UNIVERSITY OF GHANA 

 

COLLEGE OF HUMANITIES 

 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

EXPLORING TECHNICAL AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING 

(TVET) AS AN OPPORTUNITY IN ADDRESSING YOUTH UNEMPLOYMENT IN 

AWUTU SENYA EAST MUNICIPALITY 

 

 

 

 

BY 

 

 

 

ESINU AKU ADZA 

(10938748) 

 

 

THIS DISSERTATION IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, 

LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE 

AWARD OF MASTER OF ARTS IN DEVELOPMENT STUDIES DEGREE 

 

 

 

 

 

INSTITUTE OF STATISTICAL, SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC RESEARCH (ISSER) 

 

 

 

APRIL 2023 

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DECLARATION 

 

I, hereby declare that apart from the references to other people’s works which have been duly 

acknowledged, the dissertation, “Exploring Technical and Vocational Education and Training 

(TVET) as an Opportunity in Addressing Youth Unemployment in Awutu Senya East 

Municipality” is the result of my fieldwork activities carried out in the Institute of Statistical 

Social and Economic Research (ISSER), under the supervision of Dr Cynthia Addoquaye 

Tagoe and that this dissertation has neither in whole nor in part been presented anywhere for 

the award of a degree. Any error is attributed to my limitation. 

 

 

 

………………………………. …19 / 05/ 2023…………… 

 

ESINU AKU ADZA Date 

 

(Student) 
 

 

 

……………………………….. …19 / 05/ 2023………….. 

 

DR. CYNTHIA ADDOQUAYE TAGOE Date 

 

(Supervisor) 

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ABSTRACT 

 

Ghana’s youth population currently stands at 36 percent of its total population, with 54 percent 

living in urban areas. Data from the 2021 National Population Census indicate that 19.7 percent 

of unemployed adults are classified as youth, with those between the ages of 15-24 years 

recording a much higher rate-32.8 percent (GSS, 2021). As the country works at addressing 

the issue of unemployment, interventions have been put in place, one of which is technical and 

vocational skills acquisition. A mixed method approach was used to carry out the study in the 

Awutu Senya East Municipality. Data was obtained from 120 unemployed youth aged 15 to 35 

years as well as 15 in-depth interviews conducted with young people in the Technical and 

Vocational Education and Training (TVET) sector. The study assessed knowledge, perceptions 

and attitudes of the youth towards TVET, opportunities and challenges of the youth in TVET 

and examine the extent to which the youth perceive TVET as a solution to unemployment. The 

results of the study show that respondents perceive TVET as the solution to youth 

unemployment in the municipality and that the knowledge gained regarding the types, 

opportunities, and challenges TVET provides influences their attitude towards accepting it. The 

results further indicated a general perception that having adequate funds was a significant 

influence on their employability within the TVET sector. The study showed that almost all the 

respondents expect many interventions from the government. Additionally, the respondents 

were willing to adopt TVET as a skill relevant for employment, although the majority preferred 

formal employment. The study therefore recommended more investment into capacity building 

and knowledge management and sharing, with emphasis on generating resources to establish 

their businesses after the skill acquisition and sustainable government interventions through 

policies, funding, and scholarship award schemes. 

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DEDICATION 

 

I dedicate this research work to God Almighty, my parents of blessed memory and my siblings- 

Seyram, Sena and Etornam Adza for their unending love, resources, and motivation during this 

academic journey. 

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 

 

I wish to express my sincere gratitude to the Almighty God, who sustained my life and made 

this research a success. My gratitude to my supervisor, Dr. Cynthia Addoquaye Tagoe, who 

guided me through this work to the end. I would also like to express my heartfelt appreciation 

to Prof. Austin Dziwornu Ablo of the Department of Geography and Resource Development 

and Dr. Karim Hakib of the Department of Theatre Arts for his counsel and unflinching 

support. Many thanks to Prof. Steel, Prof. Simon Bawakyillenuo, and Dr. Ralph Armah for 

their immense support and guidance. To the Social Welfare and Community Development 

workers at ASEMA, I am most grateful for your support. 

 

 

I also thank my siblings – Seyram, Sena, Etornam Adza, Valerie Nutakor, Mr. and Mrs. Eli 

Gaewu, Mr. and Mrs. Stephen Mensah, Enid Amonoo, Charles Snr. Agyarko, Nana Asi Asare, 

Michael Teye-Bio Nadutey, Charlotte Adjetey, Emmanuella Sarpong, Prince Bowman, Kwesi 

Obeng, Kekeli Amedzro, and my colleagues for their support. 

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TABLE OF CONTENTS 

DECLARATION ........................................................................................................................ i 

ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................... ii 

DEDICATION .......................................................................................................................... iii 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ......................................................................................................... iv 

TABLE OF CONTENTS ........................................................................................................... v 

LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................................... ix 

LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................................................................... x 

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ................................................................................................... xi 

CHAPTER ONE ........................................................................................................................ 1 

INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................... 1 

1.0 Background of the Study ........................................................................................................ 1 

1.1 Statement of the Problem ....................................................................................................... 4 

1.2 Objectives of the Study .......................................................................................................... 8 

1.3 Significance of the Study ........................................................................................................ 8 

1.4 Organisation of the Study ....................................................................................................... 9 

CHAPTER TWO...................................................................................................................... 11 

LITERATURE REVIEW ......................................................................................................... 11 

2.0 Introduction........................................................................................................................... 11 

2.1 Definition of Youth .............................................................................................................. 11 

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2.2 Concept of Unemployment ................................................................................................... 12 

2.3 Youth Unemployment in Ghana ........................................................................................... 14 

2.4 Global Statistics of Youth Unemployment ........................................................................... 16 

2.5 Causes of Youth Unemployment .......................................................................................... 17 

2.6 Government Initiated Youth Unemployment Interventions .................................................. 19 

2.7 Concept of TVET ................................................................................................................. 20 

2.8 Popularisation of TVET in Ghana ........................................................................................ 23 

2.9 Types of TVET ..................................................................................................................... 25 

2.9.1 Formal TVET ................................................................................................................... 25 

2.9.2 Informal and Non-formal TVET ...................................................................................... 26 

2.10 TVET Governance and Interventions in Ghana ................................................................... 29 

2.11 Challenges of TVET ............................................................................................................. 33 

2.12 Theoretical Framework ......................................................................................................... 34 

2.13 Conceptual Framework ......................................................................................................... 37 

CHAPTER THREE .................................................................................................................. 41 

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................. 41 

3.0 Introduction........................................................................................................................... 41 

3.1 Profile of the Study Area ...................................................................................................... 41 

3.1.1 Population and Geographic Information of ASEMA ....................................................... 42 

3.1.2 Economic Activities ......................................................................................................... 44 

3.1.3 Education and Infrastructure ............................................................................................ 45 

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3.1.4 Governance....................................................................................................................... 45 

3.2 Research Design ................................................................................................................... 46 

3.3 Data collection methods and procedure ................................................................................ 47 

3.3.1 Survey .............................................................................................................................. 47 

3.3.2 Interviews ......................................................................................................................... 49 

3.4 Data Processing and Analysis ............................................................................................... 51 

3.5 Ethical Considerations .......................................................................................................... 51 

CHAPTER FOUR .................................................................................................................... 53 

DATA ANALYSIS ................................................................................................................... 53 

4.0 Introduction........................................................................................................................... 53 

4.1 Demographic Characteristics of the Study Participants ....................................................... 53 

4.2 Knowledge, Attitude and Perception of the Youth towards TVET ....................................... 57 

4.2.1 Knowledge of the Youth towards TVET .......................................................................... 58 

4.2.2 Attitude of the Youth towards TVET ............................................................................... 60 

4.2.3 Perception of the Youth about TVET ............................................................................... 65 

4.3 Assessment of the Opportunities and Challenges of the Youth in TVET ................................. 73 

4.3.1 Opportunities of the Youth in TVET................................................................................. 73 

4.3.2 Challenges of the Youth in TVET ..................................................................................... 76 

4.4 Extent to which the Youth Perceive TVET as an Opportunity to Address Youth 

Unemployment ..................................................................................................................... 80 

CHAPTER FIVE ...................................................................................................................... 84 

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SUMMARY OF FINDINGS .................................................................................................... 84 

5.0 Introduction........................................................................................................................... 84 

5.1 Summary of Findings ........................................................................................................... 84 

5.2 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................ 88 

5.3 Recommendations ................................................................................................................. 90 

APPENDIX A: QUESTIONNAIRE FOR THE UNEMPLOYED YOUTH ......................... 104 

APPENDIX B: KEY INFORMANT INTERVIEW GUIDE ................................................. 111 

APPENDIX C: INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR EMPLOYED YOUNG PEOPLE IN TVET AND 

THE UNEMPLOYED YOUTH ................................................................................... 114 

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LIST OF TABLES 

 

Table 3.1: Population Size of Selected Settlements ................................................................. 50 

 

Table 3.2: Sample Size in Selected Communities .................................................................... 52 

 

Table 3.3: Sampled Interviewees .............................................................................................. 54 

 

Table 4.1: Demographic Characteristics of the Study Participants .......................................... 57 

 

Table 4.2: Current Occupation and Preferred Employment Option ......................................... 61 

 

Table 4.3: TVET Skills and Reason for not Gaining the Skills ................................................ 65 

 

Table 4.4: Attitude of the Youth towards TVET ....................................................................... 67 

 

