J Ethn Foods 2 (2015) 58e63
lable at ScienceDirectContents lists avaiJournal of Ethnic Foods
journal homepage: http: / / journalofethnicfoods.netOriginal articleBiochemical changes associated with the fermentation of baobab
seeds in Maari: An alkaline fermented seeds condiment from western
Africa
Charles Parkouda a, *, Fatoumata Ba/Hama a, Laurencia Ouattara/Songre a,
Kwaku Tano-Debrah b, Bre
hima Diawara a
a D
epartement Technologie Alimentaire/IRSAT/CNRST, 03 BP 7047, Ouagadougou 03, Burkina Faso
b Department of Nutrition and Food Science, University of Ghana, Legon, Accra, Ghanaa r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:
Available online 30 April 2015
Keywords:
baobab
fermentation
Maari
nutrient
seeds* Corresponding author. De
partement Technologie
BP 7047, Ouagadougou 03, Burkina Faso.
E-mail address: cparkouda@yahoo.fr (C. Parkouda
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jef.2015.04.002
2352-6181/Copyright © 2015, Korea Food Research Ins
licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).a b s t r a c t
Chemical changes during the fermentation of baobab seeds for production of Maari, a food condiment
used in West Africa, were studied. Results showed a wide variety of free amino acids including essential
amino acids in the unfermented seeds. Fermentation led to an increase in the concentration of total free
amino acids from 16.03 nmol/mg in unfermented seeds to 113.24 nmol/mg after 60 hours of fermen-
tation followed by a decrease thereafter. Fluctuations in the concentrations of each compound were
observed during the fermentation period. Differences were also observed in the final products from
different production sites with the Gorgadji sample showing the highest content in free amino acids. The
output of the oil extraction was 11.5e25.8%. A total of seven fatty acids were identified, with oleic acid
being quantitatively the major fatty acid. The results showed a much higher concentration of unsaturated
fatty acids than saturated fatty acids. The preponderant fatty acids were oleic, linoleic, palmitic, and
stearic acids. These four fatty acids constitute approximately 90% of the composition of Maari. The
transformations of amino acids and fatty acids revealed during the fermentation of the seeds during this
study will contribute to understanding its contribution to the nutrition of its consumers.
Copyright © 2015, Korea Food Research Institute, Published by Elsevier. This is an open access article
under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).1. Introduction
In Africa, fruits from wild trees constitute an important part of
the populations' diets and are also an important source of income
for these populations [1]. The products of these trees are generally
consumed in crude form, or traditionally processed before con-
sumption. Traditional processing of the seeds from these trees
usually involves fermentation, which improves the nutritional
value, sensory properties, and functional quality of the seeds [2,3].
The baobab tree (Fig. 1) is one of the most widely used wild trees
and has provided food, medicine, and fodder for many centuries [4].
Indeed, baobab leaves are used to prepare sauces, the pulp is used
to make beverages, and the seeds are particularly used in the
preparation of local sauces as thickening agents after pounding or
as flavour enhancers when fermented [5e7]. Maari is one of theAlimentaire/IRSAT/CNRST 03
).
titute, Published by Elsevier. This isnumerous products produced from the baobab tree. Maari is a
fermented food condiment obtained by the spontaneous fermen-
tation of baobab seeds in Burkina Faso. It is also found under several
names in Benin, Burkina Faso, Mali, and Nigeria among other West
African countries [3,8,9]. Maari is known in Nigeria as Dadawa
Higgi or Issai and in Benin as Dikouanyouri [8,9]. For utilization,
Maari is first steeped in water (preferably warm water) for a few
minutes, then, the steeping water is used to prepare stews, soups,
sauces, and other foods as desired by the consumer.
Differences in the traditional processes for Maari production
occur among ethnic tribes and these differences presumably in-
fluence the quality of the final products. In addition, microbial
investigation of Maari revealed a diversity of microorganisms
associated with its fermentation [10]. As reported elsewhere, the
microorganisms associated with the fermentation may strongly
affect the biochemical composition of the final product [11].
