamental structure of the performance - 
is also required of the participants. The clapping is anacrusically constructed within a simple 
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duple or quadruple time signature. The rhythm begins on the pick-up note or the weak beat 
and ends on the first beat (thus, the strong beat) of the next the measure. Basically, two beats 
of rests alternates two performed beats – a weak and an accented. Refer to musical 
illustration 6. Similarly, in other Akan dominated mission churches, example Presbyterian 
Church of Ghana, Methodist Church Ghana, A. M. E. Zion, such congregational activities 
also include clapping. Also, participation, observation, recording and transcription reveals 
that they utilize the time line of highlife, the Ghanaian genre which was developed among 
the Akan speaking people prior to Ghana’s independence as noted in musical illustration 7. 
Clapping is a phenomenon in Ghanaian churches and needs a further scholarly inquiry. 
Further studies can investigate clapping as a pre-compositional tool.  
 
Musical Illustrations 6: The usual rhythmic pattern of hand clapping- in the E. P. 
Church, Ghana Borrowed from bɔbɔɔbɔ rhythmic line.  
 
           
Musical Illustrations 7: Highlife timeline that has influenced the pattern of hand 
clapping in most Akan dominated churches. 
 
Structural analysis of the fragments of musical illustrations 4 and 5 indicates that 
idioms of egbanegba or gabada rhythmic structure noted by Kafui (2014: 70 - 76) in his 
study of the music of Gbolo Komla, an indigene of Alavanyo-ʋudidi at Eʋedome in the 
Volta Region, forms basic building blocks. This might suggest that the cues might have 
been originated composed among the Eʋedome people. An inter-congregational migration 
underlines the familiarity of these cues within the E. P. Church, Ghana. The familiarity is 
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substantiated by the fact that singing of praise song by minstrels and sorts of indigenous 
musicians abound in most African communities (Nketia, 1974). 
The dondo is an ‘independent’ instrument within the context of drum-dancing 
activities in the E. P. Church, Ghana. Because of its versatility and dynamism, it is used 
mainly for improvisation. It neither plays a supportive role nor the master role. It plays an 
interlocking role between the rhythmic complexities of the performance fiber rendering the 
cross-rhythmic continuum a very complex endeavour. Music making in Africa is 
characterized by poly-rhythms and cross rhythms. During a discussion of the Seven Notions 
of Africa during my undergraduate studies at University of Ghana in 2015, Dr. Juan 
Menesses Diaz - the lecturer - pointed out emphatically that the rhythmic complexities are 
a composite part of music organization on the African continent. The use of the dondo attests 
to this claim. Several tones can be produced via the techniques of playing the instrument. 
After the introduction of a song by the organ, the dondo   determines the amount of space 
to observe between the stanzas. This is because the instrument also plays interludes in 
between stanzas.  
In a much weird manner, the dondo has the ability to shift the original accents of 
songs. In such instances, the rhythm also changes considerably. The rhetoric of the musical 
instrument can change a simple time into a compound time (thus, 44 into 34) in so doing 
changing the orientation of the song. The reverse is rarely practiced. Lead kindly Light, 
Now Thank We All Our God are examples of translated English hymns in a simple metre 
which can be changed during their performance in the E. P. Church, Ghana. The first point 
of alert is dependent upon the choice of the cue type chosen by the dondo player. The tempo 
at which these songs are performed is largely determined by the dondo. Metaphorically, he 
is the chief linguist who determines the pace at which dialogue between the instruments 
should go. 
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Wuaku (2015) confirmed these changes imposed by the dondo in his PhD 
dissertation. He referred to dondo and brass band music cues as “Introductory rhythmic 
cue”. He noted that the cues when employed in Western translated hymn singing poses some 
amount of challenges. These challenges he referred to as “Alterations” includes one, 
alteration in rhythm at certain sections of the hymn, two, a change in the entire hymn 
registering a different perceived meter and three, a change in the ‘assumed’ tempo of the 
music, thus, the music becoming rather slower or faster (Wuaku, 2015: 45-47). 
The mockery about the use of the dondo in the E. P. Church, Ghana by some 
members belonging to other mission churches, example Presbyterians, Methodists in the 
cosmopolitan areas of Accra has been noticed by some trained musicians in the E. P. 
Church, Ghana. Mr. Hope Konu shared his experience about such instances. I have also 
been greeted with such mockery in a bookshop in Osu - Accra, Ghana, in 2011. They 
consider the use of the dondo as a derogatory and mean to the musical standards of the 
church. They take it to be a limitation to exploring the high-performance practices and 
standards associated with true missionary music making or better the reformation tradition, 
Mr. Hagan Okine – the shop keeper confirmed this. Observations show that the musicians 
of the Methodist Church Ghana have set a very high standard of the performance Ghanaian 
art choral music in Ghana, relatively. Rarely is hymn singing accompanied by drumming in 
the Methodist and Presbyterian Churches. However, danceable tunes and choruses (local or 
western) are being accompanied by drumming in these churches. Even if there is dondo it 
is not used as expressively as it is in the E. P. Church, Ghana.  
2.23 Drumming in the E. P. Church, Ghana 
Drumming has become an integral part of the musical tradition of the E. P. Church, Ghana. 
Drumming and other traditional musical expressions were introduced into the church during 
the cultural re-awakening in the early 1900s, a move was carried out in the whole of African 
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as a result of cultural awareness of the African spearheaded by Dr. Kwame Nkrumah etc. 
(Agordoh, 2011: 47). As a result, many of traditional Eʋe dances have been borrowed into 
the church’s musical practices. Some of these dance types are agbadza, bɔbɔɔbɔ, egbanegba 
etc. They are finely laced with the hymnody, choruses and other local tunes. Most 
congregations of the E. P. Church, Ghana sings hymns from the Hadzigbale accompanied 
by drumming and dancing (swaying). Because of many years of experimentation, the church 
has become addicted to use of the drum. This is evident at the peak of inter-congregational 
activities and Divine services such as Conference of the General Assembly, Presbytery 
Synods, District and Zonal Conferences and other related gatherings. Observations at such 
place show that drumming to accompany hymn singing is given an equal attention and 
prominence that is indifferent from other liturgical considerations. My position as a choir 
director and organist has offered me lot of exposure about these things. I have heard some 
Reverend ministers and catechist (trained and untrained) requesting for the drum to be 
played during church service. 
It must be noted, however, that drumming in the church depends on the context of 
performance. Solemn religious activities such as singing a hymn for prayer, administration 
of the sacraments (Baptism and Eucharist), dedications, consecrations etc. do not require 
that the hymns and other traditional choruses used be accompanied with drumming. Introits, 
Before and After Sermon, Doxology also do not require drum accompaniment. However, 
during praise and worship, offertory, procession and recession by the choir and clergy, 
praise and adoration, the drums becomes a reliable and valuable resource.  
It must be pointed out that drumming is more pronounced in the rural areas than it 
is in urban centres. Several reasons accounts for this. The distribution of traditional 
musicians in the Volta region favours the rural congregations more than those in the urban 
centres. The villages are the hub for training such cantors and instrumentalists. Unlike the 
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cities where western music training is done through formal education for so many years, the 
‘traditional musician’ is trained aurally (Nketia, 1974). Rt. SS. Agidi, the current synod 
moderator of the E. P. Church, Ghana once remark “There are good drummers at local 
congregation at Prestea. They will drum on every hymn by finding a suitable rhythm”. This 
indicates that some of the hymns are not ‘drummable’ but good instrumentalists in the 
church will find a ‘suitable rhythm’ to accompany it. Most drummers in the urban centres 
are migrants from the Volta Region, the cradle for the making of Eʋe traditional musicians 
and or instrumentalists. 
Drumming to accompany hymn singing in the Bethel Congregation (E. P. Church, 
Ghana), Accra New Town, is becoming a thing of the past. This is equidistant to Methodist 
and Presbyterian Churches as I mentioned earlier. The Methodist and the Presbyterians have 
a very high standard of music performance. Drumming on the hymn during church service 
is ‘forbidden’. Does this account for their high level of music performance? Established in 
1955, the Bethel Congregation (E. P. Church, Ghana), Accra New Town is the oldest local 
congregation in the then West Volta Presbytery which was made up of regions south of 
Ghana. Currently, irrespective of the liturgical demand hymn singing fulfills at Bethel 
congregation, it does not go with drumming. Thus, in-between procession and recession. 
This is because over the years the church and the church has been under the directorship of 
seasoned choir directors such Richard Avah and Hope Konu who do not favour the practice 
of accompanying hymn singing with drums. Their orientation and musical appreciation 
differ from most directors in the E. P. Church, Ghana. If the performance is composition in 
return then it can be deduced that their philosophy for music performance practices is the 
determining factor. Refer to the sub title dubbed Philosophical Leanings under chapter three 
of this thesis.  
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As I have indicated procession and recession in the E. P. Church, Ghana is a replica 
of the procession of chiefs to the durbar ground. The chiefs’ processes majestically, carried 
in a palanquin, accompanied by music making, heavy drumming, trumpeting (animal 
horns), singing, dancing, rocketing, display of abrafowo (executioners) etc. In a like 
manner, the procession and recession is done in a slow march (in a uniform footing). Usually 
bɔbɔɔbɔ set of drums are used with the usual dondo. The object of reference and reverence 
in the palanquin in this context is the Supreme God who is being ushered into the palace of 
worship (church) by the priesthood (the choir and clergy). Upon touching the threshold of 
the chapel the congregation rises to their feet in reference to His Majesty (God Almighty). 
The use of the choir’s robe, playing of the organ, the use of traditional instruments and the 
use of translated hymns or local tunes underlines the Interculturalism of these religious 
activities. 
2.24 Summary 
Performance of music in the E. P. Church, Ghana is situated within two broad cultural 
practices, the Western and indigenous musical modes of expression. The liturgy and makes 
room for intercultural music to be practiced in the church. However, there are occasions 
when the liturgy demands a minimal amount of traditional influences even though the 
hymns and other religious activities are carried out in the Eʋe language. Intercultural and 
hybridisation of musical practices dominate the music of the E. P. Church, Ghana.   
  
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CHAPTER THREE 
THE MUSIC OF GEORGE WORLASI KWASI DOR 
Because this chapter is earmarked to highlight the ‘musical persona’ of the figure popularly 
known in the E. P. Church, Ghana as George Dor, I would like to introduce the chapter by 
a brief highlight of his biography.   
3.1 A Brief Biography of G.W.K Dor 
3.1.1 Family Background 
George Worlasi Kwasi Dor was born on Sunday, 11th July, 1954 to Seth Kwasi Dor and 
Lucia Afua Nyawuto1 families, all of Alavanyo ʋudidi. George grew up among other 
siblings including Theodore Kofi Dor, Edward Wise Kodzo Dor, Nicholas Sitso Yao Dor, 
Louis Mawusi Kodzo Dor and Bezalel Anani Yao Dor2. His father was a multi-talented 
indigene of Alavanyo-ʋudidi who was a gunsmith, composer, band leader, conductor, 
performer, and a manufacturer of music instruments.  
3.1.2 Basic and Secondary Education 
George Dor enrolled into the Alavanyo ʋudidi Evangelical Presbyterian Primary School 
and the Local Authority Middle School. After passing the Common Entrance Examination 
in Form Two, Worlasi pursued his secondary education at Kpando Secondary School. At 
the secondary school he met Mr. Albert Kwaku Avortri, the father of Kenn Kafui, who was 
then the music master. Whiles attending the secondary school, George actively took part in 
the performance activities of the Unity Orchestral at Alavanyo ʋudidi which his father, Seth 
                                                          
1 The Nyawuto and Gbogbotsi families have the same bloodline ancestary. 
2 Only the very musical brothers are mentioned here. George had other sisters and 
brothers who are not listed here. 
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Dor established and directed. He was introduced to various orchestral instruments. Not only 
was George thought how to play some of the instruments but he was also taken through the 
various playing techniques of such orchestral instruments. It is within this orchestral sphere 
and the traditional musical setting of the people of Alavanyo which jointly shaped George’s 
musical inclinations. This musical predisposition was further grounded because of his 
mother’s musical acumen. George’s maternal aunties and uncles were also musically viable.  
  3.1.3 Tertiary Education  
 National Academy of Music (NAM), Winneba 
After secondary school, he continued to the then National Academy of Music (N.A.M.), 
Winneba, now the Music Department of the University of Education, Winneba. Dor took 
causes in music harmony and counterpoint, composition, orchestration, cello and keyboard 
musicianship, African music including drumming, atenteben (traditional flute), and gyil 
(xylophone) etc. This was around 1974-1977. Whiles at the Academy of Music, Winneba, 
he met educationists and teachers which included Nicholas Zinzendorf Nayo, Michael 
Amissah, Eric Akrofi, George Ogbe, Vincent Richter, Kweku Acquah-Harrison, and 
Geoffrey Boateng.  At NAM, Winneba, George Dor composed his choral work Mawu Ve 
Mianu (God, be merciful to us) which the Chapel Choir of the academy popularized. 
          After National Academy of Music, Winneba, George Dor was posted to Kadjebi 
Secondary School as a music teacher. At Kadjebi Secondary School, from1977-1980, Dor 
taught and directed the Kadjebi Secondary School Choir, and during holidays he led the 
Alavanyo - ʋudidi E. P. Church Choir and the Unity Orchestra also of ʋudidi. He in 1980 
transferred to St. Aquinas Secondary School, Accra. When he was at St. Aquinas Secondary 
School, he extended a helping hand to the E. P. Church Choir at North La. He offered to 
assist the choir because at the time the North La church choir was without a choir director 
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and thereby solicited for the directorship of George Worlasi Kwasi Dor.  As a composer, 
director and performer, many compositions poured out of his creative mind and edge for the 
church’s consumption through his association with the Church Choirs at local, district, 
presbytery and national levels. He was also instrumental at performances of Hadzihaga, 
Brass Band, Church Band and Christian Youth Builders, and other music groups within the 
church. George Dor served at the North-La E. P. Church, Ghana as the music director—
choir master, organist, and composer--and as a committed church member from the year 
1980 to 1996.3  
 University Education 
          He gained admission for further studies at the University of Ghana, Legon at the 
Department of Music in and in the year 1982. For his first degree at Legon, he researched 
into the Unity Orchestra at Alavanyo for his Bachelor of Arts Music Degree. He researched 
into the musical institution which has contributed to his musical upbringing. After his 
undergraduate education, George was offered the opportunity as a Teaching Assistant at the 
Department of Music, University of Ghana in the year 1986. G. W. K. Dor pursued further 
studies after his Teaching Assistantship, and in 1990 he was offered admission to pursue a 
Master of Philosophy Degree in Music. For his MPhil Degree, he focused on three Ghanaian 
Art composers namely Ephraim Amu, Nicholas Zinzendorf Nayo and Kwabena 
Nketia.  George W. K. Dor studied the trends of their stylistic traits in their Ghanaian Art 
compositions, and graduated as the first MPhil in Music at the University of Ghana. 
 
                                                          
3 When he had to leave for the US for his doctoral studies. 
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3.1.4 Music Career 
Amuah (2012) noted that it was after this period that “church choirs and the West African 
Examination Council use his choral pieces for singing competitions/musical festivals and 
examinations respectively”. Amuah further noted that the examinations council used his 
choral compositions because the examination body sought to portray the elements of 
Ghanaian tradition in their syllabuses. And as such the examination body selected G. W. K. 
Dor’s compositions. In 1992, George Dor was appointed as a lecturer at the Department of 
Music at the National Academy of Music, Winneba, where he had studied as a student. 
George W.K. Dor has held several positions within the E. P. Church Choirs’ 
fraternity. He has been the choir director and accompanist in several E. P. Church local 
congregations which includes the local churches at Alavanyo-ʋudidi, and North La. He has 
also served as the presbytery choir director for the WVPCC. George has also assumed such 
a positon at the national level. From 1995 to1996 he served as the National Director of the 
National Church Choirs’ Union of the E. P. Church, Ghana. Because of his musical 
versatility, he was assigned the responsibility to be the Synod organist for two times. This 
appointment was offered him as a result of his proficiency at the organ and various musical 
instruments.  
          G. W. K. Dor founded the Goethe Institute Choir in Accra, Ghana. He directed this 
choir from 1993 to 1996. Through an email message from George W. K. Dor to me on 11th 
March, 2019 he (George) noted that the idea to form the choir was muted by one Mrs. 
Fodjor, a teacher at the institute, who got to know that George was a composer. This was 
confirmed during Afropop’s interview with George W. K. Dor on 1st August, 2013 
(https://www.google.com/ George+Dor+interview+with+Afropop). The choir’s 
membership was made up of students who had enrolled at the institute to acquire literacy 
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skills in the German language of which George was one. Several Germans who were 
working in Ghana and needed to fellowship with the local people were also included. The 
choir served two main purposes. One, to the Germans it was fraternizing. Two, the Ghanaian 
students used it to further their knowledge in the German Language. Whiles at the institute, 
George Dor set a couple of text by German poets, for example Johann Wolfgang von
 Goethe and Hilda Domins to music for the institute’s choir. These includes: 
 Was verkurzt mir die zeit?                          What makes the time for me shorter? 
 Der Schatzgraber.                                       The Treasure Hunter. 
 Wer es konte die Welt hochwefen.       Who can lift the world up high? 
Schutzen Sie die Walder!                              Protect the forest. 
Wenn jeder eine Blume planfzte.                  When everyone can plant a flower. 
Wir brauchen bruderliches Leben.               What we need is brotherly living. 
G. W. K. Dor noted “So maybe I'm the first Ghanaian who has performed a highlife 
song in German” (George Dor’s interview with Afropop: 1 August, 2013), (Personal 
communication with G. W. K. Dor: internet, 13-04-2019). He also recorded an album with 
the Goethe choir. The record’s title is Wenn jeder eine Blume planfzte (“When everyone can 
plant a flower”) (CD by the Goethe Institute Choir, Accra, 1996). 
Dor also performed with the National Symphony Orchestra as a cellist. Later he 
graduated to the position of a resident conductor. Under his directorship, the symphony 
orchestra performed different compositions by famous Ghanaian Art composers such as 
N.Z. Nayo. He composed orchestral pieces which were performed by the orchestra. For 
instance, “Fraternity Symphonic Suite,” Three movements I: Borborbor, II Agbekor, Akpi), 
1995, “Echoes”, 1995, “Fantasy on an Adowa Song”, 1994, “Linguistic Dance”, 1995. In 
addition to the orchestral works, George Dor has a also composed three Choral-Orchestral 
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works. These are: “Money is the Milk that Nourishes the world” (Text by A. A. Tamakloe), 
“The Lord God Created the Universe” (Text by A. A. Tamakloe) and “We’ve Got Our Own 
National Theatre” (Text by Ben Addallah). Other musical works includes music 
productions.  
3.1.5 Life at the Diaspora 
G. W. K. Dor travelled to the USA in 1996 for further studies at the Department of Music, 
University of Pittsburgh for his PhD degree. He was awarded the Andrew Mellon 
Foundation for his doctoral studies. His dissertation was based on Eʋe Traditional Vocal 
Music. Currently, he is residing at the U.S.A. (Amuah 2012) (Interview with G.W.K. Dor 
on 12/04/2019 at 15 GMT).  
         George Dor is actively engaged in teaching at the University of Mississippi, U.S.A. 
He has held various positions such as Professor of Music and McDonnell Barksdale Chair 
of Ethnomusicology, the president of Society for Ethnomusicology (SEM), 1997, the 
president, International Council for Traditional Music (ICTM), 2010 etc. He has chaired 
SEM panel sessions during conferences; 2006, 2007, 2011 and so on. He continues to 
function as a member of Doctoral Dissertation Committees and Masters’ Thesis Committee. 
He provides consultancy serves in academia at the diaspora. He is also a member of various 
peer review boards and so on (CV of GWK Dor). 
 3.1.6 Musical works 
The compositions of G.W.K. Dor exhibits intercultural musical practices. His sense of 
traditionalism (his exposure to some aspects of the indigenous way of life and his ability to 
contextualize them in his compositions) and confession as a Christian serves a pool of 
references for his compositions. His anthems, hymns, marching songs and patriotic songs 
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serves as a repertoire for various choral groups around the globe. The melody of his songs 
are fairly distributed among all the four parts.  
          In his forward note to G.W.K. Dor’s CHORAL WORKS, Vol. 1, 1988, Avorgbedor 
outlined the features of George’s choral compositions. George Dor has a balanced interest 
in switching between sacred and secular choral works. Themes of his sacred songs are 
inspired by the scriptures. The secular works cover areas such as patriotic sentiments (e.g. 
“Ghanaviwo mina mia wɔ deka,” “Ghanaviwo mitso”), morality (e.g. “Megati nusi kɔwu 
wo la yome o,” Dokuibɔbɔ nyo”) and lullaby “Tutu Gbɔvi”. The themes express Christian 
virtues, the importance of singing, honesty, resilience etc. George W.K. Dor uses Eʋe 
proverbs as sub-themes to support his central ideas in an attempt to facilitate the 
cohesiveness of his song text.  
          He is very symmetric with his melodic construction. Conjuncts and disjunct melodic 
movements, occasional leaps and octaves (especially at the bass) are common in Dor’s 
musical compositions. Strikingly, his harmonies can be very chromatic at times. Smooth 
cadences are usually used to convey the thematic materials. Occasionally, dominant ninth 
and thirteenth are also used. Homophonic and contrapuntal textures are either used entirely 
or interchangeably depending on one, the targeted audience and two, the uses of the 
composition. The rhythmic motifs of his songs depicts the drum language of some 
traditional music types of both the Northern and Southern Eʋes. 
           Avorgbedor (1988: ii - v) described the general trait of G. W. K. Dor’s choral 
compositions in his concluding paragraph an Intercultural music. He noted, “It is a hybrid 
contemporary collection representing African and Western parameters of music. The 
composer has used his creativity and his general but high musicianship to add to the exiting 
rich Ghanaian tradition of Art Choral Music” (Avorgbedor, in Dor 1988: i-ii). 
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Scores of most of George Dor’s compositions can be found at different places. For 
example, church choir music libraries such as that of Bethel E. P. Church choir, Accra New-
Town and Nima E. P. Church choir. Choir directors who have served the E. P. Church, 
Ghana for a considerable number of years do have quite a number of G.W.K. Dor’s 
compositions, example, Misters Richard Avah, Humphery Agbeihia and Ampony. 
 
Photograph 1: Portrait of G. W. K Dor  
(http;//Afropop.org/migrated-uploads/2013/07/GDor3_web.jpg) 
 
3.2 The Musical Organization of the People of Alavanyo 
Because George W. K. Dor comes the northern part of the Volta region, I deem it 
appropriate to discuss the general musical background of the people of Alavanyo in order 
to offer a deeper understanding of the themes and sub themes of this chapter. Musical 
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organization of the people of Alavanyo shares common organizational procedures with the 
rest of the Northern Eʋe settlers and a number of other African ethnic groups, (See, for 
example, Agawu, 1990: 221 and Kafui 2000: 68 - 71). Kafui noted that “The concept of 
music and its modes of performance cuts across the whole of Eʋeland, but due to 
environment factors and other conditions differences are seen and heard in them as one 
moves from one community to the other”. In view of this, I will discuss the content of this 
topic as a generalization of the basic musical structures that define the Eʋedome as a people. 
George W. K. Dor comes from Alavanyo, so it will be expedient to discuss the possible 
sources of his influence. 
Pascal Younge (2011: 96) noted that among the Eʋeawo “various forms of 
heptatonic scale are preferred over the pentatonic scale” (Younge, 2011: 95 - 96). He 
referred to the keeping the normal pitch of the seventh in an ascending order and lowering 
it in descending order as a special feature of performance practice among the people. In 
general, Agawu (1990: 221 - 224) made referred to the overall descending contour of the 
Northern Eʋe melodies, which he also considers as a widespread “archetypal contour of 
African melody” as the shape of a succession of the teeth of a rip saw”. He noted that “A 
good deal of Northern Ewe symbolic expression is earth-oriented”. Dance movements are 
done with elaborate feet movements, squatting and looking on the ground. He explained 
that: 
Most dances involve elaborate movement of the feet, bending at the waist, 
looking towards the ground, and squatting. The ubiquitous art of pouring 
libation, which accompanies practically every ritual from a palm wine 
drinking party to the most serious invocation of ancestral presence, is 
earth- oriented: alcohol is poured on the ground for the gods to come and 
drink. It is true that in a basically agricultural society, the earth is an 
important life-giving source, and not only symbolically; but it is equally 
true that in dance and myth… (Agawu, 1990: 222) 
 
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Abotchie (2013: 98) argued further that the African pours libation to the ground 
when communicating with his ancestors, usually to intervene with affairs. He noted that 
“the act of pouring libation is a typical ritual, so are the actions associated with the 
installation of a chief, the out-dooring of infants, puberty rites and funerals”. 
 
Harmonic organization includes unisons (perfect unisons and octaves), parallel 
thirds and sixths. Harmony is referred to as egbe evelia among the northern Eʋe settlers. 
Meaning the second voice not necessarily a higher or lower-sounding part. This assertion 
however suggests that among the people of Alavanyo and the neighbouring community’s 
equal attention and prominence is given to all the parts irrespective of pitch. 
          The organisation of rhythmic motives among the Eʋeawo and their neighbours is 
usually structured within the simple and compound metre. This concept accommodates 
some of the common musical types among the people of Alavanyo. For example, 
Egbanegba, Gbolo and Gabada, Akpese, Totoeme, Zigi, Tuidzi, Pamproʋu, and so on. 
Mostly, one would find note values consisting of dotted quaver notes, quavers and 
semiquavers. There are also longer ones such as crotchets, minims and tired notes. However, 
there are also musical types in compound metre (68) which includes Adeʋu and Aviha. 
Examples of songs in compound time are Lawada mezɔ kple fe o (a theme in the anthem 
Dokuibɔbɔ Nyo by G.W.K. Dor) and Ditsa na kpɔe da. 
             Music is organized as a group activity, although solo performances also exist. While 
the Alavanyo people organize some of their musical performance around life-cycle events, 
part of their musical activities is meant for entertainment. Exclusive musical activities are 
reserved for specialized groups including traditional priests, hunters and the chief’s 
warriors’ associations (Dor, 1992: 15 - 27). They include:  
Dzoʋu or Trɔʋu (cult or religious music performed during traditional religious activities). 
Adeʋu (the music performed by hunters’ group or association to celebrate a successful game      
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            hunt or dramatise their experience in the forest) 
Akpi (music performed by warriors whiles going to war or used to celebrate their victory in  
          a battle or demonstrate their valour during a state function). 
 These musical types are also performed during the funeral’s rites of members of 
such specialized groups. Other Northern Eʋe musical types includes dirges, story-telling 
songs, children’s game songs, work songs, recreational songs etc. These includes: 
Devihawo or Vidzehawo (lullaby).  
Fefehawo (recreational songs for children). 
Gbɔtohawo (puberty songs sung during initiation of young girls into womanhood). 
Agblehawo (songs that sung whiles cultivating the land).  
Avihawo (dirges)  
Recreational musical types among the Eʋeawo includes, Gabada, Gboloʋu, Tuidzi, 
Bɔbɔɔbɔ, Agbo, Zigi etc (Agawu, 1990: 222 - 229 and (Kafui, 2002: 29 - 30).  
Also, court music genres are performed during installation of chiefs and state 
funerals. There are praise songs in honor of chiefs in the traditional setting. Instrumental 
resources of the northern Eʋe are mainly membranophones and idiophones. Eʋedome 
membranophones include asiʋui, ʋuvi, tamale, dondo, ʋuga, ʋukpo, and atumpanie, while 
their idiophones comprise ekpo, krentsiwa, akoge, akaye, and kpoekpoe.  Ladzo, the animal 
horn which is used as a court regalia is one of the few surviving aerophones of the northern 
Eʋe people. Similarly, no native chordophone has survived among the Eʋedome people. 
Rather the name of a climber bentaka, meaning benta string, suggests that the northern Ewe 
once had a rustic chordophone called benta.  
 