Table 4.5: Perception of the Youth Towards TVET.................................................................. 71 

 

Table 4.6: Perception of the Youth Towards TVET Funding ................................................... 73 

 

Table 4.7: Perception of the Youth Towards TVET Employment ............................................ 75 

 

Table 4.8: TVET as an Opportunity to Addressing Unemployment ........................................ 85 

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LIST OF FIGURES 

Figure 2.1: Conceptual Framework .......................................................................................... 40 

Figure 3.1: Map of Awutu Senya East Municipal .................................................................... 45 

Figure 4.1: Highest Form of Education .................................................................................... 59 

Figure 4.2: Programme of Study .............................................................................................. 60 

Figure 4.3: Causes of Youth Unemployment ........................................................................... 63 

Figure 4.4: Knowledge about TVET Qualification .................................................................. 64 

Figure 4.5: Government Support of TVET .............................................................................. 76 

Figure 4.6: The Role of TVET in the Community ................................................................... 84 

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 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS 

ASEMA Awutu Senya East Municipal Assembly 

ASEM Awutu Senya East Municipality 

COTVET Council for Technical and Vocational Education and Training 

CTVET Commission for Technical and Vocational Education and 

 
Training 

ECA Economic Commission for Africa 

GES Ghana Education Service 

GSS Ghana Statistical Service 

MTDP Medium-Term Development Plan 

NABH National Association for Beauticians and Hairdressers 

NVTI National Vocational Training Institute 

PHC Population and Housing Census 

ILO International Labour Organisation 

ISSER Institute of Statistical, Social and Economic Research 

KAP Knowledge, Attitude and Practice 

SWCD Social Welfare and Community Development 

TVET Technical and Vocational Education and Training 

UN United Nations 

YEA Youth Employment Agency 

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CHAPTER ONE 

INTRODUCTION 

1.0 Background of the Study 

 

The global employment deficit of young people has unarguably become an issue of concern, and 

as such, governments are working tirelessly to address the situation (O’Higgins, 2017). This is 

being achieved by initiating integrating policies, situating issues on youth unemployment at the 

core of macroeconomics, and drawing on innovations to deal extensively with the situation. In the 

same vein, the role of Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) in advancing 

youth employment, and by extension nation building, cannot be overemphasised as it is 

conventionally and internationally recognised as possessing the capacity to provide occupational 

skills for employment (Akyeampong, 2005). 

 

 

In an era defined as youthful, it is unsurprising that more than half of the world’s eight billion 

population is under 30 years, with about a tenth from developing countries (UNESCO, 2013). In 

2015, a total of 71 million youth was unemployed based on ILO’s definition of unemployment, 

with a predicted rise of emerging countries of 52.9 million in 2015 to 53.5 million in 2017. A 

deficit of 34 million was also recorded between 2019 and 2020, with a deficit rate of 8.2 percent. 

There has been a fluctuating rate of documented cases of youth unemployment over the years. The 

percentage decline in employment among young individuals is significantly greater compared to 

adults (defined as individuals 25 years and above) (ILO, 2022). 

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There is not a universally agreed-upon definition of who qualifies as a youth, hence the variety in 

worldwide classifications of a youth (Leavy & Smith, 2010). However, the United Nations (UN) 

and other member states define youth as individuals between the ages of 15 and 24 years who, 

according to the UN (n.d), are 1.2 billion, making up 16 percent of the global population. In Ghana 

and elsewhere in Africa, a person between the ages of 15 and 35 is often categorised as a youth 

(Youth Policy, 2014). 

 

 

Youth unemployment is a major problem and a significant policy concern in Africa. The aim of 

solving this has led to many youth intervention programmes (Fox et al., 2020; Hardy et al., 2019). 

The urgent policy deficit lies in the widespread prevalence of unemployment and 

underemployment among young individuals in Sub-Saharan Africa. The transition from education 

to productive employment has not been successful over the years, and a sizeable portion of the 

youth in the region face barriers in accessing mainstream education due to factors like financial 

constraints, academic performance and limited school capacity (Blattman & Ralston, 2015; Filmer 

& Fox, 2014). 

 

Potentially, young people play a vital role in fostering development when provided with the 

knowledge and opportunities needed to excel and, as such, the need to be motivated to acquire the 

education and skills required to contribute to a productive economy. They need access to a job 

market that can absorb them into the labour force, or to set up their businesses (Yangben & 

Seniwoliba, 2014). Unfortunately, the formal sector, categorised by more structured and secure 

systems expected to harness the skillset of young people, is lagging behind in meeting their job 

demands, hence the informal sector's empowerment to meet these rising demands. Consequently, 

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the technical and vocational industry has become an effective opportunity for those not getting 

jobs in the formal wage economy to become entrepreneurs (Adams, 2009). 

 

 

Ghana's informal sector is predominantly identified with people with an informal form of 

education. The sector has employed many young and older workers in Ghana and Sub-Saharan 

Africa since the 1970s (Bangasser, 2000; Fox & Gaal, 2008; Haan, 2006). Employment in the 

informal sector was perceived as a temporal source of work in pursuit of modern sector 

employment but with increasing education, the image of the sector has changed over time. 

Informal economy was conceptualised in the 1970s by Keith Hart to qualify the systems of 

economic transactions adopted by migrant workers in Ghana at the time and has since assumed 

diverse contextualisation (NGOs, n.d). The majority of workers in this sector is self-employed 

individuals. Recognising Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) employment 

within this sector presents an opportunity to tackle youth unemployment. 

 

Historically, TVET is said to have been emphasised in Ghana since the colonial period, when 

children in missionary schools were given training in trades like masonry, carpentry, and 

blacksmithing, amongst others (Akyeampong, 2005). Over time, two distinct types of TVET have 

emerged. These include the formal system, which is school-based and can be further divided into 

tertiary level and pre-tertiary level TVET. On the other hand, there is the informal system, which 

is characterised by training obtained outside the traditional education system. In the informal 

system, there are structured learning objectives to be achieved, specific timeframes, and support 

provided to learners. Yangben and Seniwoliba (2014) talk of another form. They termed this ‘the 

non-formal system’, which comprises TVET workshops and seminars. In recent times, private and 

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public institutions have utilised all these forms in rolling out TVET in Ghana. Regrettably, the 

TVET sector faces numerous limitations worldwide that impede its effectiveness. These 

limitations encompass career-related obstacles, discrepancies between acquired skills and market 

demands, widespread concerns regarding subpar training quality and learning environments, as 

well as negative public attitudes and perceptions towards vocational education and training 

(Dadzie et al., 2020). 

 

 

1.1 Statement of the Problem 

Ghana’s youth population currently stands at 36 percent of its total population, with 54 percent 

living in urban areas. Unfortunately, three-quarters of unemployed adults recorded in the 2021 

National Population Census represent the youth. This is undoubtedly an alarming proof that 

unemployment remains problematic despite the country's economic growth. The situation 

worsened at the outbreak of COVID-19, placing various limitations on individuals and 

development in general. Lockdowns, loss of jobs, and loss of lives characterised the period. With 

countries still at a recovery stage, the youth employment deficit in 2020 was projected to be 

recovered in 2022 despite the 5.9 percent fall recorded in 2021. About 4 percent fall is expected, 

increasing the youth labour force worldwide (ILO, 2022; World Bank Group, 2022). 

 

Amid the ongoing global youth employment crisis, which is persistently increasing, countries are 

actively exploring strategies to tackle these issues more effectively, particularly as they reached 

their peak during the 2009 global recession (ILO, 2017). It is, therefore, no coincidence that UN 

Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) eight emphasises decent work for all, which is undoubtedly 

pertinent to young people because unemployment is high amongst this group of people and three 

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times higher than the adult unemployment rate (UNDP, 2019). The youth in Ghana, as elsewhere, 

often face unique challenges transitioning into the labour market. As the country works to address 

unemployment, many interventions have been put in place, one of which is technical and 

vocational skills acquisition. According to Amadi and Abdullah (2012), vocational skills 

acquisition training, when effectively rolled out, acts as an intervention tool in curbing the issue 

of unemployment and poverty in the society- in this case, Awutu Senya East Municipality 

(ASEM). 

 

 

In corroboration, Kennedy et al. (2013), postulated that acquiring vocational skills as a young 

person with employable potential contributes immensely to one’s ability to generate income, 

likewise the securing of livelihoods. Thus, there is an increased potential of becoming 

economically self-reliant as skills attained are put to work. Other benefits include high self-esteem 

and wider social capital. The growing body of literature suggests TVET as possessing the capacity 

and a sustainable alternative to addressing the country's increasing unemployment rate (Yangben 

& Seniwoliba, 2014). 

 

 

Additionally, TVET has, over the years, proven to be important in Africa due to its higher 

probability of providing jobs to learners, and Ghana is no exception. Ghana’s TVET system has 

been an essential part of its informal economy, particularly as a complementary means of skills 

transfer and the development of the nation's human capital required for overall national 

development. In emphasising the responsibilities of various stakeholders who affect the youth, 

provision is made for the country to provide opportunities for educational advancement and 

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adequate resources for sustainable youth development. In contrast, the youth is expected to 

willingly take advantage of the opportunities for personal socioeconomic development. 

