1 
 

A THEOLOGICAL AND ETHICAL STUDY OF LOUD CHRISTIAN PRAYER ON 

THE 

UNIVERSITY OF GHANA CAMPUS, LEGON 

 

 

 

BY 

 

 

 

AGNES QUANSAH 

(10229513) 

 

 

 

 

THIS THESIS IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON IN 

PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF 

M.PHIL RELIGIONS DEGREE 

 

      

 

OCTOBER, 2013 

 

University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh



2 
 

DECLARATION 

This thesis with the exception of materials quoted from other scholarly works which have 

been acknowledged fully, is the original production of research work by the researcher 

under the supervisions of Dr. Rebecca Y. Ganusah and Dr. Ben Willie-Golo at the 

Department for the Study of Religions, University of Ghana. Any error in this thesis is 

fully acknowledged as the fault of the researcher. 

 

Signature: ……………………………………..          

Date:…………………………………….. 

Agnes Quansah 

    (Student) 

 

Signature: ……………………………………… Date: 

……………………………………….. 

Dr. Rebecca Y. Ganusah 

(Supervisor) 

 

Signature…………………………………………. Date: 

……………………………………….. 

Dr. Ben-Willie Golo 

(Supervisor) 

 

 

 

 

University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh



3 
 

 

ABSTRACT 

Prayer provides the means of communicating with one’s object of worship. The mode of 
prayer, however, can be problematic sometimes, particularly when prayer “disturbs” 
others who are not part of the praying group. It has, however, become common today 
among some Christian groups to engage in loud forms of prayer. A typical example is 
what happens on the University of Ghana campus where some student Christian groups 
organize loud prayer meetings around halls of residence and libraries and thereby 
disturbing other members of the University community. However, the University of 
Ghana, Legon is an academic institution that promotes academic excellence and which 
requires a high level of serenity and an atmosphere that promotes learning. Furthermore, 
just like any other institution, the University has its own rules and regulations guiding the 
conduct of students-among which is regulation on noise-making. The focus of this thesis is 
to look at the theological and ethical issues that arise as some Pentecostal Christian 
religious groups of the University of Ghana, Legon, engage in loud public prayers. 
The aim of this work is to investigate why some Christian religious groups indulge in loud 
prayers and the theological ethical implications of such an act. This work is viewed from 
Christian theological and ethical perspectives. Methodologically the review of scholarly 
works, the deployment and analysis of questionnaires, interviews and observations were 
employed in gathering data for this work. The research found that students of some 
Christian groups, as a result of their interpretations of their scriptures and other theological 
considerations, do engage in what can be defined as loud prayers which disrupt academic 
work and affect research and learning. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh



4 
 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 

This work was made possible by the Almighty God who worked through persons on earth. 

I want to show my appreciation to my two supervisors, Dr. Rebecca Ganusah and Dr. Ben-

Willie Golo for their tremendous contribution towards my work. I want to show 

appreciation to all lecturers of the Department for the Study of Religions for their 

continuous support towards my work, my respondents, colleagues and friends and my 

family members for the support they have shown me, through diverse ways to the 

completion of my thesis. 

  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh



5 
 

DEDICATION 

I dedicate this work to my dearest mum, Sarah Eduful, who believes in my every dream 

and is always there for me. Her prayers and love keeps me going. I love you mummy. God 

bless you. 

 

University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh



6 
 

TABLE OF CONTENT 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 

 
 

CHAPTER ONE 

BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY 

1.1 Introduction 

University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh



7 
 

The University of Ghana, Legon, was founded in 1948 as the University College of the 

Gold Coast on the recommendation of the Asquith Commission on higher Education in the 

then British colonies. The recommendation of the Asquith Commission, which was set up 

in 1943 to consider the promotion of Higher Education, recommended among other things, 

the setting up of University Colleges in association with the University of London. The 

University College of the Gold Coast was founded by Ordinance on August 11, 1948 for 

the purpose of providing for and promoting university education, learning and research.’1  

 

Its first principal was the late Mr. David Nowbray Balme who “was foresighted, 

courageous and dedicated to the promotion of scholarship. By his vision, industry and 

single-mindedness of purpose, he built a college and laid the foundations for a sound 

University which is now a source of pride.”2 During his tenure of leadership for ten years, 

he created an institution whose aim was orderly living with dignity in a community of 

scholars.3 In the 1960-61 academic years, the College Council made a request to the 

Government of Ghana for legislation to constitute the University College into a University 

with the power to award its own degrees. The Government appointed an International 

Commission to examine how this could be implemented. On the recommendations of that 

Commission, the University of Ghana was set up by an Act of Parliament on October 1, 

1961 (Act 79). The then President of the Republic of Ghana, Dr. Kwame Nkrumah, 

became the first Chancellor of the University, with Nana Kobina Nketsia 1V, Omanhene 

of Essikado, as the (Interim) Vice Chancellor.4  

The University of Ghana has its own rules and regulations guiding the conduct of 

members of the community and visitors as well, among which is the regulation on noise-

                                                        
1 University of Ghana: Handbook for the Bachelor’s Degree (Humanities): 2009-2011, August, 2009, 9. 
2 University of Ghana: Handbook for the Bachelor’s Degree (Humanities): 2009-2011, August, 2009, 9. 
3 University of Ghana: Handbook for the Bachelor’s Degree (Humanities): 2009-2011, August, 2009, 9. 
4 University of Ghana: Handbook for the Bachelor’s Degree (Humanities): 2009-2011, August, 2009, 9-10. 

University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh



8 
 

making. The 2009-2011 handbook for the Bachelor’s degree (Humanities) of the 

University of Ghana has the following guideline in relation to noise-making, in order to 

regulate the conduct of students as far as the University is concerned. Article 17, sub 

section 1 clause VII of the University’s handbook states that ‘it shall be an offence for a 

Junior Member to… Make undue noise within the University precincts. In particular, the 

hours between 10.00 p.m. and 6.00 a.m. are to be regarded as hours of quiet,  provided that 

this rule shall not apply where permission to organise a function has been granted by the 

Head of Hall or Dean of Students.’5 

 

Various notices have also been posted to the various halls of residence by the Dean of 

Students Affairs to inform students on the need to regulate whatever they do, as far as the 

University is concerned. Noise-making is one of the social problems that confront 

members of the University community, whereby some people make excessive noise to the 

discomfort of other members of the institution. These noisy acts include praying loudly, 

mounting loudspeakers on vehicles for announcement, playing loud music, shouting and 

many others. One cannot overlook the moral implications of such acts, since they affect 

the productivity of other members of the university community. Below is a notice signed 

by a Dean of Student Affairs: 

It has come to my notice that for some time now noise making on the fields, in halls of 
residence and the hostels are on the increase. These activities are a nuisance to the 
university community and trample on the core function of the University as a place of 
secular thought and citadel of knowledge.  

I wish to remind students of the regulations on noise-making in the handbook for 
bachelor’s degree, article 17 clause vii. 

… Students are entreated to exercise moderation in whatever they do to prevent unpleasant 
consequences.6 

 

                                                        
5 University of Ghana- Handbook for the Bachelor’s Degree (Humanities): 2009-2011. August, 2009, 41. 
6 Dean of Student Affairs, ‘Notice on Noise Making’, University of Ghana, Legon, 3rd November, 2011.  

University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh



9 
 

In spite of the University being an academic and secular institution, religion plays a vital 

role in shaping the conduct of some members of the community. This is largely because 

one carries one’s religious background everywhere one finds oneself. Religion, as defined 

by Simon Blackburn, is the attempt to understand the concepts involved in religious belief: 

existence, necessity, fate, creation, sin, justice, mercy, redemption and God.7 According to 

Kofi Asare Opoku, a close observation of Africa and its societies will reveal that religion 

is at the root of African culture, and it is the determining principle of African life. It is no 

exaggeration, therefore, to say that in traditional Africa, religion plays a crucial role in the 

lives of the people. Religion gives meaning and significance to the people’s lives, both in 

this world and in the next to come.  

 

Africans are said to be engaged in religion in whatever they do-whether it be farming, 

fishing or hunting; or simply eating, drinking or travelling.8 In other words, quoting Kofi 

Asare Opoku as Bolaji Idowu has also rightly put it, “Africans are a people who in all 

things are religious.”9 In Opoku’s words ‘The general African belief concerning man is 

that he is made up of material and immaterial substances and although there may be 

variations of this idea from one African society to another, the fundamental assumption 

among them is the unity of the personality of man. Man is a biological (material) being as 

well as a spiritual (immaterial) being.’10 The vast majority of people in the world are 

religious in some aspect or form. Most people are religious in the sense that they believe in 

the existence of an invisible world that is different, but not separate from the visible world, 

which they can communicate and interact with, and which is deemed to have effective 

                                                        
7 Simon Blackburn, Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), 316. 
8 Kofi Asare Opoku, West African Traditional Religion (Accra: FEP International Private Limited, 1978), 1. 
9 Bolaji Idowu as quoted by Opoku, West African Traditional Religion, 1. 
10 Opoku, West African Traditional Religion, 10 

University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh



10 
 

powers over their daily lives.11 For them, the spirit world possesses power: spiritual power 

that can be employed to improve the quality of life of those who resort to it. For religious 

believers therefore, spiritual power is an “enabling power”.12 Religion is expressed in a 

variety of ways- in sacred stories, in scripture, in ritual action, in art and literature.13  

 

On the University of Ghana campus, it is a common phenomenon to see religious students 

engaging in overt religious activities. This is due to the fact that there are varieties of 

organized Christian groups on the campus. These include the Assemblies of God Campus 

Ministry (AGCM), Pentecostal Students Association (PENSA), Methodist- Presbyterian 

Union (MPU), University Christian Fellowship (UCF) and Campus Christian Family 

(CCF). There are also other religious groups like Muslims and Hindus. These groups 

frequently organize open air prayer meetings to ask for God’s protection and guidance 

throughout a semester’s work, good health, passing examinations and the like. 