Two categories of Eʋedome traditional musical practices are readily available. First, 
those recreational musical practices that are not connected to any ritual of any sort, and may 
be performed for entertainment or relaxation. These are usually organized during leisure. 
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They are referred to as modzakaɖeʋu. The second type of musical activities are connected 
to social institutional structures and systems that may be political, religious, economic, 
marriage and family, funeral rites of specialized groups (warriors and hunters) and so on. 
The musical types that are used in this category are interspersed with rituals that are 
performed. These musical types may be accompanied by special dance movements which 
normally takes place at a dance arena by the custodians of the music. Apart from its dramatic 
component which fulfills the social and religious demands, the music carries symbols and 
mannerisms which are recognized by members of the group. The music also serves as a 
medium of communication between the performers and the deities that are responsible for 
the music type 
Those who perform structured musical types undergo recruitment, confinement and 
training. During this period, the recruits are taught special language of the ‘cult’, songs, 
musical instruments (belonging to the court) playing techniques, gestures, dance movements 
and customs, for example. These have a parallel in the Yeʋe cult of the southern Eʋes. Songs 
in praise of the respective deities abounds as much as those which address inter-personal 
relations. The music that are played on one occasion usually differ in style and content to 
another played on a different occasion depending on the demands of the deity at a given 
point in time.  
3.3   The Dor Family 
Seth Kwasi Dor and his children parallel quiet a number of Ghanaian families that are 
known for their musical inclinations. Examples of such families that are noted by 
patrons/patronesses of Ghanaian art musical space includes the Chapman-Nyahos, the 
Nayos, Aggors, Kwamis, the Fergusons, and the Wuakus, the Dogbatses and so on. Hitherto, 
it is therefore a common phenomenon to index the ‘Dors’ as a musical family as a result of 
the recurrence of the exemplary musicality that goes hand-in-hand with their life-long 
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activities, either professional or amateur. The Dors have involved themselves in several 
musical activities in their life time. For instance, reproduction and maintenance of musical 
instruments, compositions, performances, teaching and directing (music) and research 
activities through self-discovery and awareness of themselves. By this self-awareness they 
actively participate in the musical sphere of their societies. The head of the nuclear family, 
here discussed, is Seth Dor. Seth gave birth to Theodore Kofi, Edward Wise Kodzo, George 
Worlasi Kwasi, Nicholas SitsoYao, Louis Mawusi Kodzo, and Bezalel Yao Anani.  
3.3.1 Seth Dor (1908 - 1988) 
Seth Dor, who was born in 1908 at Alavanyo Kpeme before moving to Alavanyo ʋudidi 
had his formal education up to only class five (Standard two). However, his son George Dor 
commented in an interview that “I have never seen anybody in this world as creative as my 
father” (Telephone interview with George Dor: 12th April, 2019@15 GMT). Seth Dor was 
a genius of many sides, a creator who demonstrated great intelligence and artistry. He was 
a gunsmith, manufacturer of musical instruments, a composer, performer and orchestral 
conductor, all rolled in one. He manufactured sophisticated guns with very simple tools in 
his local blacksmith workshop. With his power of imagination, he designed and 
manufactured sophisticated guns whose bullets could travel about half a mile. On the 
account of this creativity he won the first national prize at the maiden National International 
Trade Fair held in Accra (Interview with G.W.K. Dor, April, 2019).  
          Seth Dor reproduced a clarinet in E flat, although his formal education along Western 
lines and standard was relatively low. He was an autodidact. Through his exemplary and 
exceptional endeavours he undertook activities by his own initiatives. The outcomes of these 
moves are enormous and long-lasting touching many lives. These are enumerated below. 
The Unity Orchestra at Alavanyo was established by Seth Dor. Before its establishment he 
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ordered musical instruments such as alto saxophone, clarinet, trumpet, accordion, keyboard 
(piano), and string bass and taught himself how to play these instruments. After acquiring 
the playing techniques, he then relays the art of playing such instrument(s) to someone else 
in the town until the Unity Orchestra was formed. Such initiative at the time and geographic 
location is only possible through self-actualization, commitment and flair of a genius 
(Telephone interview 12th April, 2019@15 GMT).  
          Seth established the orchestra and become its manager and director. The orchestra 
continues to play a vital role in the soundscape of the Alavanyo traditional area. They 
perform at various programmes at the Alavanyo traditional enclave. Most of the pieces they 
performed included original composition of Seth Dor, re-arrangements of local tunes and 
choruses and tunes from the Hadzigbale (the E.P Church, Hymn book).  
The musical potency of Seth Dor did not end at the orchestral circles. His edge in 
choral music led him to undertake various choral activities at the Alavanyo-ʋudidi E. P. 
Church, Ghana. He was the director of the Hadzihaga (Great Choir) at ʋudidi. He composed 
a number of choral pieces and shorter works for the group and other singing bands. Popular 
among them is E.P Hymn No. 185, Yesu dua fia dɔlawo ha. Further, Seth Dor composed 
the song “Mistso Aseye” to commemorate the 50th anniversary of the E. P. Church at 
Alavanyo-ʋudidi. George Dor noted in the interview that the harmony at a point in this 
particular musical piece involved a divisi into seven parts—(SSAATTB). The 
composition’s title Mitso Aseye (Eʋe) literary means ‘Jubilate! Christians’.  
          The rhythmic motif of most of his choral compositions was based on syncopated 
rhythms, the ‘off-beat’ style. Singings in this style was therefore familiar and popular at 
Alavanyo and its immediate environments at the time. It was given mass market appeal 
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through the choral performances of Alavanyo Hadzihaga under the directorship of Seth 
Dor.  “Today, it is claimed that Kenn Kafui’s style of composition is based on syncopation-
the off-beat style. It has been there before Kenn Kafui. The Hadzihaga at Alavanyo-ʋudidi 
has been singing in that style of music composed by Seth Dor long before Kenn Kafui. For 
example, “Nɔviwo Mise Agbenya si Krsito he ve na mi la da” (Friends, Come and Listen to 
the Good News brought to Us by Christ”.  It was this Hadzihaga style which Kenn Kafui 
discovered, liked and popularized4” (Telephone interview with George Dor: 12th April, 
2019@15 GMT). 
          At his old age Seth Dor partially retired from active directorship of the orchestra and 
the singing band but his children continued the work he had started. Seth only played a 
supportive role. “It was in this environment in which I grew up” (Telephone interview with 
George Dor, 12th April, 2019@15 GMT) 
 3.3.2 Theodore Dor 
Theodore worked at Ghana Graphic Cooperation, Accra and fellowshipped at the Bethel 
congregation of the E. P. Church, Ghana - Accra New Town. He taught and directed the 
church choir. He was a very good player of the harmonium. Theodore composed some 
choral songs not only for church choirs’ use but also for the consumption of other choral 
inclined singing bands. Popular among these compositions is his use of the song texts of E. 
P. H 208 in composing a new piece—tune and harmony, Ne Yesu ava fe tu ge nami, in a 
continuum of simple duple. A hemiola rhythmic motif runs throughout the entire piece. 
Theodore left Bethel Congregation, Accra New-Town and went to Mamprobi E. P. Church 
to assist Walter Blege he (Blege) was the music director. He functioned as one of the 
                                                          
4 As in Kafui’s “Mida Akpe na Mawu” and “Dzidzom bena mezu Yesu to”. 
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assistant directors of the choir. He served at Mamprobi E. P. Church for several years before 
living for Alavanyo ʋudidi after his retirement from Graphic Corporation. 
 
Musical Illustrations 8: First eight measures of Theodore Dor’s version--tune and 
harmony—to the words of EPH 2085. 
 
3.3.3 Edward Kojo Dor 
Unlike his brother Theodore, Edward pursued further education in music after his basic 
elementary, and teacher training at the Anum Presbyterian Teacher Training. Edward then 
attended the National Academy of Music at Winneba where he acquired a Certificate in 
music theory and performance. Subsequently, he gained admission into the University of 
Ghana, Department of music, Legon, for the Diploma in Music program, where he studied 
music harmony, composition and orchestration and so on. Edward did not attempt compose 
that much but he was a good choir director. Edward was the school choir director when he 
was posted to Sogakoʄe Senior Secondary School. He was then transferred to Adidome. His 
choir which represented the ʋume district of secondary school choirs won the first prize. 
Subsequently his school choir represented the Volta Region at the national cultural festival. 
His choir won the first national prize during that year. Edward extended his love for choral 
music to the Bremen mission station at Sogakoʄe. He established the Sogakoʄe E. P. Church 
Choir with one Mr. Amenɔŋu. Mr. Amenɔŋu was a vibrant choir director at Kpando.  
                                                          
5 A recording of this version by the North La E. P. Church on their “Gbɔgbɔ Kɔkɔe Kplɔla 
Nyuie” CD popularized it. 
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3.3.4 Louise Dor 
Louise had a university education at the University of Ghana, Legon, and earned a Bachelor 
of Arts degree in French and Linguistics. Although he has a musical background and comes 
from a musical family, he did not pursue music. But his musical inclinations enabled him 
to teach and direct music in different religious and educational institutions, for example, 
mission established churches and second cycle institutions. It was Louise who took over the 
school choir when G. W. K. Dor was transferred from Kadjebi Secondary School to St 
Aquinas Senior Secondary School in the Greater Accra Region of Ghana. When he came to 
live in Accra he fellowshipped at the North La congregation of the E. P. Church, Ghana as 
an active church choir member and occasional director of the Hadzihaga. He was linguist 
by profession.  
3.3.5 Nicholas Dor 
Just like his father, Nicholas was a blacksmith and a musician. He spent most of his time at 
Alavanyo-ʋudidi with his father Seth Kwasi Dor. Nicholas directed the orchestra, the 
church choir and Hadzihaga at Alavanyo-ʋudidi. Nicholas taught music and played the 
saxophone. He takes charge of the orchestra whenever his senior brothers were not around. 
3.3.6 Bezaleel Dor 
Bezaleel was also musically inclined. He was not different from his brothers. He loves 
music, and as the trend has been, he also directed the Kadjebi Secondary School choir when 
he was pursuing his Advance Level there. He did not pursue music. Bezaleel received his 
Masters in Business Administration. 
3.4 George Dor, ‘The Traditionalist’  
During a one-on-one conversation with Prof Austin Emielu in his office, he made a remark 
which broadened my understanding and also gave me a different focus about my research. 
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“George Dor is a traditionalist” he commented (Prof Austin Emielu: Personal 
Communication: 2nd May, 2018@11:00 GMT, Dept of Music, UG). I asked myself several 
questions. In what sense? Because I know George Dor as a Christian? Since when? Does he 
practice ‘traditionalism’?  But the answer is not far-fetched. Anku (2009: 37 - 39) answers 
the question in his opening paragraphs of his article entitled Drumming among the Akan and 
Anlo Eʋe of Ghana: An Introduction. “It is generally recognized that the cultivation of music 
in any given society is limited by its tradition and history. Where ethnicity defines the 
boundaries of social and cultural life, particularly traditions of drumming tend to be 
similarly confined” (Anku, 2009: 38).  
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Photograph 2: George Dor leaning against some traditional African instruments. 
(http;//Afropop.org/migrated-uploads/2013/07/GDor3_web.jpg) 
 
It is an established fact that Ghanaian art music, generally, is a symbiosis of the 
traditional African and the western musical practices. In this regard, Prof Austin Emielu’s 
reference to Dor as a ‘traditionalist’ makes sense. George Dor could not have gained 
popularity in the circles of the Ghanaian choral space if he was not well abreast with 
traditional modes of musical expressions, perhaps. In this discussion, I do not intend to treat 
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the composer as a ‘pagan’ but as a composer who only draws from the idioms of the 
traditional music but also as one who is propelled by the philosophical underpinnings of his 
culture to re-create the known. Some of the traditional idioms used in Dor’ choral 
compositions include tonal inflections in dialect of the people of Alavanyo, parallel thirds, 
unisons, drum surrogates, rhythmic motifs of some familiar dance-drumming styles of the 
northern and southern Eʋe settlers and repetitions.  
          Agawu (1990) postulated that the most obvious feature of Northern Eʋe melody is its 
overall descending contour. Structural analysis of selected choral compositions of Dor 
unearths this assertion. It is worth mentioning that it is not every phrase or groups of 
northern Eʋe melodies that has this overall descending contour as a characteristic. The 
melodic contour of G.W.K Dor falls into the rise and fall patterns described by Agawu as 
the teeth of a rip saw. George Dor maintains this in his melodic constructions. Agawu 
observes that “A good deal of northern Eʋe symbolic expression is earth-oriented”. Per the 
compositional practice akin to African choral composition melodies are guided by the 
speech intonations which are naturally undulating. The earth is very significant in the life 
of the African. Among Eʋes the ground serves as the major natural resource for all farming 
activities, architectural expediencies, the platform for all recreational activities, the final 
resting place for the dead and also libations are poured on the earth and so on.  
          Traditionally it is believed that Mawu lives in the sky. The high-pitched notes is a 
reverse of the overall descending contour pointed out by Agawu. They point to the sky. By 
so doing, it directs our attention towards the Supreme Being who play a major role in the 
worldview of the Eʋe. Rain for the cultivation of the land, the moon and moonlight for story-
telling by the fire side etc. are all sky oriented. It is therefore evident that the rise and fall 
pattern of Dor melodic lines are deeply rooted in the traditional setting. Jones in Agawu 
describes it as the rip-saw effect. What are the effects of numbers in the traditional setting? 
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One can quickly point to the naming of children according to the order of birth practiced 
among the Akan of Ghana.  
The duplication of parts in traditional vocal music equidistant to the philosophy of 
the musical practitioners. For example, the Akan proverb Praye wo ka bomu a ennbu (The 
broom cannot be broken unless it is singled out in strands) literally means there is strength 
in unity. Social activities such as group musical performances, clearing of major paths that 
leads to important places like markets square, farm lands and the community underpins this 
philosophy. This proverb points to the Africans philosophy of the source of strength. To an 
African strength is a connotation of unity. There is the saying that “Together we stand”. 
This depicted in the tradition concept known as unison.  
          In traditional musical expressions voices are duplicated in octaves, the female voices 
being laid over the low-pitched male voices. Even though they occasionally break into parts 
(thus, into thirds and sixths among the Eʋes and Akans) the duplication of parts in octaves 
is the most common. Singing in union by both sexes is common among ethnic groups which 
do not distinguish between male sect and the female sect in some forms of their musical 
practices. Not surprising, a number of Dor’s choral compositions has unisons for their 
harmonic constructions. Example Hadzihowo, Mawu wɔ Nusianu pɛpɛɛpɛe, Nye Ma Dzudzɔ 
Akpedahawo Dzidzi Akpɔ o, etc. George Worlasi Kwasi Dor was transcribing the thoughts 
of the African and what he has accumulated during his stay at Alavanyo-ʋudidi during his 
formative years.  These and more are factors which dictates to the generative processes 
involved in the compositions of George Dor.  
          Amuah (2012) noted that Dor’s compositions are inspired by musical expressions 
within the Eʋe traditional musical space (Amuah, 2012: 56). These traditional dance-
drumming genres includes Akpi, Adevu, Egbanegba, Agbadza, Kenka etc. The melody of 
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the bass in George Dor’s choral compositions imitates the ‘drum language’ inherent in 
traditional performance practices. An analysis of the melodies of the bases shows that the 
melody of the bass occasionally leaps between octaves. The high and low-pitched octaves 
have a resemblance of the ‘mute and open’ drum playing techniques among various ethnic 
groups in West Africa and other African sub regions that resort the membranophone as an 
instrumental resource. On the musical score of his anthem Hadzihawo…Dor reserves two 
measures solely to appellations. In these measures, all other instruments voices and organ 
goes dead silent, allowing only the drum to sound. This tells us about the importance Dor 
places on traditional drumming. 
          Some scholars are of the view that drums are additional artefacts that adds up to the 
recreational need of the African and also plays some religious roles. Drums are sometimes 
used as a medium to invoke a deity. Occasionally, they are used to punctuate religious 
activities. The drumming serves as a speech surrogate which arouses the desired emotions 
for the necessary actions in the particular rhetorical situation that necessitates the use of the 
drums to be taken. Bokor (2014) argues that the drum rhythms are highly developed 
mechanisms for creating meaning to shape both personal and group behaviour in traditional 
African societies “Drums are ubiquitous in sub-Saharan Africa” (Bokor, 2014: 166). 
Historically, they have always been an integral part of the culturally determined rhetorical 
apparatus of the various societies, used to communicate messages that influence human 
behaviour. 
          Both music directors and performers will observe that G.W.K. Dor is a fun of 
repetitions and rests and repeats that are not restricted to melodic and rhythmic motives only 
but also repeats of themes and sections. For example, Hadzihawo Midziha le Mawu Fe 
Fiadufe La Nuti, Megalam O Mawu, Agbefia La Gbɔna and many others have their first 
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themes repeated. There are also repeats of different time values, thus, rest of half notes, 
quarter notes eighth note.  
Repetition is an established idiom of traditional African musical expression. To deal 
with the issue of boredom, traditional musicians’ resort to variety in their performance 
practices. This is found in stanza. A song may have stanzas and not everyone in the chorus 
can remember the stanzas in its entirely. Nketia (1947) noted that there is the need for 
someone with a retentive memory and a sweet voice who is not easily disturbed by the 
chorus and instrumentalist. The alto solo in Hadzihawo is in line with this technique. The 
boredom is dealt with by not assigning to solo to a soprano, tenor or baritone as the case has 
mostly been in Ghanaian art choral compositions. In using the alto G. W. K. Dor creates a 
variety (Kofie, 1994: 62 – 65; Nketia, 1974: 53 - 56).  
          It is common to know that most African musical compositions consist of repetitions, 
imitations, transpositions to higher and lower registers within the tonal framework of the 
music. Kofie argued that these are the commonest forms of repetitions to the westerner. The 
development of musical forms, for example, theme and variation, rondo, sonata form, 
symphony, fugue etc. are themselves repetitions of a sort (Kofie, 1994: 56 - 57). Briefly, 
Regarding motivic development and transformation, Reti in Maw (1961) argue that “in all 
the great works of music up to about 1900 (Debussy, however, included) there is between 
the themes of a single movement, and between the themes of different movements, an 
underlying homogeneity - they all spring from the same musical impulse. Further, that the 
'spiritual' and musical content of these themes is often not resolved until the last movement” 
(Maw, 1961: 492 - 493).  
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3.5 Alavanyo-ʋudidi, The ‘Vienna’ 
The musical potentials of the people of Alavanyo and its influence on other musical cultures, 
especially those in the Volta region of Ghana and the Republic of Togo is a well-known 
phenomenon among music minded people in these two regions of the Sub Saharan Africa. 
Walter Blege who is also a product of the musical dexterity of the people of Alavanyo 
explained in an interview that: 
 “I stayed with my grandfather, Jacob Dzator - a native of Alavanyo - 
who was a Germans-trained teacher and a musician but taught in Togo 
and migrated to Kpedze in the Volta region of Ghana. From time to time 
I go to Alavanyo with him to visit some of our relatives. This was in the 
first half of the 1900s. I haven’t seen a people who are musically gifted 
like the people of Alavanyo” (interview with Walter Blege, 20th May, 
2019, at 10: 30am - 12: 15pm) 
 
 3.5.1 The Beginnings 
Blege emphasized that Western music among the people of Alavanyo started in the Northern 
Germany established church – the E. P. Church, Ghana. Western musical forms such as 
hymns and ‘responsive short chants’ used for Sunday services and those used in serving 
other sacramental needs begun in the church. Even though the western music continued to 
be performed in the church it also found itself in the public domain. The repertoire of the 
Unity Orchestra at ʋudidi played both religious and seculars songs. Blege emphasized that 
the playing of the various orchestral instruments at Alavanyo-ʋudidi “were self-taught 
because setting up an orchestra among the Eʋe people was not the agenda of the 
missionaries, although I saw Wiegrabe, Bremen missionary playing the trumpet”, Blege 
noted. This was also confirmed by G.W.K. Dor in interview (Telephone interview 12th 
April, 2019@15 GMT). 
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 3.5.2 Influential Characters  
1. According to Blege, one of the musical characters of Alavanyo that has imparted on 
current generations of art musicians in Ghana and abroad, and to some extent, traditional 
musicians in Kpedze and its surrounding areas includes Alavanyo Tata, an indigene of 
Alavanyo. He can be compared to Akpalu who “was born in 1885 at Anlo Tsiame, near 
Atiavi in the Volta Region of Ghana” but comes from Anloga his father, Kpodo Ahiamadi’s 
hometown (Dor, 2015:155; Nayo, 1973: 120) I make this comparison on the basis their 
musical creativity and knowledge of Eʋe folklore as a pool of compositional resource. 
Alavanyo Tata was a traditional musician who used to perform at Ablɔme (a suburb of 
Kpedze, where the town market was situated) on every market day which falls on every five 
days within the week.  
        He was a cripple and performed solo. He used his musical talent for economic gains. 
Admirers gave tokens to him in appreciation of his performances. Normally, he performed 
Gabada, accompanying himself with idiophones. Kafui (2002), noted that the originator of 
Gabada is Gbolo Komla, a native of Alavanyo. Meanwhile, the school, some “Christian 
homes” and the political authorities governed by the Westerners did not support the 
traditional music. 
        “It is from Alavanyo Tata that I learnt that Gabada has four movements”, Blege added. 
Movement 1, the zigi dance – which is purposely meant for warming up for the band. It was 
also used as an avenue to comment about current affairs which may be political, religious, 
economic, marriage and family etc. “because at that time there was neither radio, television 
nor newspapers”. Movement 2, the recitative – This is referred to as Hadododa in that 
tradition. It is a free rhythm text performed by the cantor. Movement 3, is the fast movement 
and Movement 4. The coda (See, for example, Kafui’s accounts of the performance structure 
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of Gbolo music practiced among the Eʋeawo; Gbolo Komla – A Traditional Composer and 
His Songs, Kafui, 2014).  
         There are scores of art musicians apart from Blege who have drawn from the mass 
collection of these pre - compositional tools embedded in traditional genres like gabada 
marketed by Alavanyo Tata. Such traditional music includes adeʋu, akpi etc of the 
Alavanyo people. Some of these composers are G. W. K. Dor (Megalam O), J. k. Djamson 
(Miyi Weinbɔ la me), N. K. Zanga (Miva) etc. 
2. Blege noted that A.Y. Kornu was a first-generation art musician who was also a self-
made musician at Alavanyo. Perhaps he was influenced by the Germans (see Kafui 2002: 
36 - 37). He led the E. P. Church choir at Alavanyo - Kpeme. According to Blege, “The 
choir at Alavanyo was a great musical heritage, not only to the church but to the natives as 
well.” Kornu subsequently brought the church choir to Kpedze and honoured several 
invitations for performances in the Volta region. A popular composition of A. Y. Kornu is 
EPH 462 Anyigba kple ‘menuwo keŋ.   
3.       The orchestras of Alavanyo - the Unity Orchestra of ʋudidi and the Liberty Orchestra 
of Kpeme - have played an exceptional role by institutionalizing, defining and contributing 
to the soundscape of the traditional area. The Unity orchestra established and managed by 
the family of Dors was very formidable. The orchestras did not only accompany hymn 
singing in the church but was actively engaged in performances in the communities. Their 
repertoire included secular songs, some Eʋe traditional tunes, sacred songs and Western 
classical music. The Unity orchestra made some giant strides. Alavanyo orchestras toured 
and performed in the Volta region and Togo, whiles the Unity orchestra of Ʋudidi took part 
in the Coronation Cup competition in Ho and won. According to Blege, the performances 
took place in the empty silos belonging to former A.U.C. (African Unity Company).   
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             The Alavanyo orchestra proved to be the best among the others established in the 
whole of Volta region and Togo. They used music stands, sight-read the notes, they used 
staff notation and observed the various musical markings such as dynamic marks, tempo 
marks, expressional marks etc. Contrarily, orchestras from other towns such as Takɔkɔe, 
Tanyigbe did not sight read their music. They played their music by route (refers to what 
is popularly known in Ghanaian ‘contemporary’ music as ‘hear and play’). According to 
Blege these orchestras were nicknamed as Sanukoko orchestra. These lack repertoire, sight-
reading and artistic direction. Sanukoko, therefore, is derogatory in meaning, contextually. 
The word ‘Sanukoko’ has its equivalence among the Akan speaking people of Ghana, 
especially, among the youth. It is used to describe something that is good-for-nothing. 
During such occasions, entry to venue of performances attracted an admission fee. 
The orchestra did not only engage in performances but also “the leaders and the 
instrumentalist thought the people of Kpedze and the neighbouring communities how to set 
up an orchestra. “I was part of the orchestra at Kpedze. I played the saxophone (treble, alto 
tenor), and the clarinet. This was somewhere in the year 1956 and 1957”, Blege recounted 
in the interview. Occasionally, the Alavanyo-ʋudidi and the Kpedze orchestras met in a 
completion in Ho 
4.         Mention must be made of Jerome Dzator who was also a musician trained by his 
father Jacob Dzator. Jerome was the musician of his father’s house. He started a chamber 
choir in his father’s house which was made up of members of the house household. Blege 
noted in the interview that he (Blege) sang the soprano, John sang the alto, Paul and 
Emmanuel sang the tenor and the bass was sang by Jerome himself. He explained, 
“Initially, we used sol-fa notation from music books but later the staff notation was 
introduced”. Jerome again doubled as the leader of the Komkomba No.2 band. He played 
the piccolo, flute and the bass flute. At that time there was also Komkomba No. 1 band 
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which was owned by the migrant indigenes of Kwahu who were residing among the people 
of Eʋedome for economic reasons. Jerome was also the leader of the Catholic choir 
established by Jacob Dzator. These activities took place between 1945 and 1948 (interview 
with Walter Blege, 20th May, 2019, at 10: 30am - 12: 15pm). 
A.Y. Kornu, Alavanyo Tata, Seth Dor, the Unity and Liberty orchestras etc. are some of the 
musical characters of Alavanyo that have influenced both traditional and art musicians alike 
in the communities surrounding Alavanyo from the view point of Blege. As a result,  number 
of musicians have emerged from Alavanyo, including the Dor family—Seth, Theodore, 
Edward, George, Nicholas, Louis, Bezaleel; Kornu—Alfred, Agloba; Richard Nudanu; 
Togbe Petekwasie of Dzogbedze; Eric Apreku; the Akortia family—Barnabas, Samuel, and 
Christian; Seth Yeboah; Gbosi family of Kpeme; Gborgbortsi---Victor, William, Erasmus, 
and Eric; Amponay—Carl and John; Pongo--Michael and Charles; Kattey family—Adolph 
and Hanson;  Dzator or Walter Blege’s maternal family of Deme, and other notable 
musicians from Alavanyo. 
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Map 5: The location of Alavanyo-ʋudidi in the Hohoe Municipality. (Ghana 
Statistical Service, 2010 Housing and Population Census (2014) 
 