 

 

There are many programmes been implemented nationwide including online digital marketing and 

entrepreneurship training, app development training, youth innovation for sustainable 

development challenge, youth livelihoods farms, and skills towards employment and productivity 

(Dadzie et al., 2020). This means that the government is working towards addressing the youth 

unemployment in the country. Against this background, there is the need to undertake a study 

among the youth to ascertain the reasons for the poor participation in TVET despite its capacity to 

curb unemployment. This study explored the knowledge, perceptions, attitudes, challenges, and 

opportunities associated with TVET among youth aged 15 to 35 years in Ghana using Awutu 

Senya East Municipality (ASEM) as a case study. This would provide insights into how the youth 

perceive these opportunities and identify effective approaches to address youth unemployment, 

with a focus on ASEM as a case study (National Youth Authority, 2022). 

 

Several studies have been conducted about the prospective contribution of Technical and 

Vocational Education and Training (TVET) to youth employment, drawing on testimonies in 

countries like Germany- one of the leading developed countries with an advanced experience in 

TVET juxtaposed to that of developing countries. Olelewe (2016) and Sanni (2018) researched the 

potential of TVET in addressing youth unemployment and the challenges of providing Vocational 

Education for young people in Nigeria. Rathidevi and Sudhakaran (2019) explored students' 

attitudes towards TVET in Chennai City, India. In Ghana, studies have assessed the TVET skill 

gaps in the extractive sector, its importance, and career challenges (Ansah & Kissi, 2013; 

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Saskatchewan Polytechnic, 2016; Yangben & Seniwoliba, 2014). Little is known about the 

knowledge, perception and attitude of young people towards TVET and, likewise, the extent to 

which they perceive it as an opportunity to address unemployment. 

 

 

Ghana’s 2021 TVET report showed that TVET completion rates were low, especially amongst 

pre-tertiary learners, due to the course duration and lack of funding. Technical institutes and 

national vocational institutes run courses of three to five years; many learners leave after two years, 

believing that their employability will not significantly improve in the remainder of the course 

(Atchoarena and Delluc, 2002; CTVET, 2021). It is for such reasons that this study is to be 

undertaken with the youth of ASEM as the target population since the area is documented to be 

urban, youthful and has a vibrant informal sector known to be the booster of the local economy 

having job creation and training potentials for the youth (Medium Term Development Plan, 2021). 

 

 

Out of a total population of 66,878 aged 15 years and above, 5.2 percent are unemployed, with 90 

percent falling between the ages of 30 and 44. These statistics imply that a proportion of the youth 

are unemployed despite the dominance of the informal sector in the municipality and TVET as a 

potential pathway for addressing the issue. In exploring the reasons for the high rate of 

unemployment recorded amongst the youth in Awutu Senya East Municipality, the study sought 

to answer the following questions; what are the knowledge, perceptions and attitudes of the youth 

towards TVET? What are the opportunities and challenges of the youth in TVET? To what extent 

do young people perceive TVET as a solution to youth unemployment? 

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1.2 Objectives of the Study 

 

The study's general objective explored TVET as an opportunity to tackle unemployment amongst 

the youth in ASEM. Specifically, the study aims 

1. To assess the knowledge, attitudes and perceptions of the youth in ASEM towards TVET 

 

2. To assess the opportunities and challenges of the youth in TVET 

 

3. To examine the extent to which the youth perceive TVET as a solution to unemployment 

amongst young people in the municipality. 

 

 

1.3 Significance of the Study 

The emerging challenges confronting the youth create a sense of urgency that necessitates a 

significant level of concern among policymakers and government officials in charge of 

formulating, implementing, monitoring, and evaluating youth programmes as well as projects. This 

warrants that the right approaches are devised to address the identified challenges (Huut, 2018). 

The study will therefore provide reliable information to all relevant stakeholders, policymakers, 

and employers alike in the education and employment sectors. This will rekindle the urgency and 

framework surrounding job provision among the youth in Ghana. Since most youths are in the 

informal sector, attention is needed to encourage and provide relevant skills for economic 

development. 

 

As youth unemployment has become a national problem and efforts have been put in place to 

address the issue, findings of this study in ASEM are expected to help inform the Government of 

Ghana and policymakers on the knowledge, attitudes, and practices of the youth towards TVET 

and how they can intervene effectively. Thus, the findings will help orient resource allocation and 

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project design. The Economic Commission for Africa (ECA) asserts that employment is 

foundational to any region’s prosperity and continued improvement in the welfare of its people 

(ECA, 2007 cited in Amadi & Abdullah, 2012). Findings and recommendations will therefore 

enhance ongoing deliberations between relevant stakeholders, which is expected to impact TVET 

positively. 

 

 

Overall, the study is expected to contribute to efforts geared towards advancing knowledge about 

youth unemployment and TVET. Thus, drawing on the knowledge, attitudes, and practices of the 

youth and the lingering challenges and opportunities inherent in the sector. This aligns with 

Dyson’s (2008), and van Blerk’s (2019) call for more engagement with young people to learn from 

their experiences on the issue under study. Finally, the study seeks to add to the existing literature 

on youth unemployment and TVET from the perspective of the youth in Awutu Senya East 

Municipality. 

 

 

1.4 Organisation of the Study 

 

The study is structured into five chapters. The first chapter introduces the study by highlighting, 

the background, problem statement, objectives and significance of the study. Chapter Two 

presents a review of relevant literature. Additionally, the chapter presents the theoretical and 

conceptual frameworks of the study. In Chapter Three, the methodology employed in data 

collection and analysis are explained. The chapter also provides a profile of the study district as 

well as the study population and the sampling techniques employed. Chapter Four then presents 

the results of the study and discusses the findings. Finally, Chapter Five provides a summary of 

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the key findings of the study, conclusion and makes recommendations for policy and future 

research. 

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CHAPTER TWO 

LITERATURE REVIEW 

2.0 Introduction 

 

This chapter reviews relevant literature on TVET as an opportunity to address youth 

unemployment in Ghana. Thus, various scholarly works were reviewed to give an in-depth 

understanding of the definition of youth, and the concept of unemployment, then narrowed down 

to youth unemployment, global statistics of unemployment amongst young people, causes of youth 

unemployment, and some government-initiated interventions. Subsequent sections covered the 

concept of TVET and the opportunities it has created in the global space, its popularisation in 

Ghana, a brief highlight on both formal and informal TVET, its governance, and some 

interventions in Ghana and challenges being faced by the sector. The chapter will also look at the 

theoretical and conceptual frameworks underlying the study. 

 

 

2.1 Definition of Youth 

 

According to United Nations (UN), a youth is a person between the ages of 15 and 24 years. 

Countries like Ghana, Mali, and Nigeria have different age ranges for defining youth. These 

countries defined a youth as a person aged between 15 to 40 years, 18 to 35 years, and 15 to 35 

years, respectively. In the case of Ethiopia, a youth is a person who is between 15 and 24 years 

old. 

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2.2 Concept of Unemployment 

 

In defining unemployment, authors have tried to use concepts that benefit their objectives. Over 

time, unemployment as a familiar phenomenon has been described by the International Labour 

Organisation (ILO) as individuals who are of working age, actively looking for work within a 

relatively brief period (such as a month, week, or day), but are unable to find suitable employment 

opportunities (ILO, 2007). Based on the above, the World Bank estimated that about 48 percent 

of the youth in Ghana are unemployed (World Bank Group, 2022). Poku-Boansi and Afrane 

(2016) question this definition and label it as porous as it appears to suit the context of 

unemployment in developed countries as opposed to developing countries, Africa inclusive. They 

argued that the conceptualisation of the situation makes no provision for discouraged workers and 

those in the rural sector since majority of the labour offices are situated in the urban centres. 

 

 

Governments worldwide work tirelessly at tackling the canker, especially the prevalence of youth 

unemployment but has, over the years, proven to be a cumbersome task to complete, with most 

faults being accredited to governments preceding the incumbent. With much conviction, issues 

have been raised concerning how trivial the statistics make unemployment look in the African 

domain compared to the reality on the ground. Baah-Nuakoh (1993), Poku-Boansi and Afrane 

(2016), in concurrence stipulated that the representation of unemployment within the Ghanaian 

region by census is not representational, thereby causing gaps in interventions carved out by both 

government and private institutions in attacking the menace. For many years, concerns have been 

raised about the consistent understatement of the unemployment rate in Africa, which in turn 

justifies the pertinence of the phenomenon. Giving rise to the conclusion that the universal 

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conceptualisation of unemployment is ‘too narrow’ in its application in the African context (Awad, 

2019). 

 

 

Theoretically, unemployment has been analysed in many ways. One of these ways is the 

neoclassical model, which posits that there is no such phenomenon as unemployment on the 

premise that the labour market consistently clears - presupposing that unemployment is recorded 

only when an individual willingly chooses to rebuff the market-clarity wage offer. That is the 

assumption of flexible wages and perfect information. This theory further enumerates the required 

generalisation of excess supply of labour and structural employment resulting from the mismatch 

between the demand for labour and skills in positioning job seekers as assumptions. The classical 

model attributes the imbalance between demands in supply of labour to the creation of 

unintentional unemployment, and only happens when there is market imperfection caused by the 

government interruptions such as minimum wage. This theory further explains that government 

interventions provoked surplus labour because of the excess supply over demand for labour. 

Despite the arguments raised in contradiction to the relative influence of minimum wage on 

unemployment, Nevmark and Wascher (1995) reiterate the significant effect it had on the youth 

and unskilled workers and, as such cannot be underestimated. 

 

Furthermore, voluntary and involuntary models have been used in explaining unemployment. 