 

Prayer is indeed, one of the religious practices on the University of Ghana campus that is 

visibly patronized by a lot of such religious groups. Simon Blackburn defines prayer as 

any kind of communication believed to be addressed to a deity.14 Prayer is the central 

phenomenon of religion.15 Some Christians also see prayer as a duty that has to be 

performed daily, whether regulated or not. 

 

                                                        
11 Gerrie ter Haar, ‘Religion in the Development Debate: Relevance and Rationale’, Ghana Bulletin of 
Theology, 3 (2008): 2. 
12 Haar, ‘Religion in the Development Debate: Relevance and Rationale’, 2. 
13 T. William Hall ed, Religion: An Introduction (San Francisco: Harper & Row Publishers, 1986), 125. 
14 Simon Blackburn, Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), 288. See 
James F. White, Introduction To Christian Worship (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 2000), 168. 
15 Quoting Heiler in Aylward Shorter, Prayer in the Religious Traditions of Africa (Nairobi: Oxford 
University Press, 1975), 1. 

University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh



11 
 

On the University of Ghana campus, religious students engage in all kinds of prayers and 

what are of interest to the researcher are loud Christian prayers, a term used to include any 

kind of Christian prayer that bring some form of discomfort to other members of this 

community. Most noticeable of these loud Christian prayers are the religious groups from 

the Pentecostal renewal movements, a term that encompasses Pentecostal groups that ‘… 

consciously seek to experience and affirm the active presence of the Holy Spirit as part of 

normal Christian expression’16 such as speaking in tongues, prophesying, visions, healing 

and miracles in general 

 

Despite the fact that prayer is one means of communication to one’s object of worship as 

practiced by some Christians, the practice has the tendency to be loaded with problems. 

For instance, in an academic community, such as the University of Ghana, the practice has 

the tendency of affecting productivity of both students and workers of the University as 

one has to resort to something less productive during hours of loud public prayers. It is not 

an overstatement to say that the disturbances that occur as a result of the loud prayers are a 

threat to productivity, peace and tranquility on campus. This is because some Pentecostal 

Christian groups pray aloud at areas very close to halls of residence such as the Sarbah 

field and sometimes, very close to libraries (Balme library, hall libraries) meant for 

academic purposes. Already, there have been an intense and sensitive discussions among 

senior members on campus on the intranet about this phenomenon and its impact on 

academic productivity.   

 

                                                        
16 J.Kwabena Asamoah-Gyedu, African Charismatics: Current Developments within Independent 
Indigenous Pentecostalism in Ghana (Leiden: African Christian Press, 2005), 16. 

University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh



12 
 

Elsewhere there were incidents of clashes that had occurred as a result of loud Christian 

noise-making. An example was the case between Alive Chapel International, Tesano and 

residents of the neighborhood over excessive noise as a result of the church’s activities. 

The church walls had to be demolished by the Accra Metropolitan Assembly (AMA) over 

non-permission for church building in a residential area. A similar incident happened 

between the Ebenezer Miracle Worship Center, Spintex road branch, and residents of the 

area for the church’s engagement in holding noisy church activities in breach of an interim 

injunction placed on the church by the Adjabeng Court. All these indicate the impacts that 

the phenomenon has on other human beings within the reach of such loud prayers and the 

potential threats the phenomenon poses to community. 

  

The nature of the problems associated with loud Christian prayers are ethical and 

theological as it involves, for example, the fundamental rights of people to worship (or not 

to worship) as stated in the 1992 Constitution of the Republic of Ghana. ‘Every person in 

Ghana, whatever his race, place of origin, political opinion, color, religion, creed or gender 

shall be entitled to the fundamental human rights and freedoms of the individual contained 

in this Chapter but subject to respect for the rights and freedoms of others and for the 

public interest.’17 This implies that people have the right to worship (or not to worship), 

wherever they find themselves. The problem arises where one has to respect the rights and 

freedoms of others in one’s bid to exercise one’s rights to worship. The Bible also 

encourages Christians to be just and loving towards others they live in community with 

and it therefore becomes a theological ethical concern why some Christians will go 

contrary to this rule 

                                                        
17 Freedom & Justice: 1992 Constitution of the Republic of Ghana, (Protection of Fundamental Human 
Rights and Freedom, Article 2 sub section 2: 1996) 11. 

University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh



13 
 

 

1.2 Statement of Problem 

Against the background of the fact that the University of Ghana campus is meant for 

academic work and yet students engage in loud Christian prayers that have given reason 

for people to complain, the researcher wants to find out why Christian students engage in 

loud prayers in ways that create or lead to people raising concerns especially in an 

environment that is not conducive for the main reason why the University is established. It 

is in light of this that the researcher wants to find out why students engage in such 

activities.  

 

1.3 Aims and objectives of the study 

My main aim and objective of this work is to find out why some Christian groups engage 

in loud Christian prayers, examine the impact of loud Christian prayers on academic work 

and social life on campus and the responses of members of the University of Ghana 

community towards such loud Christian prayers. In order to effectively meet this main 

objective, the following objectives have been set: 

i. Investigate why some Christian groups engage in loud Christian prayers. 

ii. Examine the impact of loud Christian prayers on academic work and social life 

on campus and the responses of members of the University of Ghana 

community towards such loud Christian prayers. 

iii. Explore some Christian theological and moral interventions towards organized 

Christian prayers on the University of Ghana campus. 

 

1.4 Research Question 

University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh



14 
 

My main question in this work is “Why do some Christian groups engage in loud prayers 

and what are the theological and ethical issues that are associated with loud public prayers, 

as practiced by some Pentecostal groups on the University of Ghana campus?.” In order to 

effectively answer this question, the following specific questions have been asked. 

i. Why do some Christian groups engage in loud Christian prayers? 

ii. What are the responses of members of the University of Ghana community 

towards loud Christian prayers on campus and how they affect academic work 

and social life of members of the University community? 

iii. What are some Christian theological and moral interventions towards organized 

prayer on the University of Ghana campus? 

 

1.5 Scope of the study 

The focus of this study is to examine loud prayers as a Christian practice by some 

Pentecostal groups on the University of Ghana campus with particular attention to the 

theological and ethical issues involved. For the purpose of this work Pentecostal groups 

such as the Assemblies of God Campus Ministry (AGCM) and Pentecost Students and 

Associates (PENSA) are used because they are typically Pentecostals who emphasize on 

the active empowerment of the Holy Spirit in the life of a Christian, such as speaking in 

tongues.  

 

The work was viewed from Christian ethical perspectives. This is because the groups 

under study are Christian groups and in order to effectively analyze the morality of loud 

prayer and the theological foundations of the act, it would be good to base the reflection 

largely on Christian moral norms such as love, justice and a sense of community. 

Specifically, the study was aimed at finding out what happens especially around the 

University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh



15 
 

Sarbah field, Central Cafeteria and places around the New N Block on campus. The 

choices of these places on the University campus are as a result of their frequent use by 

some students of the Pentecostal groups for loud Christian prayers. 

 

1.6 Theoretical Framework 

Prayer is one of the core components of devotional practices in Christianity. Christians are 

encouraged to pray continually throughout the day’s activities. Prayer either regulated or 

not, is important to the Christian life and hence Christians see it as a duty. The idea of 

prayer as a Christian duty makes it imperative for the researcher to use deontological 

framework where duty is seen as the basis for the morality of an act, for the research. 

Barbara Mackinnon has argued that moral decision-making in ethics can be examined 

from the perspectives of the motive, manner and the consequences of an act.18 

 

However, because of the varied manner in which prayer is performed, coupled with its 

consequences on other people who may not necessarily be partaking in such prayers, it is 

important to look at the consequential dimensions to guide this work. There is no doubt 

that rules guide one’s moral conduct, as an individual or a group but there are also 

difficulties applying rules alone, to one’s moral conduct because there are exceptional 

cases to rules that make sense than just following strict rules.19 Consequentialism argues 

that the consequences of an act also play a crucial role in determining the rightness and 

wrongness of an act20 as it considers outcome of an act on the greater number of people.21 

                                                        
18 Barbara Mackinnon, Ethics: Theory and Contemporary Issues, 5th edition (Belmont: Thomson 
Wadsworth, 2007), 10-1. 
19 Judith A. Boss, Analyzing Moral Issues (London, Mayfield Publishing Company, 1999), 41. See also Scott 
B. Rae, Moral Choices- An Introduction To Ethics (New York: Zondervan Publishing House, 1995), 33-4, 
Glen H. Stassen and David P. Gushee, Kingdom Ethics: Following Jesus in Contemporary Context (New 
York: Intervarsity Press, 2003), 121-2 and Kyle D. Fedler, Exploring Christian Ethics: Biblical Foundations 
for Morality (New York: Westminster John Knox Press, 2006), 19. 
20 Fedler, Exploring Christian Ethics: Biblical Foundations for Morality, 18. 

University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh



16 
 

The consequentialist framework helps one to access the morality of an action based on its 

consequences and its relevance in the scheme of this work is to help the researcher to 

examine the morality of loud prayer in the light of its impact or consequences. From this 

premise, ethical theories considered in this work will not be seen as distinct but 

complementing each other to achieve an ethical life, on the University of Ghana campus. 

 

As such the loud prayers by some Christian faithful is examined from the framework of 

the consequences of these prayers on other members of the University community who 

may not be part of the prayer groups or even Christians and also on the phenomenon of 

prayer itself.  This theoretical framework thus agrees with Glen H. Stassen and David P. 

Gushee’s position on living a moral life. They argue that Christian ethics must integrate 

deontological absolutes and those goals which the scriptures urge the church to strive for 

as part of kingdom-seeking as well as those virtues of character which people are to seek 

to get there.22 The theoretical framework therefore enables the researcher to investigate the 

notion of loud Christian prayers as a duty as well as the impact or consequences of these 

prayers on the larger University community, especially, as a public academic institution. 

 

1.7 Methodology 

This study utilizes the phenomenological approach and grounded in theological and ethical 

methodologies. The phenomenological approach is a method ‘grounded in epistemological 

considerations and implies a striving towards neutrality concerning questions of truth and 

value,’23 through the performance of epoche on the part of the researcher. The 

phenomenological aspect to this work looks at the phenomenon of loud Christian prayers 

                                                                                                                                                                       
21 Stassen & Gushee, Kingdom Ethics, 119. 
22 Stassen & Gushee, Kingdom Ethics, 99, 121-2. 
23 Olov Dahlin Zvinorwadza: Being a patient in the religious and medical plurality of the Mberengwa 
district, Zimbabwe (Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 2002), 22. 