3.6 George W. K. Dor: “The Forge and the Anvil” 
3.6.1 The Beginning of a Composer 
G.W.K. Dor had composed several compositions that are relatively short before he 
composed Mawu Ve Mianu. In terms of extended compositions Mawu Ve Mianu is the first. 
He composed the anthem when he was a student at the then N.A.M, Winneba, now, the 
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University of Education at Winneba in 1976. Mega tsi dzi o is one of the earliest but short 
composition that was composed by G.W.K. Dor.  
He had directed several church choirs and played the harmonium at several E. P. 
Churches. As a composer George W. K. Dor had taken courses in music theory and is 
therefore knowledgeable in counterpoint, harmony, compositional technique. He was also 
taught by Michel Amissah and N. Z. Nayo who have made giant strides in the area of 
composition in the Ghanaian school of art music. Another pre-requisite that enable George 
Dor to compose is in connection to the fact that he has taught the same music courses he 
studied. “I taught the same courses which I learnt”, he noted. He taught chromatic harmony 
for several years, plays the saxophone and the keyboard pretty well, played in the Unity 
Orchestra at Alavanyo. 
These experiences in part gave him the edge over the uses of chromatics in his 
compositions. The assertion by many that he was influenced heavily by N.Z Nayo regarding 
harmony is falsified by the following response: “I was just composing what I was teaching”. 
G.W.K. Dor added in a telephone interview (12/04/2019 at 15 GMT). 
The popularity of the Mawu Ve Mianu can in part be attributed to the willingness of 
Miss Grace Agyei who allowed the chapel choir to learn and perform the piece of music. 
She was the director of the Chapel Choir of the National Academy of Music. After 
composing the anthem, G.W.K. Dor approached Miss Agyei and sought permission from 
her if she could allow her choir to learn and perform the music. She reluctantly agreed to 
the request but granted the permission anyway. 
 At the time, Mr. Paul Kwami (now Dr. Paul Kwami) was then the pianist of the 
Academy’s Chapel Choir which happened to be one of the best on N.A.M. campus. (Dr. 
Kwami is now the director of the Fist Jubilee Singers, Nashville (footnote). George Dor 
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then asked Dr. Kwami to assist him in teaching the anthem. “The members of the Chapel 
Choir liked it so much” George Dor recounted. When the anthem was going to be 
performed, Miss Agyei, the conductor of the choir wanted me to conduct it but I said ‘No, 
you are the conductor of the choir’ so go ahead’. After the music was performed the 
audience showed their appreciation of the music. Those who liked the music included non-
choir members, teaching and non-teaching staff of the academy. “The students started 
calling me Mawu. But I said ‘No! I am not Mawu. Mawu is God. Stop calling me Mawu’ ”. 
Through this maiden performance and the subsequent performances of the anthem on other 
campuses, churches and the concert halls the anthem became very popular. Recently, it was 
used by the Ghana Presbyterian Church Choirs Association as a test piece (Telephone 
interview with George Dor12th April, 2019@15 GMT). 
G.W.K. Dor explained in the interview that the performers of the music and the 
audience liked the music because “the music was good”, thus from a composer’s point of 
view. For a piece of music to be good it must possess some qualities. The message must be 
good and cohesive. This composition is based on Psalm 67. One theme must be carried 
throughout the whole song. The melody must be beautiful. One whose contour is conjunct 
and also disjunct at few points. The harmony is an important factor. It must bring out the 
desired mood by using the appropriate key signature, time signature, harmony, modulations, 
accidentals cadences etc.  The texture should not have the same density from the beginning 
to the end. The texture of Mawu Ve Mianu has some counterpoint and imitations. The 
manner in which the Eʋe text Dukɔwo akafu, Dukɔwo akafu… (m. 14 to 17) is handled in 
the piece of music trilled the audience. “These and others combine to define what a good 
choral music should be”, Dor noted. 
It must be noted that the qualities mentioned above is not limited to only Mawu Ve 
Mianu. The song text, melody, harmony and rhythm of the compositions of G.W.K. Dor are 
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treated with mastery and pre-eminence. This suggests the popularity of G.W.K. Dor within 
the E.P. Church, and beyond (Telephone interview with George Dor12th April, 2019@15 
GMT).   
3.6.2 After National Academy of Music, Winneba 
George W.K. Dor composed several songs after he composed Mawu Ve Mianu. After, 
N.A.M., Winneba, he was posted Kadjebi Senior Secondary School. Because of the 
proximity of Kadjebi Secondary School and Alavanyo he had the opportunity to help the 
church choir at Alavanyo-ʋudidi. He taught and directed the Alavanyo-ʋudidi church choir. 
During this time several compositions flowed from the stylus of George W.K. Dor. These 
includes Megati Nusi Kɔ Wu Wo La Yome O. It was composed in 1977. The first group that 
performed this piece of music was Kadjebi Secondary School Choir. Other compositions 
are Gblɔ be Mate Kpɔ (1978) - this piece of music is pretty extended, Megana Ta O and 
ŋuwo Dzɔ La Medɔ Alɔ O (1978).  
The above are some of the extended anthems by G.W.K. Dor’s which were 
composed after Mawu Ve MiaNu. Xɔsetɔwo Mitso is another famous composition. Musama 
Disco Christo  Church (MDCC) choirs popularized it through their competitions and later 
on by Methodist and Catholic Church Choirs. G.W.K. Dor composed this piece of music 
when he was still at Kadjebi Senior Secondary School in 1978. There are several anthems 
that were composed. 
3.6.3 The Creative Processes 
Any Ghanaian choral art music is well appreciated if the listener understands the cultural 
background in which it is situated because of its intercultural dimensions. However, a lack 
of understanding of custom and or traditions of G.WK Dor’s ethnicity can potentially create 
problems. George Dor noted that “Whatever I say in my compositions reinforces the central 
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idea. One can be an Eʋe but if s/he lacks understanding of the language, culture, metaphors, 
proverbs, folklore, the fellow will not appreciate my music. For instance, the proverbs in 
my composition titled Mega ti musikɔ wu wo la yome o, reinforces the central theme. Eʋe 
proverbs such as Avu du ʄu medua laga o, Devi bia nu me bia golo lo ʄe azi o, Koklo be 
dzanidzani ta ye bobo do are used in the music to enrich, establish and communicate the 
central theme” (Telephone interview with George Dor: 12th April, 2019@15 GMT). 
These proverbs are derived from the worldview, interactions and interrelations of 
the Eʋes and more specifically the people of Eʋedome. The sub-theme which reinforces the 
central of Dokuibɔbɔ nyo (Humility pays) are intriguing. Firstly, G.W.K Dor used proverbs 
to carry the main theme then he relates it to biblical accounts of the birth of the Messiah in 
the manger, then, His triumphant entry to Jerusalem on a colt as signs of humility. He used 
five Eʋe proverbs.  
Ala wɔ ada mezɔa kple ʄe o (The wildcat never walks with their claws out). 
Gbe blewu ye wotsɔa xɔa nu le fia wo si (The heart of the king is won by a soft and  
 gentle voice). 
Koklo be dzanidzani tae ye bɔabɔa hafi yia kpo me (The fowl stoops low before 
entering its hencoop for the sake of beauty).  
Adzata ʄe ʄɛ le aku me (The lion’s claws are sheathed). 
Ekpɔ ʄe ʄɛ le aku me (The leopard’s claws are sheathed). 
Some biblical themes he used to reinforce his central theme of humility are: 
Kpɔ dziʄo Fia ʄe dziʄe da nasrɔ nunya (Consider the birth place of Jesus Christ - the  
manger - to gain wisdom). 
Lawo ʄe nudunu me e wodzi do (He, Christ, was born in a manger). 
Le eʄe Yerusalem yiyime menɔ sɔ dzi o (He rode a colt during his triumphant entry  
to Jerusalem and not horse). 
Tedzie wo do ŋutifafa ʄe dzesi (He rode a colt, a sign of humility). 
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Agbemavɔ miyam miele and many others ply the same “main theme and sub-theme” 
route. There are different kinds of compositions where the composer may use limited 
amount of thematic material and the other where the composer may use a central theme and 
whatever will help carry the message across to the audience. Therefore, criticism of a 
composer’s music as being wordy is based on lack of understanding of the creative 
processes.  
The creative processes that concerns the usages of the structure of music such as 
form, melody, phrasing, harmony, cadences, rhythm, key signature and time signature that 
are inherent in George Dor’s compositions that earns him popularity are discussed in detail 
in chapter five of this work under the major title Application of Analytical Thoughts. 
3.6.4 The Appeal of G. W. K Dor’s Compositions 
Asked whether he is aware of his popularity, this is what G.W.K. Dor has to say. “I don’t 
know about my popularity. All I know is I have a musical talent and come from a musical 
family. I have great teachers who have taught me. The appeal of my music may be because 
of the lyrics, which may be a source of inspiration and meaning to people”. The poetic nature 
of the lyrics may be a pulling factor, perhaps. “I am a Christian. I read my Bible, listen to 
sermons and get inspirations from all these. As an Eʋe coming from Alavanyo-ʋudidi, I 
have witnessed and loved the performances of all the adevu groups, akpi, and akaye music. 
Some rhythms in my compositions are borrowed from these traditional music groups” 
(Telephone interview with G. W. K. Dor 12th April, 2019@15 GMT).  
When one listens to G.W.K. Dor’s choral music s/he finds a theme from the bible 
and the culture setting which are illustrated by the various usages of musical elements such 
as melody, harmony, rhythm, text and metre. For instance, Megalam O, Mawu is figurative. 
Symbolically, the music paints a picture of the vine tree and the gardener. The vine tree 
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(personified) is pleading to the gardener not to hew him down but spare him sometime and 
that he will bear good fruits someday. George Dor also uses life situations and circumstances 
as themes for his compositions. The Christian is expected, by reason of his relation with 
Christ to bear fruits of the Holy Spirit. Frightened by Jesus’s teaching that any fruit which 
does not bear fruit will be cut down, dried, gathered and thrown into the furnace (Luke 13: 
6-9). It is composition, Megalam O, Mawu, therefore, a supplication to God by the Christian 
for pardon and mercy. 
By setting these ideas to music G.W.K. Dor has to be poetic. The relevance of the 
text, and its meaning to the Christians, the melody and the harmony were key factors that 
were considered. Dzimetrɔtrɔ fe dzi, Dzimetrɔtrɔ fe dzi (a heart of repentance), ‘the dew of 
heaven and of repentance will fall on me one day to bear good fruits. G.W.K. Dor is poetic, 
exploring all the poetic devices in all his compositions within both the Christian and cultural 
settings. 
Perhaps, it is these and more that earned George W. K. Dor the standing ovation 
during the annual WVPCCU rally at Suhum in the eastern region of Ghana in 1995. The 
participating choirs were registered local church choirs of the union drawn from the south 
–western part of Ghana; Greater Accra, Eastern, Western, Central, Brong Ahafo and the 
Ashanti regions of Ghana. Hadzihawo, Midziha Le Mawu ʄe Fiaduʄe La ŋuti received a 
rousing applause and an ovation for its composer because of the craftsmanship appealed to 
the worshipers and participating choirs.  
 3.6.5 Factors of Influence 
The maternal family is a great influence to the success. The musical potency of George 
Worlasi Kwasi Dor maternal family is worth mentioning at this juncture. G. W. K. Dor 
stressed that his maternal lineage, the family of Nyawuto and the Gbogbotsi are very 
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musical. His aunties sings beautifully. They are very good alto singers who sang in the 
church choir and Hadzihaga at Alavanyo-ʋudidi. Erasmus Gbogbotsi and Eric Gbogbotsi 
are musically inclined individuals from George maternal family.  
            Some of the factors that are accountable to G. W. K. Dor’s musical dexterity are 
enumerated by him when he said “The biological or innate, the Alavanyo orchestra, musical 
influences from both my paternal and maternal families, my father and my mother and the 
traditional environment contribute immensely to my musical background” (Interview: 
August, 2018@14:30 GMT, Dept of Music, UG; Telephone interview 12th April, 2019@15 
GMT). It therefore suggests that the musical environment of Alavanyo-ʋudidi into which 
G. W. K. Dor was born served as the cradle for his musicality. 
At the beginning of G.W.K. Dor’s music career he found among music composers 
and scholars. For example, Prof. N. Z. Nayo, Dr. R. N. Ndor, Walter Blege and Albert 
Kweku Avortri. The latter being educationist and music teacher, helped George during the 
formative years of his music care. Mr. Avortri was George Dor’s music teacher at Kpando 
Secondary School. “I was blessed to have dad the choirs: Alavanyo-ʋudidi Church Choir 
and Kadjebi Secondary School Choir did not only served as practice grounds for me but 
aslo as a demand on me to compose songs for their performance needs” (Interview: August, 
2018@14:30 GMT, Dept of Music, UG; Telephone interview 12th April, 2019@15 GMT). 
If one is a composer, s/he should not forget about the impacts of the choirs s/he associates 
himself with.  
          The brothers of G.W.K. Dor have aslo been very supportive. The Alavanyo-ʋudidi 
choir was very good in the Central Presbytery. As I noted, this choir was used as a testing 
piece of choral group. When George went to Kadjebi Secondary School he also modelled 
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the school choir to a very good standard. So the work continued. The headmaster of the 
school was then Mr. Kwasi Owusu. He was very supportive. Whenever George Dor pays a 
visit to his hometown (ʋudidi), he goes to the church choir at Alavanyo-ʋudidi.  
          When George was transferred to Accra St. Aquinas Secondary School, the position 
of choir director and organist at the North La congregation of the E. P. Church, Ghana was 
vacant. Consequently, church and the choir earnestly sort for the services of a trained choir 
director and organist to occupy the position. George W. K. Dor was engaged for the services. 
The North La Church Choir under the directorship of G.W.K. Dor was very good. “We were 
the best in the whole of West Volta Presby. The choir was adjudged first on three occasions 
during  WVPCCU singing competitions at the annual rallies. It was only once Accra 
Newtown church choir came first in the history of contests. The competition was organized 
on four occasions. The competition generated bitterness which later led to its cancellation. 
However, the contests helped the choirs to aspire higher. The choirs, especially North La 
church choir expected compositions from their director, GWK Dor which pushed him (Dor) 
to compositions at the spare of the moment. Therefore, the making of a composer has a 
direct relationship with the choirs the composer associates himself with.  
          It is not only anthems that were composed for the choirs. Marching songs were also 
composed. For example, Gbɔgbɔ Kɔkɔe Kplɔla Nyuie was composed as a request for a 
marching song some choir members. So, George Dor inspired by such requests from the 
members of the choir did compose several songs. Kristo, Alekplɔla Kple Eʄe Aleha was 
composed for Sunyani WVPCCU’s rally. Therefore, church programmes, requests and 
other life situations informed the works of G. W. K Dor as a composer. So, when someone 
listens to the music s/he can tell what is happening at the time. “As a composer you must be 
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inspired. Strange happening can inform what you write as a composer” George W. K. Dor 
noted during the interview. 
3.7 The Hybridizations of G. W. K. Dor’s Choral Compositions 
3.7.1 The Premise - Relate Discussions 
The discourse of hybridity has received an appreciable scholarly attention. Terpenning 
(2016: 460 - 465) asserts that the term poses some amount of challenges because of its 
biological science origin. Homi Bhabha in Terpenning (2016) infers that hybridity is rather 
active in challenging colonial ideology and contests the hierarchical categorization of 
cultures. Taylor explains that the ambiguity inherent in the term blurs the authenticity of 
world music. He continued that it’s a way of identifying, commodifying and selling what 
on the surface is a new form of difference. Amar Acheraiou argues that the concept of 
hybridity is a historical phenomenon which the westerners trod to build themselves. 
Terpenning noted, “So interpreting the ambiguity inherent in cultural hybridity is itself an 
ambiguous endeavour”. Should scholars agree on the meaning and application of concepts 
the same way, then would the ‘music’ be monotonous and unattended. (Terpenning, 2016)  
The different scholarly thoughts assign to the word, in my view, gives it more 
impetus over its usages in the humanities. However, I do not align myself with any of the 
foregoing arguments but do infer that the phenomenon of hybridity is characteristically 
human. The biblical account of Genesis has it that “God created man in His own image, in 
the image of God created He him, male and female created He them”. (Genesis 1:27). By 
virtue of this man was heavenly and celestial. According to the scripture, man lost his 
identity and relationship with God after the consuming what belonged to his new 
environment (the earth). The eating of the apple (earthly) by man (who was created in the 
image of God-heavenly) was the genesis of man’s attempt to hybridize foreign substances. 
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Secondly, the Israelites been warned by God, who brought them out of the land of bandage, 
to utterly destroy everything Canaanite, denied God and took wives and husbands of the 
strange tribes, worship their god, adopted their culture etc. by this I argue that man is by 
nature hybrid because of the Adamic nature . The colonial master engaged in all forms of 
intercourse with the colonized and made babies out of their interrelations. This is also 
hybridization.  
Terpenning draws our attention to the fact that Hybridity as a creative process was 
limited the composition of “Yen Ara Asase Ni” during Amu’s time, so to speak. But the 
concept of hybridity was depicted across the arts and social lives of the people of the Gold 
Coast during the colonial period. European goods such as mirrors, alcoholic drinks, 
European manufactured guns and gun powders, fine cloths, radios; colonial ideologies such 
as formal education, judicial and political systems and other European life-styles flooded 
the geographical space of the traditional people. In its adulterated form is the creation of 
Asasa (a piece of cloth made up of patches of different other fabrics but of the same kind). 
Asasa is a creative process demonstrated by the garment maker of the colonial period. I 
therefore infer that the innovation of asasa was not precipitated by the endeavours of the 
biological sciences nor the composition of “Yen Ara Asase Ni” or better still “Ame wo Gyife 
Nyigba” to be used for the Emperor’s Day but was instinctively created. 
3.7.2 Cogitations  
The UNESCO traditional village, the colonial architectural edifice at Ejiso Besase 
in the Ashanti Region of Ghana demonstrates hybridity. The plan and walls of the building 
are of European origin but the roof structure and roofing materials are of traditional origin 
(thatch). Traits of hybridity is therefore buried in the subconscious mind which dispatches 
the act of Hybridity. African music is said to be rhythmically advanced. Combination of 
different materials that belong to the same category is what breeds the polyrhythms and 
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cross-rhythms characteristic of the African musical tradition. Hybridization of the 
traditional African and western modes of expression was happening concurrently at 
different walks of life within the colonial space. 
Hybridity is a product of social functionalism. Two or more independent cultures 
mutually depend on each other to yield the desired outcome. Alfred Redcliffe-Brown, the 
theoretician asserted that institutions, rituals and customs: tangible and intangible function 
to keeping the society “going”. Malinowski contracts the assertion by focusing on the 
individuality of the members of the society who contribute to the sustenance of their society 
by satisfying their needs first. (Makhan, 2010: 22 - 23). That is satisfying the needs of 
cultures occupying a common geographical area by bridging the musical gap. Musical 
expressions among any homogeneous group are by themselves made up of different 
philosophical underpinning of the same geographical space. These patterns of thinking are 
drawn from the total interactions and inter-relations of the society that finds expression in 
their musical culture. These ‘borrowed thinking patterns’ mutually function as a complete 
whole. At this level, the tradition, say the traditional or Western can be merged with other 
musical cultures to create a new genre. 
3.7.3 Application of Hybridity to G.W.K. Dor’s Choral Compositions 
As noted earlier, the compositions of George Worlasi Kwasi Dor demonstrates this 
art of hybridity. It merges idioms from his ‘home’ musical traditions with that of western 
musical tradition. The outcome of the exercise is hybrid which principally satisfies the 
musical needs not only of the E. P. Church, Ghana but also other missionary established 
churches. Purposive samples of the composer’s choral pieces have clearly exhibited western 
idioms such as major and their relative minor scales established during the baroque period. 
Kofie (1994: 56) noted that traditional African musicians does not give thought to the scale 
in which he performs his music. Although, Dor may use a traditional melody, he confines it 
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to a key signature in a bid to satisfy the norms of western musical practices by so doing 
merging the two distant cultures. The idea to notate the songs on a musical staff is also 
foreign endeavour, with time signatures and clefs affixed not talk about the medium of 
Western accompaniment. Samples of musical scores collected have musical titles, a practice 
of the nineteenth-century musical practices. Romantic, composers provided titles to the 
music, titles that expounded on the themes of the composers. 
Time will not permit one to talk about western harmonic structures such as 
major/minor chords, dominant seventh chords, diminished chords, chromaticism, dynamic 
marks, expression marks, medium of expression and accompaniment. These and many 
others are modes of wester musical expressions that are merged with the traditional for his 
compositions. The idioms listed above functions with the traditional idioms such as the 
proverbial expression. Amuah (2012: 20 - 38) asserts the George Dor is very proverbial in 
the treatment of his text. The proverbs the George Dor uses in his lyrical content are drawn 
from the worldview of the Eʋes particularly, the Eʋedome. They are drawn from their 
interactions with nature and interrelations among their kinsmen. Repetitions, drum 
surrogates, rhythms of different drum-dancing groups, call and response are but some of the 
few ones used African musical idioms that are fine laced with Western idioms. The 
creativity involved in G.W.K. Dor’s composition bridges the gap between the western and 
the tradition. It is a common knowledge that the missionaries and the colonial administrators 
sort to separate traditional ways of life from the western ‘life styles’. As a result of the 
creative processes individuals of the reformation and Lutheran backgrounds esp. these from 
Bremen can comfortably share their religious experience with the Ghanaian church. The 
entries of the Hadzigbale includes compositions of G.W.K. Dor in the hymn style. The two 
idioms of the two distant cultures are inter-dependent in playing the religious role.  
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Musical roles that binds people of different dialectical, racial and social backgrounds 
together in the works of George Dor substantiates his sense of hybridity. A classic example 
of George Dor’s musical hybridity is demonstrated by the use of the organ as an 
accompaniment to the alto solo in Hadzihawo, Midzi Ha Le Mawu ʄe Fiaduʄe La ŋuti. The 
text of the music is in Eʋe which belongs to the Kwa group of languages, the compound 
duple time (68) is predominantly common among the southern settlers of the Eʋes. The 
talking drum has its orientation in the court music making of traditional African political 
institutions. These and others – mentioned above - are combined with the organ, also known 
in the Western world as the King of instrument. 
 
Figure 12: Alto solo and organ accompaniment. 
 