Shackleton (1985) elucidated that the state in which individuals cannot get work despite their 

readiness to accept lower real wages or poorer conditions compared to the ideal summed up 

involuntary unemployment. In contrast, voluntary unemployment is dependent on the individual’s 

willingness to remain unemployed. Bentolila et al. (2011) added to this definition by explaining 

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the concept using the insider model. Here, employment is said to spring forth when wages are 

determined based on the considerations of current employees (insiders) with no recognition of the 

interests of jobseekers – outsiders. Thus, insiders remain the beneficiaries of the employment 

opportunities that crop up, leaving job seekers in the dark. 

 

 

2.3 Youth Unemployment in Ghana 

 

The large youth population in the country represents a potential resource for growth and 

development when they are gainfully and productively employed. However, the size of the youth 

population may pose a challenge and source of civil disorders and social unrest if this untapped 

resource is poorly managed, negatively affecting development. Ostensibly, high-rise insecurity in 

some Sub-Saharan African (SSA) countries and the present-day disruption in North Africa have 

been connected to unemployment (AfDB et al., 2012). Not only does unemployment give rise to 

economic costs expressed in revenues and output losses, but it suggests a misuse of human 

resources and consequently sparks maximal individual deprivation. Notable of which is accrued 

psychological costs for the unemployed (Eguaveon, 2010). Young people are most often new 

candidates in the market from different educational backgrounds, with limited or no work 

experience and that tends to hamper their prospects of securing productive and/or formal sector 

jobs. The problem these people face in securing adequate remunerated and productive jobs after 

school tends to increase their vulnerability in society and makes them liable to social vices and 

source of conflicts amongst others. Most of the cases of failed government initiatives have been 

linked to the unprogressively and failed state of economic reforms and policies initiated by 

governing bodies (Dietrich & Moller, 2016; Jumpah et al., 2020). 

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Based on this heterogeneous characteristic of the economic status, advocacy for halting the one- 

size-fits-all approach in addressing the situation and embracing group-specific policies and 

programmes is on the rise. It is also revealed that in the last two decades, the rate of employment 

growth has fallen substantially behind that of economic growth in Ghana. Hence the recording of 

an expansion of the gap between job growth and economic growth from 2017 to date. Given the 

foregoing, the response of the youth labour market to economic growth was weak (Baah-Boateng, 

2014). Fergusson and Yeates (2022) examined the different situations of unemployment in the 

Global South. They discovered and advanced the debate that youth unemployment is a weighty 

problem, but in a disguised manner. Unemployment in Ghana has over a period remained 

persistent and has recently been magnified due to the COVID-19 pandemic with current rates of 

12 percent youth unemployment and more than 50 percent underemployment in the country- both 

rates reported to be higher than the average across Sub-Saharan African countries (Fairwork, 

2022). 

 

To this end, this study adopts a broader definition of youth unemployment as any young individual 

who is without fixed employment, presently available and seeking work, but cannot find one. This 

is inclusive of all those who lost their jobs voluntarily or involuntarily and persons who did look 

for work at the time but have arrangements for a future job. The study will also consider that young 

individual who is unemployed, available for work but makes no effort to seek employment- a 

situation described as disguised unemployment which is the case for a few young people in the 

region. Reasons for this has been reported to be linked to the view that job opportunities are 

limited, or a case of restricted labour mobility, or the individual is faced with discrimination or 

some form of socio-cultural and structural barriers (ILO, 2022). 

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2.4 Global Statistics of Youth Unemployment 

 

Youth unemployment is considered an undesirable situation for young people and has become one 

of the greatest obstructions to governments worldwide and finding sustainable solutions to it has 

become more critical. There is the argument that the issue of youth unemployment needs to be 

approached from a global perspective especially because of the existing similarities in the 

challenges confronting the youth on a global spectrum. Yet, this might be impossible due to the 

non-uniformity in the definition of a youth (Mahama, 2016; UN, 2018). 

 

 

In expounding the cases of unemployment in the African region, it is worth noting that there is 

much deficiency in statistics due to absence of efficient and functional employment centres in most 

African countries. Hence the need for the collation of unemployment figures and other relevant 

labour-related statistics from households, labour force surveys, and population census which are 

not conducted regularly (Gelle et al., 2021). By referring to empirical data collected between 1999– 

2012, unemployment rates were recorded to be higher in North Africa and Sub-Saharan Africa. 

The rates on an overall scope were much higher in sampled countries in Northern and Southern 

Africa as opposed to those in the West, Central in East Africa – Ghana inclusive. It was observed 

that a higher rate was reported among the young people than adults in all the countries represented, 

with Ghana, Mauritius, Algeria, and Tunisia recording 3 times more rates. At the time of the study, 

the world average youth unemployment rate stood at 12.6 percent estimated to be 2.8 times higher 

than their adult counterparts. Again, North African countries had rates thrice higher than that of 

Sub-Saharan Africa while that of Sub-Saharan Africa was almost twice higher than that of the 

adults. 

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Nigeria as of 2016 recorded 80 million out of the 140 million Nigerians, constituting 60 percent 

of the total population of Nigerians being the youth with 64 million (80 percent) of them 

unemployed whereas 1.6 million are underemployed thereby posing a threat to the sustainability 

of the Nigerian economy. Youth unemployment is perceived to be mostly among secondary school 

leavers with less than half being able to proceed to higher education. There was also a 40 percent 

unemployment rate among the youth aged 20-24 and 31 percent among those aged 15-19 years in 

urban settlements (Olelewe, 2016). Again, it is recorded to be higher among the non-science 

graduates and has been explained as being because of the “overproduction of skills in these areas 

relative to the absorption of such skills in the economy” (Baah-Boateng, 2021 p.3). 

 

 

In 2017, young people between ages 15 and 35 in Ghana constituted 35 percent of the entire 

population-about 9.92 million, with the larger population living in the country's urban areas. Baah- 

Boateng (2021) detailed that those between the ages of 15 and 19 dominated this population, with 

those aged 25-29 years accounting for the minority of 21 percent. In contrast, those in the 30-35 

age bracket dominated in 2015, whereas those who fall within 20-24 years constituted the least 

share, with 23.3 percent. In summary, the age bracket of 15-24 consisted of approximately 5.5 

million people, making up 55.3 percent of the entire population, while those aged 25-35 accounted 

for 44.7 percent, showing a contrasting pattern compared to the statistics from 2015. 

 

 

2.5 Causes of Youth Unemployment 

Being abreast with the vulnerability of young people in seasons of economic situations coupled 

with a constant reminder of its extremity compared to that of adults is of immense essence to the 

study. This is ultimately linked to the young person’s limited labour market experience, lack of 

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job search experience and labour market information to aid in the search. Youth unemployment is 

indirectly affected by the unavailability of poorly structured employment centres resulting in the 

consequent reliance on friends and families for job search. Despite the advancement of discussions 

and actions towards female empowerment, youth unemployment appears to be higher amongst 

females than males with reasons centred around lower levels of education, some discriminatory 

practices of employers and constraints in establishing own enterprises (Elder & Smith, 2010). 

 

 

Surprisingly, many studies conducted on youth unemployment report high rates among graduates 

of tertiary and secondary institutions compared to those with basic education. This is because the 

formal sector requests at least secondary education for potential candidates and those below this 

requirement are automatically not qualified and so they tend to resort to the informal sector where 

the flexibility of entry exists (Poku-Boansi & Afrane, 2016). Awad (2019) asserts that the informal 

sector operates as the way out to the no opening and qualification in the formal sector. As 

problematic as this sounds, the informal sector cannot be ruled out as it operates as a significant 

contributor to a country’s economy through unemployment absorption. So, whether the informal 

sector is an ideal choice or not, it is the solution to the rising status of youth unemployment and 

sparks the conversation geared towards the exploration and better structuring of the sector. 

 

In Ghana, the issue of youth unemployment has been extensively discussed, and several studies 

have identified common factors contributing to this problem. One significant cause relates to the 

mismatch between the education curriculum and the demands of the job market. This mismatch 

leaves young individuals highly susceptible to unemployment, which raises concerns about the 

quality of education provided. Additionally, the population growth rate of a country also plays a 

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role in determining the level of unemployment. Statistics indicate that in 2017, Ghana's population 

was estimated to be 29.6 million, an increase of about 5.1 million from 24.6 million in 2010. 

Among this population, it is estimated that over 38.8 percent constituted the youth segment (GSS, 

2021). 

 

 

2.6 Government Initiated Youth Unemployment Interventions 

 

Policies and programmes aimed at generating employment primarily prioritise skills acquisition, 

development, and the cultivation of entrepreneurs (Avura et al., 2016). However, before 

formulating and implementing these effective interventions, it was crucial to have a comprehensive 

understanding of the labour market composition. To address this issue, the government has 

implemented diverse programmes to promote employment in the region. These programmes 

include: Youth Employment Agency (YEA); National Vocational Training Institute (NVTI); 

Opportunities Industrialisation Centre Ghana (OICG); Youth Leadership and Skills Training 

Institute; Youth in Agriculture Programme (YIAP); National Entrepreneurship Innovation 

Programme (NEIP), previously Youth Enterprise Support (YES); Rural Enterprises Programme 

(REP); National Service Scheme (NSS); Ghana Youth Employment and Entrepreneurial Agency 

(GYEEDA), and Nation Builders Corps (NABCO). Jumpah et al. (2020), have argued that most 

of these policies and programmes have produced insignificant results over the years. This, they 

ascribed to the failure of such interventions to factor in some rudimentary inputs like more succinct 

selection criteria and sustainability, resulting in the escalating national average of unemployment 

rate in recent years. 