University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh



17 
 

and people’s view and responses to it. ‘The ethical approach employs a systematic study to 

morality using various standards.’24 The researcher has looked at some of the theories, 

with Christian ethics as a backdrop. With the theological approach, the researcher looked 

at what some theologians have said about prayer as a Christian religious practice and their 

understanding of prayer in relation to the topic under discussion. 

 

1.7.1 Data Collection Method 

The term method is used here to refer to ways in which evidence is obtained and used, or, 

more conventionally, to techniques of data collection and analysis.25 This study employed 

both the primary and secondary methods of data collection. These methods helped in 

achieving the objectives of this thesis and also in answering the research questions. In this 

work, data was collected through interviews, questionnaires, observation, published and 

unpublished materials, journal articles, the Bible, Bible commentaries, internet sources 

and newspapers. 

 

1.7.1.1 Primary Sources 

Primary data are generated by a researcher who is responsible for the design of the study, 

and the collection, analysis and reporting of the data. This is a new data, used to answer 

specific research questions.26 In this study, questionnaires and interviews as well as 

personal observation were employed. A comprehensive questionnaire and interview guide, 

which sought answers to very pertinent questions relating to loud public prayers among 

the Pentecostal Churches on the University of Ghana, Legon campus, was designed for 

                                                        
24 Patrick Tetteh Kudadjie, ‘The Use of Cell Phones among Ghanaian Youth: Christian Ethical Perspectives’, 
M.Phil. thesis (University of Ghana, Legon 2010), 9. 
25 Norman Blaikie, Designing Social Research (New York: Polity Press, 2000), 232-3. 
26 Blaikie, Designing Social Research, 183. 

University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh



18 
 

members of the University community. Students, lecturers and researchers and other 

occupants were sampled.  

 

Since the study is interested in the theology and ethics of loud prayer as a Christian 

phenomenon by Pentecostal Churches on the University of Ghana campus, in 

administering the questionnaire, students from some halls within the University were 

considered. This was to sample responses of students to the phenomenon of loud Christian 

prayers on campus. To fairly represent the student body, the study considered students 

from Graduate hall: Valco Phase 1 and 2 and Legon Hall Annex B. A section was selected 

from Valco Phase 1 and 2 and Legon Hall Annex B respectively to represent the student 

population. Though there are some isolated places where such religious activities take 

place on the University of Ghana campus, these halls were chosen as a result of their 

closeness to the Sarbah field where religious activities such as loud public prayers 

normally take place, especially in the night. Questionnaires were administered to eighty-

nine (89) students. Out of the number, forty-three (43) were females and forty-six (46) 

were males. Of the general student respondents who responded to the questionnaires, 

seventeen (17) were from Valco Trust Phase One, ten (10) were from Valco Trust Phase 

Two, fourteen (14) were from Akuafo Hall, twenty-six (26) were from Mensah Sarbah 

Hall, one (1) was from Alex Kwapong Hall, one (1) from Evandy Hall, one (1) was from 

Jean Nelson Hall and nineteen (19) were from Legon Hall. Eight members of staffs of the 

University of Ghana, Legon were also interviewed in relation to the thesis. Some of the 

people interviewed included the Chairman of the Chaplaincy board, Secretary to the 

Chaplaincy board, Head of Security, Dean of Student affairs, Charismatic/Pentecostal 

prayer groups and leaders of such groups. The aim of interviewing some members of staff 

University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh



19 
 

of the University was to seek their views on the phenomenon under study and also sample 

their views on the possible solution to this phenomenon on campus. 

 

The Assemblies of God Campus Ministry (AGCM) and Pentecost Students and Associates 

(PENSA) prayer groups were interviewed in this regard because these groups can be 

categorized as Pentecostal churches and are usually found indulging in loud public prayers 

on campus. Interview with these groups were to sample their views on the theology and 

ethics of loud prayers as practiced by them on the University campus. The researcher also 

observed loud prayers as organized by individuals on the Mensah Sarbah field in order to 

be well informed about the phenomenon under study.  

 

1.7.1.2 Secondary Sources 

The secondary sources which formed the basis for the literature review comprised some 

published and unpublished materials, journal articles, the Bible, Bible commentaries and 

dictionaries, internet sources and newspapers that are related to the thesis. These sources 

helped in identifying and appreciating the traditional and contemporary association 

between loud Christian Prayer and communal living. 

 

1.7.2 Samples and Sampling Procedure  

The researcher employed the method of purposive sampling and social networking 

approach to gather data for this work. In purposive sampling, the units of the sample are 

selected not by a random procedure, but they are intentionally picked for study because of 

their features or because they satisfy certain qualities which are not randomly distributed 

in the universe, but they are typical or they exhibit most of the characteristics of interest to 

University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh



20 
 

the study.27 This approach was used in choosing the scope of study, religious groups to be 

interviewed and students from specific halls of residents because of special characteristics 

to the topic under discussion. This method was used in granting interviews to the Christian 

religious students, students, chaplaincy board, lecturers, researchers and other school 

authorities and as the interview progressed, there was the need to interview other people 

who may have close linkage to the topic under research.  

 

 

 

1.8 Limitations in Methodology and Possible Remedies 

It is not assumed that the methodology discussed above was without limitations. On 

account of the sensitive nature of the questions, especially in the questionnaire, 

respondents were likely to be restrained in their responses. This trend was minimized by 

using a variation of open and closed-ended questions. The close-ended questions enabled 

the respondents to choose from alternative responses. The open-ended questions, likely to 

be less sensitive ones, helped to reveal the amount of information the respondents 

possessed. Above all, the respondents were re-assured of the strictest confidentiality, 

which their information was accorded. 

 

The researcher distributed over hundred questionnaires for this research in order to make 

up for a substantial amount that could respond to the questionnaire. This is because it was 

difficult getting students to respond to the questionnaire as they appeared too busy to 

                                                        
27 Tom K.B Kumekpor, Research Methods & Techniques of Social Research (Accra: SonLife Press & 
Services, 2002), 138. 

University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh



21 
 

attend to other things. For this reason, the researcher distributed the questionnaires in the 

evenings when it was assumed most students would have retired to their rooms after 

studies and therefore, some could make time to respond to them. However, the evenings 

were no exception to their busy schedules as some were relaxing or having personal 

studies and did not readily want to respond to the questionnaire. The researcher had to 

spend some time with those who were responding to the questionnaire, in order to get their 

feedback soon after they had filled the questionnaire. Some of those who responded to the 

questionnaire chose multiple answers from the alternatives given and that made it 

challenging analyzing their views. Some of the respondents did not return their 

questionnaire and that affected the sample size that was originally intended for this work 

and thus, the sample size for the students’ respondents reduced. 

 

For the staff respondents, it was not too easy getting them for interviews as some seemed 

to be too busy with academic work and some had travelled. In this light, the researcher left 

a copy of the interview guide for them to be privy to the topic under discussion, so the 

researcher could get back to them when they were less busy. The researcher also sought 

their permission to record the interview in order to later listen to the conversation when 

not clear on an issue raised. Again, telephone communication was also vital to limit the 

limitation in my methodology as some of the staff could call on phone to explain 

information they were privy to in relation to the work. In the case of one of the staff 

respondents, her busy schedule made the researcher resort to an official complaint, she 

made to the Dean of Student Affairs since her views were also critical to this work. 

 

For the religious groups under study it was challenging having group leaders to interview 

as they were too busy after prayer sessions. In order to meet them, the researcher kept 

University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh



22 
 

interacting with them individually till the researcher could meet them as a group after their 

exams. Telephone conversations also helped in this manner as some of them were pressed 

for time. This however, increased the financial cost of research. 

  

1.9 Literature Review 

The literature review has been categorized into two, namely ethics and theology of prayer. 

The areas of ethics and theology of prayer are areas that have received wide publication 

from different perspectives. In the current review, some of the relevant works that deal 

with loud Christian prayers were looked at by paying attention to the main issues raised in 

the literature. It also focuses attention on what is known about the subject and also seeks to 

find gaps in the knowledge of the subject. We shall begin by defining the term “Ethics”. 

 

Ethics  

Ethics comes from the Greek word ethos, which means character. Ethics is the study of the 

concepts involved in practical reasoning: good, right, duty, obligation, virtue, freedom, 

rationality, choice.28 Ethics, as an area of study, has received varied opinions on what is 

morally right or wrong in respect to the conduct or actions people take. Ethics is a subject 

which has been and still is of an immense amount of difference of opinions, in spite of all 

the time and labor which have been devoted to the study of it.29 Ethics can therefore be 

said to be both an art and a science that is concerned with the process of determining right 

                                                        
28 Simon Blackburn, Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), 121. 
29 Moore, Principia Ethica, 1. 

University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh



23 
 

and wrong.30 It does involve some precision like the sciences, but like art, it is an inexact 

and sometimes intuitive discipline.31  

 

The main points of Scott B. Rae’s work, Moral Choices: An Introduction to Ethics, are on 

moral life and decision making32 and how in practical terms, most people would want to 

live in communities, where issues of morality are upheld. He categorizes ethical systems 

as either action-oriented systems or virtue based systems. These two major divisions can 

further be sub-divided into deontological systems, teleological systems and relativism. He 

defines deontological systems as ‘systems that are based on principles in which actions (or 

character, or even intentions) are inherently right or wrong.’33 To him, there are three 

primary deontological systems: divine command theory, natural law and ethical 

rationalism. According to him, ‘the Christian will tend to be more deontologically oriented 

because of the emphasis in Christian ethics on the commands of God as moral absolutes. 