It will be irrelevant to talk about the history and capabilities of the organ at this point. 
But it will serve a great purpose to note that the organ belonged to the elite class of European 
societies as at the time of the Gold Coast colonization. It still has much reverence in the 
musical culture of the Westerners. It is found in cathedrals, king’s courts and other bigger 
town halls in Europe, America and later in Asia. This instrument is the one combined with 
Ghanaian choral music. It is a common practice to have songs both local and western being 
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accompanied by the organ some Methodist and Presbyterian churches in Ghana. What is 
striking is that G.W.K Dor specially assigns a section of the composition (Hadzihawo….), 
measure 45 to 60, to the organ. He also wrote a different harmonic scheme for the medium 
unlike the art of assigning melodies to four parts for choral singing. Essentially, he uses very 
high chromatic vocabulary for the instrument. This is hybridization to a very high level, a 
crisscross of cultures. This shows the equity of importance G. W. K. Dor places on the two 
musical cultures. 
3.8 Philosophical Leanings 
3.8.1 Philosophies of Some Ghanaian Composers 
Every composer is guided by a philosophy. It is this philosophy which dictates his creative 
processes. Through the creative processes the music is brought to the fore for the 
consumption of the audience targeted. The audience, out of various levels of emotion and 
appreciation evaluates the music, involuntarily, and this propels them to make some 
remarks, comments and even come to some sort of conclusions. This, to some extent, can 
lead to a level of mind-sets that can be irreversible or that would take much effort to deal 
with. Such assertions, remarks or conclusions are based on the individual’s opinion. 
Scholarly discussions about art music in Ghana quickly points to one iconic figure 
as the path finder - Dr. Ephraim Amu - the father of Ghanaian Art music who has laid the 
foundation of choral music in Ghana. Prominent among the Eʋes who followed suit are Prof. 
Nicholas Zinzendorf Nayo, Dr. Robert Ndor, Walter Blege and many others who have also 
written several choral and instrumental works, for example, Kenn Kafui.  
Composition as an art depends on the composer’s creative philosophy of 
composition. For example, Dr. Agordoh made the assertion that “Though choral music for 
worship does not exclude the greatest complexities, it is always advisable for a composer to 
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take into consideration the performing standard of the choirs his works are meant for”. He 
further explained that some choristers feel that the choral works of George Dor contains too 
many chromatic notes that beats their capabilities as singers (Agordoh, 2011: 95). It can be 
deduced however, that to Dr. Agordoh composition must be very simple and that is his 
philosophy about music composition. Ephraim Amu wrote Alegbegbe, reduced the content 
in order to make it simple. He did not use modulations. He came down to the level of several 
people. That was the philosophy which informed the composition that had a contrapuntal 
texture to a large extent. Dr. Amu believed that choral music should be simple, but some of 
his music remains challenging. This philosophy informed his compositions. 
Prof. N. Z. Nayo was a pioneer of competition among choirs so far as choral musical 
performances are concern. He has also written instrumental and orchestral musical pieces. 
Relatively, writing in and for such media is comparatively demanding in their technicalities 
and complexities as compared to choral music compositions. This is primarily because of 
the abilities of the medium of expression involved. Technically, the human voice is more 
limited in capabilities than say, the piccolo, violin, trumpet or the timpani. Nayo was 
therefore influenced by the orchestral setting and this surfaced in his choral compositions 
too. He wrote difficult pieces with chromatics and accidental in a bid to challenge the 
competing choirs. A move which was tailored towards building capacity of the choirs, 
ensuring a wider horizon, view and orientation to music in general of the chorister, increase 
music appreciation and performing standard to an appreciable level of church choirs. That 
was his philosophy. 
Amu does not favour competitions. Prof. Nayo and Dr. R. N. Ndor were all lovers 
of choral music but had different philosophies that informed their compositions. The former 
favoured contest among choirs as a way of increasing their musical appreciation and also 
boost their performance standard. The later does not flavour choral contest among 
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performing groups. Hitherto, their music is be based on their individual compositional 
creeds. “Naturally, a composition is an outpour of what the composer is” (Interview: 
August, 2018@14:30 GMT, Dept of Music, UG) 
Dor played musical instruments for several years. He has taught harmony and 
chromatic harmony at N.A.M, Winneba for several years. Some argue that George Dor was 
influenced by Nayo and that accounts for the chromaticism inherent in G.W.K. Dor’s 
musical pieces. “That is not right. I have taught chromatic harmony for a number of years. 
Why won’t I compose my musical pieces with chromatics? I also play the keyboard, 
saxophone and cello to some extent, and have taught chromatic music. Why won’t I 
understand chromaticism? I was simply composing the music which I taught! (Telephone 
interview 12th April, 2019@15 GMT)” 
3.8.2 The Interior and Exterior Factors 
The philosophical background(s) which underscores musical compositions would be 
understood better when viewed against the backdrop of some ‘interior’ and ‘exterior’ 
influential factors which Dor termed ‘Style-Moulding Determinants’ Dor (1992). He coined 
the term in reference to factors which contributes to a composer’s taste and style of 
composition. He enumerated factors such the biological, socio-cultural, psychological, 
philosophical, the type of musical milieu in which the composer has been brought up in, 
types of musical exposure and the ideas of the composer which he described as the 
musician’s innate potentialities and a host of factors that collaborate to determine the 
composers creative processes and a style attributed to a particular composer. These serves 
as a pool from which the composer draws his/her compositional resources. These are 
intrinsically driven.  
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Extrinsically, the society also becomes a school which imparts on the composer 
creative abilities. The cumulative musical exposure, formal musical training, knowledge of 
indigenous music presents a fountain of musical ideas from which he may draw raw 
materials. Factors of aesthetics, the target audience to which a particular composition is 
addressed, commissioned compositions and the aesthetic criteria that may be used to judge 
the composer’s work may shape the composer’s work.  
In addition, the virtuosity of artists and the performing standard of specific band(s) 
for whom works may be written, may serve as a yardstick to the quality of work to be 
composed. A composer’s national pride and his responsiveness to the musical needs of his 
dynamic society may affect his finished product. “Any significant change in some of the 
above-named style modeling determinants may result in a corresponding change in certain 
aspects of the composer’s style” (Dor 1992: 17). 
3.8.3 The Philosophy behind the Composition of ‘Hadzihawo….’ 
This anthem was composed in a response to a request from Mr. Richard Avah, the choir 
director of Bethel Church Choir, E. P. Church, Ghana, Accra New-Town. Established in 
1961, the church choir was 28th years and was marking the milestone with a choir 
anniversary celebration in the year 1989. The anthem is respectfully dedicated to the director 
of the choir, Mr. Avah, Richard. The story behind the composition of Hadzihawo Midzi Ha 
Le Mawu ʄe Fiaduʄe La ŋuti was recounted by the composer of the music, G.W.K. Dor.  
“I was then a second-year student at University of Ghana. I was very busy with 
church activities, always going to North La E. P. Church every evening for choir rehearsals 
and music performances. I was the choir director for church choir and also helping 
Hadzihaga, Christian Youth Builders (C.Y.B.), Church Band practices, and on Sunday I 
was the organist. So busy. So one day, I had closed from church choir rehearsals and was 
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on my way to my hall at University of Ghana campus. On my way, I had the inspiration. 
The song kept ringing in me till I got to the hall. I liked it and sang it in my mind. Upon 
reaching my room, I notated the music. God being so good I scored A’s in all my courses 
that semester. I thought I was investing too much time on church work (Telephone interview 
12th April, 2019@15 GMT)”. 
As part of his creative process G.W.K. Dor endeavours to make all the four parts to 
sound interesting as much as possible as mentioned earlier. The melody is distributed evenly 
to all the parts. There are times when the bass carries the melody. “If you are a composer, 
make sure that it’s not only the soprano which should ‘carry’ the melody. All the other parts 
must be interesting”, he explained during the telephone interview. He has several fugal 
expositions serving as episodes in his works. These are some of the technicalities 
incorporated in G.W.K. Dor’s compositions that may have earned him the appeal and the 
popularity. 
At this point, it is very important to mention the influences of the ‘exceptionally 
good’ part-singers in the choirs which influenced George Dor in writing very beautiful 
melodic lines for such parts, not forgetting the alto singers. Narrations have ascribed the 
beautiful alto melodies in G.W.K. Dor’s choral compositions as influences from his wife. 
Patrons of George Dor’s choral works have observed and noted the singing potentials of 
George W. K. Dor’s wife. In a number of personal conversations with some choir directors 
and choristers alike of the E. P. Church, Ghana, I have been informed that she is a very good 
alto singer and also a member of the church choir. George Dor’s maternal aunties are adept 
and gifted alto singers too. His mother is another talented alto singer, George explained. 
However, this suggest that little George might have grown within the ambiance of the alto 
sound too before he met his wife, Rose Dor. 
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Giving and account of why he decided to use alto solo for what I term Alto Aria 
from measure 45 to 76 of Hadzihawo Midzi Ha Le Mawu ʄe Fiaduʄe La ŋuti, G.W.K. Dor 
explained during the interview and said, “My mother was an alto singer. When I teach some 
beautiful alto parts, people will always say ‘Eei, Efo George (lit. Hello, brother George), 
it’s because of your wife’. Then I will say, ‘It’s not because of my wife. What about my 
mother and my aunties? I sing tenor. Having said that, the sopranos carry the melody most 
of the time. So, I said to myself why not do something different? Why not go to the altos? 
Maybe it was also influenced by several good alto singers in the North La Church Choir. 
Mostly, composers are used to ‘employing’ the sopranos to carrying the melody. If it’s not 
the high female voices, usually the soprano, then it will be the tenors. What about the altos 
and the basses? This is the novelty of it.  Now let’s give the opportunity to the altos. But the 
underlining principle is that if you are composer make sure all the four parts are interesting” 
(G.W.K. Dor: Telephone interview 12th April, 2019@15 GMT).). 
G.W.K. Dor used a chorale style in composing the anthem for Mr. Richard Avah. 
The part where the altos are accompanied by the other three parts is characteristic of ‘Bach-
like harmonic’ treatment of the chorales. The style is where a hymn tune is being carried by 
a tenor voice with the other parts supporting, there is a counterpoint at that section where 
we have Madziha na Mawu nye tegbee (measure 61 to 76). The basses carry the same subject 
at the introduction by the sopranos and the tenors. When G.W.K. Dor was commissioned 
by Mr. Avah to compose a piece of music to mark a mile stone of the Accra Newtown 
Church Choir, George as a composer had to consider some thoughts and possible follow up 
questions. For instance, what is the role of the church choir? Answer: they sing about the 
kingdom of God’. Which traditional theme can be used to support the central theme? So, 
the central theme must be singing about the Kingdom of God. This is supported by Fiaduʄe 
in traditional Africa. Then, another question follows. What will be the medium for 
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expressing the music? Answer: the church choir (four-part singing) with an organ 
accompaniment. That is the overriding idea. 
           So, everything the composer said in the music, so far as the song text is concerned, 
is about the Kingdom of God. “So, I need to think about a scenery of an earthly kingdom” 
he added in the interview. African or better, Ghanaian traditional themes become the driving 
force through which the creative processes were accomplished. The political institution of 
the Eʋes now served as a pool of knowledge from which royal concepts were drawn by the 
composer. G.W.K. Dor used royal themes such as efidodo (lit. the installation, instatement 
or investiture of a chief of king), efiadudu (lit. rulership of the king), efiakuku (the kings 
crown), efianyenye (lit. the awareness or better, the state of being a king), efiatikplɔ (the 
linguist’s staff), efiadufe (lit. the provenience or kingdom) and fiasa (the king’s court). He 
then shifts the paradigm from the terrestrial horizontal plane to the celestial vertical plane. 
Such treatment of the compositional themes by the composer is allegorical to Calvary’s 
cross – lightly interpreted to be love for God and love for neighbour.  
Out of his biblical knowledge, George Dor used sub-themes which portray the 
sovereignty of God Almighty to buttress his central theme. For example, fri tititi ke, Mawu 
ne nye, xoxoxo, xoxoxo, Mawu nenye, Alpha kple Omega and expressions like dzidzenu 
adeke mesɔ kple eʄe fiadufe o, Eʄe fiasa ʄe kekeme didime lolome, Fiamavɔ ye nenye, Nyee 
NyeMawu floods the song text of the music. These concepts are used to show that there is 
no end to God’s Kingdom. He is the beginning and the end. God lives and reigns forever 
and ever. 
It all begins with the imaginative power of the composer. The imagination of the 
composer can export him to some scene or a place, expand, and develop it through lyrical, 
harmonic, and rhythmic content in order make the song beautiful, G.W.K. Dor explained. 
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These philosophies parallels that of Walter Blege by which he developed the needed themes 
for his anthem dubbed Mawu Gbedegbleme. Blege also used traditional political concepts 
of the Eʋes commonly seen during durbar of some West African chiefs. Themes such as 
Mawu kɔm la ‘paka me, atikplɔ, atamkayi woalɔ adzadza le ŋunye me, adekplɔvio nenɔ ŋgɔ 
nye, tsiametiawo nenɔ ŋgɔ nye etc. are used in the lyrics to support the central theme. Blege 
imagined the procession of traditional chiefs in some African ethnic groups. Same be said 
of Ephraim Amu who also imagined the asafo group and said Yaanom Abibrimma ee, 
followed by the responsorial Yee, composed in 1931. In view of intercultural composition, 
the lyrical content is not always taken from just one cultural background. A good deal of 
thematic materials are also drawn from the traditional pool of interactions and interrelations 
which defines the complete social structure. Amu imagined the dialogue between the asafo 
group, of the Akans of Ghana, and their leader during their times of chanting. This provides 
Amu some amount of lyrical content. 
During the composition of Agbemavɔ Minyam Miele, G.W.K. Dor had to give 
thought to the dualities which exits between game hunting in the rural communities to the 
Christian race for eternal life through Christ Jesus expounded by Apostle Paul in 
1Corinthins 9: 24-25 and Philippians 3:11-16. Resultantly, four sub-themes were developed. 
These are adevu, adedada (lit. the act of hunting), ademinyaminya (lit. aiming at the game), 
alawuwu (lit. shooting the game). So, George juxtaposed knowledge as an Eʋe and also as 
a Christian against each other. It can be deduced from the foregoing that the totality of 
G.W.K. Dor is what is transcribed into his compositions, thus, the totality of him as an 
individual shaped by the style moulding determinants’. His Dor’s cultural consciousness is 
the underlining factor to his creative abilities. He takes it, put it into another context and 
gives it back, using the church as a medium of communication.  
 
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CHAPTER FOUR 
THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF GEORGE WORLASI KWASI DOR 
The contributions of George Worlasi Kwasi Dor to the E. P. Church, Ghana is enormous. 
As a composer and performer, his works have come to the limelight at various 
organizational levels both in the E. P. Church, Ghana and other religious and government 
institutions such as the Methodist Church, Presbyterian Church of Ghana, Roman Catholic 
Church of Ghana, Musama Disco Kristo Church and the Ghana Educational Service not 
forgetting the Goethe Institute, Accra - Ghana.  
           Dors contributions to the E. P. Church, Ghana especially, can be grouped into various 
categories. These includes (i) the repository of musical heritage which serves as repertoire 
for the church choir, principally, and other choral inclined organizations in and out the 
church. (ii) His contributions through his institutional affiliations within the church. (iii) 
Commissioned choral compositions. (iv) Fulfillment of special assigned responsibilities 
imposed by the synod and other governing bodies of the church. 
4.1 The Repository of Musical Heritage  
There are tons of choral works by George Worlasi Kwasi Dor in circulation in the E. P. 
Church, Ghana. As the practice is among cultures that notate their music, one would always 
see the inscription ‘G.W.K. Dor’ at the top right-hand corner of George’s music scores. 
Mostly these music sheets are in the custody of Choir Directors, Assistant Choir Directors 
and instrumentalists. These music scores come in various forms. One may find loose sheets 
of the compositions that are used as a teaching material at choir rehearsals by choir directors 
and instrumentalists. There is also compilation of G.W.K. Dor’s works for choirs. Choral 
Works Vol., August 1988 is a publication of selected choral works composed at the early 
stages of G.WK. Dor’s musical career. There is another one complied by John Ampony, 
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title Compositions of G.W.K. Dor. This is not published but it contains selections of the 
matured choral works.  
I have not yet seen any musical score of G. W. K Dor in tonic sol-fa notation. 
Originally, all his compositions are notated on a musical staff. However, it will not be 
strange to find some of his composition notated in tonic sol-fa circulating in other religious 
denominations such as the Methodist Church Ghana and the Presbyterian Church of Ghana, 
especially. Some choirs especially those of the Methodist tradition (those in the urban 
centres) are more abreast with learning new songs, irrespective of the style of the 
composition and the complexities it may come with, firstly with the tonic sofa before texts 
are even applied. This practice will justify the situation in which any of Dor’s composition 
may be seen in tonic sol-fa notation. Usually, E. P. Church Choir learn songs by route, 
irrespective of the style and possible complexities. The staff notation of the songs comes in 
close scores mostly. The original copy of Megalam O, Mawu comes in close score but it has 
been transcribed into an open score with the aid of a computer-aided software. It is been 
observed that the musical scores of G.W.K. Dors are mostly hand-scribed except entries in 
the Hadzigbale (the E. P. Church Hymn book). 
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Figure 13: A script of G.W.K. Dor’s composition showing ink marks. 
It will be meaningless to describe the physical features of Dor’s musical scores 
without taking about the place of the music in the church. The compositions can be grouped 
into various categories. The first category is the anthems. The church choirs of the E.P. 
Church, Ghana are the custodians of the repository of songs. This assertion is based on 
reasons such as G.W.K. Dor is affiliated to the church and has played cardinal roles in the 
church. The lyrical contents of a good proportion of the compositions are borrowed from 
the Eʋe language which favours the homogeneity of the E. P. Church, Ghana. Some central 
and sub themes are drawn from the worldview of the Eʋe speaking people out from which 
trained music directors in the church emerges. Lastly, tons of the musical works are in the 
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custody of musicians of the church. The Sunday selection by the choirs (Church Choir, 
Hadzihaga. Good News Choir, EPSU) gives room for the performance of these anthems. 
Compositions of other composers may also be rendered. The selection of these anthems for 
renditions at church is based on themes for the occasion be it Sunday Divine Service, 
Inaugural Service, or any other assembly of worshippers such as funeral and wedding 
services. Additionally, the anthems are resource materials for stage performances at church 
choir conferences, anniversaries, concerts and so on. 
 
Figure 14: Cover page of CHORAL WORKS Vol. I by George W. K. Dor. 
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The second group of the songs are the hymns. The Hadzigbale is considered as a 
source of wealth and treasure to the church. This chest of treasure contains some hymns of 
G.W.K. Dor. The song text of the hymns makes it possible to group them under the 
chronological ordering of the different themes to which the entries are grouped. In general, 
these hymn entries help the worshipper to focus on the Almighty God as the source and 
giver of life. Again, songs are considered to be a revelation of God’s perfect creation; the 
gift is Jesus Christ as an atonement for sin, His sacrificial work on the cross, His resurrection 
from the dead and His ascension to heaven and second coming. This is the fundamental 
theology for the establishment of the Christian church that is demonstrated through 
composition and performance. Hymns of G. W.K. Dor in the Hadzigbale includes EPH 238 
Agbenya la le dzroyem (I am yearning at the Good News), EPH 334 Nɔviwo migavɔ o 
(Friends, do not be afraid), EPH 416 Milɔ mianɔe’ o Yesu ye gblɔe (Love your neighbours, 
Christ commands), EPH 644 Yra mi, yra mi (Bless us, bless us).  
The third category is the patriotic songs G.W.K. Dor. These collections show how 
patriotic Dor is his beloved country, Ghana. EPH No. 339 and 338 is a reflection of the love 
and how patriotic he is to Ghana. Nketia cited in Terpenning (2016: 65 - 70) observed that 
the “composition of Yen Ara Asase Ni” reveals ‘the first consciousness of Ephraim Amu to 
his sense of nationality’. It however, suggests that although G.W.K Dor is known to be an 
advent composer of church musical forms he is also thoughtful about his nationality as a 
Ghanaian. E.P.H 634 Ghana, mia denyigba nyui la, Ghanaviwo mitso (Ghanaians, arise), 
Matsɔ nye agbe ake Ghana dukɔ (I will sacrifice my life for mother Ghana) are but few 
examples of the patriotic songs.   
The fourth group of songs includes the matching songs he composed for the choir’s 
processional and recessional needs for the choir and clergy and processions to concert stages 
or platforms. The procession and recession of choir and clergy is a mark of the missionary 
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established churches. The performance of these style of songs includes singing, drumming 
and marching (holding the hymnbook in the left hand, right hand by the side and taking 
slow but uniform and majestic steps). These marches are aslo used for processions to stage 
performances during choir concerts. This comes with lighter dance movements. 
These compositions are resource materials for the Church Choir, Hadzihaga, Good 
News Choir and E. P. S. U. that are more inclined in choral music performances. Interest 
groups like dance-drumming associations are more flexible with Dor matching songs. Such 
songs are necessarily not found in the Hadzigbale. The mode of expression of these songs 
are found in the flexibility characterized by these dance-drumming groups, what can be 
termed as personalization of structural content of the music. 
4.2 Institutional Affiliation 
It is not the stock of library collections only that can be taken as G.W.K. Dor’s contribution 
to the musical tradition but Dor’s services rendered by way of his institutional affiliations. 
As a choral composer and director of church music the first association he aligned himself 
with and actively participated would be the Alavanyo-ʋudidi orchestra and the church choir. 
This served as a preparatory ground for him to play an active role at the various 
organizational levels of the church choir and the church as a whole. He was the choir director 
and organist of North La Church Choir. He has also been the president of WVPCCU and 
many others. He was also a one-time national director of the National Church Choirs Union, 
a position he held for one term.  
In addition to the various positions held, he has also served as synod organist for a 
considerable period of time. When the Hadzigbale review committee was set in the year 
2005 G.W.K. Dor served on this committee and functioned as the organist of the committee. 
“I played exactly as notated” (Telephone interview 12th April, 2019@15 GMT). These give 
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us a clue about Dor’s proficiency at the keyboard instrument (organ or piano). Deductively, 
“I play exactly as noted” means sticking to the ‘culture’. The end result of practices of this 
nature is what ensures the maintenance of the musical tradition inherited from the Bremen 
missionaries. 
The maintenance of the musical culture through performance practices saved the 
image and identity of the E. P. Church, Ghana during the congregational identity crises in 
the 1980s. Western musical styles categorized into different historical periods in the 
literature of Western music (although there were considerable changes) were achieved by 
the adherence and maintenance of the modes of musical compositions and expressions over 
a considerable period of time. The Baroque composer, J.S. Bach and his contemporaries 
maintained the musical practices of their time to have the period established. The 
contribution of George Worlasi Kwasi Dor in view of this serves as the preservation of the 
musical culture. I argued in the preceding chapter that the E. P. Church, Ghana is influenced 
by different musical traditions from churches in close proximity. This may sound as a 
contradiction. However, it is worth noting that all influences from ‘distant’ churches (non-
mainline) revolve around the Bremen tradition. Even though the tradition may change, it 
hinges on a formal liturgical order, the rendition of hymns, anthems, psalms and chants, and 
structured order of the ministration of the sacraments. The musical heritage of the Bremen 
missionaries can be taken to be jigs and fixtures. This is what Prof. Austin Emielu calls 
Progressive Traditionalism (graduate lecture, Nov. 2017, University of Ghana). The General 
Assembly, the highest organizational body of the E. P. Church, Ghana, will only appreciate 
the modes of expression they are familiar with and thus what G. W. K. Dor did when he 
was appointed as Synod organist. 
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4.3 Commissioned Musical Works  
Composition of anniversary songs is another area where G. W. K Dor played a very 
important role in the life of the E. P. Church, Ghana. After its formative years, several local 
congregations of the church were established in the east and west of the Volta River. The 
church has spread not only across Ghana and Togo but to neighbouring West African 
countries such as Benin and Ivory Coast. The church can also boast of local congregations 
in the U.S.A. and Europe. Year after year these established churches turn out in years. The 
congregations celebrate anniversaries to commemorate the number of years they have been 
in existence such as 25, 50, 70, 75 and 100 years. Dor has been engaged by the church 
session and planning committees of some of these local congregation to compose song(s) to 
be used for the celebration. Some of these local congregations of the E. P. Church are the 
local congregations at Leklebi (100 years), Alavanyo-ʋudidi (100 years) and Adidome (75 
years). Music plays a very important role during such celebrations. The music enhances the 
processes of re-affirmation of faith, self-dedication and commitment to the church and 
establishment of the musical culture. It also enhances group consciousness and energizes 
the participant’s zeal for the continuation of the spreading of the gospel. It is through the 
creative processes of George Dor that such phenomena are realized during those 
anniversaries. 
4.4 Harmonization of Some Popular Eʋe Tune for Use in the E. P. Church, Ghana 
During proceedings of the Hadzigbale Review Committee-led by the late Dr. Agordoh, 
composers of the church were encouraged to submit their compositions to be reviewed and 
published. Some popular local tunes and choruses were harmonized and added to the 
collection. The harmonizations were done by G. W. K. Dor and Walter Blege according to 
George Dor. Some of the tunes harmonized by Dor includes E.P.H. No. 664 ŋutifafa woana 
mi and Mikpɔ alesi wo nyoe da. These two works are the two re-arranged songs by G. W. 
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K. Dor that breaks the monopoly of western hegemony in the format for the ministration of 
the Eucharist in the E. P. Church, Ghana since its establishment until the 2008 edition of the 
Hadzigbale was published. It is worthy of note that “The Eucharist is the highest level of 
worship in our church as Presbyterians” (Interview with Rev. Torvinyo, Francis: 14th April, 
2019@11: 23, New Legon, Accra). Rev. Vida Asimah draws our attention to the E. P. 
Church, Ghana and her alignment with the Reformation tradition. She emphasized that the 
E. P. Church, Ghana esteems the Eucharist very high owing to the fact that “It is the symbol 
of the body of Christ broken for us to establish those who believe into the priesthood of the 
Almighty God” (Interview with Rev. Vida Asimah: 17th April, 2019@16:32GMT). It is at 
this point of congregational worship that we have find the songs harmonized by George 
Dor. I must emphasize that before the 2008 edition of the Hadzigbale published, there was 
a supplementary liturgical booklet used to as a guide to the administration of Eucharist in 
the E. P. Church, Ghana. It contained short chants and selected E.P. hymns, for example, 
Hymn 558, 120 and 191 that are used as responsorial to Holy Communion liturgical readings 
in addition to the two harmonized songs by George Dor.  
 In the interview, Dor noted that in preparation to outdoor the new revised hymnbook 
Hata was organized at Bethel Congregation of the E. P. Church, Ghana. Accra New. Hata 
in Eʋe language literally means exposition of song[s] (Interview with G.WK. Dor, August, 
2018@14:30 GMT, Dept of Music, UG). 
4.5 Intervention of the ‘Church Band’  
The commencement of the activities of the ‘Praise and Worship Team’ or the Church Band 
in the E. P. Church, Ghana can be traced to G. W. K. Dor. ‘Praise and Worship Team’ is a 
familiar term within the circles of most Ghanaian churches. It was borrowed from the 
‘Spiritual Churches’.  When G. W. K. Dor was the music director and the organist at the 
North La branch of the E. P. Church, he veered into a different area of his musical career. 
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He established a church band, commonly referred to today in the church as Praise and 
Worship Team. The band was made up of members of church choir that was led by George 
W. K. Dor. A very key player in the band was Richard Nudanu. George Dor explained that 
Richard Nudanu was very versatile on all the various types of Western musical instruments 
used as a resource to the band. Other instrumentalists in the band included Charles Kpongo, 
Edward Gblɔkpɔ, and Gershon Yakawonya (Telephone interview with Hope Konu, 10th 
April, 2019). The wife of G. W. K. Dor, Rose Dor, was also a very vibrant and dynamic 
member of the band. She was among the vocalists of the band and was judged by patrons 
of the band to be the best female vocalist. She was an alto singer in the church choir.  
The instrumental resources were made up of electric bass and lead guitars, jazz drum 
set, keyboard, saxophones, set of congas tambourines, gong etc. The group was the first of 
its kind in the E. P. Church, Ghana. They performed choruses, highlife tunes, ‘praises’ etc. 
which were based on biblical texts. Some of the E.P. hymns were also used to argument the 
local tunes used for rendition.   
They performed at the funeral grounds of members of the church who passed on into 
glory. The band was also hired by people from other denominations to play a similar role. 
Additionally, the church band played during offertory during church services. These were 
the manifest function of the band. But there was a latent function to the day-to-day activities 
of the band under the directorship of G. W. K. Dor, a secondary role which was not in the 
purview of the members of the band. Ansre (1997: 120 - 125) observed that during the mass 
migration of members of the E.P. Church in 1980s from the east of the Volta to the West 
new musical traditions such as drumming and dancing in church, clapping, dancing in 
circles, free forms of dance movements; with its inherent religions practices - that were 
strange to the E. P. Church, Ghana - were imported into the church. Principally, it was those 
members of the E. P. Church who remained in the church but wanted new church reforms 
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to curb their financial hardship and harassments by demons who supported these new 
practices. It therefore suggests that the establishment of the band, latently, served as a room 
to accommodate this category of members of the E. P. Church, Ghana.  
The growing trend in the ‘Praise and Worship Team’ concept in Ghana can be 
attributed to some social factors. The availability of cassette retail shops, and more recently 
CDs, YouTube social media have facilitated the activities of gospel performances in both 
missionary and Independent churches in Ghana, generally. Ghanaian gospel, here, literally 
means the variety of Ghanaian and Western tunes that are rearranged (normally using the 
guitar and jazz band media) for Ghanaian churches consumption. Training and rehearsal 
session are carried out by listening and imitation of the sound. This practice has produced 
many famous solo artists like Sonnie Baidoo, Cyndi Thompson etc.  
The second factor is the preference for Black American music practices to the 
traditional musical types. Possible influxes are ‘gospel raps’, music videos in luxurious 
vehicles and houses, mannerisms, one word or phrase repeated for a considerable number 
of measures or time, engagement of the audience prior to the performance, interchanging 
the vernacular with English language etc. Third factor is the fame of popular gospel artists 
in the Ghanaian music scene. Both vocalists and instrumentals aspire to be like the giants. 
Television broadcasts and live gospel performances account for these.  
In Ghana, generally, performance practices of this type of band are also 
characterized by religiously accepted dance movements, clapping, emotionalism etc. This 
musical tradition has developed to the extent that a large proportion of local congregations, 
including the E. P. Church, Ghana, especially those in the urban centres finds solace in this 
kind of musical expressions to maintain their youth. Since the establishment of the mission 
churches in Ghana, some of their members have moved out of the church. These individuals 
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either join different churches or move out as a group to establish a new church all together. 
For example, churches that have broken away in the E. P. Church, Ghana, includes the 
White Cross, Apostle Revelations Society, and the Global Evangelical Church. The 
Methodist, Presbyterian Anglican etc. churches in Ghana have also suffered similar ‘fates’ 
in various dimensions. 
Over the years the trend has changed through the adoption of Musical Indigena in 
these churches. The philosophy behind indigenous practices in mainline church is spelt out 
in a paragraph of Avorgbedor’s essay on Musical Innovation in African Independent 
Churches in the Garland Encyclopedia of African Folklore, 2004. He writes that the musical 
independence in some mainline churches such as Methodists, E. P. Church, Ghana, 
Anglican, Baptist was cultivated (or achieved) in many ways but without a session 
formation of a completely separate or independent church from their mother churches. For 
example, the Global Evangelical Church broke away “to emphasize the ‘the gift of the spirit’ 
and the avant-garde music and liturgy”. The paradox of the motive is true for the 
‘independent music practices’ in the E. P. Church, Ghana. The church (E. P.) emphasized 
this same gift of the spirit’ and the avant-garde music and liturgy to maintain and increase 
her membership.  
Because of the intervention of G.  W. K. Dor the youth in the E. P. Church, Ghana 
remain in the church being satisfied by the performance of the church band. The band in E. 
P. Church is made up of the youth who seemingly imitates the musical traditions of the 
Apostolics, Pentecostals and the Charismatic churches. The next congregation that 
established the church band is the Bethel Congregation of the E. P. Church, Accra New 
Town. It was led by Mr. Nelson Kwame. Its members included, Humphrey Amesu (late), 
Mawuli Amu, John Agboado, William Klatsu, Beatrice Amoah (late) and many others all 
belonging to the church choir. It played a similar function as that of the North La band. 
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Today, the Church Band in the various E. P. Church congregations are seen on big public 
platforms performing with some legends in the Ghanaian gospel industry. Comparatively, 
their level of performance is not different from the popular Eʋe band that plays with Joe 
Mettle as found in YouTube. The band’s administration and performances has been relayed 
from the church choir to the youth wing of the church depicting the analogy of parent-child 
transfer of property. The credit goes to G.W.K. Dor in his ‘Musical Innovation’ in the E. P. 
Church, Ghana. 
4.6 The Linguistic Role 
The choral compositions of G. W. K. Dor plays a linguistic role. The birth place of the E. 
P. Church, Ghana is the Volta Region. The E.P. Church, Ghana is largely a homogenous 
institution. Its fraternal congregations sited among non-Eʋe speaking ethnic groups in the 
Greater Accra, Kumasi, Brong-Ahafo, Takoradi, Cape Coast for example are largely 
migrants from the Volta Region, and the newly created Oti Region. The Eʋe language is the 
principal language through which congregational activities such as singing, teachings and 
other important religious formalities such as the sacraments (Baptism and Holy 
Communion), naming ceremonies, funeral and burial rites and many others are carried out. 
Structural analysis of selected music scores (anthems and hymns) of G. W. K. Dor 
substantiate to the fact that the text to his choral music are in Eʋe. As a homogenous group, 
it can be said that G. W. K. Dor’s compositions serves as a medium through which the 
literature, tradition and folklore of the Eʋes are preserved. He preserves the dialect by using 
the Eʋe language. The titles of Dor’s anthems, the stanzas to his strophic forms are poetically 
structured. There are tons of Eʋe proverbs within the textural content of the composition. 
These components and more make the worshipper feels inclusive and enables him/her to 
actively participate in church activities because the linguistic materials are drawn from the 
well of the socio-cultural practices of the Eʋeland.  
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4.7 The Theological Role 
The compositions of George Dor serve as a means of preserving the fundamental theological 
teachings of the E.P.C, GH. His themes are influenced by the theological background of the 
church. This is why it finds expression in the context of religion in the church. Rt. Rev. 
Francis Amenu, the immediate past moderator of the general assembly of the E.P.C., GH 
confirmed in an interview. He noted, “The compositions of George are sermonettes that can 
be used to teach, correct and rebuke if possible” (Interview with Rt. Rev Amenu, Francis: 
26th May, 2019@9:00 GMT, Dansoman, Accra). The songs address moral issues. It is also 
re-affirmation of the Christian faith and relationship with the LORD. The songs addresses 
matters of our stewardship as Christians. 
4.8 Impartation of Knowledge   
G. W. K. Dor has produced a number of musicians. As a practicing musician and music 
educationalist he has impacted the knowledge of music composition, harmony, chromatic 
harmony, orchestration, etc. and the art of playing various musical instruments to quite a 
number people. Such courses or practices have been thought either formerly – as structured 
in the curricular of educational institutions such as N. A. M. Winneba, University of Ghana, 
Legon and Goethe Institute, Accra – or informally at avenues such as choir rehearsals and 
church band rehearsal sections etc. George Dor enumerated some of the students he has 
influenced in the interview section during my data collection proceedings.  
Some of the students he thought at N. A. M., Winneba are Divine Gbagbo, Charles 
Datsa, Rev. Gilbert O. Datsa (late), Elias Dogbatse (late) and Dr. Mawutor Hilarius Wuaku. 
At the local E. P. Church congregation at Alavanyo-ʋudidi, he mentioned the names of three 
people that he has impacted musically. They are Christian Akortia, Seth Yeboah and Seth 
Kplende. He has also imparted the art of music to some individuals outside the E. P. Church, 
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Ghana fraternity. In the interview G. W. K. Dor stated that he has impacted knowledge to 
some students who have become prominent musicians in the Methodist Church Ghana. They 
include George Mensah Essilfie, Ebenezer Allortey, Charles Ato Brown and Bright 
Amankwah. (Dor, 2013: 209, and interview with G.W.K. Dor, August, 2018, 2:30pm) 
4.9 The Popularity of George Worlasi Kwasi Dor 
The musical works of George W. K. Dor continue used at conferences in the E. P. Church, 
Ghana on countless occasions.   The August, 2018 Biannual Conference of the WVPCCU 
hosted by the E. P. Church at Kasoa used Mawu Wɔ Nusianu Nyuie, an anthem by G. W. K. 
Dor as the mass anthem for the conference. Before this conference, previous rallies 
(rebranded as conference) by the church choirs union of the E. P Church, Ghana have 
continuously used G. W. K. Dor’s extended compositions and marching songs for their mass 
renditions. The uses of the compositions by G. W. K. Dor at presbytery church choirs’ 
conferences attest to his popularity in the E.P Church, Ghana. Mostly his anthems are 
selected for the mass song or ‘main conference piece’ of those gatherings of the participating 
choirs. The frequency at which the anthems continue to be used is not readily attainable 
through archival search because of the loss of records at the appropriate bureau which 
should support such scholarly activity.  
Because the choral compositions of George Dor find their highest expression within 
the church choirs performance practices it will be useful to highlight some aspects of the 
conference in a bid facilitated George Dor’s popularity. The choir’s organizational levels at 
which these compositions are put to use falls into four categories. One, mass performances 
at national church choirs’ conferences, two, mass performances at presbytery church choirs’ 
conferences, three, mass performances at zonal church choirs’ conferences and four, 
Performances at local congregation level.  
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For these categories, a selected song from the stack of musical collection of G. W. 
K Dor may be used for either mass performance by the participating church choirs or for 
the utilization of an individual church choir as optional song. It is worthy to note at this 
juncture that the compositions are not limited to only E. P. Church Choirs but to all ‘able’ 
singing bands within the E. P. Church fraternity and even beyond the shores of Ghana.  
Some of the compositions by G. W. K.   Dor popularly used as a resource material 
by the church choirs’ union, especially, includes Mawu Ve Mianu, Xɔsetɔwo Mitso, Ŋkegbe 
Didi, Hadzihawo, Midziha le Mawu ʄe Fiadufe La ŋuti, Agbemavɔ Minyam Miele, Agbefia 
La Gbɔna, Magalam O, Mawu, Alekplɔ la Kple ‘ʄe Aleha, Misto Aseye, Mawu Wɔ Nusianu 
Pɛpɛɛpɛ etc. Some of the marches are E.P.H. No. 334 Nɔviwo migavɔ o, a re-arrangement 
of E.P.H. No. 449 Nusianu si la ‘gbe ʋana, E.P.H. No. 634 Ghana/Togo mia ɖenyigba nyui 
la, a re-arrangement of E.P.H 442, O ɖe makpɔ aɖe akpe wo. Hadzidzi doa dzidzɔ nam, 
Gbɔgbɔ kɔkɔe Kplɔla nyuie and many others.  
During the interview section with Rt. Rev. Francis Amenu he pointed out that the 
choice of some rhythmic motifs by George Dor in some of his popular anthems are 
intriguing. “He uses the words as if he is drumming”, he explained further (Interview: 26th 
May, 2019@9:00 GMT, Dansoman, Accra). The composer is able to play on the emotions 
of his listeners through his creative processes. The contextual usages of the texts “Fri titi, 
fri titi, fri titi, fri tititi ke, Mawu ne nye, Mawu ne nye, xoxoxo, xoxoxo nenye Mawu” in 
addition to the drama the music ‘stages’ is one of the things which makes people like the 
anthem popularly known as Hadzihawo….  Divine Kpatakpalu confirmed Rev. Amenu’s 
assertion by saying that “One I things like about Dor’s compositions is how he handles his 
lyrics. Themes like Frititi, frititi, frititi Titititike, Mawu ne nye, Mawu ne nye” (Personal 
communication: 6th September, 2017@17:30 GMT, New Legon, Accra). 
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I concur that it is the rhythmic motif of the music and its recurrent patterns that 
appeals to this chorister. I have indicated earlier that George Worlasi Kwasi Dor grew up in 
the traditional music making circles and has therefore imbibed the traditional ways of 
modeling ostinatos to suite the community’s musical expressions since his childhood. As a 
trained musician, he is therefore adequately equipped to ‘satisfy’ his target audience through 
his choice of creative processes. The motifs subconsciously appeal to the average choral 
lover. The usages of such rhythmic motifs and its fragmentations have resemblance of 
traditional musical expressions which is partly ostinato modelled. Perhaps, it reconnects the 
‘African worshipper’ to their ethnic backgrounds irrespective of the fact that those themes 
are juxtaposed with biblical texts and western idioms.  
Nketia (2004) wrote about the vitality associated with African music by making 
reference to W. E. F Ward’s assertion. Ward - the musician, educationist and historian - 
noted that in rhythm “Africa is two centuries ahead of Europe but trails behind Europe in 
harmony and the development of forms” Nketia (2004: 5). Agawu stretches the discourse 
of African rhythmic viability further with a counter argument. (See Agawu, 1990, Variation 
Procedures in North Eʋe Song, Ethnomusicology, VOL. 34 No.2). He noted: “African 
harmony is as far developed as European harmony in the sixteenth century, it sounds 
different but it is not inferior.” He added that recent publications of African harmony have 
“side-stepped” the progress made in this area of African music. However, the Africa’s 
viability in rhythmic vocabulary is a thing to reckon with.  
Perhaps, it is the artistic usages of these familiar rhythms of the various dance types 
of the specialized groups and that of the ‘commoners’ and the choice of harmonic 
progressions that contributes to the popularity of the G. W. K. Dor. The students and staff 
at the then National Academy of Music, Winneba expressed their likeness and joy over the 
section of Mawu, Ve Mia Nu that had drum surrogates and repetitions. “Mawu woe dukɔwo 
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akafu, dukɔwo akafu Mawu woe dukɔwo akafu was appreciated. The listeners of George 
Dor’s identified themes from their cultural backgrounds that are used in a new way. During 
one of my participant observation sections at Accra New-Town Bethel E. P. church choir 
rehearsals sections when Megalam O, Mawu was being performed, I notice the flair with 
which the choristers rendered the piece of music. John Mensah one of the choristers revealed 
by saying that “We know this very well because of the repetitions”, when I inquired from 
him.  
Through structural analysis I have come into terms with John’s view about the song. 
The next chapter of this research project deals with the analytical aspect of some selected 
choral pieces of George Worlasi Kwasi Dor, therefor I will not discuss this in detail at this 
point. But for clarity sake I would like to mention but a few. Most of the introductory 
measures or the opening sections of Dor’s compositions are repeated. Rarely would one find 
otherwise. Sometimes themes and patterns are repeated severally. Refer to last section of 
Magalam O, Mawu that has recurring thematic materials (measure 43 to the end). Repetition 
is an idiom of African music making as such, people within and without the choir lot will 
show appreciation about their usages in intercultural compositions. 
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Photograph 3: The Church Choir of E. P. Church, Ghana - Peniel Congregation 
performing Gbɔgbɔmenuwo during a concert in December, 2017.  
 