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2.7 Concept of TVET 

 

In recent years, there has been an awakening among policy makers globally on the vital role that 

TVET plays in national development. This is reflected in African countries in the Poverty 

Reduction Strategy Papers developed by its governments in partnership with World Bank (Nasir, 

2012). The conceptualisation of TVET is closely linked to its vision. According to UNESCO- 

UNEVOC (2001), this vision is ascribable to the economic and financial crisis that hit Africa in 

the 1980s. The uncertainties born from this period sparked grave changes in the labour market and 

TVET systems inclusive leading to a hike in unemployment and the deterioration of the capability 

of TVET as a source of employment. 

 

 

Education is an investment in human capital, a basal human right and a sine qua non for the socio- 

economic development of any given society. Additionally, education is an efficient medium for 

the facilitation of individual fulfilment cum the generational transfer of values not underestimated 

(GSS, 2014; Ansah et al., 2013). TVET is widely considered as a sub-sector in the education sphere 

and the propulsive force behind economic and technological progress (Akoojee, 2012). The idea 

of this form of education is centred on the acquisition of practical skills and is similarly viewed in 

other terms that are often used interchangeably. They include vocational education, technical 

vocational education, and training (TVET), and vocational training. Other terms used to describe 

this phenomenon over time include apprenticeship training, technical education, occupational 

education, workplace education, career and technical education, and workforce education 

(Hollander & Mar, 2009; Sanni, 2018). Meanings ascribed to the phenomenon are dependent on 

the focus of the research and largely due to its compendious nature. 

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Primarily, TVET has been recorded in the literature as concerned with the acquisition of 

knowledge and skills for the labour market. According to UNESCO and ILO (2007, p.1) TVET is 

“aspects of the educational process involving, in addition to general education, the study of 

technologies and related sciences, and the acquisition of practical skills, attitudes, understanding 

and knowledge relating to occupants in various sectors of economic and social life". Its thriving 

and effectiveness are crucial to a country’s labour market as a solution to unemployment. Kotsikis 

(2007), defined vocational education as acquiring specific or technical skills for employment that 

could be complemented with general education. This, he differentiated from vocational training 

which involves acquiring knowledge both in theory and practical on certain jobs. 

 

 

Additionally, Hollander and Mar (2009) introduced technical and vocational education as an all- 

inclusive term describing all fragments of the educational process comprising of the study of 

technologies and related sciences, the acquisition of practical skills, attitudes, comprehension, and 

knowledge applicable to varied occupations. This, they associated with the past division of roles 

with respect to TVET whereby UNESCO’s primary assignment was centred on technical and 

vocational education. At the same time, the International Labour Organisation (ILO) was 

concerned about aspects of employment training. With arguments raised about education and 

training possessing the same meaning and role in the world of work. The concept of training was 

introduced as part of UNESCO’s key objectives and has remained the case to date (Hollander & 

Mar, 2009). While “technical education is aimed at nurturing skills and practical development of 

an individual, vocational education is imbued with strict adherence to guiding principles for 

effective professional performance in an occupational field” (Olelewe, 2016, p. 2). 

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In the development and recognition process of TVET, an undeniable projection is made of the fact 

that learning no longer takes the form of formal education alone but also in informal and non- 

formal settings. Technical vocational education and training (TVET) involves education and 

training related to a specific job or economic life (Subrahmanyam, 2020). As such, TVET was 

introduced as the main term by international bodies to describe this kind of activity-based learning. 

Its complexity and multi-dimensional orientation result in the inaccurate and limited statistics 

available (Alvarado, 2017). Sustainability plays a major role in TVET as it boosts the economy of 

a country through the provision of job opportunities alongside other benefits like the reduction in 

crime rates and the encouragement of innovation, creativity, and competitiveness in development. 

There is further facilitation of skills adjustment to suit changing market demands and sustainable 

development practices (Okwelle & Ayomike, 2014). 

 

TVET gained an equal but different status for most of the 20th century in North America. It was 

a conduit for the disadvantaged populace to better themselves in Australia. Comparably, when 

erstwhile colonies of some advanced nations attained independence, they primarily invested in 

linking skill advancement to employment then to economic development. Countries like India and 

Kenya perceived TVET as a national intervention for strategically attaining self-dependence 

through the provision of job opportunities (Alagaraja et al., 2014). Germany, Austria, and 

Switzerland reportedly have world-renowned dual TVET systems, whereas Canada and Finland 

have excellent reputations for TVET in their community college system, and a world-leading 

education system in which TVET plays a major role. Singapore despite its lack of natural resources 

has grown into a Southeast Asian powerhouse by its sustainable policies regarding public-private 

collaboration in TVET. Another country worth referencing is China’s outstanding growth which 

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is evidently connected to its prioritised focus on TVET (CTVET, 2021). In Malaysia, TVET drives 

the country’s economic development through the sufficient and timely supply of exceptionally 

skilled workers. There is also the consciousness of improving people’s perception of TVET as well 

as strengthening ties with industries for better output. 

 

 

In Africa, TVET systems vary from country to country as seen in Europe and thereby conveyed or 

delivered in different kinds of institutions. They comprise technical and vocational schools (public 

and private), polytechnics, enterprise and apprenticeships – the most patronised and affordable 

especially for the vulnerable offering the largest platform for the acquisition of employable skills 

within the informal sector and expanding the job market all over Africa. The African Union (AU) 

with visions of promoting an integrated, peaceful, prosperous Africa recognises the crucial role 

TVET plays as an avenue for empowering individuals to take charge of their lives and goes on to 

advocate for its inclusion in the mainstream education system (African Union, 2007). In Ghana, 

the informal sector has over the years contributed to about 90 percent of skills training in the 

country including private organisations consisting of profit and non-profit institutions, church- 

based institutions and NGOs (CTVET, 2021). Additionally, the private organisations are heading 

in the provision of TVET and have been said to pay keen attention to learners for the informal 

sector unlike public organisations (African Union, 2007). 

 

 

2.8 Popularisation of TVET in Ghana 

Manpower development as linked to youth empowerment has been identified to be a necessary 

and basic resource for national development especially in our part of the world (Sanni, 2018). 

Many countries have recognised this basic yet great resource and have worked on and explored its 

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effectiveness. Ghana, is no exception. In years past, Ghana also realised and embarked on youth 

employment training. That is, specific job training as later came to be known as TVET. This is 

documented to have commenced during the precolonial era as apprentice training or traditional 

education, through its attachment to the missionary period where it was taught to locals to solve 

their problems, strengthened during the colonial era and then invested in during the post- 

independence period (Benjamin, 2017). 

 

 

According to Avura et al. (2016), this concept seems to be unpopular among Ghanaians and has 

been relegated to the traditional, small-scale practice. This neglect is not only in Ghana but 

worldwide. However, this seems to be coming back on the development agenda of countries. With 

the growing unemployment in many countries, TVET that was once neglected by the World Bank 

and other world donor agencies between the 1980s and 2000s (Tripney et al., 2013), is now being 

focused on by all as an opportunity to positively affect global poverty and bring economic as well 

as social stability (African Union, 2007; King and Palmer, 2010; UNDP, 2019). 

 

The establishment of TVET, though covers individuals of all ages, mostly targets the youth. In 

Ghana, governments, individuals and organisations contribute to TVET through the numerous 

youth employment interventions they create (Dadzie, et al., 2020). To solve the unemployment 

problem, improve productivity and economic growth, Ghana has focused on skills development 

for a while now. Opportunities are given to young people who drop out of school and receive little 

or no education at all to be self-employed (Baffour-Awuah et al., 2011). In 2018, the government 

designed a plan to transform TVET to boost economic development and restructure the national 

TVET system (Ministry of Education, 2018). 

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2.9 Types of TVET 

 

There are different types and forms of TVET education in Ghana including the formal, informal, 

and non-formal. The TVET curricula are taught in both private and public institutions to provide 

all facets of society’s access to sustainable learning channels and resources. These institutions are 

charged with the mandate of producing knowledgeable, skilled, and enthused workforce for the 

advancement of sustainable development. Skills like negotiation, teamwork, and communication 

are therefore incorporated in the programmes offered (Subrahmanyam, 2020). They can either be 

obtained through the structured formal model, the informal practical experience, or both-the dual 

training as mostly referred to and practiced in countries like Germany with enviable development 

outcomes (OECD, 2008; Oketch, 2009; Kingombe, 2011). 

 

 

2.9.1 Formal TVET 

 

The formal TVET programmes are school-based and can be further categorised under tertiary level 

and pre-tertiary level TVET. The formal type of TVET was rolled out in Technical Universities; 

formally known as Polytechnics. The structure of Polytechnics has been operating since the 1990s 

until 2016 when the Technical Universities Act, Act 922 was passed in Parliament. In 1987, during 

the Ghana Educational Reforms, Polytechnics were advanced from second cycle technical 

institutes to tertiary-level institutions due to the increasing importance attached to the development 

of technical and vocational education in Ghana. It is also reported to be awfully limited as fees and 

resources to be provided by the learner appear cumbersome compared to the informal and non- 

formal (Ansah et al., 2013). 