Secondly he looks at teleological systems as one of the categories of ethical systems. He 

defines teleological systems as systems that are based on the end result produced by an 

action. If it produces more beneficial consequences than harmful consequences, then it is 

good. Third, relativism refers to an ethical system in which right and wrong are not 

absolute and unchanging but relative to one’s culture (cultural relativism) or one’s own 

personal preferences (moral subjectivism).34 

 

Rae recognizes that much of biblical ethics revolves around God’s specially revealed 

commands. Therefore many people will associate the divine command theory of ethics 
                                                        
30 Scott B. Rae, Moral Choices: An Introduction To Ethics (New York: Zondervan Publishing House, 1995), 
15. 
31 Rae, Moral Choices, 15. 
32 Rae, Moral Choices, 11. 
33 Rae, Moral Choices, 16. 
34 Rae, Moral Choices, 16-17. 

University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh



24 
 

with biblical ethics. This therefore poses the question: whether something is good because 

God commanded it or whether God commands something because it is good. The writer 

proposes that such a question cannot be adequately addressed without a consideration of 

natural law. 

 

Again, Rae ascertains that just as the Old Testament is not a systematic theology but a 

mixture of different theological emphases presented in a variety of literary styles, so too, 

the Old Testament is not a carefully arranged system of ethics, but a mixture of different 

types of moral reasoning. Rae makes mention of the Mosaic Law, as deontological in 

nature, as a guide to order the lives of the Israelites, the wisdom literature containing a 

measure of utilitarian reasoning. According to Rae, the Old Testament also appeals to 

natural law, where right and wrong are drawn from observations drawn from nature. The 

author indicates that ‘in the Old Testament, Israel was a theocracy, a nation in which the 

law of God was automatically the law of the land.  There was no distinction between law 

and morality, as one could find in a pluralistic society.35  

 

Rae makes reference to Jesus’ reinterpretation of deontology where Jesus essentially 

reinterpreted and reapplied the principles of the Law that were misused by the Pharisees. 

For instance, Matthew 12:1-14, talks about Jesus coming under attack from the Pharisees 

for healing a man with the withered hand on the Sabbath Day. In Rae’s words ‘Jesus was 

grieved at their blind adherence to rules and resulting lack of compassion for the man… 

He rejected a rigid and callous commitment to principles that were not consistent with the 

Law. He aimed for a deontology that accurately applied the Law, combining a 

                                                        
35 Rae, Moral Choices, 21. 

University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh



25 
 

commitment to principles with a compassion for people.’36 Rae talks about the 

delimitations of deontology, an example is when there is conflict of commands as in the 

case of Rahab in Joshua 2.  

 

Rae notes that Christian ethics from time immemorial was never intended to exist in a 

vacuum, isolated from other relevant ideas about right and wrong, rather it has interacted 

historically with other disciplines of morality. This is because ‘… any Christian ethic that 

is serious about being heard and having an influence in a secular world must interact with 

other major figures in the history of ethics.’37 In making ethical decisions, he proposes a 

seven-step model that one has to follow. First, he says one should gather the facts of the 

issue at hand, determine the ethical issues, one should ask oneself; what principles have a 

bearing on the case, list the alternatives, compare the alternatives with the principles, 

consider the consequences and finally make a decision.  

 

The relevance that Rae’s work brings to bear on the current work, in terms of the models 

he proposes, is for one to critically examine an act based on the merits and demerits before 

one considers it ethically right or wrong. Though Rae’s presentation on ethical theories is 

viewed from an ethical perspective, it is relevant to this work which is from a theological 

and ethical perspective. It has thrown light on ethical decision-making and some of the 

difficulties of applying them in decision-making. Rae’s views on obeying strict rules 

without exercising compassion on people as Jesus demonstrated by healing the man with 

the withered hand on the Sabbath day will help in the analysis of obeying scriptural laws 

when they do not conform to exercising compassion on others. Though Rae recognizes 

                                                        
36 Rae, Moral Choices, 28. 
37 Rae, Moral Choices, 44. 

University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh



26 
 

that a Christian will tend to be deontologically oriented towards what the Bible says, one 

cannot also act without love or compassion towards others as Jesus demonstrated.  

 

Kyle D. Fedler’s main goal in Exploring Christian Ethics: Biblical Foundations for 

Morality is to help one examine one’s own use of moral language and concepts so as to 

become more aware of how one makes ethical decisions and also to become familiar with 

the main doctrines of Christian ethics. Fedler noted the different approaches to ethical 

decision-making such as egoism, deontology, and utilitarianism. Fedler looked at their 

strengths and delimitations from the Christian perspective. Looking at virtue ethics, Fedler 

mentions that: 

Since Christian ethical thinking began, Christians have argued that it is not enough simply 
to follow a prescribed set of rules or even to do the right thing. One must also develop a 
certain set of character traits. To be a truly good person, it is not enough that one simply 
does the right things; one must also feel the right and do the right things with the right 
motives and intentions. In other words, one must possess a certain kind of character.38 

 

Fedler looks at some Christian virtues such as justice, faith, hope, love and other virtues 

that shape one’s very self, of developing a certain set of virtues, emotions, and dispositions 

as a Christian.39 Fedler further mentions the use of scripture and other sources of Christian 

Guidance. To put it in Fedler’s words, ‘These are the four recognized sources of Christian 

guidance or wisdom in the Christian tradition: the Bible, tradition, experience, and 

reason.’40 According to Fedler,  

The Bible is the life story of the people of Israel, Jesus Christ, and the early Christian 
church. But it is not merely the life story of a people; it is the story of their relationship 
with their God. It is through the stories of God’s dealings with the Jews and early 
Christians that we come to know who God is and what God wills. This is to say that God 
reveals God’s self in the history of these peoples.41 

                                                        
38 Kyle D. Fedler, Exploring Christian Ethics: Biblical Foundations for Morality (New York:  
Westminster John Knox Press, 2006), 33. 
39 Fedler, Exploring Christian Ethics, 48. 
40 Fedler, Exploring Christian Ethics, 51. 
41 Fedler, Exploring Christian Ethics, 52. 

University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh



27 
 

 
Fedler views tradition as one of the sources of Christian guidance or wisdom in the 

Christian tradition. The word tradition according to Fedler ‘comes from the Latin 

traducere, meaning to “to hand down.” It is the wisdom, knowledge, and methods of 

interpretation that have been handed down through the centuries.’42 Fedler asserts that in 

analyzing moral issues, one must interact with what other great thinkers of history have 

said about a particular issue, so that it does not sound like one is the first to be challenged 

with such an issue.43  

 

The role of experience in Christian ethics, according to Fedler, is quite controversial but it 

is a great source of moral guidance. Fedler asserts that one’s experiences shape one’s 

reading of Scripture. Also, experience might function as an independent source of 

knowledge. Fedler thinks that because no one comes to the reading of Scripture with a 

blank head, so do one’s experiences shape one’s reading of the scripture.44 Reason, as 

another source of Christian moral guidance, implies that anything that is internally 

inconsistent with whatever one does, then that act is wrong and vice versa.45 Christians 

also believe that as they receive Christ as their Lord and personal savior, the Holy Spirit 

now comes to live in them and convicts them of their wrong doings. So, Christians believe 

that it is the Holy Spirit in them that prompts their reasoning in the right way from wrong 

actions. 

 

Fedler analyses at love and some other virtues as Jesus’ model of the Christian life. Fedler 

demonstrates that loving God and one’s neighbor is central to Jesus’ teachings. In the 

                                                        
42 Fedler, Exploring Christian Ethics, 62. 
43 Fedler, Exploring Christian Ethics, 62-3. 
44 Fedler, Exploring Christian Ethics, 63. 
45 Fedler, Exploring Christian Ethics, 64. 

University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh



28 
 

author’s concluding remarks, she mentions that ‘What Christians believe about the 

character and will of God shapes our character and actions. How we view ourselves, other 

human beings, and the created world determines the kinds of lives we will try to live. 

Ethics and faith are essentially indistinguishable.’46  

 

Fedler’s work has helped in the discussion of the concepts of Christian ethics in chapter 

three of this work and how secular views on ethics have helped in shaping Christian 

ethical decision-making. In writing on love as a central virtue in Christian ethics it will 

help in the discussion of Christian ethical systems, recommendations, reflections and 

analysis of the field work in relation to loud prayers close to residencies and libraries, as 

found in chapter three (3), four (4) and five (5) of this work.  The issue of faith, as a 

central role in the lives of Christians, has also informed one of the reasons why Christian 

groups will resort to prayers wherever they find themselves, regardless of an academic 

setting such as this. 

 

Judith A. Boss is a moral philosopher who shares major concerns on moral issues. Boss 

asserts in Analyzing Moral Issues that moral theories are important in any ethical study.47 

According to Boss, real moral issues cannot be adequately discussed without looking at 

moral theories. This is because they help to reshape our worldview concerning some moral 

issues.48 

 

                                                        
46 Fedler, Exploring Christian Ethics, 205. 
47 Judith A. Boss, Analyzing Moral Issues (California: Mayfield Publisher, 1999), 4. 
48 Boss, Analyzing Moral Issues , 4. 

University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh



29 
 

Though Boss’ work on ethical issues is viewed from philosophical perspectives, it is 

relevant to the current work which is from a theological and ethical perspective. This is 

because according to Boss, it will be incomplete or inadequate to discuss real moral issues 

without a thorough discussion of ethical issues and also it has helped in the discussion of 

the concepts of ethics in chapter three of the current work which is from a theological and 

ethical perspective. Boss discusses some of the moral theories such as deontology, 

utilitarianism and virtue ethics. Boss asserts that ‘Deontological theories regard duty as the 

basis of morality. Duty, or doing what is right for its own sake, is the foundation of 

morality.’49 Boss sees justice as one of the prima facie duty and as a result, many 

philosophers consider it as the most important social duty, where it requires that each 

person is given equal concern.50  

 

Utilitarianism also considers the greater number of people who will be affected by an act 

to justify its rightness or wrongness. According to Boss ‘Virtue ethics emphasizes right 

being over right action… however, it is not an alternative to ethical theories that stress 

right conduct. Rather, virtue ethics and theories of right action complement each other.’51 

This is to suggest that not one ethical theory alone can guide one in making moral 

decisions as ethical decision making process requires a multidimensional approach 

because of the limitations each ethical theory poses.52 This assertion by Boss is critical to 

the current work as it seeks to demonstrate that ethical decision making processes may 

require diverse ethical approaches than just following one ethical approach in decision 

making. Also, though the current work dwells on Christian ethical perspectives, studies 

                                                        
49 Boss, Analyzing Moral Issues, 25. 
50 Boss, Analyzing Moral Issues, 28. 
51 Boss, Analyzing Moral Issues, 37. 
52 Boss, Analyzing Moral Issues, 41. 