          One of the compositions that appeals to most audience of Dor is his choral 
composition popularly known as Hadzihawo. Perhaps, the central theme of this choral 
composition appeals to most choristers because it highlights the core mandate of the church 
choir, thus, singing the in praise of God. The tile Hadzihawo, Midziha Le Mawu fe Fiadufe 
La ŋuti literary means ‘Choirs, sing about the kingdom of God. George W. K. Dor lived 
among the finest musicians in his childhood.  His musicianship is partly rooted in the 
orchestral practices of Unity Orchestra at ʋudidi, the choral performances of the Alavanyo 
E. P. Church Choir and Hadzihaga including the traditional musical environment of the 
people of Alavanyo. These are innate factors which dictates to his compositional works. As 
a trained composer and scholar, he has the required skills needed to achieve his 
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compositional goals. Hadzihawo is simply re-enactment of the choirs’ mission that has been 
set to music by the composer, therefor its popularity cannot be denied. 
Table 1: Archival material showing how frequent the music of G.W.K. Dors was used 
at WVPCCU rallies between the year 1978 and 1996. 
  
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4.10 “Affects and Effects” 
At this point I would like to borrow a sub title from Mkallyah to forward my 
arguments. The enjoyment of music, any, is can directly be linked to appreciation of its 
performance. It is the attachment of one’s emotions to a musical sound – until recently 
where we silent music - that results in appreciating the music. As much as people continue 
to appreciate a composer’s works it creates an avenue for the composer to become popular. 
There are cultural definitions for what should be considered be beautiful, therefore emotions 
appreciation and beauty is culturally driven. This is largely dictated by the cultural 
background of the listener.  
Kassom Mkallyah (2016) explains in his article Affects and Effects of Indigenous 
Tanzanian Traditional Music in Christian Worship in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, that 
perceptions are tied to the beliefs and values of a person’s culture. When people are born, 
they adopts their parents’ culture; food clothing, environment, belief systems, and the 
performing arts. Resultantly, the mental state of the individual is shaped by the music of 
that cultural setting. The aesthetic value of the music and the musical background is what 
crates the appreciation and its related emotions (Mkallyah, 2016: 305 - 312). Emotions are 
aroused in those who listen to Dors compositions because they are familiar with the building 
blocks of the music. To appreciate this assertion better is the drama which associates the 
compositions. Dor dramatizes his compositions by developing themes and sub-themes 
around the central theme.  
4.11 Arousal of Emotions 
The popularity of G.W.K. Dor propelled by the psychological responses can directly by 
linked to the familiarity of the traditional idioms and the biblical themes that are used as the 
strands in the composition.  Whenever the music is rendered either in church or at the 
concert hall, the audience appreciate the music because of the familiarity of the thematic 
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materials. They identify with it by connecting it to their respective social-cultural 
backgrounds. The memberships of the E. P. Church, Ghana, are largely speakers of the Eʋe 
Language. Although there are details in their socio-cultural settings, they share common 
cultural practices that define them as a homogenous group of people.  
The participant observations I carried out at the selected congregations of the E.P. 
Church during their church services, music performances at the concert hall and at church 
choir rehearsals showed that worshippers and or choristers normally moved part(s) of their 
body to show their appreciation of songs that are performed at those times. This is done 
either by tapping of feet, nodding, swaying. It is much obvious whenever traditional tunes 
and choruses are performed. The songs of G.W.K. Dor’s receives the same treatment 
whenever anthems such as Xɔsetɔwo Mitso Miadzi Akpedaha, Midziha Yeye Na Mawu, 
Hadzihawo, Gbɔgbɔmenuwo, Megalam O, Mawu and Dokuibɔbɔnyo are performed. The list 
continues. These are just at the periphery. This perhaps may be an indicator of attachment 
of emotions to George Dor’s compositions is in the church.  
I notice at Bethel church choir rehearsals sections that even when the song is being 
learnt the choristers make some form of body movements either by tapping their feet, 
beating their laps or nodding their heads in response to the beat. Another common thing is 
the facial expressions of the performers and the audience. They ware beautiful faces during 
the performances. Their facial expressions is an indication that they are familiar they are 
with the themes musical materials being used-especially those borrowed from their cultural 
backgrounds. This familiarity is achieved because of the role emotions plays in the songs.  
The nodding of the head as Mkallyah puts it is an indication of the audience and 
performers’ appreciation of the song enabled by the attachment of emotions. For instance, 
appreciation of Hadzihawo… and Megalam O, Mawu is is an outward expression of their 
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inner feelings which is culturally driven. Before these outward signs are shown or expressed 
it means the individual has evaluated the music; its thematic and lyrical content including 
its performance.  The nodding, for example, simply means ‘approved’. The dance 
movements are drawn from either bɔbɔɔbɔ or agbadza dance movements. This is also 
dependent on the cultural background of the individual weather s/he is Eʋedome or Aŋlɔ. 
After the rendition of the anthems at church and the concert, the congregation show their 
appreciation by clapping. Clapping in Ghana and other West-Africa countries is not only 
used as musical accompaniment but as a form of showing appreciation. Applauds or better 
clappings in this context are un-metered.  
4.12 Extra Musical Factors of G.W.K. Dor’ Compositions 
Apart from the direct benefits derived from the musical performances of the composer here 
discussed, there are other hidden factors associated to the performance of these songs that 
are not necessarily musical. These extra musical factors may not be readily conceivable but 
plays a vital role, latently. This sub-section discusses some extra musical factors of G.W.K 
Dor choral compositions and it effects in the E.P Church, Ghana.   
4.12.1 Group Consciousness 
In the previous chapters I have attempted to differentiate between traditional music, western 
church musical forms and Ghanaian art choral musical. Each of these genres requires an 
appreciable level of artistry for their highest level of expression. The requirement of this 
specialization and the individuals they favour unconsciously creates in-group and out-group 
awareness within the social organization of the church membership. The group 
consciousness is primarily dictated by the special roles assigned to the various singing 
groups in the church.  
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G. W. K. Dor’s choral pieces are composed through the academic ‘conduit’. 
Therefore, the teaching, directing and performance of these pieces sharply draws a 
distinction between the academic sect and the otherwise although the choir may not 
necessarily be made up of the literates entirely. There is a perceived change in status to the 
illiterates in this type of setting by virtue of the fact that the songs are composed and taught 
by trained musicians. In a personal conversation with Evelyn noted that “the church choir 
is different from others groups in the church. We play a very important role in the church”. 
Aku rather lamented about the “too many rules enacted for the chorister to observe. It rather 
scares people from joining the church choir”. It therefore suggests that music performances 
through functional specialization creates a sense of ‘we and they’ in the church. Traditional 
ensembles in the church is also formed against the backdrop of specialization which also 
draws distinctions among the performing groups also.   
4.12.2 Source of Theological Teachings 
The compositions of G. W. K Dor are theologically laden. “I am a Christian. I go to church 
and listen to sermons; I fellowship and I know my bible”. This remark by George W. K. 
Dor substantiates the tie between his choral works and the theological foundations of the E. 
P. Church, Ghana. His choral musical pieces are situated within the framework of the 
theological parameters of the E. P. Church, Ghana. The texts and themes of the songs serves 
as a resource of teaching materials for building and improving the Christian faith in the 
Christian community. The compositions of G. W. K Dor readily lend themselves for the 
liturgical needs of the church. Moral lessons for good behaviour for both Christians and 
non-Christians, and patriotism for the citizenry can be tapped from the compositions. The 
categorization of some selected compositions of George W. K. Dor are as follows: 
  
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i) First category: Songs on scripture 
Gbɔgbɔmenuwo.                                                         Scripture gifts. 
Midzi hayeye na Mawu.                                              Sing a new song unto God. 
Mite va gbɔnye.                                                           Come unto me. 
ii) Second category: Songs on moral lessons 
Megati nusi kɔwu wo la yome o.                                Do not go beyond your means 
Gblɔ be mate kpɔ, mega nata o.                                  Say, “I will attempt it, don’t give  
                                                                                    up. 
Dokuibɔbɔ nyo.                                                           Humility pays. 
iii) Third category: Patriotic songs  
Ghana mia denyigbanyuie la.                                  Ghana our lonely motherland. 
Ghanaviwo mitso.                                                     Ghanaians, arise. 
Matsɔ nye agbe ake Ghnana dukɔ.                          I will sacrifice my life for mother      
                                                                                 Ghana 
Ghanaviwo mina mia wɔ deka.                                Ghanaians, lets unit 
Ghanaviwo mina mianɔ agbe nyuie.                          Ghanaians, lets live exemplary lives.  
As the tradition in the mission churches, Sunday themes and scriptures are published 
in a year book and distributed to the church fraternity. This provision makes it easier for the 
selection of songs for any given Sunday or other. Anthems such as Kristo, Alekplɔla Kple 
‘fe Aleha, Gbɔgbɔmenuwu, Xɔsetɔwo Mitso Miadzi Akpedaha, Agbemavɔ Minyam Miele 
etc. are feasible for themes such as Sunday themes “the Good Shepherd, Spiritual Gifts, 
Faith as the fruit of the spirit, Jesus has eternal life etc.  
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4.12.3 Making Space for the Traditional Instrumentalist.  
Choruses and marching songs of G.W.K Dor ensures the availability of space for traditional 
musicians. Traditional musicians, drummers especially, who have been converted to the 
Christian faith and actively participate in the church activities becomes a valuable resource 
in this regard. Cross-sections of the communicants of the E. P Church, Ghana is made up of 
migrants from the Volta Region, some of whom were traditional musicians. Characteristic 
of some traditional tunes and choruses is its drum accompaniment.  It is therefore common 
to have drum accompaniment during the rendition of some genres as I have noted. In the E. 
P. Church, Ghana, the drummers are usually those who have had contact with traditional 
musical practices. They treat the accompaniment to an ecstasy. Because of their familiarity 
of the instruments they get the instruments (drums) tuned before the start of any 
performance. The tuning is handled by master drummers, normally.  
          In addition to the anthems, there are a number of marches composed by G.W.K Dor. 
These marching songs find expression during the church service via the liturgical 
provisions. Provisions such as, procession, and recession are common junctions in the 
liturgy where these marches can be rendered. As I mentioned earlier processions and 
recessions are accompanied by drumming. When the church choir is called upon to minister 
song(s) for offertory, the marches mostly becomes the repertoire from which the songs are 
selected and these goes with drumming. The rendition of the marches/choruses however 
makes room the migrant musicians to actively participate in the worship. Some of them 
purposely enroll with the church choir and other singing band to contribute their quota 
through the playing of the traditional drums. The use of the traditional instruments serves 
as a force of attraction which pulls them to participate in congregational activities.   
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4.12.4 Summary 
G. W. K. Dor is a musical icon. His musical works finds expression along intra and inter 
denominational musical demands. Religious denominations such as the A. M. E Zion, the 
Presbyterian Church of Ghana, the Methodist Church Ghana, and the E. P. Church, Ghana 
are beneficiaries of George W. K. Dor’s choral compositions. Some of the factors that has 
contributed to his musical background includes the musical inclinations and activities of his 
father - Seth Dor, the Unity Orchestra at - Alavanyo-ʋudidi, the indigenous musical 
performances of the Alavanyos, the E. P. Church at Alavanyo, his mother and aunties and 
his pursuit of scholarship at different colleges and universities. The music of G. W. K. Dor 
is draws themes from the traditional setting. These themes are being supported by sub-
themes from the biblical and Eʋe folklore. Through these creative processes George W. K. 
Dor has contributed enormously not only to the musical tradition of the E. P. Church, Ghana 
but also to the musical needs of other mission established churches in Ghana and their over 
sea affiliates.   
 
  
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CHAPTER FIVE 
APPLICATION of ANALYTICAL THOUGHTS 
In this chapter, I critically examined selected compositions of G. W. K Dor by the 
application of some musical analytical thoughts to unearth the fibre of the musical works 
and their philosophical underpinnings that has occasioned his popularity in the choral 
fraternity of Ghana and abroad and its subsequent contributions to the E. P. Church, Ghana 
The motives which guided the selection of the compositions, the choice and applications of 
the analytical thoughts and tools and theirs uses are explained in the methodology. I 
examined Mawu Ve Mianu, Megalam O, Mawu and Hadzihawo, Midzi Ha Le Mawu ʄe 
Fiadufe La Ŋuti. 
5.1 ‘Mawu Ve Mianu’ 
(God, be merciful to us),  
Psalm 67 
5.1.1 Basic History and Usage 
5.1.1.1 Historical Background of this Music 
This choral composition was composed in 1976 by G. W. K. Dor. It was the chapel choir of 
the then N.A.M., Winneba, now the Music Department of University of Education, 
Winneba, under the directorship of Miss Grace Agyei that popularize the song. The music 
was first performed at the academy’s concert hall accompanied by Dr. Paul Kwame. I have 
already given a detailed historical account of this composition in the third chapter of this 
work under the sub title “The Beginning of a Composers”. 
5.1.1.2 Pre-compositional (Traditional) Materials used in this Music 
Some indigenous musical idioms have been integrated into the fibre of this choral art music. 
The first measure of this composition readily registers indigenous idioms. This can be 
realized either by performing the music or investigating the creative processes through 
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structural analytical tools such as Analysis of Form, LaRue’s Quadrant Framework for style 
analysis in music, Don Freund’s Spectrum of Fifths, analysis of patterns etc. The thematic 
material of the first measure is responsorial in character. The call is made by the male voices 
(tenor and bass) and responded to by the female voices (soprano and alto). It will also be 
noticed that the male voices in the same measure is built on unison which is characteristic 
of the harmonic structure of many traditional musical forms of, for example, the speakers 
Eʋe and Akan of Ghana. 
The harmonic interval of the response thus, by soprano and alto is a major six. The 
use of the dotted crotchet beat (68), thus a compound duple time, is aslo featured 
prominently in some southern Eʋe musical practices. It forms the basic rhythmic structure 
of dance-drumming types such as agbadza, akpalu and adzida (m.6 to 9, 26 to 35) as noted 
by Fiagbedzi (1997) and Younge (2011). The rhythmic motif in measure 2 is syncopation. 
It is also characteristic of indigenous musical practices in Africa. Harmonic intervals of 
thirds and sixths are found in measures 2, 7, 26 to 27, 34 to 35, 51 to 52 of this composition. 
Ostinato patterns are also prevalent in the rhythmic content of this choral composition m.25 
to 27, 33 to 34, 36, 43 to 44 and 51 to 52. The rhythm from the second beat of m.19 to the 
first beat of m.22 is reminiscent of drum surrogates in the traditional setting where the 
pitches fluctuates between high and low pitches constructively. Such is the playing 
techniques of most idiophones also.  
        
Musical Illustrations 8: Examples of repeated notes. 
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Musical Illustrations 9: Examples of syncopations, measures 3 and 4. 
 
5.1.1.3 New Ways of Using the Pre-Compositional Materials 
Strikingly, G. W. K. Dor structured the call and response in the first measure for only two 
crotchet beats (m.1). He used the responsorial type in which the cantor and chorus do not 
differ in both their textural and rhythmic content. In this case, the response is imitative of 
the cantor, all of these en-capsuled within two beats.  One dotted crotchet beat for both the 
call and the response, all accented. This is followed immediately by a syncopation in 
measure two. Comparatively, vocal music among the Eʋes and other ethnic groups in Ghana 
are more homophonic than their instrumental music. This homophonic texture is what 
defines section [a]. Although Mawu Ve Mianu is largely homophonic, from the 37th to 42th 
measure is contrapuntal in its rhythmic construction. Secondly, the parts are arranged in a 
Western four-part harmonization. The parallel sixth and thirds are repetitively used in this 
choral composition. (m. 48 to 52).  
5.1.1.4 Sociological Function of the Music 
G. W. K. Dor noted in the interview that “All those who heard the music liked it when it 
was performed for the first time at N.A.M., Winneba”. He explained further that both 
teaching and non-teaching including the students appreciated the choral work. The student 
body - which includes the chapel choir - and the staff of the college come from different 
cultural backgrounds with respective to their ethnic backgrounds but the music brought 
them together in appreciation of it. Similarly, the music enables worshippers in the E. P. 
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Church, Ghana to lay aside their dialectical differences and express the text of this Psalm, 
67, through this new medium choral composition.  
5.1.2 Analysis of Form 
5.1.2.1 Divisions of Form 
The form of this composition is binary, A B, with a coda, C. The first section, A, and its sub 
sections [a] and [a/] are established by the repetitions (from m.1 to 25).  
Table 2: Sectional division of Mawu Ve Mianu 
A B Cola 
 
            ||: [a]:||:[b]:||                [c]              [b] 
                 m.47-61 
           m.1-13     m.14-25          m.26-36.     m.37-47 
 
The first theme is stated between measure 1 and 12. After, this comes the sub-theme 
[a/], (m. 15 to 24). It is clearly marked by three musical structures; the themes, repetitions, 
texture and the change in dynamics.  
 
Musical Illustrations 10: The first theme of Mawu Ve Mianu, sub section [a] of 
section A. 
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Section B begins at the second beat of measure twenty-five and ends at the forty-
seventh measure (25 to 47). The statement of the second theme, beginning at the second 
beat of measure twenty-five, is what readily identifies this part of the music as the second 
section (B). This broad section is sub divided into [b] and [a/]. 
 
Musical Illustrations 11: Sub theme [a/] of section A. 
 
Similarly, the structural arrangement of this section B does not differ from that of 
section A. both sections ends with the same vigorous rhythmic activity.  In addition, a 
change in dynamic from ʄʄ (fortissimo) to mp (mezzo piano) delineates the two sections 
from each other.         
 