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As at the time of this study, Ghana has ten (10) Technical Universities coupled with 88 TVET 

Colleges, 5 Agriculture Colleges, and other specialised providers (African Union, 2007). Overall, 

the country has 112 tertiary-level TVET service providers spread across the country, which 

specialise in different areas such as cosmetology, fashion design, woodwork, and metallurgy. It 

is also rolled out by the National Vocational Training Institute (NVTI), Ghana Education Service 

(GES), other youth training institutions and several private vocational schools. The formal system 

is certified training with its duration being time-bound and ranges from three and six years, 

depending on the country and the model. Some countries like Ghana, Senegal, and Swaziland in 

the quest to expose young people to pre-employment skills have integrated fundamental vocational 

skills into the lower or junior secondary school curriculum (African Union, 2007; Yangben & 

Seniwoliba, 2014). 

 

 

2.9.2 Informal and Non-formal TVET 

 

The informal sector has over the years been ranked the highest in providing employment and 

contributing enormously to the country’s development. Employment in the informal economy has 

been classified as possessing poor quality due to bad working conditions, low remuneration, and 

above all providing minute economic security. Nonetheless, Fergusson and Yeates (2022) by 

virtue of their research concluded that there is a significant informal sector that absorbs the mass 

of the labour forces with no access to formal waged work with about 80 percent of the Ghanaian 

working population found in the sector. Lutta et al. (2021) averred that the sector creates a suitable 

training environment for skills development. Thereby resulting in similar prospects for the 

informal TVET sector. 

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According to CTVET Report (2021), informal apprenticeship training is not only common in West 

Africa but also accounts for approximately 80 – 90 percent of all skills training in urban areas like 

ASEM. Consequently, the rates remain almost close to 2021’s estimation of 400,000 apprentices 

recorded yearly. Both informal and non-formal TVET have the advantage of shorter duration for 

training, occupation-specific, less expensive, and not necessarily follow the prescribed standard 

curriculum with emphasis on the obtainment of practical skills for employment. This traditional 

training is grounded in an agreement between the apprentice and a master craftsperson, and it lasts 

for an average of three years. Cost of training, timeframe, and the mode of assessment differ across 

the sector (Nasir, 2012; Schaefer-Kehnert, 2015). Despite the benefits embedded in this channel 

of training, there is a surging demand for highly competent labour as Ghana’s economy evolves 

with much emphasis on technological development. Hence, the need to transform the traditional 

mode of delivery to curb the current challenges including but not limited to the lack of cooperation 

and regularity of the training system, leading to government interventions. 

 

 

Informal sector workers engaging in activities like sewing, handcraft industry, furniture making, 

and car repair workshops signify a major factor for the provision of employment to many people 

especially those living in urban settlements (Osei-Boateng & Ampratwum, 2011). Ansah et al. 

(2013) referred to the 2004 white paper on education which advocates for an intensive evaluation 

and transformation in the delivery and quality of TVET yet to date, minimal attention is paid to 

the informal and non-formal types. This assertion is corroborated by the findings documented in 

the 2021 TVET report released by CVET. 

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In response to arguments against the government concerning the neglect of the informal TVET 

sector, efforts have been put in place to bridge the existing gap which is unarguably a step in the 

right direction. As a result, the Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL) was introduced within the 

informal scope, and recognised certification issued. The assessment focuses on the already 

acquired skills, knowledge exposure, and experience gained either informally, non-formally or in 

some cases formally. With this certification, learners are brought at par with those in the formal 

sector and labour market front, the form of certification expedites transition onto the NTVETQF 

for all in the informal sphere. Competency Based Training (CBT) was also introduced to the sector 

as a means of modernising the traditional apprenticeship style. 

 

 

In 2012, the Cooperative Apprenticeship Project was launched and had sixteen training providers 

and a trade association in areas of garment, electronics, automotive, cosmetology, and welding 

signed on. This was the case till 2016 in collaboration with CTVET under the Phase I and II of the 

Ghana Skills Development Initiative. Just like the RPL, this project serves as the link between the 

formal and the informal sectors. Experientially, this will positively impact the quality of work, 

unemployment, and sustainable economic cum social development in Ghana. Tools utilised 

constituted occupational standards, learning material, unit specification, workplace guidelines for 

master craft persons, and apprentice logbook. 

 

Non-formal TVET is synonymous with training obtained outside the education system with 

structured learning objectives to be achieved, times and support. Community organisations and 

NGOs are noted to be the conveners of such and will normally not issue certificates. They come 

in the form of short courses, workshops, and seminars. Similarly, the informal system is 

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categorised by the flexibility of programmes cum practicality as priority. The majority of those in 

the TVET sector gained their skills through the informal system despite its characteristics of poor 

coordination and standardisation. Most outfits in the sector are made up of traditional 

apprenticeships in trades like masonry, welding and fabrication, carpentry, auto-mechanics, 

photography, shoe making, tailoring and dressmaking (Botchie & Ahadzie, 2004, p. 18; Adam, 

2008). 

 

 

2.10 TVET Governance and Interventions in Ghana 

Until 2000, all issues about TVET were spearheaded by NVTI. It served as the governing body for 

monitoring TVET and apprenticeship in the country. In 1970, the National Vocational Training 

Institute was established by ACT 351, the National Vocational Training Act which was approved 

by the then President – Edward Akufo-Addo on 12th January, 1971. This institute was tasked to 

create and regulate apprenticeship, and other training programmes for industrial and administrative 

workers as well as the trainers and instructor responsible for such purposes. Other responsibilities 

include the provision of vocational assistance in career advancement in industry and development 

of training standards in trade testing. On the international front, the body was expected to maintain 

cordial technical relations with international organisations engaging in activities linked with 

vocational training. 

 

In 1990, the National Coordinating Committee for Technical and Vocational Education and 

Training (NACVET) was established to prepare policies and organise all issues regarding TVET 

and provide pieces of advice on strategies to implement towards the achievement of a desirable 

economy and produce employable young people in both formal and informal sectors. There was 

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the role of mainstreaming the evaluation, monitoring and accreditation processes TVET system in 

Ghana. With all these duties in view, the NACVET successfully formulated a policy on technical 

vocation education as well as initiate the premier National Occupational Standards (NOS) for some 

designated trade areas in Ghana by a body of professionals. The Ministry of Employment and 

Social Welfare and the UNDP/ILO umbrella Programme for Standard Employment Creation 

developed the Models of Employable Skills (MES) curriculum for some 40 selected trade areas. 

The Umbrella programme focused on the promotion and sustainability of employment policies 

and programmes through comprehensive government enablement to plan and monitor employment 

policies, the development of micro and small business programmes. Based on the umbrella 

programme, NACVET introduced and emphasised “self-employment” as a key component of 

TVET and as such integrated entrepreneur education into the syllabus for all TVET Institutions. 

 

In comparison, the NVTI did not magnify coordination functions in its operation rather trading 

provider roles through its respective institutes. NACVET on the other hand made evident progress 

but was challenged with the unavailability of parliamentary backing, hence the need for the 

establishment of a council for TVET passed by an Act of Parliament. Moving on, the Commission 

for Technical and Vocational Education and Training (COTVET) Preparatory Technical 

Committee (CPTC) was introduced in June 2006 with some non-theoretical assistance from 

TVETs Project of Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA). This 20-member committee 

was seen to draft the implementation of the TVET policy, the functionalisation of the COTVET 

Act among others. This time, the committee called on representatives from the public and private 

sectors. In a nutshell, the evolution of the TVET sector from 1990 to 2012 has been one filled with 

shaping and re-shaping of policies, programmes, and structures towards the successful 

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implantation of TVET in the country and most especially, to see to the honing of skills for 

employment purposes. 

 

 

Despite the challenges identified by Saskatchewan Polytechnic (2016) as the lack of state-of-the- 

art infrastructure at most institutions, outmoded curriculum, inexperienced instructions, lack of 

cohesion between governments and other stakeholders, and low levels of female enrolment, the 

council has been applauded for its investment in an equitable and sustainable TVET sector. 

Through the Council, National TVET Qualifications Framework (NTVETQF) is currently in 

operation, usage of Competency-Based Training (CBT) has been intensified, and a strategic plan 

for the transformation of TVET (2018-2022) has been formulated and approved as well as the 

rebranding of TVET through projects implemented on Public Private-Partnership basis. The 

matters related to TVET in Ghana are tackled in relation to the commission's 5-year strategic plan. 

The commission is entrusted with the overarching responsibility of improving Ghana's workforce 

to boost productivity and employment. 

 

 

In 2020, the Commission for Technical and Vocational Education and Training (CTVET) was 

established by ACT 1023 to facilitate the evolution of the TVET sector for sustainable 

development. The Act in conjunction with the Pre-Tertiary Education Act (ACT 1049) paved way 

for the creation of CTVET and the TVET service. Pre-Tertiary level TVET in contrast to the 

former level is offered at various training centres nationwide with programmes taught spanning 

the different levels of the NTVETQF. Currently, there are thirteen categories of these service 

providers and 238 institutions under them. Programmes range from agriculture to computer-based 

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beauty and cosmetology art creation technology, electrical and tailoring. In all, there are 29 

programmes to choose from either in a public or private pre-tertiary TVET institution. 

 

 

Concerning the recent report released, the Ghana Education Service institutions have the highest 

enrolment from 2015 to 2020. There was a recorded increase in the National Vocational Training 

Institute institution’s enrolment. There by resulting in a rise from 5,192 in 2015 to 11,282 in 2019. 