University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh



30 
 

show that some Christians practically employ some of these ethical theories consciously or 

unconsciously as their ethical guidelines in life.  

 

Theology of Prayer 

Donald G. Bloesch’s book, The Struggle of Prayer is intended as a theology of prayer and 

not as a practical guide for the development of the life of prayer.53 Bloesch’s writing sets 

out to correct any association of mystical prayer with biblical prayer. Bloesch, thinks that 

new meaning of prayer as the “means of ecstatic release from the stress of daily living” or 

as “… an experience of self-awareness by which one enters into the inner sanctum of the 

soul” is different from the biblical perspective of prayer. This view is also supported by 

Paul Johnson in his book, Psychology of Religion.54 Bloesch asserts that ‘Christian prayer 

rests upon the irreversible fact of the self-revelation of God in Jesus Christ and its 

confirmation in our hearts by the Holy Spirit.’55 The emphasis of the Holy Trinity in 

Christian prayer is much emphasized by the author. He also looks at the two main 

categories of Christian prayer and asserts that it could be both private and public, but it is 

not exclusively either of these. Christian prayer is deeply personal, but it is not 

individualistic.56 

 

Bloesch looks at some of the contributing factors of unanswered prayers, to be that of 

doubting God, enmity with our neighbors and that faith plays a crucial role in the 

answering of Christian prayer. The Lord’s Prayer, according to the author, is a model of 

how Christians should pray, and not necessarily the exact words to say when praying. 

                                                        
53 Donald G. Bloesch, The Struggle of Prayer (San Francisco: Harper & Row Publishers, 1980), ix. 
54 Johnson, E. Paul, Psychology of Religion (New York: Abingdon-Cokesbury Press, 2004), 122. 
55 Bloesch, The Struggle of Prayer, 26. 
56 Bloesch, The Struggle of Prayer, 40. 

University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh



31 
 

According to Bloesch, the ultimate goal of the life of prayer is the glorification of God and 

the advancement of the kingdom of God and that it is kingdom service that gives glory to 

God.57 

 

Donald G. Bloesch’s view on Christian prayer is to a large extent useful to the current 

work as it reflects the theological basis of Christian prayer. He discusses some of the key 

principles of Christian prayer to be the Holy Trinity (God the Father, Son and Holy Spirit) 

and their respective roles in Christian prayer and as their function may inter-lap they are 

seen as three in one God. He demonstrates why some Christian prayers are not answered 

by God due to one doubting to receive one’s needs  or one having enmity with one’s 

neighbor. The application of Bloesch idea of the critical role faith plays in Christian prayer 

to the work is that, God listens to our prayers even when we do not voice it, though it may 

please God we interact with Him as our father.  

 

Bloesch affirms that the ultimate goal of the life of prayer is the glorification of God and 

the progression of his kingdom.58 Glorifying God does not readily come up in good times 

only but also in challenging situations, believing that God’s glory will be made manifest in 

the lives of Christians. This assertion is affirmed by Hubert van Zeller’s contention that 

the end of prayer is to glorify God59 as one will find Christians usually spending some 

ample time glorifying God during prayer sessions before any other petitions are brought 

before God.   

 

                                                        
57 Bloesch, The Struggle of Prayer, 158. 
58 Bloesch, The Struggle of Prayer, 71, 158. 
59 Zeller, Approach to Prayer, 20. 

University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh



32 
 

Salvation and preservation in this world is a worthy goal in prayer, so long as this does not 

become the paramount concern of prayer.60 Christians believe that to be saved on earth 

and in heaven amount to having good life that includes good health, academic excellence, 

good marriages and many other more as they ask God in prayers in the hope of having a 

much glorious life in heaven. The gifts of the Spirit are also important reasons why 

Christians pray. It is true that if we have the Holy Spirit we will also have his gifts, among 

which are perfect love, fortitude, wisdom, humility, inner peace, and joy.61 These gifts of 

the Holy Spirit are to enable one live a victorious life here on earth by being at peace with 

God and human beings. 

 

The essence of true prayer is heartfelt supplication, bringing before God one’s innermost 

needs and requests in the confident expectation that God will hear and answer. 62 One 

cannot ignore the fact that the human life is full of ups and downs and prayer provides one 

the opportunity to ask God for what one needs as human and in the hope that God is able 

to provide all that we ask for so long as it is in conformity with his will. This view is 

supported by Johnson that ‘No psychology of prayer can overlook needs, for every prayer 

comes to focus upon a need. The range of human needs vary with the specific situations in 

which people find themselves, from the elemental physical needs for maintaining life to 

the more sophisticated needs.’63 Some Christians believe that rather than go about telling 

people about their problems and be ridiculed; it is better to tell someone who is able to 

meet their needs and has them at heart. 

 

                                                        
60 Bloesch, The Struggle of Prayer, 159. 
61 Bloesch, The Struggle of Prayer, 160. 
62 Bloesch, The Struggle of Prayer, 67. 
63 Paul E. Johnson Johnson, Psychology of Religion (New York: Abingdon-Cokesbury Press, 2004), 114. 

University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh



33 
 

Bradley C. Hanson, in his work Introduction to Christian Theology justifies the 

prominence of prayer as the most predominant devotional act among Christians64 and even 

those who patronize corporate prayer and its sacraments continue to pray. Hanson 

acknowledges that one’s conception of the ultimate reality says a great deal of how one 

performs his or her prayer. One’s relationship with God also depicts the manner in which 

one practices his or her prayer. The act of praying according to him, ‘… assumes that 

ultimate reality is an Other to whom one can speak and from whom a response may be 

sought.’65 

 

According to Hanson, one can grasp a better understanding of prayer if it is thought of as 

an activity or relationship with four dimensions which may be present all together as 

aspects of one’s whole communication with God. The first dimension is speaking to God 

which Hanson recognizes as the most common aspect of prayer, where the one praying 

expresses his or her thoughts in words either loudly or silently. Hanson thinks that it is not 

enough for people to equate prayer, only with speaking with God. The second dimension 

of prayer identified by Hanson is listening to God. ‘Christian meditation also involves the 

use of words and thoughts as a person reflects on his or her life in relationship to God. 

Common forms of Christian meditation are to ponder a passage in Scripture, some event in 

the life of Jesus, or some personal experience.  

 

The third dimension of prayer is contemplation or contemplative prayer. This is the 

awareness of God’s presence, and in some instances words recede and may cease 

altogether, yet there is consciousness of the presence of God. Contemplative prayer is also 

                                                        
64 Bradly C.Hanson, Introduction To Christian Theology (New York: Zondervan, 1997), 300.  
65 Hanson, Introduction To Christian Theology, 300.  

University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh



34 
 

‘….unusually sensitive to the absence of God and the human inability to grasp God in 

human ideas and words.’66 The fourth dimension of prayer is the communal dimension in 

which humans support and teach each other. In this sense, prayer does not include only 

relationship with God but also having relationship with others. This communal aspect is 

usually expressed through intercessory prayer where one prays on behalf of others. ‘In less 

obvious ways, all prayer has a communal dimension, for even when a solitary person 

prays in the name of Jesus, she or he has learned to pray in this manner from other 

Christians.’67 

 

Hanson’s dimension on prayer as speaking to God, listening to God, contemplation or 

contemplative, and communal prayer is to a large extent useful to the current work. It 

reveals that Christian prayer is not all about speaking to God but also listening to God to 

speak back to His people after prayer. The essence of praying on behalf of others who may 

not necessarily be present is also critical to the current work as it brings out the communal 

aspects of praying out in a group.  This is why private and public prayer should not be 

seen exclusively to each other. One’s conception of prayer influences how one prays and 

is crucial to this work as it brings to bear some of the reasons why people resort to loud 

prayers as evident on the University of Ghana campus. 

 

Another work is Hubert van Zeller’s Approach to Prayer. It sets out to write on the 

theology of prayer, the need of prayer, its experience and influence.68 According to Zeller, 

the one condition of the approach to prayer is the desire to get in touch with God.69 Zeller 

                                                        
66 Hanson, Introduction To Christian Theology, 301. 
67 Hanson, Introduction To Christian Theology, 302. 
68 Hubert van Zeller, Approach to Prayer (London: Sheed and Ward, 1979), ix. 
69 Zeller, Approach to Prayer, 1. 

University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh



35 
 

mentions that it is by the grace of God that one is able to love God and wants to commune 

with Him in prayer. Zeller indicates that this grace is sufficient for all and not reserved for 

some few.70 This grace gives the opportunity to all to come before God in prayer, in the 

hope that their prayers will be heard. 

 

Zeller remarks that before the fall of Adam and Eve, humanity could communicate to God 

directly but now, prayer has become an effort of faith, hope and love.71 Zeller states that 

‘A man’s faith is consequently the measure of his prayer, and his prayer is the sign of his 

faith and love. Thus the level at which the soul lives is conditioned by the life of faith and 

the life of prayer.’72 Faith, to Zeller, is the starting point of a successful prayer. Zeller also 

lays emphasis on love as one of the basis by which one approaches the throne of grace. 

This is because if one loves God, one will desire to consistently communicate with God. 

Zeller also comments that ‘We do not pray so as to bring God’s will into line with our 

own; we pray, and our own will is raised to the level at which His will is accepted and 

followed and loved.’73 Zeller indicates that one of the most noticeable effects of prayer is a 

growing conviction of God’s immanence74 where the believer believes that God’s 

presence is ever-recurring. 