Musical Illustrations 12: Second theme (beginning of section B) sub-section [b] 
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The coda (C), m. 48 to 61, is tensed. The prolonged V42/V in measure 49 and 50, the 
relatively high pitches (G5 for soprano, G4 for alto, D4 for tenor and B3 for bas), the 
crescendo (cres.) to fortississimo (ʄʄʄ), the prolonged V7/V (m. 59 to 60) and the fermata 
remarkably sets this section apart. It is characterized by tensions and releases. The themes 
have no resemblance of the foregoing themes and sub themes.  
      
Musical Illustrations 13: The beginning of the coda starting on the weak beat of the 
second pulse.  
 
5.1.2.2 Comparison of Sections 
Section A is relatively longer than section B followed by the coda in a ratio of 25:22:14 
measures. In section A, both the first theme and the sub-themes are repeated successively. 
The melodies of all the sections are conjunct. For, example, from measure 5 to 9, 15 to 21 
of section A; measure 33 to 36 and 44 of section B and measure .47to 52, 53 to 55 and 56 
to 61of the coda is conjunct. There are also leaps of perfect fourths that intersperses the 
conjunction motion of the melody, generally. The sub-theme [a/] is the most rhythmically 
vigorous because of its contrapuntal nature (m.14 to 20). 
The sections and sub sections have different thematic materials as have been 
indicated above. The recurrence of themes and sub themes, introduction of different 
dynamic and motivic treatment are some of the factors that distinguishes the broad and sub 
sections from each other. 
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5.1.2.3 Pattern Analysis 
i) Melody. The phrases of this choral composition are partly symmetric and partly 
asymmetric. At same points in the music especially, from measure 5 up to m.35, the 
phrases start on the second beat of their respective measures stretched across two 
measures and ends on the first beat of the third measure. However, the phrases 
between measure 51 to 55 and 56 to 60 begins and ends on a strong beat. The melodic 
contours between measures 5 to 9, 11 to 25, 47 to 52 are stepwise.  
          The melodic motion in measures 14, 17, 24, 36 and 37 are skips or leaps. 
However, the melodic motion in measures 4 to 5, 15, 22, 25, 45, 47 and 52 to 53 are 
constructed by leaps of perfect fourths. The patter of the melody is undulating and 
wavy described by Agawu as the rip saw pattern Agawu (1990: 221 - 224). The 
tessitura is registered between measures 54 and 55. This is climaxed by the relatively 
high dynamic level (ʄʄʄ). The melody is influenced by the syllables tones and word(s) 
syllables. For instance, the text Dukɔwo akafu wo. Mawu woe dukɔ akafu (Let the 
peoples praise You, O God, Let all the peoples praise You. NKJV, Psalm 67: 3.) 
ii) Harmony: The music remains principally in the same mode because the harmony 
revolves around the tonic, sub dominant and dominant tonalities at the end of the 
broad sections. All the beginnings of the themes and sub themes are stated in the 
tonic key (G major). It also moves transiently to the related keys of the home key, 
thus C major (IV) and D major (V) both within and across phrases (m. 4, 12, 27, 47, 
57 etc.). Additionally, it modulates from the sub dominant (m. 6) to the supertonic 
minor (ii53) through the v/ii - ii (m.8 to 9). 
             In measures forty-three (43) and forty-four ()24, the harmony modulates to 
the sub mediant minor (vi65) through the dominant seventh of the mediant (V7/vi - 
vi). Others are V7/IV - IV (m.17-18), V7/V - V (m.28 to 29, 35 to 36) V7/ii-ii (m.58). 
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There are diminished chords also, for instance, iii7 - vi or Vo7/vi-vi (m.20 to 21, 43 
to 44. Apart from modulating to some remote keys such as those stated above, there 
are some tension chords also. For example, the V65/V - V between measures 49-50 
held for two measures followed by one beat of rest creates tension. It resolves to I64 
on a perfect authentic cadence.  
         Again, the V43/IV - V in measure 53 resolving unto chord IV in measures 54 
and 55 in a perfect inauthentic cadence at a relatively higher register. Referencing 
middle C as C4, the V/IV – IV between measures 53 – 54, the soprano is pitched at 
G5, altos G4, tenors F and Basses D4. With registration, it can be argued that the 
parts are stretched to their high limits, relatively. G. W. K. Dor took into 
consideration the vocal ranges of the four parts as the practice is in Western four-
part writing. Lastly, in m.59, the prolonged V7/V - V between measures 59 and 60 
together with the fermata in the sixtieth measure also creates tension. It can be 
realised from the foregoing that harmony is varied throughout this choral 
composition.  
iii) Rhythm: The rhythm is regular within a continuum of compound duple with a 
regular tempo. The rhythmic motif is a dotted quaver and its divisions, thus, 
crotchets and quavers. The longest rhythmic motif is the minim. (m.18 - 23). There 
are also syncopations. Measures 2, 4 and 10 are examples.   
iv) Texture: The texture is largely homophonic for example measure 1 to 6, 24 to 29 
and 47 to 61. But sub section [a/] is more of a counterpoint bass and the other three 
prats. However, the rhythmic becomes contrapuntal in sub section a1 (m.14 to 20). 
v) Sound: Mawu Ve Mia Nu is a vocal music composition for four parts (S.A.T.B.). 
The principal medium required for the performance of this music is the human voice.  
It can be performed a cappella or accompanied with the piano or organ. As I noted 
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earlier, Dr. Paul Kwame accompanied the singing of this music with piano during 
the maiden performance of the music N.A.M., Winneba. There are changes in the 
dynamic levels throughout the music. Some of these are mʄ (m.1), ʄ (m.16), mp 
(m.25), cres. (m.39), ʄ ʄʄʄ (m.54). There are also fermatas at some points of the music 
(m.60 and 61). The notes in measures 1 and 37 are accented. They are employed to 
place emphasis on the word Mawu.                    
                 
                   Musical Illustrations 14: Tessitura and climax of the music. 
 
According to Greene (2002: 1017 - 1027), the Mawu of Ŋɔtsie has been re-
contextualized in the Christian faith. The occasional pilgrimages to Ŋɔtsie, the place that 
was revered for its religious significance, has now been redirected to the church where the 
evangelized Eʋe worshipper reverend Mawu as the omnipotent, omnipresence and 
omniscience who can be worshipped directly as opposed to the pre-colonial worldviews or 
notions of Mawu that cannot be worshipped directly nor had priests. Now, Mawu is being 
petitioned directly by calling upon Him with ‘accents.  
5.1.2.4 Implications for performing this piece in view of the form 
As I indicated earlier, the form of this music is binary and this is clearly separated by themes 
and other musical structures. Different moods are introduced at broad sections and the 
interior of the sections. There is the need to emphasize the changes in order to bring out the 
expected goals of the composer. The rhythmic vitality must stand out to portray the African 
identity even as the harmony, form, dynamics are Western oriented. 
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5.1.3 Application of Don Freund’s Spectrum of Fifths to this Music 
The spectrum of fifths is propounded by Don Freunds. He argued that music becomes 
brighter when it modulates or revolves around the cycle of fifths or the dominants, but 
becomes darker whenever it modulates to remote keys, but particularly, the around the 
subdominant keys. According to Don Freund’s spectrum of fifths, this music remains 
relatively brighter because the tonic, subdominant and dominant tonalities constitutes 
majority of the harmonic vocabulary. However, the music becomes darker when it 
modulates to remote keys such as supertonic minor (m.9) and the sub mediant minor (m.20 
to 21). It also becomes darker in measure 45 to 50 because of the raised fourth (C#) 
prolonged for two measures. 
5.1.3.1 The Implications of the cycle of fifths in Performing this Music 
Unity and variety with respect to the harmonic structure is achieved through how bright or 
dark the music becomes according to Don Freund. These contrasts should be included to 
the performance directions of the music to realise the desired mood changes indicated by 
the chord structure.  
5.1.4 Psychological Analysis 
In this study psychological analysis refers to the listeners expectations to any given piece of 
music. Thus, expectations based on structures such as the composer’s treatment of harmony, 
sound, melody, rhythm, lyrics, key signatures, metre etc.  Taking into accounts the cadences 
at the broad endings and sub-sectional endings, it can be argued that the psychological goals 
are met. But, let me sound a word of caution. This claim is implicit and highly subjective.  
For example, in the key of G major it is expected that the harmony revolves around the cycle 
of fifths naturally, thus, C major and D major. In this composition we realise that the 
cadences progress from the dominant seventh of the home key to the tonic key. Wherever 
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there are secondary chords too it progresses from the dominant of the new key to its relative 
tonic key. Basically, the chords are resolved expectantly. In the case of the psychological 
goals are met about how the composer treats cadences.  
          To wind up the discussion on this subtitle, I wish to state that, the subject of 
psychological and emotion in music is currently being debated, therefore, this path – if 
desired – must be tread cautiously. The discussion in line with this matter has been critical 
re-visited and models outlined at the sub-sections below.     
5.2 ‘Megalam O, Mawu’ 
(Do not cast me away, Lord) 
5.2.1 Basic History and Usage  
5.2.1.1 Historical Background of Ghanaian art music 
Between 1920 and 1930 the late Ghanaian composer, ethnomusicologist and linguistic, Dr. 
Ephraim Amu, sought to find ways of merging Western and traditional African musical 
contents together. His aim was to enable Christianity as an imported religion to find general 
acceptability among the native people of Ghana and subsequently, among other beneficial 
African communities who, with Ghana, share common sociological and cultural 
backgrounds. Christian worship in Ghana is one that is accentuated by some unique 
indigenous musical elements that is still part of modern-day worship in Christian Churches 
in Ghana. "It is ultimately a creative problem, which one might again expect African 
musicians who are also Christians to tackle, provided the church is willing to change its 
attitude to African music and to encourage this creation which is greatly needed if the church 
is to become an indigenous institutions in Africa" (Nketia 1958, 2016). 
The introduction of Western musical ideas by Missionaries, European traders and 
colonial agents did not exclude Western musical instruments such as the harmonium, the 
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piano, the fiddle (string), the brass and woodwind instruments with their inherent 
instrumental styles.  
Some mission established churches provided music education in their educational 
institutions in a bid to propagate Christianity. For example, see Nketia 1958 and Ansre Ed. 
(1997) Evangelical Presbyterian Church 150 years (1997). Those who enrolled in the 
mission schools at Peki, Keta, Waya Adaklu, Ho for example, were taught ‘Biblical History, 
Reading, Writing, Arithmetic and Hymn Singing”. Ansre (1997: 35)explained that “The 
boys brought from Keta continued their education at Waya while they helped the 
missionaries in teaching the new pupils…The missionaries groomed some of those trained 
as teachers and evangelists and sent such trained personnel to the field to carry out 
evangelism throughout Eʋeland” (Ansre, 1997: 35). 
This provided the platform for their pupils and students to acquire the needed skills 
to propagate the gospel and also to satisfy the musical needs of the ‘young’ church. George 
Kwasi Worlasi Dor is no exception. He has gone through the necessary skill training 
programmes in a like manner for his compositional aspirations and also for the propagation 
of the gospel. G. W. K. Dor has drawn heavily from the new compositional idiom developed 
by Dr. Ephraim Amu for composing songs for use in the E. P. Church, Ghana. 
5.2.1.2. Pre-compositional (Traditional) Materials used in this Music 
Characteristically, the rhythmic organization, textural content and melodic organization of 
this music is drawn from performance practices of traditional music that are identified 
among two broad regions of the Eʋes in Ghana; namely the Northern and Southern Eʋes, 
thus, the Eʋedome and the Aŋlɔ respectively merged with European musical idioms. 
The traditional materials borrowed from the northern Ewe musical practices that are 
found in this choral compositions of G. W. K. Dor are directly associated with “Gbolo 
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Music”. These are one, Gabada and Egbanegba (Kafui, 2014). The rhythmic organization 
of these traditional forms are structured by dotted rhythms within a continuum of simple 
duple time, thus 24. The quaver and the semiquaver are also use in their complexities.  
               
                     
                      
Musical Illustrations 15: Basic rhythmic prototypes of gabada and egbanegba. 
 
Secondly, call and response forms an integral part of this composition. Nketia argues 
that, music organization in traditional African is characterized by all and response. During 
a lecture section, the late Dr. Emmanuel Boamah explained during a lecture section (2011), 
at University of Ghana that there are varieties of call and respond that are practiced by some 
ethnic groups on the African continent. (Mention the varieties) Dor uses call and response 
to depict traditional forms of music making that ensues between the cantor and the chorus.  
Thirdly, G. W. K. Dor uses parallel thirds in the harmonic organization of Megalam 
O, Mawu. Indigenous musical types such as Adowa (Ye Nya Nni Agorɔ Yiee, Nana Eba oo), 
Asaadua (Pɛ Aduro Yɛ and Sikyi (Ɔmmra oo, Tekɔbɔ Sikyi, Ɔkwantenten Awareɛ) among 
the Ashantis, Adeʋu (Lawada Mezo kple Fe o, Ditsa Nakpoe Da) among the Northern Eʋes 
and some Gonja song, for example Na Yala ee, Na Yala ee utilizes parallel thirds and sixths 
in their harmonic organizations. (Younge, 2011: 247 - 349).  
The predominant music types found among the Southern Eʋes are Agbadza, adzida, 
Akpalu’ and so on. These traditions forms have their variant forms which are characterized 
by either change in tempo or modification in textural content especially, as noted by 
Fiagbedzi’s (1977). For example, whiles Mawu Ve Mia nu, Hadzihawo Midzi Ha Le Mawu 
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ʄe Fiadufe La ŋuti and Agbefia La Gbɔna are a Southern Eʋe characteristically defined, 
Megalam O, Mawu has its structures rooted in Northern Eʋe musical idioms. The time line 
of this music are structured in a continuum of compound duple meter. (68) and simple duple 
respectively. Predominantly, 68 metred or the compound duple songs readily abound among 
the southern Eʋes than it is among the northern settlers. On the contrary, the northerners 
(Eʋeawo) also abound in simple time metred songs than the compound duple metred songs. 
G.W.K. Dor draws from the pool of these and other traditional resources for his choral 
compositions.       
5.2.1.3 New ways of using the pre-compositional materials in this music 
The traditional materials mentioned above are combined with western musical idioms such 
as four-part harmonization, texture, form, voice leading and phrasing. Although the melodic 
lines of the anthems represent the tonal inflections of the Eʋe language, it is being 
harmonized by the use tertian chords and cadences. The cadences serve as an aid to dividing 
the music in sections yielding to what is referred to as form. 
Even though there are harmonic organization that are akin to some Ghanaian 
traditional music (some examples given above), thus, parallel thirds and sixths, it does not 
encompass four-part singing as exemplified in these art compositions by Dor. In the 
traditional setting one finds the main melodic line being harmonized in thirds, or sixths by 
the mixed voices- male and female- usually. The male voice is mostly a duplication of the 
melody at the same pitch or in an octave lower. Dor expands the spectrum by assigning four 
parts to the singers, thus, soprano, alto, tenor and bass). The composer demonstrates the 
principle of Interculturalism through the choice of the available idioms (Western and 
traditional) and the method of merging them. 
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Gbolo music is performed at a fast tempo, relatively. But G. W. K. Dor modifies this 
to a slow tempo, relatively, to suit the philosophical content of this anthem (Megalam O, 
Mawu) - A petition to the Supreme God not to cast him (servant) away His (The Lord 
Almighty) wrath.  
He used pre-compositional devices to illustrate his humility and submissiveness to 
his master - the Lord of the vineyard. The tempo is non aggressive and also depicting an act 
of repentance. He writes “In slow Gabada or Damba Takai rhythm”. To illustrate his petition 
to the Lord to live yet longer (John 15: 1-6), he used compositional devices such as long 
rhythmic motifs, repetitions and recurrence of textural content. The longer rhythmic motifs 
for soprano and alto at the phrase endings between measures 1 and 18. The tied notes (dotted 
minim and crotchet and minim to minim) signifies an increase in years or prolonged life 
time. He repeatedly used the same thematic materials sequentially to emphasize the act of 
repentance.  
      
Musical Illustrations 16: The bass melody showing drops in octaves 
 
      The song text is also used repeatedly just as the sectional divisions. From 
measure 1 to 18 is repeated. The leaps of octaves in measures 1to 4, 10, 12, 15 to 16, 20, 
73, 81, 89 etc. by the bass illustrates the falling of the tree or a branch (thus, G3 to G2). The 
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song text in measure 3 to 4 for bass reads Megala muo which literally means ‘Do not cut 
me’. The notes are appropriated to paint the picture of a falling tree. Mega (G2) la (G3) muo 
(G2). lam o drops back from a higher pitch to a lower pitch as illustrated.  
 
Musical Illustrations 17: Long rhythmic motifs at phrase endings, expression marks 
and repeats.  
 
5.2.1.4 Sociological Function  
What is the basic sociological function of this music? The basic sociological function of this 
music is to create in-group and out-group consciousness. (Nketia 1974) asserts that music 
is a communal responsibility. Members of an ethnic group who involved themselves in this 
kind of communal activity are those who share group consciousness, have the same destiny 
and are found in a giving proximity. They belong to the same homestead, share common 
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kinship ties, boundaries, share common aspirations and have a common communication 
skill.  
The music of G. W. K. Dor plays a similar sociological role. Members of the singing 
bands that perform George Dor’s, for example the church choir, do not necessarily belong 
to the same homestead but they consider themselves as belonging to the same group of 
people who share the same religious beliefs. By virtue of this some administrative measures 
are put in place to govern and also to cater for the welfare of the group, latently.  
Unlike the secular practices where family gatherings are organised during occasions 
such as funerals, festivals and traditional marriages. Singing bands are organised more 
regularly. It can be a number of times within one week. In this context, every meeting 
possibly means a time for performance not only at the church but also at naming ceremonies, 
birthday parties, funerals, weddings etc. Among the singing bands, position and hierarchy 
is not always structured along seniority as the case is in the local communities. Ascension 
to positions such as the head of the family large dependents on potentialities. For, example, 
to be a part leader or the choir director does not take into account the number of years one 
has served in the group or one’s age but on account of how potent one could be in governing 
group.  
To perform for example Mawu Ve Nu or Megalam O, Mawu the performers may 
come from different locations. A good illustration of this is demonstrated in the 
cosmopolitan areas of Ghana, Greater Accra and Tema for example, where choristers travel 
long distances choir and church meetings.    
Sociologically, the music functions as a medium for group organization. As I 
mentioned earlier, the singing bands in the E. P. Church, Ghana are formed based on 
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functional specialization. The choirs that are vested in performing choral art music are 
separated from other groups that performs other types of genres.   
5.2.2 Psychological Analysis 
Before I attempt a bite of discussion on the psychological analysis of this piece of choral 
work allow me therefore to define the concept of languge, possibly in music, through the 
lenses of Menon Narayana’s The Language of Music, published 1983. In Menon’s view, 
there are certain mannerism which convey feeling better than words. He itemized human 
actions such as a sob, a tear, single note of lament, a quiver of the nostrils and a moment of 
silence. Language, he said, is a means of expression with or without words, placing 
importance on expression more than words although stressing one more than the other will 
inflict significant changes to the message being communicated. Although he prioritizes 
expression, he describes it as the word incarnate. That is the nature of music. “The thought 
incarnate” (Menon, 1983: 17). He reminded us that the study of music among Greeks 
involved many subject areas including mathematic, astronomy, literature and other arts 
which were intended for the formation of human character. If so, then I argue that 
performers and listeners understand the language of music differently based on their 
strongest receptacles the arts they received during their music lessons. By extension, an 
attempt of a psychological analysis of Megalam O, Mawu may be approached and 
conclusions drawn differently by theorists and analysts. 
          Therefore, the claims I make here are subjective. Menon wrote that the careful study 
of music can reveal the dominant cultural patterns such as social values and national 
identities embedded in the music. Based on the foregoing, I define the psychology of this 
music - in this context - as the extent to which traces of Eʋe (or other) indigenous music and 
traditions are used as models of expression and consequently attaining an aesthetic value. 
First and foremost, the uses of the gabada rhythm in the music will enable the northern 
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settlers of Eʋe to relate to because it forms part of their musical cognition. Psychologically, 
they will be influenced by their socio-cultural contents. Tolbert, reminds us that the 
indigenes will be engaged to the music by their “psychological responses to flow of sonic 
patterns” (Tolbert, 1992: 8). For, example how does the repetitions, folklore and text in this 
music as a musical pattern relate to the total cultural setting. As people are born, they adopt 
their culture through observation and active participation. This makes it easy for sound, and 
musical patterns to be readily identifiable if not appreciated. But Tolbert sounds a word of 
caution, “Meaning embedded in musical structures are not entirely arbitrary, nor are they 
located solely in the psychological response to the structural patterns” (Tolbert, 1992: 8). 
According to Zangwill’s (2007), the psychological response to music should be situated in 
the aesthetic metaphor. He wrote: “Emotion description of music are [mostly] metaphorical 
descriptions of its aesthetic properties” (Zangwill, 2009:394). This thesis considers the 
function of the music with respect to its aesthetic properties. Based on this, the listeners of 
this music, probably of Eʋe origin, may draw some conclusions such as Havivi (lit. beautiful 
piece of music or song), Edzani [Eʋedome] or Enyakpɔ [Toŋu] (lit. its performance is nice 
to behold, thus, if it involves drumming and dancing, particularly), Enyase [Toŋu] (lit. its 
pleasing to the ear), Mesi atsa o [Toŋu] (lit. the music is nothing to write home about). 
Again, such descriptions are subjective depending on individual interpretations of the 
musical performance and patterns mapping it to the socio-cultural web unconsciously.   
5.2.3 Analysis of Form 
5.2.3.1 Structure and Divisions of Form 
The form of the music is ternary ABA/. There are key notifies which lead to the divisions 
of the sections and hence this conclusion. These are repeats, long rhythmic motifs, cadences, 
and silent bar. 
  
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Table 3: Sectional divisions of Megalam O, Mawu. 
A B Al      Cola 
||:[a]             [al]:||     [b]           [bl]           [c]       m.90(19-30)(1-16)   m.92-94 
m.1-12        m.13-18 m.19-30  m.31-42 m.43-89        
 
i) Repeats: There is a repeat of this section (A). Thus, thematic material, phrases, cadences, 
keys, modulations etc. are maintained throughout the repetitions. Repetition of this 
section is meant for emphasis. This distinguishes this part of the music as a separate 
section as demonstrated musical illustration 18 above.  
    
Musical Illustrations 18:  An example of the perfect authentic cadences 
 
The long rhythmic motif encompassing two measures in m.17 and 18 and other half 
notes identified at portions of the music gives a sense of broad endings. Before the 
occurrence of these long motifs, the preceding motivic sequences have been short time 
values. For example, the eighth and sixteenth notes with the exception of measures 3 to 4. 
Comparatively, the long motifs in measures 3 & 4 and 7 & 8 appeared after four bar phrasing 
each, but the last motif signifying the end of the section is established after a ten measure 
of vigorous rhythmic motif. 
ii) Cadences: The perfect authentic cadence (V-I) established not only between measures 
17 and 18 but also at different points together with the strong beat of the simple duple 
time at these cadential points signifies and establishes a sense of finality. Preceding the 
E minor in m. 12 is V07/vi – vi, i.e. modulation to the sub-mediant degree of the home 
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key of Gmj. Phrase and broad endings are identified by the dominant and tonic relations. 
This meets our expectation of finality and therefore yields to sectional divisions.  
 
Musical Illustrations 19:  The prolonged tonic chord signifying the end of the music. 
 
iii) Change of theme: Switching between themes informs our intuition of changing sections 
which includes broad sections and cadences. The new theme which occurs after the one 
beat of rest in m.8 alerts us of a new section. Section A is structured for 18 measures. 
Theme two begins with a new melody. 
 
Musical Illustrations 20:  First theme. 
 
Musical Illustrations 21: Second theme. 
 
Section A  
There are two sub sections which constitute this section; measure 1 to 12 and 13 to 
18 respectively in the ratio 12:6 measure. There are two factors which precipitated this 
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division. One, the modulation to the relative minor in the 12th measure through V07/vi and 
the quarter beat rest introduced immediately after the cadence. The modulation to the 
relative minor in my judgement, is remarkable to serve as a point of departure between the 
two sub sections. The second section begins at m. 12 and end at m. 18. It will not be strange 
if a different analyst or theorist uses the modulation to the dominant in m. 9 as a point of 
departure. The melodic material from m. 9 to m. 18 are identical.  
Section B 
This section comes after the repeated section (A). It precedes a long rhythmic motif 
and a perfect authentic cadence. This gives us a sense of a new page, a new beginning and 
a new experience. Similarly, this section (B) also has two sub-sections just like section A. 
It is structured between m.19 to 30 and m.31 to 42 – B/ and B//.  
Both sub section begins and ends on the tonic chord with a perfect authentic cadence. 
It is in sub-section B// that the first ‘theme of the music’ appears. I made this conclusion 
based on the following factors: (1) Measures 27 to 30 occurs five times before the music 
ends. (2) The theme of the music is metaphorically represented in text within these three 
measures. It mostly precedes a call and response, a melody or a cadence. However, the 
conclusion is subjective. Music analysts are free to make their arguments based on their 
interpretation of the structures.  
 
Musical Illustrations 22: A downward movement of soprano and tenor melodies 
illustrating the falling a tree. 
 
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A second theme is introduced in this section. The soprano is pitched at D2 
(referencing middle C as C1) thus, at the fifth degree of the scale. This section, first 
announces the ‘theme of the music’. The appearance of this theme plays a psychological 
role. It prepares our minds of the subsequent usages of this thematic material in the 
preceding section(s). It also accentuates the G major key tonality establishing the G chord 
in m.31 and 42. 
Section B/ 
Principally, there are two things which distinguishes this section as a separate 
material. Firstly, the silent measure (m.43) and secondly, the call and response which 
characterizes this section. Dor employed a complete silent bar at m.43. This is stylistic of 
Mozart – classical composer. Mozart  used silent measure to separate sections and to give 
clear indications of different thematic materials being used in the work. (Hurwitz, 1986). 
The appearance of the silent bar in the piece of music functions as the end of one section(s) 
and the beginning of another. This section has six sub-sections. They are  m. 44 to 56,  m. 
57 to 60, m. 61 to 71, m. 72 to 79, m. 80 to 87, m. 88-95. This section is characterized by a 
dialogue between the female and male choruses.  
 