It can be deduced that the pre-tertiary TVET institutions are patronised more compared to the 

tertiary. In a field survey, primary data collected from 85 TVET institutions indicated that the 

underlying reasons and rate for learner dropouts during the 2018/2019 academic year in the pre- 

tertiary schools had multiplied with majority being the youth with 94.89 percentage out of 841 

learners and the paramount reason being inability to pay fees. Other reasons discovered include 

the death of a guardian, another employment opportunity, early marriage, the proximity of the 

institution, and gender related issues (CTVET, 2021). 

 

As of now, accredited TVET training providers are mandated to enrol learners on the NTVETQF 

where eight levels of qualification are made available fashioned to suit competency-based training 

(CBT). The commission in collaboration with the German government and its development 

organisation, KfW through the Ghana TVET Voucher (GTV) reaches out to registered owners of 

small and medium enterprises, their workers, and apprentices to expand access to TVET in the 

informal sector. Number of male and female beneficiaries nationwide are 5,136 and 13,472 

respectively. It is surprising to discover such a gap between the beneficiaries when in contrast, 

Farm Ghana International (2021) reported that most young people enrolled in TVET are men. The 

coordinator stated that the project had successfully seen 18,000 beneficiaries since 2017 with 73 

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percent being females. It is envisioned that the third phase will take off and continue to ensure that 

CBT will be magnified as opposed to traditional system of training (GIZ, n.d; Joy News, 2022). 

 

 

With efforts to promote inclusive TVET, adequate provision is being put in place to ensure Persons 

with Disabilities (PWDs) can participate in TVET. Other relevant pathways created and being 

implemented are the Workplace Experience Learning (WEL) Policy and Recognition of Prior 

Learning (CTVET, 2021). In summary, Ghana has over the years been collaborating and receiving 

support from partners in developing both the formal and informal TVET sectors as TVET poses 

as an important tool for government in the decrement of unemployment, and to provide workforce 

to the private sector as well as to attract foreign investments. Notable of these partners are GIZ, 

KfW, World Bank, UNESCO, Konrad Adenauer Stiftung (KAS), European Union, African 

Development Bank (AfDB) and Mastercard Foundation. 

 

 

2.11 Challenges of TVET 

Notwithstanding all the projects and policies designed and implemented to boost the sector, the 

sector is still characterised by inadequacies that are affecting the level of skills development needed 

for economic growth and development (Dadzie et. al., 2020). These include inadequate number of 

technical institutions, inefficient and ineffective training programmes in terms of quality, lack of 

resources to establish a business after completing the training, a lack of appropriate and applied 

technology, and growing mismatch between industry requirements and training provided by the 

sector. Others include the extensive concern about the poor quality of training and training outlets, 

and existing negative perceptions, and attitudes towards TVET. COTVET has evidentially taken 

certain measures to solve these challenges. However, more investment is needed to achieve the 

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required goals in terms of popularity, resources, and effective policies (Akyeampong, 2010; 

Atchoarena and Delluc, 2002). 

 

 

In furtherance, the unresponsive characteristics of the existing curriculum stand in disagreement 

with the needs of the trainees and are not in sync with the demands of industry. Thus, much 

attention is not given to practical training and professional skills development even though they 

are critically needed in the current job market. Emphasis is laid on the excessive theoretical 

orientation of the programmes compared to workshop practical skills, which is crucial to the 

development of a skilled workforce to purposefully substantiate productivity (Jumpah, 2020). As 

per Huut's research (2018) conducted in the Northern Region of Ghana, vocational training is 

regarded as having lower status compared to general secondary education. However, it was found 

that vocational training offered a higher probability of job prospects. Nevertheless, the current 

reality contradicts this as the probability of finding employment becomes more uncertain when 

facing certain challenges. One of such challenge is the production of graduates with limited 

practical knowledge, contributing to the growing population of unemployed youth. Consequently, 

the proposed solution itself becomes a disguised problem (Ansah et al., 2013). 

 

 

2.12 Theoretical Framework 

This study utilises the Knowledge, Attitude and Practice (KAP) theory model. This theory 

originated in the 1950s and was mostly used in the family planning and population research fields 

(Muleme et al., 2017). The KAP model, as employed in health education, is a logical model built 

on the premise that enhancing individual knowledge will have an impact on changing behaviour 

(World Health Organisation, 2008). Findings of studies that utilise this theory provide context- 

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specific information pertaining to what is known, believed, done, and the information needs. Here, 

structured, or semi-structured questionnaires are administered to participants and either 

quantitative or qualitative data is gathered (Jacobsen, 2021). 

 

 

KAP surveys, both theoretically and empirically have proven to aid in the identification of 

knowledge gaps, cultural beliefs, or behavioural patterns that may expedite comprehension and 

action as well as information that is known and attitudes that are frequently held. To some degree, 

information gathered using this theory can identify factors influencing behaviours that are not 

known to most people, reasons for their attitudes, how and why people practice such. KAP surveys 

can also evaluate communication procedures and sources that are key to defining effective 

activities and messages in youth unemployment and TVET. In addition, these surveys help in 

identifying the needs, problems, and barriers in programme delivery, as well as remedies for 

improving the quality and accessibility of services. Misconceptions and misunderstandings that 

may hinder the smooth rolling out of activities to be implemented alongside potential barriers to 

behaviour change are unearthed (World Health Organisation, 2008). 

 

Many researchers have employed this theory for diverse studies, most especially in the health 

sector. In 2019, a novel disease – COVID-19 originated in China and spread abroad, causing loss 

of lives, panic, and economic struggles. There was the need for various health practitioners to 

ascertain the knowledge, behaviour and attitude of people towards it. Hence, the utilisation of KAP 

theory. Roy et al. (2020) discovered at the time that there was moderate awareness related to 

transmission and symptoms of COVID-19 among the educated population in India, adequate 

awareness among public regarding preventive measures for COVID-19 infection, a positive 

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attitude of the public towards social distancing, avoiding party and travel and maintaining hygiene. 

More than 80 percent of people perceive that mental healthcare is needed to deal with their issues 

during this COVID-19 pandemic. In 2021, a similar study was undertaken by the Turkish Red 

Crescent Society (TRCS) as an assessment of COVID-19 in Turkey and the findings did provide 

information on the efforts being put in place in addressing the pandemic. It also helped the 

researchers to evaluate their investment in their participants. 

 

 

The KAP theory is not without criticism. It has been criticised on several grounds. Some of these 

limitations are explained hereafter. The first is the issue that creating and executing a good KAP 

study is reported not to be as easy as it appears. Much thought is required to go into the selection 

of the target population, the items in the instrument, the creation of options for answers to items in 

the instrument, the decision on how the instrument will be scored, and then the validation of the 

instrument (Jacobsen, 2021). In addressing this criticism, the instrument for this study was pre- 

tested prior to the rolling out of the actual survey in ensuring that the interview guide and 

questionnaire is good and understandable. The pilot test was conducted with respondents who were 

not included in the actual study. This was vital to increasing the reliability and validity of the 

research instrument by identifying the strengths, weaknesses, and consistency of the questions 

before the analysis of the actual results (Andrade et al., 2020). 

 

The awareness of young people regarding TVET is very significant to minimise youth 

unemployment. The study findings will expose readers and stakeholders to what the youth think 

and know about TVET, and whether they also perceive it as a viable response to youth 

unemployment as projected over time. Inclusively, this theory provides a clear perspective behind 

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the persistent rise in unemployment amongst young people despite the increasing campaign of 

TVET as the solution. It also seeks to guide the implementation of TVET interventions. Thus, the 

usage of this theory will generate findings that will be essential for the development of cost- 

effective and sustainable interventions as the success of this intervention in a resource-limited 

setting depends largely on the knowledge, attitude, and practice of the beneficiaries. 

 

 

2.13 Conceptual Framework 

This conceptual framework is of essential value to this study. It helps in appreciating and 

examining the effectiveness of TVET in addressing youth unemployment. The major assumptions 

regarding the interrelationship between KAP is that, the level of knowledge about a phenomenon 

influences the attitudes generated towards that phenomenon and consequently the actions towards 

it. In relation to this study, the interrelationship between KAP are as follows: 

1. Becoming an employer or employee in the TVET industry is a function of skill acquisition and 

utilisation (positive practices). 

This assumption suggests that whether someone becomes an employer or an employee in the 

TVET industry is primarily determined by the acquisition and utilisation of skills, which are 

considered positive practices. Thus, becoming an employer implies that individuals who acquire 

and effectively use specific skills in the TVET industry have the potential to become employers. 

In other words, they can start and manage their businesses or organisations within this sector, 

which may involve employing others. On the other hand, those who acquire and effectively utilise 

relevant skills may also find opportunities to become employees within the TVET industry. They 

can work for established businesses or institutions in roles that require the application of these 

skills. In order for a youth to become any of these two, the assumption emphasises the importance 

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of first acquiring TVET skills. This typically involves gaining practical, hands-on skills related to 

a particular trade or profession. It may include technical or vocational skills, such as catering, 

carpentry, plumbing, or IT skills. The assumption also underscores the significance of utilising 

acquired skills in a positive and productive manner. This suggests that it is not enough to have the 

skills; it is equally essential to apply them effectively in one's work or business if employment 

status is to be attained. In conclusion, this assumption suggests that in the TVET industry, whether 

an individual becomes an employer (a business owner) or an employee is largely determined by 

their ability to acquire specific skills relevant to the industry and then putting those skills into 

productive use. It highlights the pivotal role that skill development and practical application play 

in shaping career paths within the TVET sector. 