However, little information is known about the biochemistry of the
Maari fermentation process. Therefore, the aim of the current work
was to investigate the biochemical changes associated with the
fermentation of baobab seeds into Maari.an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/
C. Parkouda et al / Fermentation and baobab seeds 59
Fig. 1. Baobab (Adansonia digitata). (A) Tree. (B) Leaves. (C) Flower on the tree. (D) Fruits on the tree. (E) Pods broken showing seeds embedded in pulp. (F) Cleaned seeds.2. Materials and methods
2.1. Maari processing and sampling
Maari samples were obtained from a traditional processor. The
processing method used to produce the samples was as follows
(Fig. 2): baobab seeds were cleaned and boiled for approximately
36 hours. During boiling, after 24 hours, ash lye (alkaline) solution
was added to aid in the softening of the seeds. At the end of theboiling period, the seeds were drained and transferred into a basket
and left to ferment spontaneously (i.e., 1st fermentation) for 48
hours at room temperature. The fermenting mash was pounded
and moulded with further addition of alkaline ash lye solution. It
was left to undergo a second spontaneous fermentation for
approximately 24 hours at room temperature. The fermented
product wasmoulded, steam cooked, and sun dried. Samples of raw
seeds, fermenting seeds, and the final dried Maari were collected
during processing and stored at 
20C for analysis. Other
60 J Ethn Foods 2015; 2: 58e63
Baobab (Adansonia digitata L) seeds 
Winnowing and washing  
Cooking with ash lye solution (36 h) 
Sieving  
First fermentation (48 h) 
Pounding/moulding Ash lye solution 
Second fermentation (24 h) 
Fresh Maari
Moulding  
Steam cooking (~6 h) 
Moulding into small ball 
Sun drying (2–5 d) 
Maari 
Fig. 2. Diagram of traditional processing of baobab (Adansonia digitata L.) seeds into
Maari.
commercial ready-to-use dried Maari samples (Maari 2, Maari 3,
and Maari 4) were also collected at different geographic areas
(Gorgadji, Mansila, and Ouagadougou, respectively) for compara-
tive analysis. Analyses were done to determine the variations in the
composition of Maari from different processors and also the
changes that occur along the processing chain.
2.2. Chemical analyses
2.2.1. Determination of the fatty acid profiles of Maari
The method described by Hrastar et al [12] was used to deter-
mine the fatty acid profiles. The crude oil of the samples was
extracted with petroleum ether using the Soxhlet method [13]. The
Table 1
Fat content and Fatty Acid Profiles (%) of baobab Raw Seeds, Fermenting baobab Seeds Taken at Different Fermentation Times, and Maari (ready to use) from Different Areas (Gorgadji, Mansila, and Ouagadougou).
Fermentation Fat content Fatty acid content
time/product
Myristic (C14:0) Palmitic (C16:0) Stearic (C18:0) Oleic (C18:1) Linoleic (C18:2) Linolenic (C18:3) Cis-11-Eicosenoic Acid Others Total saturated FA Total unsaturated FA
Raw seed 12.21 0.17 ± 0.00 23.8 ± 0.19 4.62 ± 0.05 34.9 ± 0.23 26.9 ± 0.2 0.23 ± 0.01 0.19 ± 0.00 9.16 ± 0.58 28.60 62.24
24 h 12.38 0.18 ± 0.00 23.2 ± 0.16 5.10 ± 0.02 36.6 ± 0.23 26.2 ± 0.12 0.22 ± 0.00 0.17 ± 0.00 8.33 ± 0.52 28.45 63.21
36 h 14.53 0.16 ± 0.00 22.5 ± 0.22 4.7 ± 0.02 37.3 ± 0.38 26.4 ± 0.22 0.23 ± 0.01 0.19 ± 0.00 8.46 ± 0.86 27.41 64.14
48 h 14.18 0.19 ± 0.00 23.2 ± 0.01 4.51 ± 0.01 35.8 ± 0.04 27.0 ± 0.02 0.23 ± 0.01 0.19 ± 0.00 8.93 ± 0.05 27.85 63.22
60 h 11.48 0.18 ± 0.00 23.6 ± 0.06 4.87 ± 0.03 36.02 ± 0.39 26.2 ± 0.30 0.22 ± 0.01 0.18 ± 0.00 8.84 ± 0.53 28.67 62.57
Maari 1 12.68 0.18 ± 0.01 23.9 ± 0.57 5.19 ± 0.13 35.81 ± 0.42 26.50 ± 0.00 0.22 ± 0.00 0.19 ± 0.00 7.96 ± 0.02 29.32 62.72
Maari 2 25.8 0.15 ± 0.00 24.5 ± 0.31 4.11 ± 0.55 35.17 ± 0.12 28.5 ± 0.18 0.12 ± 0.01 0.17 ± 0.01 7.32 ± 0.57 28.72 63.96
Maari 3 12.1 0.24 ± 0.01 24.8 ± 0.14 4.84 ± 0.03 35.9 ± 0.17 24.59 ± 0.01 0.18 ± 0.00 0.18 ± 0.01 9.28 ± 0.35 29.89 60.83
Maari 4 15.12 0.21 ± 0.05 23.1 ± 0.19 4.81 ± 0.08 35.9 ± 0.49 25.99 ± 0.06 0.23 ± 0.01 0.18 ± 0.003 9.6 ± 0.36 28.05 62.34
Values reported represent the average of three determinations ± standard deviation.