 

Zeller remarks that the place of prayer has significance as one can find evidences in the 

Old Testament; where Abraham was told to take his son Isaac to a certain place where his 

faith was to be tested. Jesus himself decided to choose any one place over the other when 

he wanted to pray. To put it in Zeller’s words ‘Experience seems to show that certain 

                                                        
70 Zeller, Approach to Prayer, 1. 
71 Zeller, Approach to Prayer, 3. 
72 Zeller, Approach to Prayer, 7. 
73 Zeller, Approach to Prayer, 63-4. 
74Zeller, Approach to Prayer, 66.  

University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh



36 
 

settings offer a particular attraction for prayer.’75 This work will inform the current work 

on the theology and ethics of prayer as mention is made of the suitability of a place of 

prayer which is devoid of causing undue disadvantages, especially to those who are not 

part of the group. 

 

James F. White in his work Introduction to Christian Worship discusses what he thought 

is the historical background of daily public prayer. White observes that it is quite possible 

that non-Christians gain most of their impressions of Christian worship by noticing the 

holy days their Christian neighbors keep and the buildings Christians frequent on such 

days. But the community gathered for Christian worship relies even more heavily on two 

other forms of communication: the spoken word and the acted sign. To put it in White’s 

words, ‘The importance for worship with words and acts should not surprise us; they are 

the primary ways people relate to one another. Sayings and doing are as vital in our 

relating to God through worship as these activities are for our communicating with other 

humans. The Creator knows us best, and God communicates with us through words and 

actions, using human speech and acts.’76  

 

As part of the historical background of daily public prayer, White notes that knowledge of 

the daily worship of the earliest Christians is meager. Apparently, the Jewish customs 

could be cited as an example of how its adherents set prayer at certain times as early 

evidences of the gradual development of private devotions for individual Christians.77 Late 

in the first century or early in the second, the Didache (the teachings of the apostles) 

                                                        
75 Zeller, Approach to Prayer, 94. 
76 James F. White, Introduction to Christian Worship (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 2000), 131. 
77 White, Introduction to Christian Worship, 132. 

University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh



37 
 

advised Christians to pray the Lord’s Prayer three times a day.78 Others sought disciplines 

in the Bible itself as ways to make the scriptural injunction to “pray without ceasing” (1 

Thessalonians 5: 17) practical. Psalm 55: 17 suggested “evening and morning and at 

noon,” and Daniel prayed three times a day (Daniel 6: 10).79 Psalm 119: 164 mentioned 

“seven times a day I praise you for your righteous ordinances” and verse 62 added “At 

midnight I rise to praise you.”80  

 

According to White, although the proper number of times during the day concerned many 

early Christian writers, Clement of Alexandria felt that Christians should pray throughout 

one’s life, Tertulian and Cyprain called for prayer thrice during the day and many other 

recommendations. In addition, there were daily meeting for directions and prayer as well 

as daily services of prayer and praise in the chief church of a city, attended by all 

Christians. In White’s words evidences about these services mounted as we look to the 

fourth century A.D. and the growing respectability of Christianity after persecution 

ceased.81 White’s theological reflections on daily prayer have to be seen in the totality of 

the Christian life to see what is significant and distinctive about it. He writes; 

Daily public prayer has a different and more personal focus: our response in praise to God 
in the midst of daily life…. Thus it is a sharing of our words to God in a corporate fashion. 
Even though common forms must be used to make it fully communal, each of us supplies 
the gifts for which we give thanks, the complaints that we express, the joys for which we 
give praise. This ability to express ourselves in the setting of daily life makes daily public 
prayer distinctive.82  

 

White also argues that there is the matter of balance between public prayer and private 

prayer. It is assumed that public prayer is usually accompanied by prayer in private at 

                                                        
78 White, Introduction to Christian Worship, 132. 
79 White, Introduction to Christian Worship, 132. 
80 White, Introduction to Christian Worship, 133. 
81 White, Introduction to Christian Worship, 133. 
82 White, Introduction to Christian Worship, 146-7. 

University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh



38 
 

other occasions during the day. Neither replaces the other; each strengthens its companion. 

We must, then, see private prayer as the other end of the same pole, not as distinct from 

public prayer. Private prayer brings energy and focus to public prayer. In any case, public 

prayer provides a good balance for private prayer for Christians. We do not pray against 

people but for them and with them. And we need the discipline of public prayer to make 

our own private prayers fully Christian. Otherwise they may stray from the mark and voice 

private fantasies and aberrations.’83  

 

Although White’s work presents a historical background of daily public prayer and the 

current work is viewed from a theological and ethical perspective, it will help in the 

discussion of the relevance of meeting daily to pray as a group as practiced by Christian 

groups of the University of Ghana campus. He mentions that the community gathered for 

Christian worship relies even more heavily on two other forms of communication: the 

spoken word and the acted sign as they are primary ways by which we relate to God and to 

humans. Daily prayer to White is distinct as one is able to communicate with God in spite 

of the changing faces of life. White’s advice that public prayers should not be seen as 

replacing private prayer but they should be seen complementing each other. White’s view 

on daily public prayers has also informed why Christian groups meet on daily basis to 

pray, irrespective of an academic setting such as this. 

 

1.10 Organization of Chapters  

The thesis is organized into five (5) chapters. Chapter 1 which is the Introduction gives a 

general introduction to the background to the study, indicating the statement of problem, 

the objectives of the study, research questions to be addressed and the methodology 
                                                        
83 White, Introduction to Christian Worship, 147. 

University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh



39 
 

adopted to achieve the objectives of the research. It also presents the scope of the study, 

research design and methodology adopted to achieve the objectives. This was followed by 

literature review, organization of chapters, and significance of the study. 

 

Chapter 2 discusses prayer as a Christian phenomenon. It introduces what Christian prayer 

means based on scholarly materials – it also looks at the diverse ways by which Christians 

pray and the significance of prayer. It also looks at Jesus’ teachings on prayer and how it 

can be applied to a given context. This is to inform the work on the theology behind prayer 

as a Christian practice and why Christians resort to the type of prayer they practice, 

especially from the Pentecostal groups. 

Chapter three looks at some foundations for Christian (theological) moral decision-

making, such as deontological theories, utilitarianism and virtue ethics that has to do with 

virtues such as love, justice and a sense of community in guiding one’s decision making, 

especially in multi-religious setting like the University of Ghana, Legon. The chapter also 

looks at foundation of Christian ethics because we are looking at a Christian phenomenon. 

 

Chapter four examines loud Christian prayer in terms of its impacts and responses on the 

University of Ghana campus, and discusses the theological and ethical issues that are 

involved in loud public prayer as a religious practice on the campus. This discussion is 

grounded on Christian virtues such as love, justice and a sense of community in guiding 

the Christian conduct. 

Chapter five is the concluding chapter comprising the summary, suggestions or 

recommendations. 

 

University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh



40 
 

1.11 Significance of the study 

A theological and ethical study such as this has many benefits. The study has both 

academic and practical relevance. First of all, the researcher widens his or her academic 

knowledge as the work progresses to completion. 

 

The research seeks to add to existing knowledge in the field of ethics and theology of loud 

public prayers and thereby advancing such knowledge, particularly in the case of Ghana. 

Again, the research will contribute to knowledge on how to use the Christian ethical norms 

to address loud Christian prayers. The findings of the research will also be useful to the 

school authorities, the chaplaincy board, religious groups, students and other members of 

the University community as well as the general public. This work will help evaluate the 

effect of religion on society. 

 

In Scott B Rae’s words ‘most people would not want to live in a society in which morality 

was unimportant, in which conceptions of right or wrong carried little weight.’84 This is 

because such a society with individuals of this kind of thinking and perceptions would be 

prone to all kinds of oppression, chaos, violence and the like. People face moral choices in 

their everyday lives and it is important that the moral choices they make are governed by 

ethical reasons.85 Therefore there is the need to look at ethical issues involved in one’s bid 

to express one’s religiosity through prayers, in order to guide one’s decision-making, 

especially where there seems to be conflicting interest in the exercise of one’s religion and 

the society’s code of conduct. 

 

                                                        
84 Rae, Moral Choices, 12. 
85 Rae, Moral Choices, 12. 

University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh



41 
 

The work also brings to bear some of the challenges involved in carrying out one’s 

religious duty such as loud prayer, especially in an academic institution such as this and 

explore some Christian theological and moral interventions towards organized prayers on 

the University of Ghana campus. The researcher believes the recommendations could be 

applied to similar circumstances as we find in various communities in Ghana where 

churches are organized in residential areas. 

 

1.12 Conclusion 

This chapter gives the general background to the thesis. The general overview of issues 

that give a clearer picture or understanding to the statement of problem which is the focus 

of the thesis has been provided. The statement of problem, aims and objectives of the 

study, the scope of the study, the niche to be filled have also been presented. The chapter 

then continues with methods and the design the research employed. The researcher 

resorted largely to interviews, observations, looking at materials theologians have written 

on prayer in the data collection. Again, the challenges encountered in the use of each 

method and how they influenced the outcome of the research have also been presented.  

 

 

 

 

 

 

University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh



42 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

CHAPTER TWO 

PRAYER AS A CHRISTIAN PHENOMENON 

 

2.1 Introduction 

Prayer is a subject that has received varied opinions from diverse groups of people. 

Although this thesis focuses on prayer from the Christian perspective, it is significant to 

note that prayer is well patronized by members of other religions such as Islam and 

African traditional religions, even though their doctrines on prayer may be varied. This 

chapter seeks to look at the whole concept of prayer as a Christian phenomenon and it 

deals with five main issues. First, it discusses the concept of prayer and some key elements 

in prayer as a Christian practice. Secondly, it looks at the various types of prayer as 

practiced by Christians, and their importance to practitioners who resort to them. Thirdly, 

it describes how prayer is performed by Christians. It also discusses Jesus’ teachings in 

relation to the type of prayer practiced among Christians on the University of Ghana 

campus. The chapter concludes with the essence and role of prayer in the lives of 

Christians. 