 

 

2. Positive practices regarding TVET employment are largely the function of positive attitudes. 

This assumption suggests that the quality of practices and outcomes related to employment within 

the TVET industry is primarily influenced by individuals' positive attitudes. TVET employment, 

being jobs or careers within the Technical and Vocational Education and Training sector typically 

require specialised technical skills and knowledge. Positive practices also imply that individuals 

in TVET employment are engaged in productive, effective, and beneficial actions and behaviours 

related to TVET. This can include the acquisition and utilisation of skills, providing quality 

services, contributing to their workplaces, and actively participating in their roles. The assumption 

emphasises the importance of individuals holding positive attitudes towards their work, the 

industry, and their own capabilities. Positive attitudes can include optimism, enthusiasm, a strong 

work ethic, a willingness to learn and improve, and a general positive outlook. In explaining 

further, this assumption suggests that the quality of practices in TVET employment is significantly 

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determined by the attitudes of the individuals involved. In other words, individuals with positive 

attitudes are more likely to perform their job roles effectively, contribute positively to their 

workplaces, and have better outcomes in their careers within the TVET industry. For example, 

someone with a positive attitude towards TVET is more likely to be motivated to gain TVET skills, 

adapt to changes and challenges in the field. Conclusively, this assumption recognises the impact 

of individual attitudes on the success and effectiveness of employees within the TVET industry. 

 

3. Positive attitudes regarding TVET industry are the functions of knowledge of TVET industry 

This assumption suggests that positive attitudes towards the TVET industry are primarily 

influenced by individuals' level of awareness and knowledge about the industry. Awareness or 

knowledge implies understanding and information about the TVET industry. It includes knowing 

the purposes, benefits, and opportunities within the field. This assumption suggests that individuals 

who have a positive attitude towards the TVET industry are likely to possess a significant level of 

awareness or knowledge about it. In other words, their positive feelings and opinions about the 

industry are associated with their understanding of what the industry entails, its role and the value 

it offers. For example, someone with positive attitudes about the TVET industry may have an 

understanding of the various careers and opportunities it provides. He or she may also have 

knowledge about the skills and competencies that can be gained through TVET programmes as 

well as the awareness of the importance of TVET in addressing workforce needs and contributing 

to economic development. In this context, the assumption recognises that awareness and 

knowledge play a crucial role in shaping individuals' knowledge, perceptions and attitudes towards 

the TVET industry. It suggests that informed individuals are more likely to appreciate the industry 

and view it positively. The conceptual framework is further illustrated in Figure 2.1 

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Figure 2.1: Conceptual Framework 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Independent Variables 

Source: Researcher’s Construct (2022) 

Youth Employment 
Outcome 

Employee Self-Employment 

TVET 

Dependent Variable 

Attitude 

Knowledge 

◆ 

◆ 

◆ 

◆ 

Types 

Opportunities 

Limitations 

Cost of training 

◆ 

◆ 

◆ 

Willingness to learn 

Optimism/ 

enthusiasm 

General Positive 

Outlook 

Practice 

◆ Training 

◆ Business 

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CHAPTER THREE 

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 

3.0 Introduction 

 

This chapter presents the methodology used in the research process which aids in comprehending 

and appreciating the issue being explored. The first section of the chapter provides a description 

of the profile of the study area, Awutu Senya East Municipality and highlights of some of the 

characteristics of the municipality. The composition and characteristics of the study area, 

especially the social orientation and economic opportunities are key to exploring TVET as an 

opportunity in tackling youth unemployment in the municipality. The second section focuses on 

the research design, the study population, the sampling techniques, sample size, the sources of 

data, and the analytical processes as well as the limitations of the study. 

 

 

3.1 Profile of the Study Area 

 

Awutu Senya East Municipal Assembly (ASEMA) was carved out of the former Awutu Senya 

District on 28th June, 2012 by Legislative Instrument (L.I) 2025 and elevated to a municipal status 

on 15th March 2018, with Kasoa as its administrative capital. This was done to effectively facilitate 

government’s decentralisation initiatives and local governance system (Ghana Districts, 2006). 

ASEMA is one of the 261 Metropolitan, Municipal, and District Assemblies (MMDAs) in Ghana 

and one of the MMDAs in the Central Region. The municipal assembly aims to develop its 

inhabitants, with a mission to “facilitate the improvement in the quality of life of the people in 

close collaboration with the private sector and other development partners in the municipality 

through the mobilisation and the judicious use of resources and provision of Basic Socio-Economic 

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Development within the context of Commitment to Equity, Accountability, Transparency and 

Excellence” (GSS, 2014, p. 1). The municipality can boast of six zonal councils, namely, Zongo, 

Ofaakor, Akweley, Opeikuma, Walantu, and Kpormetey. It is also made up of fourteen electoral 

areas. The municipality is notably endowed with both natural and man-made resources like rocks 

and dams vital to the livelihood of members. 

 

 

3.1.1 Population and Geographic Information of ASEMA 

From the 2021 census, the municipality recorded a population of 236,527 inhabitants with 51.2 

percent being females and 48.8 percent males. Interestingly, “males ever born are more than 

females ever born but male children surviving are less than females surviving” (GSS, 2021, p. 10). 

Despite the large population in the municipality, most inhabitants are migrants from other parts of 

the country and some foreigners (from outside Ghana) who are either there for trading purposes or 

as permanent residents. The municipality’s population is categorised as youthful with about 56.2 

percent of the population falling between the ages of 15 and 35 (Ghana Districts, 2006). 

 

 

With Ghana’s total population currently standing at 30,832,019, Central Region is recorded as one 

of the four most populated regions containing more than half of the entire population (54 percent) 

and one of the seven urbanised regions in the country. Awutu Senya East Municipality (ASEM) 

being the second most populous in the region is reportedly one of the major contributors to Ghana’s 

economy (GSS, 2014; 2021). Furthermore, Awutu Senya East Municipality is in the eastern part 

of the Central Region. It shares common boundaries with Ga South Municipal Assembly (in the 

Greater Accra Region) in the East, Awutu Senya District in the North and Gomoa East District in 

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the West and South respectively (See Figure 3.1). The municipality covers a total land area of 

about 108.004 sq. km, about 1.1 percent of the total land area of the Central Region (NDPC, 2017). 

Figure 3.1: Map of Awutu Senya East Municipal Assembly 

Source: (ASEMA Medium Term Development Plan 2022-2025) 

 

The indigenous people of the municipality are principally of the Guans tribe of Awutu, and they 

speak the Guan language or “Obutu” as referred to by the Ga-speaking community. Due to the 

proximity of the municipality from Accra and its vibrant economic environment, people of 

different tribes of Ghana such as the Gas, Akans, and Ewes, amongst others, have relocated to the 

municipality resulting in its cosmopolitan inclination. According to findings documented in the 

2022-2025 MTDP, most of these settlers are of Akan origin and have made Akan the main 

Ghanaian language spoken in the municipality (MPCU, 2021). 

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3.1.2 Economic Activities 

 

The main economic activities engaged in by residents of the municipality include commerce, 

(wholesale and retail), informal service sector and livestock production. The local economy 

includes large numbers of small and medium-scale businesses throughout the municipality, 

providing sources of employment for many. Nevertheless, lack of funds for business expansion 

poses a threat to the sustainability of the businesses thereby increasing the rate of unemployment 

(MPCU, 2021). Conclusively, the services and sales sectors are reported as the occupations with 

the highest populations, followed by the craft-related trades. 

 

 

The municipality takes pride in having the highest population engaged in service, sales and craft 

industries. Furthermore, the technical and vocational sector, particularly in the repair of motor 

vehicles and motorcycles, stands as the primary employer for the local populace. It is not just 

individuals working towards the industry's sustainability; the municipal assembly, along with its 

Social Welfare and Community Development officials, also plays a significant role. They achieve 

this by conducting periodic informal technical and vocational training programmes for local 

residents. To give an example, two hundred skilled craftsmen underwent training in contemporary 

methods for building basic homes. Additionally, other training initiatives included a food safety 

programme for 60 food vendors, training for 33 young individuals in tie and dye production, 

training for 47 young people in liquid soap manufacturing, and another 33 of the youth received 

instruction in batik artistry (MPCU, 2021). 

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3.1.3 Education and Infrastructure 

 

There are 41 public basic schools, 239 private basic schools, and 8 private and one public 

secondary cycle schools in the municipality. There are numerous social amenities in the 

municipality out of which the private ones form the majority and as such employ more than 80 

percent of the working population. They include 26 government and 17 private health facilities, 

markets, financial institutions, educational facilities, police station, hotels, lorry stations and public 

washrooms among others (MPCU, 2021; GSS, 2014). It is therefore obvious that depending 

largely on government institutions is not a possibility in ASEMA hence the emphasis being placed 

on the private sector. 

 

 

3.1.4 Governance 

 

The Awutu Senya East Municipal Assembly is the highest governing body at the municipal level 

and was established by Legislative Instrument (L.I) 2025. The assembly is made up of 19 assembly 

members with 6 appointed and 13 elected. The municipality is headed by the Municipal Chief 

Executive (MCE) who is appointed by the President with approval by at least two-thirds of the 

assembly members (Ghana Districts, 2006). In 2021, Hon. Anita Love Obo Amissah assumed 

offic