Maari 1, final product from the process; Maari 2, final product (ready to use) from Gorgadji; Maari 3, final product (ready to use) from Mansila; Maari 4, final product (ready to use) from Ouagadougou.
C. Parkouda et al / Fermentation and baobab seeds 61
Table 2
Amino Acid Profiles (nmol/mg dry sample) of baobab Raw Seeds, Fermenting baobab Seeds Taken at Different Fermentation Times, and Maari (ready to use) from Different
areas (Gorgadji, Mansila, and Ouagadougou).
Valine Leucine Isoleucine Threonine Methionine Phenylalanine Lysine
Raw seeds 0.40 ± 0.06 0.41 ± 0.06 0.95 ± 0.12 0.18 ± 0.06 0.03 ± 0.00 0.19 ± 0.04 0.03 ± 0.00
24 h 0.51 ± 0.72 8.36 ± 0.15 0.86 ± 1.22 ND ND 0.15 ± 0.02 ND
36 h 1.98 ± 0.24 2.86 ± 0.45 4.10 ± 0.47 0.20 ± 0.05 0.10 ± 0.03 1.11 ± 0.17 0.06 ± 0.01
48 h 4.43 ± 0.21 6.58 ± 0.62 8.21 ± 0.12 0.42 ± 0.6 0.77 ± 0.09 3.71 ± 0.3 0.41 ± 0.05
60 h 15.92 ± 0.93 14.53 ± 1 28.57 ± 1.86 1.05 ± 0.17 ND 8.92 ± 0.58 2.71 ± 0.14
Maari 1 7.07 ± 0.16 6.63 ± 0.27 10.95 ± 0.35 0.32 ± 0.09 0.79 ± 1.53 2.07 ± 0.09 0.63 ± 0.03
Maari 2 16.12 ± 4.7 18.11 ± 3.01 9.85 ± 2.05 9.16 ± 2.44 5.16 ± 1.5 7.12 ± 2.2 10.84 ± 2.4
Maari 3 4.73 ± 0.00 4.96 ± 0.11 7.79 ± 0.12 1.05 ± 0.01 0.89 ± 0.04 1.98 ± 0.00 0.56 ± 0.00
Maari 4 5.14 ± 0.32 5.19 ± 0.64 8.19 ± 0.96 ND 0.42 ± 0.08 1.53 ± 0.24 0.44 ± 0.08
Values reported represent the average of three determinations ± standard deviation.
Maari 1, final product; Maari 2, final product (ready to use) from Gorgadji; Maari 3, final product (ready to use) from Mansila; Maari 4, final product (ready to use) from
Ouagadougou; ND, not detected.oil samples were then treated to methylate the fatty acids using the
method described by Hrastar et al [12] as follows: briefly, 2 mL of
0.5M sodium hydroxide in methanol was mixed with 100 mg of oil
in a glass screw-capped test tube and well shaken. The tubes were
placed in a water bath and boiled for 5 minutes. After boiling, the
samples were cooled to hand temperature and acidified with 3 mL
of 20% solution of boron trifluoride in methanol, and 1 mL of 0.1%
hydroquinone in methanol was also added. The mixture was then
boiled in a water bath for another 5 minutes. After cooling to hand
temperature, 10 mL of saturated NaCl solution was added into the
mixture and shaken for 10 seconds. Fatty acid methyl esters
(FAMEs) were then extracted using 5mL of n-hexane. The n-hexane
was added and shaken for 30 seconds. Then, the mixture was
allowed to stand for phase separation and the water phase was
removed. The organic phase containing the FAMEs extract was
transferred using a Pasteur pipette into a glass vial for gas chro-
matographic analysis. Chemicals used were from Sigma-Aldrich
(Steinheim, Germany). FAME analysis was performed using a
HewlettePackard system HP 6890 Gas Chromatograph coupled to a
Flame Ionisation Detector (Agilent Technologies, Karlsruhe, Ger-
many). One microliter of FAME extract was injected (split ratio
1:50) into a DB-Wax capillary column (30 m  0.25 mm
i.d.  0.25 mm) using the temperature program: 10 minutes at
210C, raised at 6.6C/min to 250C and then set at 250C for 9.9
minutes. The carrier gas was helium with a constant flow rate of
1.2 ml/min. The injection and detector temperatures were both
250C. The systemwas calibrated using a standard mixture of fatty
acid methyl esters. Fatty acids were then identified by comparing
retention times with standard compounds and expressed as per-
centage of fatty acid methyl esters.