Musical Illustrations 23: A full measure rest used to separate the section of call and 
Response from the other. 
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This section is repetitive in character. After the introductory (thus, between m.44 
and 58) the rest of the section is based on repetitions of thematic materials and call and 
response between the female voice, male voice and the chorus. The repeated materials 
include m.57-60 and m.75-79. The theme between m. 27 and 30 repeats three times. It 
mostly comes after a call by either the female voice or the male voice. The male voices, 
thus, tenor and base is harmonically built in thirds. The theme of the music is stated twice. 
It functions as a response to the call of tenor and bass from measure 53 to 56 and a one 
measure chorus (m.67). Section A/ begins at measure 90. At this point there is a repeat of 
measure 19 to 30. Finally, the music ends with measure 1 to 16 and a coda of three measures, 
91 to 93. The repeated themes at this section draws our attention to the opening themes.  
5.2.3.2 Comparison of sections 
Section B2 is a re-occurrence of Section B. It is the exact repetition of the previous section 
marked (B). Section A2 is also the same as the introductory section of the music. There are 
three cardinal sections, namely A, B and C, with B and A repeating. Sections A, B and C 
are the big blocks of the compositional materials which readily lend themselves for 
analytical considerations. The repeated sections A and B sections are not different from their 
parent sections. They are exact. Based on the foregoing it can be concluded that the repeated 
section does not embody any form of modifications and therefore, does not yield itself to 
any form of analytical considerations. The last two sections are exactly the same as used 
previously. 
5.2.3.3 Implications for performing this piece in view of the form 
The two themes established in sections A and B have to be differentiated and made clear to 
the audience by variations in dynamic levels. Varying the dynamic between the sections A, 
B, and C will enhance the contrast greatly. A specific dynamic level can be assigned to 
particular sections to aid easy recognitions of sections by the group to which this music is 
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targeted. The call and response and the parallel thirds are akin to African traditional musical 
practices. These sections have to be performed more traditionally, thus with group 
sentiments characteristic of traditional African communities. The parts should dialogue with 
each other, the moods should be the same. The interrelations should by emphasized through 
coordination and articulation. 
5.2.3.4 Pattern Analysis 
i) Harmony: The most evident harmonic pattern inherent the harmony is the dominant - 
tonic relationship (V-I). This harmonic pattern is not broken anywhere at the sectional 
endings. It is also characteristic of the phrase endings. All tonic chords are preceded by the 
dominant. G major is stated in the first measure. It modulates to e minor in m.6. Immediately 
after e minor comes A major in m.7. Measure 17 has e minor which goes through key 
changes until we find G major in m. 18. Three measures after that, we have E major. After 
eight measures it modulates to G mj. 
G mj, Amin, G mj appears in very short intervals until C mj in m.40. In m.42 there 
is G mj, E mj, G mj, G mj alternates within few measures. It takes six measures to modulate 
to a minor. After this point, the music moves on through eleven measures before arriving at 
the G mj in m.71. This is prolonged for twenty measures. C mj for three measure. After that 
G mj with four measure. D mj and C. the C modulates to D mj after three bars. D mj, E min, 
D mj then to G mj, successively. 
ii) Rhythm: The motif begins with 8th and 16th notes. In m.3 to 4 it changes to minim 
and dotted crochet tied. It is followed by the motif. Occasionally, it changes to crotchet and 
semi-quaver. In measure 28 we have tied notes resulting in syncopation. The pattern is 
broken in m.41 by a crotchet and triplets. There are quavers in m. 47 and 48. These rhythms 
are used until the end of the music. 
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Musical Illustrations 24: The rhythmic motifs used in the music 
 
Divisions of the basic beat is shown in the musical illustration 25 above. The pattern 
is broken by the occurrence of the triplets and syncopated rhythms of the bass melody shown 
in musical illustration 26 below. 
 
Musical Illustrations 25: Change in rhythmic pattern from dotted notes and quavers 
to triplets. 
iv) The Bass: At the beginning, the bass plays an accompaniment role. Between m.9-11 it 
plays a significant role by becoming the melody. It continues its accompaniment role 
but becoming very repetitive, e.g. between m.32-54. It assumes it melodic function again 
in m.116 to the end. Alternatively, soprano, alto and tenor becomes more of an 
accompaniment part. The changing roles assigned to the various parts (S.A.T.B.) 
confirms George W. K. Dor’s assertion that for a piece of music to be pleasant, the 
melody must be distributed to the four parts evenly. 
v) Meter: The simple duple time is maintained throughout the piece. This pattern is not 
broken. 
Dynamics: There are no pre-determined dynamic marks. Even though, the tonal 
inflections, text, patterns of scale and rhythm may suggest the embodiments of dynamics to 
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the music, it is solely at the discretion of the performer. This will make the dynamics very 
flexible. 
5.2.3.4.1 Implications for the pattern analysis 
The music is very regular in the treatment of harmonic progressions, the metre and its 
tonality. This enhances the stability of the music, relatively. Through all the sections we 
find ourselves in just one tonic centre. However boring this can be, it creates a sense of 
stability. The duple metre continuous unabated increasing the confidentiality. The bass and 
the dynamic are not regular in their pattern creating a sense of instability.  
5.2.4 Application of Don Freund’s Spectrum of Fifths to this music. 
The beginning of the piece of music is bright because of the tonic chord (Gmj). The 
modulation to e minor and A major makes the music dark in tonality because these keys are 
not conforming to the chord IV and V modulations. The dark mood is prolonged for ten 
measures before the dominant of Gmj is stated in m.17 then to Gmj in m.18. For the first 
section is bright but goes through key changes to remote keys then to the bright side once 
more. 
It is bright at the beginning of section B because of the G mj, then it becomes dark 
because of the E major (a remote key). In m.24 it becomes bright which is as a result of the 
Dmj7 to G mj in m.30. It remains bright even with the introduction of the sub-dominant 
chord. (C mj in m.40). In m.59 the piece of music modulates to the supertonic minor 
rendering the mood darker. The harmonic treatment is very unstable around this portion of 
the music for the next seven measures. Through measure 71 to 91 the music remains bright 
because of the tonic chord. (G major), the subdominant (C major) and the dominant 7th (D 
mj 17) chords. Until m.119 the music remains bright because of the tonic tonality. Measure 
119 has E min as its tonal center but finally modulates to Gmj, the home key. 
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5.2.4.1 Implications of Performing this Music in View of the Spectrum of 5ths 
Most sections of this music begin and end on the tonic chord. Traditionally, the phrasal and 
sectional endings are preceded by the dominant chord, then to the tonic. The bright areas of 
this music have to be performed with articulation. The bright areas should be performed at 
a relatively high dynamics (mf) whiles the dark sides of this music be performed at relatively 
quiet dynamic level (mp). The mood changes occurred as a resulted of the bright and dark 
spectrums which was created by way of chromaticism. Therefore, performers must strive at 
playing the chromatics notes with perfection.  
5.2.5 The Musical Goals 
The musical goals are met based on the following. The key of G major was established in 
section A by beginning the music on the tonic chord, maintaining the G major tonality and 
closing the section with a perfect authentic cadence in measure 17 to 18 (V-I). However, 
through the sections, the tonality is maintained till the end of the music even though the 
music modulates to the relative minor in the twelfth measure temporarily. 
The dominant to tonic is predominant in the music. The broad sectional endings are 
characterized by chord progressions that are akin to nature (V-I) Music is said to revolve 
around the cycle of fifths argued Payne (2009) in her book Tonal Harmony. All the sections 
conclude satisfactorily by ending on the tonic through the dominant. Phrase ending are also 
identified with the help of dominant – tonic relationship. 
 
The traditional African phenomenon of call and response is illustrated through this 
piece of music. The structure of this section is based on call and response. The call is varied 
each time by the choice between the male and female voices but the response is same 
throughout. This creates a sense of equity and importance to all the parts (S.A.T.B.). It 
satisfies our psychological expectations. African tradition is largely repetitive. 
 
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The sonata form of the classical period replicated. Just like the two themes of the 
sonata repeating at the end of the development, the first and second themes of this music 
(i.e. sections A, B) is restated after going through structural changes in section C. the 
repetition of the sections takes the exact ‘form’ of its first appearance. But Dor interchanges 
the positions (occurrence) the structural form is the same. This arrangement satisfies our 
expectations and psychological needs greatly. The two themes being in the same key meets 
are expectations. It is in conformity to stating the two themes of sonata in the key at the 
recapitulation.  
5.3 ‘Hadzihawo, Midzi Ha Le Mawu ʄe Fiadufe La Ŋuti’ 
(Choirs, Sing in proclamation of the Kingdom of God) 
5.3.1 Basic history and usage 
5.3.1.1 Historical Background of this anthem 
I have already given an elaborated account of the historical background of this choral 
composition in chapter III of this thesis under the sub title “The Beginning of a Composer”. 
I will therefore, give a different dimension of the historical account in an attempt to broaden 
the spectrum and deepen our understanding. Mr. Richard Avah further explained that 
although he (Avah) commissioned George Dor to compose the anthem for the 28th 
anniversary, G. W. K. Dor willingly agreed to compose the anthem to show his (George 
Dor) gratitude and appreciation to Mr. Avah for his meritorious services rendered in the E. 
P. Church as a choir director. It is in view of this that the composition was dedicated to Mr. 
Richard Avah. 
 
Mr. Avah has been the music director of a number of E. P. Church Choirs such as 
Ho Bankoe E. P. Church Choir, Accra New Town E. P. Church Choir, Adentan E. P. Church 
Choir, WVPCCU Central Choir etc. It is also worthy of note that it is Mr. Avah who started 
the Good News Choir in the E. P. Church, Ghana. It was cradled in the Bethel Congregation 
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E. P. Church, Accra New-Town. Formerly, it was known as Unity Choir. Perhaps, the 
choir’s maiden name was influenced by the brand name ‘Unity Orchestra’ of Alavanyo-
ʋudidi. Mr. Richard Avah has also held some positions in the choirs’ fraternity such as the 
president of the WVPCU and many more. It must be noted that the anthem, Hadzihawo 
Midzi Ha Le Mawu ʄe Fiadufe La Nuti, was composed in 1989. Subsequently, the E. P. 
Church Choir of Bethel Congregation, Accra New-town performed this anthem - that is a 
year after the song was composed - at the annual rally at Takoradi in 1990 at the Ghana 
Secondary Technical School, Takoradi, (G.S.T.S.) hosted by E. P. Church, Ghana, Takoradi 
Congregation (Interview with Richard Avah: 4th February, 2019@15:10, Accra New-
Town). 
 
5.3.1.2 Pre-compositional (Traditional) Materials used in this Music 
1. These includes compound duple rhythm associated with the Aŋlɔ Eʋes as noted by 
Fiagbedzi (1977), call and response (m. 13 - 19), drum surrogates (m. 78 – 8) and 
repetitions. Nketia noted that traditional music does not include only instrumental 
music but it includes contemplative styles which includes vocal types such as solos and 
duets. Tactically, Dor uses this technique in this work but gives it a little twist. He 
accompanies the alto with a western instrument. 
 
2. Usages of the Pre-Compositional idioms by the Composer 
The piece of music is composed within the confines of the compound duple time. At a 
glance, both music theorists, analysts and performers will notice the general rhythmic 
organization of this piece of music that lends to the core fibre of the pulse structure, thus 
the dotted quaver beat and its divisions. The compound duple is a characteristic feature 
of performance practice among the southern settlers of the Eʋes. It predominates their 
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musical performances. This traditional idiom is used in most of their vocal and 
instrumental forms. (m. 1 – 13) 
 
Musical Illustrations 26: The first theme of the music. 
 
5.3.1.3 Call and response  
Measures 13-19 and 28 features call and response as a technique in African traditional music 
making. Within the traditional setting it is practiced between a canto and chorus. In this 
choral setting (four-part writing), the soprano becomes the canto while the other parts – alto, 
tenor and bass assume the position of the chorus. 
 
Musical Illustrations 27: Call and response between soprano and other three parts 
(alto, tenor and bass). 
                                                 
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5.3.1.4 Repetition   
Instrumental music in Africa, especially in West Africa, Ghana is based on ostinato. 
Recurrent rhythmic patterns form the building block of individual instrument in a given 
ensemble. Although very melodic, the four parts exhibits recurrent patterns (m.10-36; 114-
125). Apart from the ostinato, there is also a repeat of sections in this music. For example, 
the introductory measures (m.1-8) and (m.33-44). 
 
Musical Illustrations 28: Example of pedal notes 
 
Dor uses the idiom of talking drum in this composition. The talking drum is used in 
court music during ceremonial activities of the African political institution. The composer 
celebrates the majesty of the Almighty God with those speech surrogates. It also emphasizes 
the melodic and rhythmic motifs of that section of the music, beginning at measure 78 and 
end at measure 128. In brief the drums re-echo the second theme of this choral compositions. 
(m. 79 to 89). 
Unison:  
The traditional material used in this composition also includes unison (m. 96 to 97; 100-
108). Apart from the parallel thirds and six, unisons are also employed in the harmonic 
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organization of traditional vocal music. Voices sometimes overlay each other in octaves, 
the female voice being the highest pitch. It is normally doubled by the male voice. 
Sometimes, the layers are produced in three layers – the female voice doubling above the 
male voive. In this composition, the tenor and bass double the melody of soprano and alto 
in the measures (m.96 to 97; 100 to 108). 
 
Musical Illustrations 29: Examples of unisons between the parts. 
 
Drum Appellations:  
The melodic and rhythmic motifs in measures 100 to 127 imitates drum appellation in West 
Africa court musical styles. These are praise poems that are played on the talking drums. 
The sonority of these drums, for example, from, atumpani (Eʋe) and the hour-glass drum, 
replicates the greatness of the king. In this context, the composer uses it to depict the majesty 
of the Almighty God. It signifies the distinctiveness attached to the object of worship in 
Christianity. Drum appellations are also semi-public. The four-parts are vertically arranged 
in conformity with the speech contour. (Kpɔda, Nye, Nye, Nyenye Amesi Menye, Frititi ke) 
(Ahin, 1986). 
 
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(a) The sociological function of the music 
Sociologically, this piece of music bridges the gap between the traditional and 
western musical traditions. The two distant cultures are brought together by blending their 
idioms together. According to Nketia (2016) western ideologies through colonial 
instruments sought to separate the two distinct modes of musical cultures but through this 
and other similar compositions a new breed of genre has been brought to the fore that threads 
on Interculturalism. The central theme of the music is grounded on the choirs’ mission to 
sing to the glory of the Almighty God. The sub themes and text of the music is a constant 
reminder to the choirs’ fraternity for a call for duty. So long as they sing the song, it confirms 
their re-affirmation of their Christian faith and a rededication to the singing ministry. The 
dedication to the singing ministry is the driving force behind its existence both at the local 
congregational level to the national level. 
5.3.2 Analysis of Form 
Hadzihawo, Midziha Le Mawu Fe Fiadufe La Nuti is a Ghanaian art music composed for 
four-part singing (choral). Even though it may be used for other purposes it mainly serves 
as an anthem mostly in the mission churches.  
5.3.2.1 Divisions of Form 
The form of this choral music is ternary (ABA). It must be noted that these sections are 
broad areas that are sub-divided into constituent parts. The first section [a] begins at 
measures 1 and ends at measure 76. It is clearly delineated by the first theme of music which 
spans eight measures (1-8), symmetrically phrased and developed throughout the successive 
measures by fragmentations, melodic sequences, rhythmic, imitations etc.  
Section [b], measuring 45-76 bars is mapped out by vocal and instrumental 
organizations. An alto Arial runs through the whole span of this sub-section in a very 
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symmetric and phrasal systemization. The first sixteen (45 to 60 measures) are arranged for 
alto solo and a highly chromatic organ accompaniment. My use of the adjective ‘highly’ in 
this discussion is subjective. The solo is repeated for the next sixteen measures (61-76).  
This time the other four part serves as the accompaniment, again highly chromatic. Why is 
the composer so chromatic? Chapter III of the research project answers this question. This 
part of the music is highly chromatic, a characteristic of a Romantic composition. Is George 
W. K. Dor a Romantic composer? The Romantic composers at a point shifted from 
ensemble performances and gave prominence to solo performances. This gave rise to 
virtuosos and virtuosic performances.  Because of this most Baroque and Classical 
instruments were improved upon. Example, the trumpet, piano etc In this choral work, we 
find George Dor giving attention to the alto, a habit which parallels Nineteenth century 
musical attitudes. What is special about the alto (or any non-vocal instrument) that it should 
receive such prestige in this composition?  It is because George dared to do something 
different.  
i) Divisions of the Form 
This miniature ternary ends with a “recapitulation” of the sub theme [aʼ] (m.33-44). 
The whole of A is bracketed by thematic materials from the opening measures resulting in 
a complete section, thus, (A) as shown in table 4 below. 
Table 4: Sectional division of Hadzihawo Midzi Ha Le Mawu ʄe Fiadufe La ŋuti. 
A                          B                         Al 
        [a]             [b]             [al]                      [c]               [cl]                                  [a]        
     m.1-44   m.45-76   m.33-44          m.78-99    m.100-127                 m.128-137 
 
Section B is made up of two sub sections, [c] (m.78-99) which is predominantly 
four-part harmonization and [cʼ] (m. 100-127). It is also harmonized in four parts but it is 
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populated by unisons and drum surrogates. Marked by forte (ʄ), this whole section is given 
a touch of drumming within the confines of traditional African music making. The last 
section C (m.128-137) is a recapitulation of the first theme of the music, measures (1-8). 
ii) Key Changes:  
The piece of music is in the major mode. Its home key is G major. This is clearly 
demonstrated at the beginnings and endings of the broad sections. With the exception of 
sub-section [b] (m. 45 - 47) that begins with a dominant seventh of the subdominant major 
(I7/IV) in the home key, all the other sub sections are indifferent in starting and ending with 
the home key (G major). Remarkably, section B holds both the performer and listener in 
suspense by ending on the dominant seventh chord of the home key (V7/I). The suspense is 
prolonged by stretching the chord within four measures (m.124-127). The suspense is 
released by resolving unto the tonic chord (G major) at the beginning of the last section, 
thus C, (m.128). The music modulates to the sub median minor (e minor) but transiently 
modulates back to G major (m.19).  
iii) Phrasing:  
The music is symmetric in its phrasing. The four-measure phrasing is notable right at the 
beginning of every broad and sub sections. (m. 1-8, 35-40, 45-52 etc.). There are clearly 
shown by structures such as melodic, harmonic and rhythmic organizations. Most of these 
phrases begin and end at the first beat in the respective measures and the end of chord 
progressions. Another feature that enhances the organisation of the phrases is the utilizations 
of rests. Whole measure rest (I) and crotchet rests are tactically used throughout the 
composition. 
 
 
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iv) Harmony:   
Because of the major mode (G major), the dominant seventh (V7) resolving unto the tonic 
chord (I53) governs the cadences. The broad endings of section A and C ends with V7/I - I 
but section B ends with V7/I (m.127) unresolved creating anticipation and expectancy. The 
treatment of this unresolved ending is another characteristic feature of the Nineteenth 
century music (Romantic period). The secondary chords that are used also progress from 
the dominant of the related keys to their tonics. Examples are vi765/ii – ii (m.6, 23-24, 133); 
I765/IV-IV, (m.3), ii765/V-V etc. There is a harmonic ambiguity (m.29). 
In addition to the foregoing, primary chords (I, IV, V) also forms part of the 
harmonic organization. Their use renders the music simple, clear, and easy-going. It releases 
the tensions created by the chromatic chords. Simplicity and clarity as features of Eighteen 
century music (the classical period) are enormously used in this composition. 
v) Texture:  
The texture is largely homophonic. The rhythmic motifs that provides movement in the 
piece of music have common vertical entry points. The dotted crotchet and its divisions are 
distributed within the continuum of 68 time signature. At some points the dotted and crotchet 
note are overlaid with the quavers. Resulting in a homophonic texture. The melodic material 
at the beginning section [b] stated by the sopranos and tenors in parallel six apart does not 
end before the base re-announced it in the preceding measure. The treatment of this thematic 
material is a resemblance of stretto in a fugal exposition.  
vi) Dynamics:  
Dynamics and performance directions are clearly stated at sections of the musical score. 
The metronome mark shows that the tempo is a ‘slow’ andante, relatively. In the opening 
bars there is forte ( ʄ ). The notes are stately and emphatic within the confines of a crescendo. 
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The text Hadzihawo is echoed three times. In measure 9 there is dolce (sweetly). The 
agitation and stately nature of the music is brought to an end by the introduction of p piano 
on the V7 chords in measure 13-14. The remaining part of section A is performed in mf. 
Section B is marked cantabile. In this singing style, the music progresses with the alto solo 
until measure 76. Measures 79 and 81 have marks of drum notations. These measures are to 
be performed using traditional drums (atumpani).The parts (voices) imitates the rhythmic 
motif of the drums. The music ends with accents (m.136-137). 
vi) Comparison of Sections 
In comparison, section A is the most elaborate in terms of vocal and instrumental 
organization. The themes and sub-themes of the melody and rhythm, the alto solo and organ 
accompaniment and the reoccurrence of [b] (m.33-44), the seventy-six measures etc. 
contributes to the elaborate nature of this section. The next is section B, very rhythmic and 
emphatic. The unison melody renders this section of the music very forcible and assertive. 
The repeated bass notes span fifty measures of musical activities. The shortest of all the 
section is section C which has ten measures, sections of it being a repeat of previous themes.  
The re-appearance of the opening theme (m.1-8), its homophonic texture, is a replica of the 
opening measures (m.1-6). The last four measure is what creates the difference. The melodic 
sequence, repeated texts (degbefa, degbefa, degbefa) and the accents (>>) is what differs.  
The implications of performing this music in view of the form  
The investigations above imply that the performance this piece of music must be guided by 
its ternary form; the broad sections ABA and the sub-sectional. Its performance should also 
be guided by structures such as the symmetric phrasing, vocal and instrumental 
organizations, the homophonic and contrapuntal texture, the traditional idioms exemplified 
by the repeated drum patterns and changing dynamic patterns etc. 
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5.3.2.1 Pattern Analysis  
The compound duple 68 time signature is constant throughout the music. Dotted crotchet 
beat is the rhythmic foundation of the rhythm. Although at the beginning, the soprano, alto 
and tenor are introduced by a hemiola it changes to various variations of the basic rhythmic 
motif. (m. 1-3, 4, 78, 116, 132). I will refer to middle C as C1 at this point of the analysis. 
The melody begins at D1, rises to D1 and descends to G1 from measure 1-8. It remains 
within the same range until measure 34 where it hits G2. This is the highest point of the 
soprano melody. The melody shifts to alto between measures 45 and 76. Within the same 
space the soprano, tenor and bass becomes the accompaniment. From measures 78 to the 
end the soprano takes up the main tune again except m.100-108 where they sing in unison. 
The melodic motif is made up of quavers, crotchets dotted crotchets and dotted minims. (m. 
1-8, 21-26). The melody also has tied notes (m.29-30, 21-23, 124 -127).  
In section B (m.78-127) the melody is constructed with dotted minims and dotted 
crotchets. The shape of the music is established by the punctuations at the broad sections. 
The four parts provides the movement at the beginning. It continues with the alto solo organ 
accompaniment in section [b], then to the four parts again till the end of the music.  
The dynamic varies from forte ( ʄ ), mezzo forter (m ʄ), piano (p), crescendo. The 
homophonic texture pre-dominates the whole music. The use of the human voice attaches 
warmth to the music. The addition of the organ serves as an embellishment. The symmetric 
nature of the melody suggests a breaking point for breath control. Section A is the biggest 
followed by B and C. This implies that, the demands of performance in view of the sectional 
divisions are the same for all the sections. Performing this choral music will require different 
performance techniques to accurately execute the changing trends. 
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5.3.3 Psychological Analysis 
According to George Dor, the main theme of the anthem is anchored on the ‘ecstasy’ or the 
joy of singing about the Kingdom of God. He then draws themes from the Bible and 
traditional court maxims as sub-themes. Whether or not, it is the intention of the composer 
to communicate some sorts of sensory encounter to the audience through devices of 
extension and motifs and whether that purpose has been achieved, that is a different matter 
of concern. The subject of communication in music, or better, ‘the language of music’ is a 
highly contested one, I must note, firstly.  
          Therefore, any attempts to link musical composition(s) to psychological and 
emotional connotations may only presents slippery grounds for any scholarly endeavours. 
That notwithstanding, direct linking of music with specific emotional and psychological 
states are rather antiquated and very controversial since the 1959 publication by Deryck 
Cooke, The Language Of Music. The art of music composition and cognition has advanced 
considerably since the time of this publication. To talk about music as a lamguage that 
stimulates psychological and emotional reflexes means some models of syntax, semantics, 
pragmatics and rhetoric must be considered (Smoliar, 1994: 101).  
          In view of this, my attempt to link or gather structural principles and motifs in 
Hadzihawo… as communicating psychological satisfaction is highly subjective. However, 
George Dor     preferred to remain in the brighter side of the home key tonality. He maintains 
one key (G major), shifting between the major, sub-dominant and the dominant. According 
to Freund, when music revolves around the cycle of fifths it renders the music bright 
(https://www.google.com/search?client=firefox-b-d&q=don+freunds+fifths). The chord 
progression waves through the tonic, subdominant and the mediant. Cooke (1959) noted 
that the home key can be perceived as the pivot around which other chords are built, 
therefore, whenever the composer moves through different tonalities, the audience expects 
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that he finally arrives at ‘home’. Although the music is saturated with chromatic harmony – 
as noted to be a character about the compositions of G.W.K. Dor – he ends the broad sections 
and the final cadence with D7 – Gmj chord progression. The alto solo and organ 
accompaniment are aiming at the G major chord in measure 60 and 76 but goes through 
harmonic embellishment. Throughout the changing chords, the music ends at the tonic chord 
finally. From measures 124 -127, the dominant seventh chord is stretched beyond 
expectation. In accordance with the discussions above, the psychological goal is met by 
resolving to the tonic chord in measure 128.  
          Smoliar asserts that to explore the capacity of music for linguistic communication, 
we must focus our attention or differences on the performance and listening which are 
guided by asking ourselves about the role music can play in communication which are 
themselves buried in performance and listening (Smoliar, 1991: 104). On this note, I dare 
to say that whether the performers and listeners of this composition really catch a glimpse 
of the ‘enumerable company of angels’ singing to glorify the Almighty God - as guided by 
the main and sub themes -  is a matter of personal interpretations of the structures and motifs 
of the song. There are more to the themes being presented during the performance, listening 
and analysing this piece of work. However, the processes involved in deciphering any 
psychological or emotional experience is a highly subjective process.  
            It is conceivable that music by itself is rhetoric in nature. Hence, to actively 
participate for any linguistic connotations, listeners and performers have to consciously 
engage in its oratory. “In order words, music does have a linguistic nature, but that nature 
is not to be uncovered by seeking structural elements and asking how these elements may 
be deciphered. Rather, it lies in a capacity to communicates that transcends such atomism.” 
(Smoliar, 1992: 104). 
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5.3.4 Application of Don Freund’s Spectrum of Fifths 
With reference to Don Freund’s spectrum of fifth analytical scheme, the first phrase of this 
composition is brighter until the beginning of the second phrase (m.5). The music becomes 
dark because of the modulation to a remote key, thus, the supertonic minor (ii53) but this is 
just a transient modulation. The music becomes brighter again by modulating to the related 
keys of Gmj V7-I53 (m.7 to 8) and V65 - I6 (m.9 to10). There are places in section A where 
the music becomes dark for example, m.18 to 19 (V7/I - vi) a deceptive cadence, V65/ii - ii 
(m.23 to 24) and V7/vi - vi (m.39 to 40). The first section A becomes brighter by ending on 
a perfect authentic cadence. The chromatic harmony from m.45 to 60 and m.61 to 76 renders 
this section of the music very dark because of the instability of the key. 
 Section B becomes brighter at the beginning by emphasizing the tonic key in the first 
three beats. However, from m. 84 to 91 the harmony goes through remote keys such as I7 6 
(m.84), VII MAJ 43+5 (m.85), VII53 (m.95), V7 and V42/I – I (m.87), V7/IV – I (m.91) 
before arriving at the sub-dominant major in measure 91 second beat. This harmonic 
treatment makes this part of the music dark. The D major to G major relations continues 
until the V7/I - I is reached marking the end of section B. The last section A1 is brighter at 
the beginning, but it becomes dark because of the V65/ii - ii (m.132-133) but it becomes 
brighter at the end (V7/I - I53); perfect authentic cadence. 
5.4 Summary 
A study of the compositions using the various analytical tools confirms the intercultural 
nature of G.W.K. Dor’s choral compositions. The songs are hybrid of two distant cultures. 
The composer combined Western and African traditional musical templates for his 
generative processes. The melodies are symmetrically crafted and evenly distributed to all 
the four parts throughout the compositions except some portions of Mawu Ve Mianu. The 
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symmetry has a connotation in the social organisation of the African traditional 
communities. The social institutions are interdependent on each other. All the institutions 
are equally important for the stability of the larger societal structure. The ‘equality’ and 
symmetry in the social organisation is what has been replicated in the music to create 
balance. 
 G.W.K. Dor’s creativity is exhibited in his ability to manage the concept of unity 
and variety in all the compositions. This is achieved through the selective use of Western 
musical forms, harmonic vocabulary, variation of textural content, rhythmic and melodic 
materials from both Western and African musical contents. Two factors accounts for 
generative processes: memory and knowledge of procedure. As a Ghanaian art music 
composer G.W.K. Dor relies on his memory of traditional performance of Alavanyo-ʋudidi 
and the theories of composition in the Western stream, combines it with the creative 
processes to achieve his goal. This is also hybridity, contextually.   
 