University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh



43 
 

 

2.2 The Concept of Prayer as a Christian Phenomenon 

In the Bible, prayer is the spiritual response (spoken and unspoken) to God, who is known 

not merely to exist, but also, to have revealed Himself and to have invited His creatures 

into communion with Himself.86 Thus prayer covers a wide spectrum of addressing and 

hearing God, interceding with and waiting for the Lord, and contemplating and petitioning 

the Father in Heaven.87 According to Bradley C. Hanson, ‘Prayer is the most prevalent 

devotional act among Christians. Polls show that even most of those people who drop out 

of corporate Christian worship and its sacraments continue to pray.’88  

 

Prayer in the Bible addresses the personal God who reveals Himself to human beings, 

created in His image.89 Christian prayer is born out of the realization that human beings, in 

and of themselves, are incapable of saving themselves from the forces of darkness within 

and about them. In genuine prayer, Christians come to God with empty hands trusting 

solely in His mercy.90 Yet, in another sense, Christians also come before the throne of God 

with full hands, full of the promises of God. Christians come empty of things but full of 

faith and hope. Christians do not bring God offerings that can win His favor, but they do 

bring before Him the petition of earnest heart.  

 

Prayer involves both waiting on God and striving to make one’s needs and requests known 

to Him. Before Christians make meaningful petitions, they are to pray that the Spirit might 

                                                        
86 J.D Douglas & Merrill C. Tenney (eds), New International Bible Dictionary: Based on the NIV (New 
York: Zondervan, 1987), 817. 
87 Douglas & Tenney (eds), New International Bible Dictionary, 817. See also Bradly C. Hanson, 
Introduction To Christian Theology (New York: Zondervan, 1997), 301. 
88 Bradly C. Hanson, Introduction To Christian Theology (New York: Zondervan, 1997), 300. 
89 E.P Clowney, ‘Prayer’ in T. Desmond Alexander & Brain S. Rosner (eds), New Dictionary of Biblical 
Theology (England: Inter-Varsity Press, 2008), 691-696, 691. 
90 Donald G. Bloesch, The Struggle of Prayer (San Francisco: Harper & Row Publishers, 1980), 19. 

University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh



44 
 

lead them in prayer. Christians must wait in silence for His Spirit to come to them and 

work within them. Following our requests, we should then look forward to God’s answer: 

“Morning by morning I lay my requests before you and wait in expectation” (Psalm 5:3).91 

Some Christians believe that in order to acquire something great from God it requires that 

one continuously go to God in prayer with all seriousness and not with a calm attitude. 

Others also believe that the attitude one sends to God in prayer does not matter but rather 

God can hear one even when the person is groaning. In either ways, one thinks God hears 

the prayers of his children and it is left to His discretion to answer their prayers and how 

He will answer them is left for God to decide. 

 

God is believed to speak to Christians during prayers and there is the need to apportion 

some time for God to speak back to the one praying. This is readily demonstrated in some 

Christian prayer groups, where some period of silence is observed for God to speak back 

to His people through the manifestations of the Holy Spirit on one or more of the people 

present, as to what God has for them. 

 

‘Prayer understood as the pouring out of the soul before God is indissolubly related to 

faith.’92 Quoting Richard Sibbes, Bloesch indicates that “prayer is…the voice of faith, the 

flame of faith”. If we have faith... we will pray; the more faith, the more we pray; the 

greater faith the greater prayer.”93 Hubert van Zeller re-echoes the fact that ‘A man’s faith 

is consequently the measure of his prayer, and his prayer is the sign of his faith and love. 

Thus, the level at which the soul exists is conditioned by the life of faith and the life of 

prayer. Just as there can be no prayer where there is no faith, so there can be no 

                                                        
91 Bloesch, The Struggle of Prayer, 62-3. 
92 Bloesch, The Struggle of Prayer, 19. 
93 Quoting Richard Sibbes in Bloesch, The Struggle of Prayer, 19-20. 

University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh



45 
 

supernatural conceptions of God without faith.’94 Faith therefore plays a crucial role in the 

prayer of Christians as it assures the believer that his or her needs will be met according to 

God’s own discretion.  

Christians pray in the hope that what they ask for will be granted to them by God. They 

believe that once they ask in the name of Jesus, they will receive (Matt. 7:7). Faith plays a 

major role for a prayer to be successful as one is expected to rely solely on the discretion 

of God for one’s prayers to be answered. Christian prayer arises out of love and faith. The 

element of need is always present, but it is a need illumined by faith and subordinated to 

the will and glory of God.95 In Christian prayer, one is aware of one’s fallible nature in the 

sight of God, and one asks for His cleansing and mercy, as one confesses them in prayer. 

In Christianity, prayer is the miracle of God’s intervening grace and therefore one cannot 

force God but can only plead that God’s will be done.96 

 

Quoting Shorter, Heiler defines prayer as the expression of the faith, the life, work and 

ruling motive of the religious believer.97 Bradley C. Hanson shares similar assertion that 

‘Participating in the very act of prayer says a great deal about one’s conception of ultimate 

reality.’98 This could mean that prayer provides one access to one’s object of worship, in a 

form of communication. It could also mean that what one believes could influence what 

one professes in prayer. For instance, if one has the faith that God is able to forgive sins, 

the person professes it through prayer for forgiveness. If one believes that God is able to 

heal, prayer becomes a medium to ask for healing. Fred Cloud asserts that prayer, for 

                                                        
94 Hubert van Zeller, Approach to Prayer (London: Sheed and Ward, 1979), 7. 
95 Bloesch, The Struggle of Prayer, 20. 
96 Bloesch, The Struggle of Prayer, 20. 
97 Shorter, Prayer in the Religious Traditions of Africa, 1. 
98 Bradly C. Hanson, Introduction To Christian Theology (New York: Zondervan, 1997), 300. 

University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh



46 
 

Christians, as for practitioners of other religions, is essential for the health of the human 

spirit, just as breathing is for the body.99  

 

Prayer takes many forms: invocation, praise, thanksgiving, confession, supplication, 

intercession, oblation and others. Each of these operates in a somewhat different way, yet, 

what they all have in common is the creature’s voice to the Creator. We may beg for 

forgiveness, offer praise, or plead for someone else in prayer, but whatever the function, 

the methods are similar: it all culminates in the articulation of deeply felt human needs as 

we confess, rejoice, or beg.100 Fred Cloud notes that group prayers are voiced by families 

and groups of friends; in churches, synagogues, temples; in the natural world; and in 

gatherings of persons dedicated to working for peace and social justice and the meeting of 

urgent human needs.101  

 

With regard to the place and time of prayer, a Christian can pray anywhere, anytime that 

they find the need for it. It is worth-mentioning Stassen and Gushee’s practical view on 

the times for prayer: 

You may do this in the morning before the rush of the day makes you more task-oriented. 
Sometimes your priorities for the day come into your mind, and you let them be examined 
by God in God’s presence. The result may be change in priorities, or an acceptance of your 
limits that you have not been accepting. You yield your life and your concerns to God. The 
virtues of yieldedness, surrender and humility in God’s presence are the base of the 
spiritual life and of the character that seeks the reign of God. Others may find time during 
or before the lunch break, or at night when you can review what was to be thankful for 
during this day, and what there was you could learn from and do better next time. Let all 
this be examined in God’s compassionate and forgiving presence. And give thanks for the 
mustard seeds of God’s reign, present in very small but grace-giving ways. This may not 

                                                        
99 Fred Cloud, ‘Prayer’ in Daniel Patte (ed.), The Dictionary of Christianity (New York: Cambridge 
University  
Press, 2010), 1001. 
100 James F. White, Introduction to Christian Worship (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 2000), 168. 
101 Cloud, ‘Prayer’, 1001. 

University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh



47 
 

come easily at first. But slowly, or maybe even suddenly, you will experience a closer 
relation with the presence of God.102 
 
 

Concerning the length of prayers, Bloesch puts it that ‘…the saints, through the ages, 

generally advocated short prayers rather than lengthy ones. Jesus, who alone embodied 

perfect holiness, gave this warning: “When you pray, do not use a lot of meaningless 

words, as the pagans do, who think that God will hear them because their prayers are 

long” (Matthew 6:7).’103 Lengthy prayers are not to be ruled out altogether in the Christian 

life, but they should be considered more the exception than the rule. Many of the great 

saints are said to have spent hours in deep and fervent prayer and in reverent reflection on 

God’s Word. In the Bible, Jesus passed whole nights in prayer and meditation. David 

fasted and prayed for one week (2 Samuel 12:16-23).104 One can pray as long as one wants 

to and as led by the Spirit of God but should avoid repeating words without attaching 

importance to them. It is helpful to cultivate the habit of prayer, whether in bad or good 

times. 

 

Christians generally believe that the success of one’s prayers is tied to the decision of God. 

They affirm that God will respond to the prayers of the faithful, but He will answer in His 

own way and in His own time. He will often give one beyond what one asks for.105 

However, God may also answer with a refusal. He will not reject one’s prayer, but He may 

well reject the way one wishes one’s prayer to be answered.106 Christians believe that God 

is able to do all things but there are times that he exercises his own discretion, without 

necessarily doing what one desires most because he knows all things and what is best for 

                                                        
102 Glen H. Stassen & David P. Gushee, Kingdom Ethics: Following Jesus in Contemporary Context 
(Downers Gove, Illinois: InterVarsity Press, 2003), 455-6. 
103 Bloesch, The Struggle of Prayer, 60. 
104 Bloesch, The Struggle of Prayer, 61. 
105 Bloesch, The Struggle Of Prayer, 91. 
106 Bloesch, The Struggle Of Prayer, 91. 

University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh



48 
 

us at each given point in time of one’s life. One would often find some Christians ending 

their prayers with “Let your will be done”.107 So God is not expected to do things one’s 

way but according to his will, which is believed to be perfect for all. 

 

Though faith plays a role in making a prayer to be successful, one is also expected to take 

up steps to ensure that it happens in reality and not only in the spirit. For instance, if one 

has the dream of attaining higher education, one is expected to make the effort to study. At 

the Assemblies of God Church’s “Examination Prayers” organized for students, though 

the students recognized the spiritual side to excel academically, the leader of the group 

also drew the minds of the people to study hard to show themselves approved as God is 

the giver of wisdom and all things that one needs to excel in life.108 

 

Some Christians also believe that for their prayers to be successful, they must recognize 

God’s greatness in all they do and not taking God’s glory. For instance, before the 

preacher begins to preach he prays that the glory of God may come mightily that the 

people present may see His glory and glorify Him at the end of it all. Some preachers also 

have people praying on their behalf while they are preaching because they recognize that 

they cannot do anything by their own might, but rather by the power of God. 