2.2.2. Determination of the analysis of amino acid profiles of Maari
The amino acids analysis was performed according to the
method described by Villas-Bôas et al [14]. For the amino acids, the
extraction and derivatization sample was thoroughly pounded
using a laboratory grinder. A half gram of each pounded samplewas
suspended in 5 mL of MilliQ water in a test tube and kept in awater
bath at 60C for 1 hour for amino acid extraction. Following the
extraction, 25 mL of sample was transferred into an injection vial
containing 125 mL MilliQ water, and 150 mL internal standard so-
lution (1mM norvaline: 0.0172 g of norvaline dissolved in 100 mL
MilliQ water) was added. Two hundred mL of methanol/pyridine
(32/8 v/v) was added and the mixture was then mixed well. The
amino acids were derivatized by adding 25 mL of methyl chlor-
oformate and mixing by shaking for 30 seconds using a mixer. To
separate the methyl chloroformate derivatives from the reactive
mixture, 500 mL of methyl chloroformate/chloroform 1% (v/v) was
added and mixed vigorously. Phase separation occurred within
minutes. The upper aqueous layer was discarded and the organicsolvent phase (chloroform phase) was collected and analyzed for
amino acid compounds using gas chromatography and mass
spectrometry (GCeMS). Extractions were performed in duplicate.
Chemicals used were from Sigma-Aldrich.
Separation and identification of amino acid derivatives in the
extract were performed using an HP G1800A GCD Gas Chromato-
graph Electron Ionization Detector (HewlettePackard, CA, USA).
Twomicroliters of extract were injected (split ratio, 1:15) into a DB-
XLB Agilent column (15 m length  0.25 m i.d.  0.25 mm film
thickness) using the following temperature program for the oven:
90C raised at 6C/min to 240C and maintained at 240C for 5
minutes. The total running time was 30 minutes. The carrier gas
was helium with a constant flow rate of 1.5 mL/min. The inlet
temperature was 250C and the detector temperature was 250C.
Identification of amino acids was determined in the total ion mode
scanning a mass to charge ratio (m/z) range between 70 and 250.
Further identification was obtained by probability-based matching
with mass spectra saved in a standard library. Concentrations of
amino acidswere estimated by comparing the relative peak areas of
the compounds with that of the norvaline internal standard and
reported in nmol/mg based on the concentration of the internal
standard.
3. Results and discussion
The fat content and the fatty acid composition of baobab seeds
through the fermentation to Maari and also that of Maari samples
from different locations, reported as percentage of dry seed weight,
are summarized in Table 1. The fat content of the output of the fat
extraction was 11.5e25.8%. The fat content of the seeds was similar
to reported values for baobab seeds elsewhere and comparable to
values for several commonly used seeds such as African locust
bean, African breadfruit, and Roselle seeds [8,15e18]. The value
was, however, lower than that reported for African oil bean, soy-
bean, and melon seeds [16,19,20]. The fat content of baobab seeds
could contribute significantly to meeting the daily lipid require-
ment of consumers. As seen from Table 1, the fat content increases
from the onset at 48 hours fermentation and decreases thereafter. A
similar fat content decrease was observed during pumpkin seed
fermentation [21]. In both kinema and dawadawa, an increase in
crude fat concentration by fermentation has been reported
[22e24], whereas decreasing concentrations have been reported in
ogiri and African yam bean owoh-type products [16,25]. Apparently
no significant changes occurred in the fatty acid compositions
during fermentation, which means that fermentation did not
significantly affect the fatty acid content. Significant changes were
reported in the fatty acid content during the fermentation of Pro-
sopis africana seeds in the preparation of Ogiri-okpei [22]. The
current observation may be due to the weak lipase activity of the
62 J Ethn Foods 2015; 2: 58e63
Table 2 (Continued)
Tryptophan Histidine Alanine Aspartic acid Aspargine Glutamic acid Glycine Proline Serine Total FAA
0.02 ± 0.00 ND 8.83 ± 1.33 1.63 ± 0.21 0.52 ± 0.18 1.94 ± 0.04 0.58 ± 0.11 0.32 ± 0.04 ND 16.03
ND ND 2.61 ± 0.57 0.43 ± 0.6 ND 1.91 ± 0.70 0.38 ± 0.53 0.10 ± 0.1 ND 15.31
ND ND 3.40 ± 0.48 1.78 ± 0.17 ND 10.51 ± 2.03 0.62 ± 0.08 1.20 ± 0.19 ND 27.94