  
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CHAPTER SIX 
6.1 Brief Summary 
The contributions made by George Worlasi Kwasi Dor can be traced to two major historical 
factors, the traditional musical practices of the Eʋes speaking people before the arrival of 
the missionaries and the residues of western musical practices that were introduced by the 
missionaries and the colonial government in the Gold Coast.  
The organization of music and its performance practices among the Eʋes are 
practical interpretations of the worldview of the Eʋes. This is because to the spiritual world 
of the African is considered superior to the material world and as such the spiritual world 
dictates what must be done in the material world. The traditional musical activities among 
the Eʋes finely knit with other aspects of their socio-cultural settings. Politics, religion, 
marriage and family and other social institutions of the people are not divorced from their 
musical expressions. Music is the medium through which some of the traditional practices 
are carried out and this cut across the life cycle of the individual. Generally, there are 
identical performance practices among the Eʋes but one encounters differences among the 
northerners and the southerners. Their differences heavily depend on their material and their 
spiritual worldviews. 
The North Germany Missions Society is a direct product of the Pietist Movement 
which can directly be traced to The Reformation, the religious movement in the sixteenth 
century lead by Martin Luther; and later by John Calvin. The religious revival in Europe 
during the eighteenth century further resulted in the formation of several mission societies 
including the Bremen Mission. The musical space created by the missionaries and the 
colonial government through their efforts in establishment E. P. Church, Ghana and the 
educational institutions did not only offer G.W.K. Dor the opportunity for acquiring western 
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musical skills but it also provided the room for his musical activities, for, instance, 
performances at church, institutional affiliations and musical compositions.  
Accustomed to the mainline church and against the backdrop of the Reformation 
tradition, the E.P. Church, Ghana uses musical forms that are peculiar to that of the 
missionary established churches namely hymns, psalms, anthems, traditional tunes and 
choruses. It is in these ‘church musical forms’ that the compositions of G.W.K. Dor are 
found. Music in the E. P. Church, Ghana has intercultural dimension. It has traces of both 
the indigenous and Western musical practices. 
Ghanaian art music, with reference to choral music, is a hybrid of the traditional and 
the western musical practices. The choral compositions of George W. K. Dor have gained 
appeal in the circles of the Ghanaian choral space because he is well abreast with traditional 
modes of musical expressions. He draws not only on the idioms of the traditional music but 
also as one who is well grounded in Christian literature. Before his musical education at the 
then National Academy of Music, Winneba, G. W. K. Dor was already composing choral 
pieces.  
6.2 Findings  
i. The Contributions of G.W.K. Dor to E. P. Church, Ghana’s Musical Practices 
The compositions of George W. K. Dor are a repository of musical heritage to the E. P. 
Church, Ghana. The compositions can be put into various categories. The first category is 
the collection of anthems. The second are marching songs. Third, the patriotic songs and 
fourth, those that addresses issues of morality. The fifth category are the hymns. The church 
choirs of the E.P. Church, Ghana, choir directors and instrumentalists are the custodians of 
this musical heritage. The Sunday selection by the choirs (Church Choir, Hadzihaga. Good 
News Choir, EPSU) and performances at the concert halls gives room for the performance 
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of these songs. The pile of G.W.K. Dor’s compositions is an invaluable asset to the E. P. 
Church, Ghana.  
G.W.K. Dor has served as director, organist, administrator etc. at various musical 
organizations in the E. P. Church, Ghana. His musical inclination is admired by many. He 
was tasked to play an active role at the various organizational levels of the church choir and 
the church as a whole. He was the choir director and organist of North La Church Choir. He 
was also a co-director of West Volta Presbytery Church Choirs’ Union and the Central Choir 
of the presbytery. He was also a one-time national director of the National Church Choirs 
Union, a position he held for one term. In addition to the various positions he held, he served 
as synod organist for two times; one at Sunyani and the other at Ho. When the Hadzigbale 
review committee was set in the year 2005 G.W.K. Dor served on this committee and 
functioned as the organist of the committee. “I played exactly as notated”, he remarked 
during the interview session with him, thereby maintaining the musical tradition inherited 
from the Bremen missionaries. 
The composition of ceremonial songs for the celebration of 25, 50, 70, 75 and 100 
years is another area where G. W. K Dor has contributed to the E. P. Church, Ghana. After 
its formative years, several local congregations of the church were established in the east 
and west of the Volta River. The singing of such ceremonial songs re-kindles a unifying 
spirit among the communicants for ‘church building’ and growth through their religious 
confessions and re- affirmation of their membership to the E. P. Church, Ghana. 
Symbolically, these are the wheel on which the church rides. 
Some local tunes were harmonization by G.W.K. Dor and Walter Blege. Some of 
the tunes harmonized by G.W.K. Dor includes E.P.H. No. 664 ŋutifafa woana mi and Mikpɔ 
alesi wo nyoe da. These songs are included in the liturgical format for the administration of 
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the Eucharist in the E. P. Church, Ghana. Significantly, these local tunes break the monopoly 
of western hegemony in the format for the ministration of the Eucharist in the E. P. Church 
since its establishment until the 2008 edition of the Hadzigbale was published.  
It is G.W.K. Dor who introduced the Church Band concept into the E. P. Church, 
Ghana. This was at the time when he was the music director and the organist at the North 
La branch of the E. P. Church, Ghana. He veered into this area of his musical career to make 
room for variety. He established a church band, commonly referred to today in the church 
as Praise and Worship Team which has accommodated the ‘charismatics and Pentecostals’ 
who had rather break way to find solace elsewhere in the church.  
The choral compositions of G.W.K. Dor plays a linguistic role. The Eʋe language is 
the principal language through which congregational singing, teachings and other important 
religious activities such as the sacraments (Baptism and Holy Communion), naming 
ceremonies, funeral and burial rites and many others are carried out. There are a number of 
Eʋe proverbs within the textural content of George Dor’s choral works. The lyrics are also 
in the Eʋe language. These components and more make the worshipper feel inclusive and 
enables him/her to actively partake in church activities because the linguistic materials are 
drawn from the well of the socio-cultural practices of the Eʋe-speaking people. 
Several musicians in the E. P. Church who continue to serve the church in different 
capacities were been trained by G. W. K. Dor. Their works continue to be used to satisfy 
different liturgical purposes and other social demands.  
ii. The Musical Tradition of the E. P. Church, Ghana.  
In their quest to evangelize the ‘untapped mission field’ in the Gold Coast, the 
Bremen missionaries introduced Christianity to the Eʋes. It was fashioned along that of 
North German protestant churches. An ‘African prototype’ of the church was established 
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and structured in conformity to the Protestant and Lutheran music tradition. First and 
foremost, the E. P. Church, Ghana is guided by a formal liturgy for all its religious activities. 
Hymn and singing are paramount in the church. It also uses anthems and ‘marching songs’ 
composed by Ghanaian trained musicians. As a reformation tradition, the hymns are sang 
in the vernacular (Eʋe). Generally, the E. P. Church, Ghana is not fully abreast with singing 
Psalms and Canticles but the study has revealed that there are very few E. P. Church Choirs 
in the Accra metropolis that render Psalms and Canticles during Sunday Divine services. 
Although the E. P. Church, Ghana, is modeled along the protestant tradition, it also 
has local contents in its own right. Local choruses are composed and ministered by 
charismatic groups which developed in the church around the mid-1900s. The text of the 
local choruses is in the vernacular and very responsorial in its melodic arrangements. It is 
performed as a group activity. It is also perceived as a means of individual expression. 
Singing bands such as the Christian Youth Builders (C.Y.B.), Israel Group and other 
‘interest groups’ in the church are more into the performance of these local content in the 
E. P. Church, Ghana. Agbadza, bɔbɔɔbɔ, Egbanegba and Akpalu are some of the local 
content used in the church. 
The musical instruments accessible to performers in the E. P. Church can be grouped 
into western and traditional African musical instruments in their respective categorizations. 
Among the indigenous musical categorizations, the membranophones and idiophones are 
easily accessible and are predominantly used during church activities. The indigenous 
instruments at the disposal of performers is dictated by two factors. One, the geographical 
location of the church, thus, the communities within which the church is situated and two, 
the mode of musical specialization peculiar to those geographic areas. 
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The dondo plays a very important role in the E. P. Church, Ghana. It is an 
‘independent’ instrument in the context of drum-dancing activities in the E. P. Church, 
Ghana. It is very versatile and used mainly for improvisation. It neither plays a supportive 
role nor the master role. It waves in between the rhythmic complexities of the performance 
fiber rendering the cross-rhythmic continuum more complex. Clapping also accompanies 
activities such as praise & worship and offertory. Participation in such congregational 
activity shows that the rhythmic structure of clapping during ‘Praise and Worship’ by the 
church band is in conformity with bɔbɔɔbɔ clapping patterns.  
iii. Factors of Influence and how they inform the compositional style  
George Dor was born into a musical family. His aunties are very good alto singers 
who sang in the church choir and Hadzihaga at Alavanyo-ʋudidi. The Unity orchestra at 
Alavanyo-ʋudidi, the musical influences from both his paternal and maternal families, his 
father and mother and the traditional environment (where traditional musical types were and 
continued to be performed) contributes immensely to George Dor’s musical background. It 
therefore suggests that the musical environment of Alavanyo-ʋudidi into which G. W. K. 
Dor was born contributes to the renaissance to his musical potentialities and exploits.   
The popularity of George Worlasi Kwasi Dor began when he composed Mawu Ve 
Mianu, his first extended choral composition. The appeal of the song can be attributed to 
the willingness of Miss Grace Agyei who allowed the chapel choir to learn and perform the 
piece of music. She was the director of the chapel choir of the then National Academy of 
Music, Winneba now the Music Department, University of Education, Winneba.  
According to G.W.K. Dor the piece of music was appreciated by both teaching and 
non-teaching staff of the academy it possessed some qualities. The song text of the 
composition, which is based on Psalm 67, is cohesive. One theme is carried throughout the 
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whole song. The melody is also uniform. The harmony of the anthem brings out the desired 
mood by using the appropriate key signature, time signature, harmony, modulations, 
accidentals cadences etc. The texture of song has some counterpoints and imitations. The 
texture varies from the beginning to the end. The rhythmic motif which was used to express 
the text Dukɔwo akafu, Dukɔwo akafu - the repeats and fragmentations – trilled everyone 
according to the interview with G.W.K. Dor.  
Influenced by the appeal and impact of the composition he continued to compose 
songs which possessed similar characteristics as Mawu Ve Mianu, Megadi Nusi Kɔ Wu Wo 
La Yome O (1977), Gblɔ be Mate Kpɔ (1978) - this piece of music is pretty extended, 
Megana Ta O and ŋuwo Dzɔ La Medɔ Alɔ O (1978), Xɔsetɔwo Mitso and many more. 
The appeal of G. W. K. Dor’s compositions are also due to his ability to situate the 
themes of his compositions in the traditional setting which the indigenes are already familiar 
with. He juxtaposes biblical themes with Eʋe folklore. The sub themes which supports the 
central themes is taken from cultural background of the Eʋes which usually parallels that of 
other non-Eʋe speakers. The sub themes which makes uses of the Eʋe language, culture, 
metaphors, proverbs, folklore creates emotions in the audience. When the music is 
understood it creates the necessary emotions then the emotions leads to its appreciation. For 
instance, the proverbs in the anthem titled Mega ti musikɔ wu wo la yome o, reinforces the 
central theme. Eʋe proverbs such as “Avu du ʄu medu laga o”, “Devi bia nu me bia golo lo 
ʄe azi o”, “Koklo be dzanidzani ta ye bobo do” are used in the music to enrich, establish 
and communicate the central theme. These proverbs are derived from the worldview, 
interactions and interrelations of the Eʋes and more specifically the Eʋedomes.  
G. W. K. Dor has been commissioned to compose a lot of anniversary anthem. A 
number of E. P Church, Ghana, local congregations, at the Volta and Greater Accra Regions 
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have commissioned George W. K. Dor to compose anthems for their 50th, 70th, 75th and 
centenary anniversary celebrations. The popularity of George Dor however spread as these 
songs continue to be used in the E. P. Church, Ghana. Popular among them is Hadzihawo 
composed for Bethel Church Choir’s 28th anniversary celebration. Apart from the E. P. 
Church, Ghana, this anthem is very popular among the Roman Catholic, Ghana, Methodist 
and A. M. E Zion church choirs. 
iv. Extra musical factors 
The choral works of G.W.K. Dor creates a sense of in-group and out-group 
consciousness among the already homogeneous worshippers of the church. “These are 
church choir songs” said by some of my respondents in the interviews. It however suggests 
that the politics that ensues among the various singing bands in the E. P. Church, Ghana is 
dictated by the various musical styles practiced in the church. The notion of “We” and 
“They”.  
Apart from his contributions to the musical tradition of the E. P. Church, Ghana, the 
choral compositions of G.W.K. Dor also preserves the fundamental theological teachings of 
the church. The themes and sub themes are based on biblical content. For instance, Humility, 
Eternal life, the Good Shepherd, Spiritual Gifts, The Lord of Life Cometh etc.  
The composition of marching songs creates an opportunity to the migrant traditional 
instrumentalist to practice his ‘traditional instrument’ within the confines of the church. It 
gives him the opportunity to actively participate in the church activities and hence 
contributing the growth of the church.  
6.3 Conclusion 
The contributions made by George Worlasi Kwasi Dor to the musical tradition of the E. P. 
Church, Ghana, is multifaceted. One, his compositions and affiliations to the various 
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organizational bodies in the church, the commissioned works and harmonization of popular 
Eʋe tunes that are used during church activities are in line with the Christianization 
processes initiated by the four Bremen missionaries in an attempt to evangelize the whole 
of Eʋeland. The works G.W.K. Dor, therefore, conforms to the E. P. Church’s institutional 
practices. His works are guided by laid down principles which defines the E. P. Church, 
Ghana as belonging the reformation tradition. Two, influenced by the Unity Orchestra at 
Alavanyo-ʋudidi and his choral background G.W.K. Dor exploits new paradigms is musical 
which latently influences the musical practices in the E. P. Church, Ghana. Today, the 
church band or ‘Worship and Praise Team’ in the E. P. Church is being used to accomplish 
a number of liturgical needs in the church. The relationship between G.W.K. Dor and the E. 
P. Church, Ghana lies between intercultural practices. George Dor as an intercultural 
composer is challenged to use the immense traditional idioms available to satisfy the 
liturgical needs of the E. P. Church, Ghana. It is easier to overemphasis the suppression 
made to the music and customary practices of the African than acknowledge the “revivals, 
innovations and adoptions of specific musical and ritual traditions of the African”.  It is 
through the intervention of certain mission machinery that the music of the E. P. Church, 
Ghana is, as we find it today. The process is achieved through collaborations of foreign 
missions and local congregations, adaptations of new musical forms and contextualization 
of music and dance forms for congregational use (Avorgbedor, 2004). I therefore argue that 
the contributions made by George Worlasi Kwasi Dor to the musical tradition of the E. P. 
Church, Ghana, was achieved through intercultural musical practices.   
6.4 Recommendations 
I recommend that the choral compositions of the various E. P. Church, Ghana choral 
composers must be kept at a central library for archival purposes. The collection should 
include the generation of composers whose works continues to be used but are difficult to 
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come by. Several works of Seth Dor are not readily accessible. This will facilitate the 
scholarly study of the music of the E. P. Church, Ghana. I also recommend that a special 
committee be established to collect, if possible, all photographs of church activities into a 
central picture gallery to serve as references for various academic endeavours. Lastly, it will 
be of great help if the EʋE KRISTO HAME ŋUTUNYA- the E. P. Church, Ghana history 
book authored by P. Wiegrabe be translated from Eʋe into English language to make its 
content accessible to all including non- Eʋe speakers.  
  
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    Interviews and Personal Communications 
Afropop’s interview with George Dor. 1 August, 2013: https://www.google.com/    
George+Dor+interview+with+Afropop). 
 
Avah, Richard (Interview: 4th February, 2019@15:10, Accra New-Town).  
 
Blege, Walter (Interview: 20th May, 2019@10: 30GMT, Ashomang, Accra). 
 
Dor, George Worlasi Kwasi (Interview: August, 2018@14:30 GMT, Dept of Music, UG; 
Telephone interview 12th April, 2019@15 GMT). 
 
Personal communication with G. W. K. Dor, (email message 11th March, 2019). 
 
Kpatakpalu, Divine (Personal communication: 6th September, 2017@17:30 GMT, New 
Legon, Accra). 
Prof Austin Emielu (Personal Communication: 2nd May, 2018@11:00 GMT, Dept of Music, 
UG). 
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Rt. Rev Amenu, Francis (Interview: 26th May, 2019@9:00 GMT, Dansoman, Accra). 
 
Rev. Torvinyo, Francis (Interview: 14th April, 2019@11: 23, New Legon, Accra). 
 
Rev. Asimah, Vida (Telephone interview:  17th April, 2019@16:32GMT). 
 
Togbe Kwadwo Dei XII (Personal communication: 12th May, 2019@12:15pm GMT, New 
Legon, Accra). 
 
Research Directorate, Immigration and Refugee Board, Canada 
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Don Freund (https://www.google.com/search?client=firefox-b-d&q=don+freunds+fifths) 
[accessed 20th November, 2018]. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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APPENDICES 
Notes to the Appendices: 
Permit me to write, but briefly, about the nature, compilation, problems of multiple versions, 
legibility and the hand writing scores of George W. K. Dor. There are two states in which 
one would find the scores of George Dor’s choral compositions. These are compiled and 
‘scattered’. As I noted above, the musical scores or sheets of G.W.K. Dor choral 
compositions are mostly found in scatted pieces (thus, loose sheets usually, fastened or 
stippled together). As a practicing choral director and organist in the E. P. Church, Ghana, 
I have spotted a number of choir directors holding scripts of select compositions either at a 
workshop, choir conferences or during performances. This is more evident at Presbytery 
and also at National choir conferences – the highest level of E. P. Church Choir’s 
organisational body with all its expertise and standardization processes. However, a book 
that contains selected choral works of G.W.K. Dor is also commons among choir directors 
and instrumentalists belonging to a generation of choir directors ‘of old’, thus, who were 
active around 1988 up to 2000. This was the period when the compilation was sold at ‘Choir 
Rallies’.  
          Some individuals can be considered as the custodians of George Dor’s choral works 
because of many factors including working ties. One of such individuals is Mr. Richard 
Avah, the choir director of Accra – New-Town church choir who happens to be a good 
friend to George Dor, as he (Avah) affectionately calls him. On grounds of the friendship 
ties, Mr. Avah’s expertise in choral directing and the working ties between the two, Mr. 
Avah has chance on the choral compositions of G.W.K. Dor in volumes in his personal 
library, some of which were not included into the CHORAL WORKS, Vol. 1, 1988 by 
G.W.K. Dor, he explained in an interview (Interview: 4th February, 2019@15:10, Accra 
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New-Town). Another individual is Mr. John Ampony. Mr. Ampony was the assistant to 
G.W.K. Dor at the North La congregation of E. P. Church before George left for further 
studies abroad. As a result, Mr. Ampony also has the choral works in large volumes - the 
marching songs, hymns, anthems, lullaby etc. Mr. Humphrey Agbeihia also has the 
compositions in abundance. He also assisted G.W.K. Dor at North La E. P. Church Choir, 
Accra.  During the series of interview with G.W.K. Dor, he referred me to Mr. Ampony and 
Mr. Agbeihia to assistance.   
          The provenance of the compilations - CHORAL WORKS, Vol. 1, 1988 by G.W.K Dor 
and COMPOSITIONS OF G.W.K. DOR compiled by John Ampony pre-dates the bi-annual 
conferences of the WVPCC. The first compilation was carried out by the composer. 
CHORAL WORKS, Vol. 1 contains seventeen compositional works whiles Some 
Compositions of George W. K. Dor by John Ampony has fifteen compositional works. The 
purpose of the compilation is clearly spelled out in the preface by G.W.K. Dor himself. He 
wrote “The main object of this book is to help Church Choirs and other choral groups to 
have a variety of songs; ranging from patriotic to sacred” (Dor,1988: iv). The exercise was 
not for economic gains. Latently, the selling and buying of copies of the book by George 
Dor’s fans quickly points to marketing of songs among the Eʋes. Hakpakpa (lit. the act of 
composing a song) Hadzadzra (the act of selling songs), Hadzrala (one who sells songs), 
Haʄeʄle (the act of buying song), Hafiafia (lit. the act of teaching a song), Hadzidzi (the act 
of singing the song that may have been bought or otherwise), are some concepts of music 
commodification among the Eʋe speaking people that needs consideration at this point (See, 
for, example, Dor, 2015: 196). 
          It will be noticed that marketing of songs is a common practice among Eʋe traditional 
composers. As the song text of Akpalu explains cited in Dor (2015 “One does not have 
goods meant for sale and keeps them in the room,” and “It is at the outskirts of big markets 
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where one finds goods. For that reason, I [Akpalu] will sing my songs there for people to 
buy.”  Dor (2015, 168). I do not intend to align the compilation(s) to economic gains by the 
Dor, per say, but I desire to draw our attention to the popularity fostered by the compilation 
and subsequent performance of the entire choral work at British Council before a 
‘representative audience’. Most importantly, this is the first attempt to compile the works 
into one volume. It was at Hyɛbrɛkrom - a remote community of Prestea (Western Region), 
accessible only by foot and rail, about six kilometres from the nearest bigger town Ankobra 
- I first saw a copy of CHORAL WORKS, Vol. 1, 1988 by G.W.K Dor. That was between 
1990 and 1995. The ‘market’ extended as far as the outskirts of the WVPCC, hundreds of 
kilometres from the capital city, Accra. Later, I saw a copy of COMPOSITIONS OF G.W.K. 
DOR in Accra in the year 2018 during my field work in the music library of Accra New – 
Town Church Choir. May I ask, ‘Could this be another reason the Hyɛbrɛkrom folks talked 
about George Dor? I am just thinking aloud.    
          It is worth to also consider how easily some of the compositions can get lost if not 
stored, saved or achieved in the right media. Compilations into these volumes therefore 
creates the space for safe keeping, referencing for academic purposes and for the directing, 
teaching and performance, especially, in choral groups. In this case, sorting and accessibility 
of the works becomes easier. During my field work, I encountered a problem. It was 
extremely difficult to access some particular musical scripts ‘of old’ for study and reference 
sake for example, copies of Mitso Aseye by Seth Dor – the piece that involved a divisi into 
seven parts—(SSAATTB) and the German Choral pieces by George W. K. Dor. Those 
choral works are not found on library shelves but can only be retrieved from a reliable source 
such as the ‘older generation’ of choir directors. Therefore, the compilations of the works 
is of great value in individual home library management and public libraries. Another 
dimension is the categorization of the musical works of G.W.K. Dor generally. When works 
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of different composers are mixed up, sorting out for a particular work by a particular 
composer can be difficult sometimes. The compilation helps in this direction too.  
          In which languages are the songs composed? The languages vary. They include, Eʋe, 
Twi, English and German. In Ghana, the popular and most performed pieces are in Eʋe 
because of factors such as our linguistic background as Ghanaians, demands from the 
Christian churches for liturgical purposes and sometimes the demands of public concerts. 
But in the US and Germany, for example, the most performed works will perhaps be in 
English or German, respectively. The demand for orchestral works in Ghana is relatively 
low, compared the choral and highlife music. As a result, the gravity towards G.W.K. Dor’s 
orchestral works will be low in this direction. Refer to chapter four of this thesis for a 
detailed discussion on the categorization of G.W.K. Dor’s musical works.  
          Trends in the compositional works of George Dor cannot be discussed in detail in this 
note. Future studies may consider this aspect. However, just a gist of it will suffice. Whiles 
in Ghana, George Dor composed most his song in Eʋe, six in German, few in English and 
Twi and four orchestral works. This informs us that the musical scripts of George Dor testify 
about him as a composer of different styles of music which includes; choral, hymn, 
marching songs, orchestral, high-life, choral-orchestral etc. The trend, background and other 
social factors are reserved for further studies. Careful study of the scripts will be revealed 
‘detailed’ marks such as tempo marks, dynamic marks, expression marks and cues mark 
such as REPEAT FROM BAR 27 -30, BACK TO A, etc. these have been included to 
facilitate the interpretation and performance of the songs. During the field work of this 
studies, I found a copy of G.W.K. Dor’s music in the Accra New-Town Church Choir’s 
music library. It is a copy of Tutu Gbɔvi. It was ridden with age and has become very weak. 
Its edges were tearing apart. I gathered from this experience that there are facsimiles of 
George Dor that have to be retrieved and properly stored. 
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          This note will be incomplete if I do not mention, but briefly, the problems encountered 
with multiply versions of the musical scripts. With my experience as an assistant choir 
director to Mr. Richard Avah, I have closely observed that Mr. Avah is more comfortable 
teaching from a hand-script musical score of G.W.K. Dor than a transcribed finale copy by 
anybody. This position is not only directed towards George Dor’s compositions but to many 
Ghanaian Art Choral Composers such as N. Z. Nayo and R. K. Nd. Mr. Avah would say, 
“This is not the original. I have the original (Smiling)” - referring to the transcribed finale 
work(s) as invalid. He confirmed, at rehearsals most of the time, that he doubts the accuracy 
of the transcribed works and to be on the safer side go for the hand script copy by the 
composer. Another challenge mostly encountered by choral music directors outside the E. 
P. Church fraternity is the issue of sight reading by choristers. This is mostly experienced 
in mission churches, for example, Methodist Church Ghana. The church choir in Methodist 
churches are accustomed to sight reading during rehearsals and performances irrespective 
of the form, text, the cultural background of the composer and the language in which the 
song – text appears. To them, every music in staff notation have to be transcribed to tonic-
solfa for their effective use in the church. This places a burden on their music directors to 
transcribe staff notation to tonic-solfa especially when it has to do with extended anthems.  
           The hand script copies come with some sorts of challenges. Because of handling, 
these copies are faded posing illegibility challenges. Sometimes, the printing materials, 
usually A4 sheets, becomes very weak because of several years of hand – grips, handling, 
improper storage, change in custody, improper attitude in handling scripts, stains and other 
human factors. These and others render their uses extremely difficult and mostly lead to 
misinterpretations, false claims in attempting analysis, wrong renditions and misguided 
performance directions. It is within these thoughts and more which guided the inclusion of 
both hand-script copies and ‘finale copies’ in order to aid our understanding.  
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Appendix A: Megalam O Mawu 
 
 
  
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Appendix B: Mawu! Ve Mia Nu 
 
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Appendix C: Hadzihawo…. 
  
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Appendix D: Mido Ŋuse Mawu ʃe Agbenya La 
 
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Appendix E:  ŊKegbe Didi 
 
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Appendix F: Mawu Wɔ Nusianu Nyuie 
 
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