 

It is also worth noting that there is the understanding among Christians that at times, 

prayers go unanswered.109 Christians believe that prayers can sometimes remain 

unanswered based on certain reasons. Doubt could be one of the reasons why prayers may 

                                                        
107 Augustine Stock, The Method and Message of Matthew (Minnesota: The Liturgical Press, 1994), 102. See 
also Bloesch, The Struggle Of Prayer, 44. 
108 Observation, Agnes Quansah, University of Ghana, Legon, 30 April 2012. 
109 Bloesch, The Struggle Of Prayer, 44. 

University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh



49 
 

not be answered, where one does not believe that one’s request will be granted.110 One 

could draw references from the Bible to demonstrate that God sometimes does not answer 

prayers. One could readily talk of David’s cry unto God in order for his child with 

Bathsheba to be healed but God refused because the child was born out of adultery (2 

Samuel 12:16-23).  Enmity with one’s neighbor can also be a reason why one’s prayers 

may be rejected by God (Matthew 5:21-26).111  

 

2.3 Purpose of Christian Prayer 

Prayer plays significant roles in the lives of Christians but the ultimate goal that could 

quickly come to mind concerning Christian prayer is to glorify God.112 Glorifying God 

does not readily come up in good times only but also in challenging situations, with the 

belief that God’s glory will be made manifest in the lives of Christians. Christians glorify 

God in the midst of challenges believing that God will cause a change in their lives. 

Christians also glorify God for what he is capable of doing in their lives and that of their 

loved ones. This assertion is affirmed by Hubert van Zeller, when he states that ‘the end of 

prayer is the glory of God.’113 In agreement with Zeller, Bloesch also agrees that ‘In all 

Christian prayer the overriding motivation is to glorify God and to discover his will for our 

lives. We glorify God by seeking to know his will, by beseeching him to disclose his will 

to us. We also glorify God when we seek his aid in order to accomplish his will.’114 In all 

Christian prayer the overriding motivation is to glorify God and to discover his will for 

one’s life. 

 

                                                        
110 Bloesch, The Struggle Of Prayer, 45. 
111 Bloesch, The Struggle Of Prayer, 45. 
112 Zeller, Approach to Prayer, 20. 
113 Zeller, Approach to Prayer, 20. 
114 Bloesch, The Struggle of Prayer, 71. 

University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh



50 
 

Prayer also gives Christians the opportunity to tell God anything that makes them 

uncertain of a bright future and to lay all burdens upon the Lord in order to face the 

uncertainties of life in all boldness in Christ Jesus. This view is re-echoed by Paul E. 

Johnson that ‘Prayer in faith and hope releases tensions, brings peace of mind, disposes of 

worry and fear, undergirds insecurity with basic confidence.’115 Also to Zeller, ‘One of the 

most noticeable effects of prayer is a growing conviction of God’s immanence…. The 

realization that God pervades his universe is deepened by, and itself deepens, the prayer of 

God’s presence.’116 This could be one of the underlining factors why Christian religious 

groups pray for some form of transformation in their lives because they believe that God is 

able to transcend all of human needs and capable to do all that one may ask for in His 

name 

 

2.4 Forms of Christian Prayer 

Christian prayer can be both private and public, but it is not entirely either of these. It is 

deeply personal, but it is not necessarily individualistic. It may invariably assume 

corporate expression, but the personal element is never missing in true prayer. Even when 

prayer is private, it is offered in the body of Christ through the One Spirit who dwells in 

all the members.117 There is also the issue of balance between public prayer and private 

prayer. Neither replaces the other; each strengthens its companion.118 Christian prayers are 

also performed through several ways and Christian groups of the University of Ghana 

campus are no exception to this. We shall also look at why some Christians prefer one 

form to the other.  

                                                        
115 Paul E. Johnson, Psychology of Religion (New York: Abingdon-Cokesbury Press, 2004), 122. 
116 Hubert van Zeller, Approach to Prayer (London: Sheed and Ward, 1979), 66. 
117 Bloesch, The Struggle of Prayer, 40. 
118 James F. White, Introduction To Christian Worship (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 2000), 147. 

University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh



51 
 

 

2.4.1 Public Prayer  

Public prayer is where two or more persons meet to pray for a common goal.119 This could 

be on a regular basis or occasionally. The prayer group of this kind usually has leaders 

who raise prayer topics and the whole group responds accordingly.120 The venue for such 

prayers can be in an open space or in an enclosure. The leader is usually expected to raise 

his or her voice for all present to hear and pray in like manner. For this reason, the 

Assemblies of God Campus Ministry prayer group and the Pentecost Students Association 

(both of the University of Ghana) are found grouped in circle forms with the leader in the 

middle directing the prayer group on prayer topics.  

 

When prayer groups meet, they do not pray to seek their own interest but also intercede for 

other people who may be of concern to them. They also intercede for each other’s burdens 

and collectively thank God for his many blessings upon their lives. With Pentecostals, 

mentioning people or groups by name and praying for specific needs in the world is more 

common to find. For instance, the Assemblies of God Campus Ministry has specific day(s) 

set aside for fasting and prayers towards the end of semester examination. Also, if one of 

the group members is suffering from any illness, that person is called upon and prayed for. 

The Bible is very clear on the power of intercessory prayer.121 The prayers of Abraham for 

the people of Sodom (Genesis 18:23-33) and of Moses for Israel (Exodus 32:11-14) are 

classic models of intercession. 

 

                                                        
119 Bradley C. Hanson, Introduction To Christian Theology (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1997),302. 
120 Observation, Quansah, Agnes, Assemblies of God Campus Ministry (AGCM) and Pentecost Students and 
Associates (PENSA), University of Ghana, Legon, Accra, 16th December 2012. 
121 Bloesch, The Struggle of Prayer, 88. 

University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh



52 
 

2.4.2 Private Prayer 

Private prayer is usually done by an individual in one’s closet122 (though one would also 

find individuals praying in public space). This may include giving God thanks, asking for 

forgiveness, bringing one’s request before God and interceding on other people’s behalf. 

This could also come in the form of sighing and groaning, without uttering words to God. 

Sometimes it could come in the form of crying and sobbing, especially in difficult times 

when one cannot find the right words to tell God. Hannah, in the Bible, was said to have 

gone into the presence of God sobbing and crying out of her frustrations as a result of 

childlessness (1 Samuel 1:13). David laid all night on the ground interceding for the health 

of the child that Bethsheba bore him (2 Samuel 12:15-23).123 Christians also thank God in 

a form of spontaneous outbursts of praise and supplication, without necessarily following 

a structured pattern of prayer.124 For instance, one may say, “Thank you God” or even 

through music, just to express one’s joy. Some Christians are found jubilating in this kind 

of prayer when their requests are granted or in the hope that their requests will be granted 

through their demonstration of faith. 

 

2.4.3 Silent Prayers 

Silent prayers may mean praying without necessarily voicing out one’s words especially to 

the hearing of others who may not be the address of one’s prayer.125 Some Christians 

perform their prayers silently because of the understanding of who God is. Some 

Christians view God as one whose presence is ever-recurring and therefore there is not the 

need to shout or be loud when praying to one who is everywhere at any time and at any 

                                                        
122 Bloesch, The Struggle of Prayer, 40. 
123 Bloesch, The Struggle of Prayer, 41. 
124 Bloesch, The Struggle of Prayer, 52. 
125 Bloesch, The Struggle of Prayer, 51-2. 

University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh



53 
 

place.126 Biblical under-pinning’s are no exception to why some Christians may want to 

pray silently. Isaiah 59:1 states that ‘Surely the arm of the LORD is not too short to save, 

nor his ears too dull to hear.’  

 

 

2.4.4 Praying Aloud 

Praying aloud is normally associated with Pentecostal churches because of their emphasis 

on the Holy Spirit.127 However, this is not entirely the case on the University of Ghana 

campus as some belonging to mainline churches also do resort to praying aloud 

sometimes. Some Christians believe that praying aloud is symbolic of the presence of the 

Holy Spirit.128 Such Christians make reference to texts such as Ezekiel 11: 13 where ‘Now 

as I was prophesying, Pelatiah son of Benaiah died. Then I fell facedown and cried out in a 

loud voice, Ah, Sovereign LORD! Will you completely destroy the remnant of Israel?’  

 

In some instances, it is what the leader of the group instructs the congregation to do that 

the group does accordingly.129 For instance, it is a common practice to see Pentecostal 

prayer groups praying aloud or lifting up their hands in prayer. The Assemblies of God 

Campus Ministry and Pentecost Students and Associates are most likely to be found, 

shouting, kneeling, jumping and performing of other gestures as ways to worship God, in 

prayers. There are various reasons for religious group’ involvement in loud prayers. 

According to Cephas Narh Omenyo, one of the reasons is that ‘it keeps one active or it 

                                                        
126 This assertion is expressed by Ben-Willie K. Golo, in a Symposium- ‘Loud Worship Forms: Merits and 
Demerits’, University of Ghana, 22 April 2013. 
127 Asamoah-Gyedu,  African Charismatics, 6. 
128 Cephas N. Omenyo, ‘Charismatic Renewal in the Mainline Churches: The Case of the Bible Study and 
Prayer Group of the Presbyterian Church of Ghana’, M.Phil. thesis (University of Ghana, 1994), 136. 
129 Observation, Quansah, Agnes, Assemblies of God Campus Ministry (AGCM) and Pentecost Students and 
Associates (PENSA), University of Ghana, Legon, Accra, 16th December 2012. 

University of Ghana          http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh



54 
 

helps one not to sleep, it has Biblical precedent, it depends on the situation, it shows how 

serious one is, one is sometimes led by the Holy Spirit (uncontrollably), it helps some to 

learn how to pray, it is a way of expressing one’s feeling freely before God, it ens