ND ND 4.97 ± 0.62 2.65 ± 0.23 0.67 ± 0.13 15.73 ± 2.09 1.09 ± 0.05 1.24 ± 0.17 ND 50.90
0.75 ± 0.05 0.50 ± 0.06 28.10 ± 2.7 2.10 ± 0.29 ND 1.61 ± 0.17 7.50 ± 0.7 0.99 ± 0.12 ND 113.24
0.09 ± 0.01 ND 9.95 ± 0.35 1.14 ± 0.1 ND 34.04 ± 1.53 1.39 ± 0.08 3.16 ± 0.08 ND 78.22
ND ND 29.64 ± 11.2 26.18 ± 5.9 ND 31.07 ± 5.29 14.26 ± 4.3 9.60 ± 3.6 14.11 ± 5.8 201.26
0.07 ± 0.00 ND 5.56 ± 1.21 2.41 ± 0.03 0.80 ± 0.02 17.42 ± 0.63 3.10 ± 0.38 0.66 ± 0.01 ND 51.98
ND ND 8.21 ± 0.54 0.96 ± 0.15 ND 21.80 ± 3.54 1.10 ± 0.12 3.36 ± 0.35 ND 56.35main microorganisms involved in baobab seed fermentation [10].
In all samples, unfermented and fermented seeds, oleic acid
seemed predominant, at the concentration of 34.9e37.3%. The fatty
acid profile of the seeds showed a great similarity with baobab
seeds from Saudi Arabia, except in the concentrations of linoleic,
linolenic, and cis-11-eicosenoic acids [17]. The fatty acid profile of
the fermented samples was also comparable to that of commercial
edible alkaline fermented seeds [26].
Profiles of the fatty acids of fermented baobab seed oil from
different production sites were similar, with oleic acid (C18:1) be-
ing the major fatty acid in all the samples. Generally, the prepon-
derant fatty acids are oleic, linoleic, palmitic, and stearic acids.
These four fatty acids constitute approximately 90% of the
composition. The contents of polyunsaturated fatty acids such as
linoleic and linolenic acids (24.6e28.5% and 0.1-0.2%, respectively),
are favorable for dietary use. Omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids are
derived from these unsaturated fatty acids. They are essential fatty
acids which support the cardiovascular, reproductive, immune, and
nervous systems of the body [27]. However, this high content of
unsaturated fatty acids would make the product highly susceptible
to rancidity [28].
The data on amino acid analysis are presented in Table 2. In
general, increases in total free amino acids (FAA) occurred during
fermentation, reaching a peak (113.24 nmol/mg) after 60 hours of
fermentation; but then declining thereafter. Similar increases of
FAA content were also reported during fermentation of Parkia
biglobosa, Prosopis africana, and soybean seeds [2,28,29]. This in-
crease suggests some proteases activity emanating from the
metabolism of the microorganisms involved in the fermentation
[30,31]. During alkaline fermentation, proteolytic activity is re-
ported to increase, as well as the main metabolic activity of the
microorganisms [2,28,32]. The decrease in the concentration of
most amino acids after 60 hours, which was similar to what
happened with the fermentation of soybeans, suggests further
metabolism of these FAAs by the bacteria responsible for fermen-
tation; this process is important for the development of the aroma
and character of the product [28,29]. The amino acids are
consumed as an energy source by these microorganisms, releasing
ammonia, which leads to an increase in pH and the alkaline nature
of the products [33]. The FAA content of theMaari samples from the
different locations varied. The samples predominant FAAs were
valine, leucine, threonine, methionine, lysine, alanine, aspartic acid,
glycine, and serine. The variation in the content of the individual
amino acids could be due to variations in the traditional processes
used and the microorganisms involved in the fermentation. In a
previous study on Soumbala, variability between and within spe-
cies of Bacillus in protease activity was reported [2]. In general, the
results showed that Maari samples are good sources of essential
amino acids.
Results from the study suggest that during the fermentation of
baobab seeds into Maari, several biochemical changes occur, which
include changes in the fatty acid and FAA compositions. Thesechanges seem to improve the nutritional quality of the seeds. In
terms of the high content of essential FAA, including lysine, the
optimal time of fermentation appeared to be 60 hours.Conflicts of interest
The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare.Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the Danish International Devel-
opment Agency (DANIDA) through the NUTREE funded project. The
Department of Food Science and Department of Forest and Land-
scape (Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Denmark)
are acknowledged for the technical assistance.References
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